HISTORY IN THE MAKING California State University, San Bernardino Journal of History Volume Four 2011 Alpha Delta Nu Chapter, Phi Alpha Theta National History Honor Society History in the Making is an annual publication of the California State University, San Bernardino (CSUSB) Alpha Delta Nu Chapter of the Phi Alpha Theta National History Honor Society, and is sponsored by the History Department at CSUSB. Issues are published at the end of the spring quarter of each academic year. Phi Alpha Theta’s mission is to promote the study of history through the encouragement of research, good teaching, publication and the exchange of learning and ideas among historians. The organization seeks to bring students, teachers and writers of history together for intellectual and social exchanges, which promote and assist historical research and publication by our members in a variety of ways. Copyright © 2010 Alpha Delta Nu, California State University, San Bernardino. Cover photo: Manzanar, California, “Soul Consoling Tower, erected by the Manzanar Japanese,” by Renee Barrera TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction__________________________________________ v Acknowledgements ___________________________________vii Editorial Staff _______________________________________ ix ARTICLES Rape Regiment: Sexual Violence against Women during War By Andrea Roskam ____________________________________ 1 The Trokosi Tradition In Ghana: The Silencing of a Religion By Rhonda Martinez __________________________________ 21 Whatever Means Necessary: Uncovering the Case of Sweatt v Painter and Its Legal Importance By Adam Scott Miller _________________________________ 43 Memorializing Conflict and Controversy: A Look Into the Kent State Memorials By Heather Johnson ___________________________________ 77 NOTES FROM THE ARCHIVES Indian Boarding School History: An analysis of two letters from the Perris Indian School By Erica Maien Ward ________________________________ 107 REVIEWS A Pilgrimage to Manzanar By Renee Barrera ____________________________________ 121 iii iv History in the Making Introduction The History Department of California State University, San Bernardino welcomes you to the fourth installment of its annual journal, History in the Making. The journal is proudly managed, edited, and written exclusively by California State University, San Bernardino students. Together, we strive to bring you a journal full of interesting and informative articles that will keep you thinking long after you have turned its pages. This year’s offering spotlights several past and present issues of human rights around the world, and includes four full-length articles, analytic notes on a pair of archived letters, and a review of an historic site. In our first article, “Rape Regiment: Sexual Violence against Women during War,” Andrea Roskam brings to light a wartime atrocity that has received relatively little scholarly attention. The article focuses on the forced sexual slavery of Asian women by the Imperial Japanese government of the Second World War. Andrea mixes powerful images with vivid detail of brutality and sorrow in an article we hope will encourage further research on this important topic. Our second article shifts attention from wartime sex slaves in Asia to religious sex slaves in Africa. In “The Trokosi Tradition in Ghana: The Silencing of a Religion,” Rhonda Martinez looks at the practices of a little-known African faith. The article focuses on the forced sexual slavery of young women by their own families in order to redeem past discrepancies and ward off future misfortunes. Rhonda uses rich detail in an article that will tear at your heart-strings and bring a voice to Ghana’s trokosi victims. Our third article moves from the modern enslavement of Africans in Africa to the past segregation of African-Americans in the United States. In “Whatever Means Necessary: Uncovering the Case of Sweatt v Painter and Its Legal v History in the Making Importance,” Adam Scott Miller spotlights a little-known 1950s court case. The article focuses on the lawsuit Sweatt v Painter and how it paved the way for future civil rights legislation. Adam employs thorough and in-depth research in an article that artfully displays the case’s place in American history. In our final full-length article, “Memorializing Conflict and Controversy: A Look Into the Kent State Memorials,” Heather Johnson reminds us of one of the most tragic events in America’s history, and the ways it has been memorialized over time. The article focuses on the 1970 shootings at Kent State University and the sometimes-controversial memorials that have been erected to remember the event. Heather melds photographs with oral histories in an article that reminds us of one of America’s darkest days. In addition to our four full-length articles, the journal also debuts a special section entitled Notes from the Archives. This year’s notes come from Erica Maien Ward in her analysis of two turn-of-the-twentieth-century letters from the Perris Indian School. With “Indian Boarding School History: An analysis of two letters from the Perris Indian School,” Erica exposes the forced assimilation of Native American children in an article we hope will encourage a greater interest in the relationship between United States and Native American histories. Rounding out this year’s journal is Renee Barrera’s review of the Manzanar National Historic Site. Renee offers rich photographs in her detailed review of the Central California site where more than 11,000 Japanese and Japanese-Americans were detained by the American government during World War II. We hope you find these articles as interesting and informative as we do, and thank you for reading the 2011 edition of History in the Making. Thomas Hagen, Chief Editor vi History in the Making Acknowledgements A great number of people willing to devote a great amount of time and effort are required to bring a student-run, peer- reviewed journal from concept to print. Two such people are our faculty advisors, Dr. Tiffany Jones and Dr. Cherstin Lyon. Their patience, knowledge and guidance throughout this project have been both calming and illuminating, and have made working with them a wonderful and memorable experience. Further recognition goes to our entire editorial staff, whose commitment and professionalism in their work with authors and to this project overall never wavered. Special recognition goes to all authors who met the call for papers and submitted their articles, and to Renee Barrera, whose cover photograph allowed us to maintain the spirit of student-only journal content from cover to cover. Finally, we would like to recognize the faculty, staff, and students of the California State University, San Bernardino Department of History and Phi Alpha Theta for their continued support. Thank you all. vii History in the Making viii History in the Making Editorial Staff Chief Editor Thomas Hagen Associate Editors Clifford Armstrong Eddie Guerna Cody R. Johnson Lorena Mojica Chris Moreland David Shanta Erica Maien Ward Nicolette Wenzell Faculty Advisors Dr. Tiffany Jones Assistant Professor of History, Alpha Delta Nu Faculty Advisor Dr. Cherstin Lyon Assistant Professor of History, Alpha Delta Nu Faculty Advisor ix History in the Making x ARTICLES Rape Regiment: Sexual Violence against Women during War BY ANDREA ROSKAM Abstract: Despite the extensive research on World War II, little is known about a system created by the Japanese government in which women were forced into sexual slavery. This system, known as the Comfort Woman System, enabled soldiers to systematically and heinously rape young women for the sole purpose of self-satisfaction and as a reward for their military efforts as a man in combat. This study uncovers some of the brutality for a mature audience through an analysis of credible data, photographic evidence and an extensive look into the oral histories of former Comfort Women. These firsthand accounts give the women’s own personal reflections on their past and provide a horrific truth to the objection, that this system never existed. This objection is a view that the Japanese government is ardent to stand behind. The stories and pictures add awareness to our understanding of who these women were and what their role was during World War II. This study is part of a growing body of research on violence against women during times of war. In using oral histories with former sexual slaves; this project will add to future research on similar topics. 1 Rape Regiment Rape is not just a by-product of war. Rape is a sickening occurrence that spreads almost naturally through the tides of conflict. Rape is used as rewards for victors. It is rampant due to a lack of military discipline. Systematic rape has even been used as a tactic of war. This paper examines the forced sexual abuse of women in wartime, particularly the sex slaves of the Japanese military during World War II (WWII) known as comfort women. The focus of this paper is to unlock the horrific past of the “comfort women” and educate the reader on the deceptive practices used on women for the sole purpose of military gain. This essay will use several aspects of research. First, it will examine the personal testimonies of several former Comfort Women. These vivid interviews will give credibility to the brutal existence that was forced upon them. The evidence will also help analyze the idea of sexual violence during wartime by giving personal experience to the malice imposed by the Japanese government. Second, this essay