“A Taste of the Great, Wide World”: the Cigarette, Public Health, and Consumer Culture from the Third Reich to the Federal Republic
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SSStttooonnnyyy BBBrrrooooookkk UUUnnniiivvveeerrrsssiiitttyyy The official electronic file of this thesis or dissertation is maintained by the University Libraries on behalf of The Graduate School at Stony Brook University. ©©© AAAllllll RRRiiiggghhhtttsss RRReeessseeerrrvvveeeddd bbbyyy AAAuuuttthhhooorrr... “A Taste of the Great, Wide World”: The Cigarette, Public Health, and Consumer Culture From the Third Reich to the Federal Republic A Dissertation Presented by Kraig Thomas Larkin to The Graduate School in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University August 2010 Copyright by Kraig Thomas Larkin 2010 Stony Brook University The Graduate School Kraig Thomas Larkin We, the dissertation committee for the above candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, hereby recommend Acceptance of this dissertation. Young-Sun Hong – Dissertation Advisor Associate Professor, Department of History Lawrence Frohman – Chairperson of Defense Associate Professor, Department of History Nancy Tomes Professor, Department of History Donna Harsch Professor of History, Carnegie Mellon University This dissertation is accepted by the Graduate School Lawrence Martin Dean of the Graduate School ii Abstract of the Dissertation “A Taste of the Great, Wide World”: The Cigarette, Public Health and Consumer Culture From the Third Reich to the Federal Republic by Kraig Thomas Larkin Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University 2010 “The Taste of the Great, Wide World” contends that the history of the cigarette question in twentieth-century Germany holds tremendous insight into the political values and nature of governance in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). In spite of Germany’s reputation for placing the needs of the community ahead of personal liberty, the FRG constructed a permissive culture of cigarette smoking characterized by the state’s reluctance to forcibly interfere with an individual’s right to smoke. Rather than adopt a strict prohibitionist model of prevention, the West German response to the smoking and health debates in the latter half of the twentieth century relied upon notions of self- regulation and rational consumption on the part of individual consumer citizens. This reluctance underscores the sensitive nature of regulation within a liberal, democratic state. Even though a growing body of medical literature suggested cigarette use posed a significant threat to individual smokers and those in their presence, the West German government repeatedly refused to introduce and enforce strong tobacco control measures. This dissertation highlights the mutually interdependent relationship between public health and consumer culture, as the smoking and health debate necessitated that the state find an acceptable balance between these two worlds. Within a Cold War context that identified consumption as a hallmark of democratic rights and following numerous instances of tobacco shortages in the first half of the century, the FRG made voluntarism the cornerstone of its resolution to the cigarette question. The origins of this approach can be found in the experiences of scarcity and constrained consumption during the Second World War and immediate postwar period, when the cigarette emerged as an ersatz currency on the black market and a symbol of democracy. iii Table of Contents List of Figures vii List of Abbreviations viii Acknowledgments xii Introduction 1 Literature Review 5 Project Outline 16 Chapter One “The Greatest Poison For Our People”: The Cigarette in the Third Reich 23 Tobacco Consumption and Control in Germany Between 1914 and 1933 27 The Nazi Culture of Smoking, 1933-1939 31 Race, Tobacco and the Gesundheitspflicht 41 “The Greatest Poison For Our People”: Tobacco Control During the War 53 Tobacco Consumption and Rationing 60 The Cigarette at War 65 Conclusion 72 Chapter Two “Powerful Butts”: The Cigarette During the Allied Occupation of Germany, 75 1945-1949 The Cigarette Economy 78 The Funeral of the Last Normal Consumer: Tobacco and Coal Mining 83 A Few Cigarettes Will Do Wonders 87 iv A Nation of Bowed Heads 92 The Cigarette and Fraternization in the Contact Zone 101 The Black Market and DPs 112 “Don’t Flog Them On the Black Market”: Controlling the Cigarette 120 Economy Conclusion 135 Chapter Three “A Phenomenon Born of Scarcity”: The Cold War and American Tobacco in 137 Germany, 1945-1952 Berlin’s Cigarette Economy as Cold War Microcosm 142 A Phenomenon Born of Scarcity: The Rise of American Tobacco After 148 1945 Advertising a Phenomenon Born of Scarcity 162 Conclusion 170 Chapter Four West Germany as Marlboro Country: Gender and National Identities in Cigarette 172 Advertising Brand Identity and the West German Market 175 Cigarette Brands, Advertising, and Gender in the Early Federal Republic 181 The Normalization of the Domesticated Male 186 “The Taste of the Great, Wide World”: Internationalism and Modernity 197 From Taboo to Kim: Women and Sexuality in Postwar Print Cigarette 201 Advertising Transforming West Germany Into Marlboro Country 208 Conclusion 215 Chapter Five A World of Eternal Smiles: Regulating Cigarette Advertising in West Germany, 216 1966-1980 v Defining Smoking as a Problem in the Adenauer Era 219 The Tobacco Industry’s 1966 Voluntary Advertising Code 227 Expanding the Ad Code: Slogans, Sporting Events, and Television, 232 1969-1973 “From ‘Voluntary’ to ‘Legislation’”: A New Regulatory Framework, 243 1973-1976 Advertising Alternatives: Raucher Revue and Brand Stretching 249 The Attack on Cigarette Advertising: Black Crosses and the Courts 255 Conclusion 260 Chapter Six “Death Throws a Party”: Informed Choice and Consumer Autonomy in Anti- 262 Smoking Education, 1962-1975 The Secularization of West German Anti-Smoking Education in the 1960s 265 Death Throws a Party 273 Smoking in the Girls Room: The Smoker’s Decree in Lower Saxony 283 Smoking Games 290 Out of the Ashes: The Rise of the Non-Smoker 296 The Challenge of Passive Smoking 303 Epilogue 307 Bibliography 323 Appendix 353 vi List of Figures Figure 1.1 Photograph of Eva Braun with cigarette, courtesy of the National Archives in College Park, Maryland (NARA). Figure 1.2 Photograph of Nazi machine-gunners lighting up during a break from combat, courtesy of NARA. Figure 2.1 “Over Here” by Clarke, courtesy of Stars and Stripes. Figure 2.2 “Occupation” by Shep, courtesy of Stars and Stripes. Figure 2.3 Photograph of a GYA-organized demonstration of Bremerhaven youth against Stummeling, courtesy of NARA. Figure 2.4 “Salvos” by Schmerling, courtesy of Stars and Stripes. Figure 2.5 “Occupation” by Shep, courtesy of Stars and Stripes. Figure 2.6 Photograph of a queue outside of the Frankfurt barter center in the American zone of occupation, courtesy of NARA. Figure 3.1 “They battled across Europe for a Camel,” courtesy of NARA. Figure 3.2 Advertisement for Fox cigarettes, courtesy of the Museum der Arbeit (MdA). Figure 3.3 Advertisement for Ova cigarettes, courtesy of the MdA. Figure 4.1 Advertisement for Eckstein No. 5 cigarettes, courtesy of the MdA. Figure 4.2 Advertisement for Peter Stuyvesant cigarettes, courtesy of the MdA. Figure 4.3 Advertisement for Peter Stuyvesant cigarettes, courtesy of the MdA. Figure 4.4 Advertisement for Candida cigarettes, courtesy of the MdA. Figure 5.1 Cover of the 22 January issue of Der Spiegel. Figure 5.2 Advertisement for Ernte 23 cigarettes, courtesy of the MdA. vii List of Abbreviations ÄARG = Medical Working Group on Smoking and Health AfJ = Education Office for the Protection of Youth AgV = Consumer Working Group AJC = American Jewish Committee Archives ARD = First German Television Station BAB = Bundesarchiv Berlin BAT = British American Tobacco Company BDM = League of German Maidens BDW = Association of German Advertising Consultants BKA = Federal Cartel Office BMJ = British Medical Journal BuArch B = Bundesarchiv Koblenz BZgA = Federal Center for Health Enlightenment CDU = Christian Democratic Union DAF = German Labor Front DHS = Deutschen Hauptstelle gegen die Suchtgefahren DKZ = Deutsche Kongress-Zentrale DM = Deutsche Mark DP = Displaced person DSR = Deutsche Städte-Reklame GmbH viii ECA = Economic Cooperation Administration ERP = European Recovery Program (or Marshall Plan) FAS = Foreign Agricultural Service FAZ = Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung FDP = Free Democratic Party FRG = Federal Republic of Germany (West German) GDR = German Democratic Republic (East Germany) GWB = Law Against the Restraint of Trade GYA = German Youth Activities HH = Hauptstaatsarchiv Hannover HIA = Hoover Institution Archives HJ = Hitler Youth HSTL = Harry S. Truman Presidential Library ICD = International Control Division JEIA = Joint Export-Import Agency JWT/Duke = J. Walter Thompson Collection, Duke University LMG = Lebensmittelgesetz (Food Law) MdA = Museum der Arbeit, Hamburg NACP = National Archives at College Park, Maryland NDP = National Democratic Party of Germany NDsW = Niedersächsisches Landesarchiv-Staatsarchiv Wolfenbüttel NFT = Nicotine free tobacco NMAH = National Museum of American History Archives Center, Washington D.C. ix NSDAP = National Socialist German Workers Party NSF = National Socialist Women’s Association NYT = New York Times OMGB = Office of the Military Government, Bavaria OMGH = Office of the Military Government, Hesse OMGUS = Office of the Military Government, United States PRO = Public Records Office of the United Kingdom PSB = Public Safety Branch RCP = Royal College of Physicians ReeA = Reemstma Archive, Hamburg RL =