FREUD AND SYSTEMS THEORY AN EXPLORATORY STATEMENT

BY

PIETER WILLEM GROBBELAAR

A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree.

Doctor of Literature and Philosophy in Psychology

in the Faculty of Arts at the Rand Afrikaans University

Promoter: Dr. M.F. Joubert

Co-promoter: Prof. D. Beyers

November, 1989 dedicated to Phoenix Estropu ••••••• OPSOMMING

Alhoewel Freudiaanse teorie tradisioneel een van die belangrikste benaderings tot psigoterapie is, is ook baie indringende kritiek vanuit verskillende perspektiewe daarop gelewer. Daar is gepoog om die positivistiese en hermeneutiese kritiek te beantwoord op beide 'n teoretiese en 'n metodologiese vlak deur gebruik te maak van 'n sistemiese benadering.

'n Sistemiese perspektief is gevolglik nie net gebruik om 'n teoretiese herformulering van Freudiaanse teorie te bewerkstellig nie, maar dit is ook gebruik om 'n metodologie wat aan die vereistes vir aanvaarbare navorsing op Freudiaanse teorie voldoen, te ontwikkel.

Die metodologie bestaan daaruit dat dit 'n volledige rapportering van so veel as moontlik van die navorsingsproses insluit wat beteken dat die terapeut se teoretiese uitgangspunte, die agtergrondsgegewens van die pasient en die volledige transkripsie van die sessies aangegee word. Die gegewens is kwantitatief sowel as kwalitatief ontleed. Die kwantitatiewe ontleding is gedoen met behulp van 'n rekenaar program, genaamd WORDS, wat op grond van 'n tros analise die tematiese lyne in die sessies aandui. Die kwalitatiewe ontleding van die gegewens behels die aandui van die sekwensi~le ontwikkeling van die interaksies, asook die spesifieke ontleding van die vrye-assosiasies in die sessie. Die gevolgtrekkings wat bereik is in die studie word gekonstitueer, en is ingebed, in die uitspeel van die navorsingsproses in sigself. Die waarnemings, die gedagtes, die prosesse, die patrone, skep saam die beeld wat die gevolgtrekking is. SUMMARY

Although Freudian theory traditionally constitutes one of the most important approaches to psychotherapy, it has also generated much criticism from different scientific perspectives. An attempt is made in this study to answer the criticisms of the hermeneuticians and the positivists by using a systemic approach to indicate a possible solution to the methodological and theoretical problems which beset Freudian theory and praxis.

The research procedure was reported as fully as possible. This implies that the therapist's theoretical perspectives, the case history of the patient, and the complete transcription of the sessions are reported. The results were qualitatively and quantitatively analysed in an integrated approach. The quantitative analysis was done with the use of a computer program called WORDS, which employs a clustering technique to indicate the development of thematic centroids.

The qualitative analysis of the sessions indicates the sequential development of the interaction, and also includes the analysis of the free-associations in each session.

The conclusions which are reached in this study are constituted, and reflected in the report of the research process itself. The observations, the thoughts, the processes and the patterns together create the picture which is the conclusion. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my gratitude to the following people for the contributions they made to this study:-

My promoters, Marietjie Joubert and Dave Beyers;

Anelle Rossouw, for her typing;

Norma Coosner and Alex Potter for their editing;

The Human Sciences Research Council and the Rand Afrikaans University for financial assistance.

The author is solely responsible for all opinions expressed in this study.

******* INDEX

PAGE

CHAPTER 1 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1 .1 • Introduction 1 1.2. The research problem in Freudian theory 3 1 • 3. Psychoanalysis and systems theory 5 1 • 4. The logico-historical antecedents and the main principles of systems theory 10

1 • 5. The development and structure of this study 13 1.5.1. Structure of the study 16

CHAPTER 2 18

FREUDIAN THEORY 18

2.1 • Introduction 18 2.2. The sexual aetiology of neurosis 20 2.2.1. Freudian procedure 20 2.2.2. The differential diagnosis of the neurosis 22 2.3. The structure and functioning of the psyche 27 2.4. The structure of ideation 42 2.5. The interpretation of dreams 44 2.5.1. Free and bound energy 46

( i i) .•• (ii)

PAGE

2.5.2. Condensation 47 2.5.3. Displacement 51 2.5.4. Regard for representability and symbolization 54 2.5.5. The structure of the psyche 55 2.5.6. Wish-fulfilment 57 2.6. Death and destruction 61 2.6.1. Beyond the pleasure principle 61 2.6.2. The Ego and the Id 63 2.7. Conclusion 65

CHAPTER 3 67

THE PHILOSOPHICAL CRITICISM OF FREUDIAN THEORY 67

3.1 . Introduction 67 3.2. The hermeneutic critique of Freudian theory 67 3.2.1. Freud's views on the scientific status of psychoanalytic theory 69 3.2.2. A discussion of Habermas's critique of Freud 73 3.2.2.1. Habermas's epistemological criticism of Freud 77

Conclusion 81 Cioffi's criticism of Freud 82 Farrel's critique of Freudian theory 85

(iii) ••• (iii)

PAGE

3.4.1. The use of case material to validate F'reudian theory 91 Conclusion 100

CHAPTER 4 101

EPISTEMOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN SYSTEMS THEORY 101

4.1 • Introduction 101 4.2. Definition and properties of a system 102 4.3. Epistemology 107 4.3.1. Definition of epistemology 108 4.3.2. The recursive nature of knowledge 108 4.3.3. Cybernetics 110 ... 4.3.4. On causality 117 4.3.5. Autopoiesis 121 4.3.6. Autopoiesis and cognition 125 4.3.6.1. Language and self-awareness 125 Form and substance 126 Empirical observation and systems theory 128

Conclusion 132

(iv) ••• (iv)

PAGE

CHAPTER 5 133

TOWARDS THE REFORMULATION OF IMPORTANT FREUDIAN CONCEPTS 133

5.1 • Introduction 133 5.1 .2 A first statement 134 5.2. On the processes which determine the changes from unconsciousness to consciousness 138 Language as an organizing principle in the psyche 145 5.4. The homeostatic function and the organization constituted in the organism 150

On the genesis of hysterical symptoms and the general functioning of the psyche 153 5.6. Defence and repression 157 5.6.1. Manifest and latent dream content 160 5.6.2. Explicating and extending Freud's views on the factors determining the organization of dream elements 166 5.7. Transference and repetition 173 5.8. Conclusion 175

( v) ••• (v)

CHAPTER 6 177

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 177

6.1 • Introduction 177 6.2. Ricoeur's views on the verification of Freudian theory 178 The pre-conditions for research on Freudian theory 184 A historical survey of research on Freudian theory 185 6.4.1. Research on the dynamic theory 186 6.4.1 .1. Oral character 187 6.4.1.2. Anal character 189 6.4.2. The relationship between adult personality types and infantile experiences 191 6.4.2.1. Retrospective studies 191 6.4.2.2. Cross-cultural studies 192 6.4.2.3. Current and longitudinal studies 192 6.4.3. Studies on the erotic nature of oral and anal activities 194 6.4.4. Research on the Oedipus complex 196 6.4.5. Research on the structural theory 201 6.4.6. Defence mechanisms 205 6.4.6.1. Studies on repression-proper 206 6.4.6.2. Studies on primary repression 210 6.4.6.3. Displacement 211

(vi)/ ... (vi)

PAGE

6.4.6.4. Projection 212 6.4.6.5. General studies on defense mechanisms 212 Conclusion 215 6.5. The methodological perspectives structuring the research in this study 216 6.6. The quantitative analysis 218 6.6.1. Historical perspective 218 6.6.2. WORDS systems logic 219 6.6.3. The WORDS procedure 220

CHAPTER 7 222

A PUNCTUATION OF THE FREUDIAN HOUR 222

7.1 • Introduction 222 7.2. Research procedure 226 7.3. Case history and contextual briefing 227 7.3.1. Contextual background 228 7.4. Therapist's perception of the patient 231 7.5. Data and discussion 234 7.6. Session 1 237 7.6.1. Sequential analysis 264 7.6.2. Quantitative analysis 270 7.6.3. Analysis of free-associations 273

(vii)/ ..• (vii)

PAGE

7.7. Session 2 278 7.7.1. Sequential analysis 340 7.7.2. Quanti ta ti ve analysis 346 7.8. Session 3 348 7.8.1. Sequential analysis 374 7.8.2. Quantitative analysis 378 7.8.3. Analysis of free-associations 381 7.9. Session 4 385 7.9.1. Quantitative analysis 413 7.9.2 Sequential analysis 415 7.9.3. Analysis of free-associations 429 7.9.4. Patient's commentary on the sessions 438 7.9.5. Therapist's commentary on the patient's commentary 448

CHAPTER 8 451

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 451

8.1 • Reflections and refutations 451 8.2. Weaknesses in this study and indications for future research 455 Conclusion 456

BIBLIOGRAPHY 461 - 1 -

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction

Freudian theory has been one of the major streams of

thought in psychology since the beginning of the

century and has also made a far greater impact on

Western thinking than any other psychological theory

has done. Many important personality theorists such

as Jung, Adler, Horney, Fromm and Sullivan have, to

a lesser or greater extent, incorporated Freudian

concepts into their theories. Many personality

theories directed at, and generated from, clinical

practice have also been based on Freudian theory.

The theories of Melanie Klein, Winnicot, Fairbairn,

Wilhelm Reich, Lacan and the ego psychologists take

Freudian theory as their departure point.

However, Freudian theory has always been extremely controversial. From the beginning, when Freud and

Breuer published their Preliminary Communication in

1893 and Studies on Hysteria in 1895, the academic

community has been extremely sceptical of the

scientific credibility of Freudian theory. This

2/ ... - 2 - early prejudice has now been replaced by a more scientific critique of Freudian theory on theoretical and methodological grounds by some of the most eminent academics of our time. Karl Popper (1959; 1962; 1986) describes it as a myth because it cannot be falsified. Hans Eysenck (Eysenck & Wilson, 1973), in a review of what he describes as the most important and acceptable experimental studies which support Freudian hypotheses with their findings, comes to the conclusion that these studies have very little, if any, scientific credibility. Farrel (1981; 1986) one of the most authoritative critics of Freudian theory suggests that the theory was premature because it was built on the concept of instincts. Cioffi (1970; 1986) states that it is not enough for a theory to be refutable for it to claim scientific status. He indicates that there are many theories that can be refuted, but which can still not be described as scientific. But, argues Cioffi, Freud does not even reach this level of unacceptability because he avoids refutation of his formal theory by giving an alternative interpretation to the data the moment his previous statements have been falsified.

The discrepancy between the scientific credibility of Freudian theory on the one hand, and on the

3/ ..• - 3 -

other, the wide application of some of its major

tenets, presses for a solution to be found regarding

the formulation and operationalization of the most

important hypotheses of Freudian theory.

1.2. The research problem in Freudian theory

The difficulties involved in researching Freudian theory are the result of the fact that the Freudian

corpus is constituted by three different, but

interdependent, fields of activity. It is a technique for the enquiry into psychological

processes, it is a method of treatment, and it is

also a theory about the information gained during

the enquiry and treatment.

Any attempt at revising a part of the corpus has to

be done within the context of the whole. This

implies that the ramifications of any change have to be traced through as much of the Freudian network as possible. It also means that any research on a part of the Freudian corpus has to take great care to place the research contextually. More specifically, this refers to an adequate theoretical underpinning

of the concepts purportedly involved in the

research; and secondly, it refers to the use of a research methodology which is compatible with the

4/ ... - 4 -

Freudian corpus, that is, at the present time, the transference situation and free-association. These pre-requisites, as will be shown later in the study, invalidate most, if not all, of the research which either claim to validate or falsify Freudian theory.

The difficulties that are mentioned above are compounded by the inconsistent way in which the theory is formulated. The logical inconsistency of the Freudian statement makes it very difficult to do precisely what is required, that is, to draw the conclusion reached in one specific area through into other areas (Farrel, 1981). More precisely, the failure of Freud's metapsychological theory to integrate all the part theories results in a theoretical fragmentation which defies any attempt at a cohesive, consistent and inclusive statement of the essentials of the theory. This situation must in part be responsible for the development of so many psychoanalytic schools of thought that one is often tempted to think that there are as many theories as there are analysts.

The solution to the theoretical dilemma has been indicated by a number of people, and although their views may show some divergence, they agree that many

5/ ... - 5 -

of the problems of Freudian theory are attributable to the structure of its statement, and the unnecessary use of concepts such as 'instincts' and their derivatory explanations. A recent development in the United States in an attempt to solve this problem has been the application of a systemic approach to Freudian theory. As can be seen in the review of ·the literature which follows, the application of systems theory has been used mostly as a heuristic device where it was directly applied to Freudian theory (Gedo & Goldberg, 1973), or systemic principles are implicitly used in a theoretical reformulation of a small aspect of Freudian theory (Freud, A., 1965; Kohut, 1969). Nevertheless the importance of a systemic approach to remedy some of the flaws in Freudian theory has been illustrated by these theorists. At the same time they also indicate the need for a more extensive application of systems principles to Freudian theory (Gedo & Goldberg, 1973, p. 10).

1.3. Psychoanalysis and systems theory

The link between psychoanalysis and systems theory has been indicated by many authorities in the field of psychoanalysis as well as in systems theory. The need to explicate the exact nature of this link has

6/ ... - 6 - also been emphasized in the literature. Roy Grinker, director of the Institute for

Psychoanalytic and Psychiatric Research and

Training, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Centre,

Chicago, and also Professor of Psychiatry, Pritzker

School of Medicine of the University of Chicago says this in his introduction to Gedo and Goldberg's book, Models of the Mind: "There is a great need for psychoanalysis to become an open system with freer exchange through its boundaries. Progressive evolution does not occur in isolation but only through partial separation (specialization) to concentrate the genetic pool (conceptual formation) and by transactions with other groups to add gene symbols (communication) and to test them" (Gedo &

Goldberg, 1973, p. X).

John Gedo is Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the

Abraham Lincoln School of Medicine, University of Illinois, and also training and supervising analyst at the Chicago Institute of Psychoanalysis. Arnold Goldberg is attending psychiatrist at Michael Reese Hospital and Clinical Associate Professor of Psychiatry at Pritzker School of Medicine, and training and supervising analyst at the Chicago

Institute for Psychoanalysis. They state that the

7 I ... - 7 - problem of Psychoanalysis in theory formation is

"that of multiple variables in interaction and that

'of multiple perspectives' it is here that a

'systems approach' may be of value" (Gedo &

Goldberg, 1973, p. 6).

Ludwig von Bertalanffy stated the following in his address to the American Psychiatric Association at

their annual meeting in 1967, "The systems model provides a conceptual framework in which otherwise unconnected currents are integrated, a synthetic

view in which many different pieces fall into place. In particular, it seems to offer a reorien­ tation of psychiatric thinking and suggestions for clinical work" (Gray, Dahl & Rizzo, 1969, p. 38). He points out that there are many important figures

in psychology and psychiatry who have used a systems approach, amongst others, Kurt Goldstein, Carl

Rogers, Silvano Arieti, Gordon Allport, Piaget,

Maslow and Werner. In the field of psychoanalysis, the ego-psychologists, Hartman, Kris, Loewenstein and later Heinz Kohut make use of systemic princi­ ples in the construction of their theories.

Norbert Wiener (1965), in his discussion on the existence of cybernetic systems in memory retrieval,

8/ ... - 8 - indicates the role of psychoanalytic technique when he says, "The psycho-analyst is familiar with impressions received in early childhood and which, though they appeared to be utterly lost, can be brought back in a very explicit and detailed way into consciousness by appropriate psycho-analytic procedures" (Wiener & Schad~, 1965, p. 402).

The links between systems theory and psychoanalysis have been developed on three levels. Gedo and

Goldberg (1973) use a systems approach to organize the different Freudian theories of structure, economics and development into a cohesive and consistent whole. They create a frame of reference which allows one to place each part of the broad

Freudian theory into its proper perspective by explicating its relation to the other part theories and the principles gover~ing these relationships.

In many respects their attempt also deals with relating metapsychological concepts to each other, as well as their relation to lower order theory.

Grinker (1967) attempts to link systems theory and Freudian metapsychology as they conceptualize symbolism, by restating Freud's topographic theory in terms of systems theory. Grinker states "I have

9/ ... - 9 - tried to speculate how one aspect of general systems theory and a part of psychoanalytic theory inter­ digitate not by analogy or tautology but by an attempt to superimpose concepts of process (Grinker, 1969' p. 137) •

These 'concepts of process' constitute an important corrective addition to Freudian theory where extensive use is made of concepts of force, primal unmoveable first causes and anthropomorphic descrip­ tions of internal psychological processes. This has become increasingly unacceptable as the 20th century scientific paradigm has shifted towards the views reflected in Popper's statement: "The universe now appears to be not a collection of things, but an interacting set of events or processes" (Popper & Eccles, 1977, p. 7). In a similar vein Bateson states "there is no sharp line between structure and process" (Bateson, 1972, p. 424).

The work of the ego psychologists and Kohut (1971; 1977) reflect a move in psychoanalytic circles towards congruence with this new scientific paradigm. Their work has led to a de-emphasis on the instinct qualities of behaviour and an emphasis

10/ • 0 • - 10 -

on the functioning of the ego, and later, with

Kohut's work, on the self and its integrative

function of the person. In this approach the

emphasis is on the person as a whole and the factors

which facilitate or break down the integration of

the person.

1 .4. The logico-historical antecedents and the main

principles of systems theory

Von Bertalanffy (1969) indicates that the develop-

ment of a systemic approach was a result of the

increasing complexity of phenomena man had to deal

with in science and technology. This increasing

complexity and sophistication rendered a linear

causal perspective of only limited use. The cause

and effect chain can only explain very simple

problems with a limited number of variables. But it

has become increasingly obvious that most of the phenomena in the sciences such as biology,

psychology and sociology are affected by a large

number of variables, and the relationships between

these variables. This awareness has in part led to

the development of multivariate techniques of

statistical analysis. Linked to the problem of

single cause and effect chains is the concept of

11 I ... - 11 - determinism which is, broadly speaking, that the cause and the effect can be separated and the fact that effects result, due to the action of the causal agent. This type of reasoning cannot explain the goal-directed activities of many phenomena in the life sciences, from the molecular and cellular activities researched in biology to the behaviour of man, without falling into teleological explanation.

And yet, as Von Bertalanffy illustrates, the reality of organisms integrating and performing goal directed activities can be observed in every life form.

Keeney (1983) indicates that with the collapse of the absolute distinction between structure and process a cybernetic approach becomes invaluable as a "general science of pattern and organization" (Keeney, 1983, p. 6). Cybernetics constitute an attempt to move away from a paradigm of substance to a paradigm of pattern. Quoting Bateson, Keeney indicates that an epistemological stance consistent with this paradigm would be based on a recursive ordering of events: i) drawing a distinction, and by drawing a distinction opening the way to the description of concrete data; ii) the arrangement of this data to create pictures of cultures, that

12/ ... - 12 -

is, organising the data; and iii) a self-conscious discussion of how the researcher puts all the pieces together (Keeney, 1983, p. 28).

Bateson argues that it is epistemologically important to realize that the observer and the observed constitute the research event in a dialectical fashion. He states "Under certain conditions the observer must be supposed to affect the events which he studies as well as being himself affected in an ongoing manner by those events: this is particularly true when the scales of time and space of the observer are of the same magnitude as of the phenomena observed" (Bateson, 1972, p. 425). He goes on to specify "It follows that in social science the observer has to be considered as an integral part of the social system and thus himself becomes part of the object of investigation" (Bateson, 1972, p.425).

According to Keeney this description must of neces­ sity be a recursive punctuation of a circularly repetitive and yet progressive development of pro­ cess, where both description and process constitute different orders of recursion. The threat of an infinite regression is an obvious one, but is very

13/ ... - 13 -

clearly dissipated by the description and explana­ tion of recursive feedback loop processes, which, through a process of control, and correction of control, move the focus of the recursively ordered process in new directions (Keeney, 1983, pp. 63, 87, 1 1 1 ) .

According to Wiener (1965), the increasing develop- ment of organization is predicated on a random process spontaneously developing into a differen- tiated structure. He describes the process as follows: "Thus we have a self-organizing process in whicQ the necessary non-linear interaction of the chicks produces a process with a recognizable structure" (Wiener & Schadi, 1965, p. 405). This self-organizing process is based on systems of recursively ordered feedback loops.

1.5. The development and structure of this study

This study attempts to show that Freudian theory can be radically reformulated using systems principles to resolve the theoretical weaknesses. The study was limited to Freudian theory as a result of a recent tendency in psychoanalytic circles as represented by Kohut (1977) and Ricoeur (1977), and also outside psychoanalysis from critics such as

14/ ... - 14 -

Grunbaum ( 1984) ' to attempt a regeneration of progress in psychoanalysis by avoiding the plethora of later developments and refocusing on Freudian theory.

The study is limited to early Freudian theory for two reasons:

Firstly, both Freud and other psychoanalysts such as

James Strachey (1962) consider his works up to, and including The Interpretation of Dreams as the basis for all the later developments in his thinking. It therefore offers a logical cut off point for an exploratory attempt at reformulating Freudian theory on the basis of a historical approach to his work.

Secondly, much of the theorising which follows The Interpretation of Dreams consists of the metapsychological superstructure which has created so many problems in Freudian theory. This study attempts to return to the roots of Freudian theory as formulated in the clinical theory which was developed in the early years and culminated in the publication of the Interpretation of Dreams

(Shevrin, 1986, p. 257- 259).

1 5 I ... - 15 -

Free-associative material from therapeutic sessions will be analysed to indicate how the combined Freudian and systemic approaches can be applied to the psychoanalytic hour. By reporting the sessions verbatim the reader is also allowed to see precisely what free-associations look like. It is quite remarkable that in all the vast literature on Freudian theory, I have never seen any extensive publication of in-context free-association (Mahony, 1987). Luborsky and Spence (1978) also lament the lack of research done on free-association. They state, "Even though free-association has a central place in psychoanalytic treatment, psychotherapy researchers and personality researchers of all kinds have largely neglected it as a medium or an object of research" (Luborsky & Spence, 1978, p. 340).

The analyses of the sessions will not be limited to a qualitative analysis, but an attempt will be made to indicate the compatibility between a qualitative and a quantitative analysis and to show how these approaches can be mutually supportive.

The recursive ordering of research as described by Bateson (1972) and Keeney (1983) is reflected in this study by the verbatim publication of the sessions, the patient's and the therapist's response

16/ ... - 16 -

to the t'eseat'ch matet'ial, the thet'apist's theot'etical assumptions and pet'ceptions of the patient and the final conclusion t'eached on the basis of all the t'eseat'ch activities.

The binocular' vision which should be maintained (Keeney, 1983) and the dialectical natut'e (Bateson, 1972; 1978) of the t'eseat'ch pt'ocess which should be t'ecognised, is illustt'ated by incot'pot'ating the thet'apist's vet'balizations in the t'eseat'ch pt'ocess and by using diffet'ent theot'etical pet'spectives, as well as by using quantitative and qualitative techniques fat' the analyses of the sessions.

1.5.1. Structut'e of the study.

The development of Freudian theot'y until 1900 is discussed in depth in chapter' 2. All the most impot'tant hypotheses wet'e fot'mulated by that time with the exception of the diffet'entiation of the ego and the super-ego, the life and the death instincts and the changes to the theot'y of anxiety. This means that the theot'ies of the unconscious, of childhood sexuality, defence mechanisms, the homeo­ static pt'inciple, the development of neurosis, the structut'e of ideation and the Oedipal complex are included in the scope of this study.

17 I . .. - 17 -

Chapter 3 deals with the critique of Freudian theory which ranges from the logical empiricists, such as Grunbaum, to the hermeneutician Habermas.

Chapter 4 focuses on modern developments in systems theory, such as the contribution made by Dell, but it also refers to the earlier works of Bateson and Wiener.

Chapter 5 represents an attempt at restating some key Freudian concepts by reformulating them in a systemic paradigm or by using systemic principles as guidelines for the restructuring of the theoretical statement while maintaining Freudian terminology.

Chapter 6 is a discussion of the methodological issues in research on Freudian theory with reference to existing studies.

Chapter 7 contains the sessions verbatim, their qualitative and quantitative analysis and theoretical discussion.

Chapter 8 contains a discussion of certain issues raised in the study, and the conclusions that were reached on the basis of the research.

18/ •.. - 18 -

CHAPTER 2

FREUDIAN THEORY

2.1. Introduction

The complexity and lack of a formal integration of

the part-theories which constitute Freudian theory

make it an extremely difficult task to expose the

intricate network of links between the part-theories and their constituent components and between the

constituent components of the various part-theories,

as well as to expose the way in which the part­ theories fit together to make up the whole of

Freudian theory. It is especially difficult when a

'final statement' approach is used, that is, when

the theory is presented as it stood at the end of Freud's life. This approach in itself conveys a

degree of misinformation in that Freud stopped developing various parts of the theory at different times.

The historical approach overcomes many of the problems encountered when trying to understand

Freudian theory. It allows one to follow the

development of his thinking from the basic instances

19 I ... - 19 -

of observation, to the metapsychological theories

which he formulated in the later years. It adds a

richness and depth of understanding which is

indispensible for any significant grasp of the

theory. Ernest Jones, editor of the Collected

Papers, writes in the preface, "The only really

satisfactory way of acquiring a knowledge of

Professor Freud's writings is to follow the order of

development of his work. It is hardly possible

otherwise to obtain a coherent picture of the whole"

(Freud, 1950, Collected Papers vol. 1, p. 3).*

In this study an attempt is made to use an histo­

rical approach while at the same time selecting

papers only as they are relevant to the discussion.

This discussion will focus on the structure of

ideation and the economic theory because all the

fundamental Freudian hypotheses are generated from this part of the Freudian corpus (Freud, 1981;

Lacan, 1987). Consequently, only papers and books which have a direct bearing on these aspects of his theory have been included in the discussion. A second criterion which was used to assess the

*Where the reference used is not the original publication, the date of the first publication appears in the bibliography in brackets [ ] under the date of the publication which was used. 20/ ... - 20 -

relevance of a paper was its importance for the understanding of Freudian theory as a whole.

2.2. The sexual aetiology of neurosis

2.2.1. Freudian procedure

In 1893 Freud and Breuer published their first paper on hysteria called "On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena Preliminary Communication". It is commonly taken to be a preliminary to the "Studies on Hysteria" published in 1895 and was duly included in the first German edition of "Studien uber Hysterie" as the first chapter in this work. In this paper and three others, namely "The Defence Neuro-Psychoses" in 1894; "The Justification for detaching from Neurasthenia a particular syndrome : The Anxiety Neuroses" also in 1894; and in 1895 "Obsessions and Phobias : Their Psychical Mechanisms and their Aetiology", Freud makes a very clear attempt to separate his statements on the neuroses from the other theories of that time, most notably from those of the French psychiatrists, Charcot in particular, and also the Janet's (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 19).

It is clear that Freud was trying to identify patterns of symptoms in his patients in order to

21 I ... - 21 - arrive at a diagnosis of a particular psychopa­ thological syndrome. At the same time he tried to identify the aetiological factors relevant to each pathology. The structure of the paper "The Anxiety

Neuroses" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1) illustrates this very clearly. In the introduction, Freud states,

"In my opinion, nothing but gain to neuropathology can result if we make an attempt to distinguish from neurasthenia proper all those neurotic disturbances of which the symptoms, on the one hand, are more closely related to one another than the typical symptoms of neurasthenia (headache, spinal irritation and dyspepsia with flatulance and constipation) and, on the other hand, shown in their aetiology and their mechanism essential differences from typical neurasthenia" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p.76). He describes the symptoms of anxiety neurosis as (1) general irritability (2) anxious expectation (3) the anxiety attack (4) awakening in fright (5) vertigo (6) phobic reactions (7) disturbances in the digestive processes (8) paraesthesias (9) and variant forms of the above symptoms due to their chronic nature (Freud, 1950,

C. P. 1 , pp . 78 - 86) .

He then discusses the incidence and aetiological factors for women. The aetiological conditions

22/ ... - 22 -

(Freud, 1950, C.P. 1 ' p. 87) are (1) virginal or adolescent anxiety, ( 2) anxiety in the newly married, (3) anxiety as a reaction to husbands who suffer from premature ejaculation or impaired potency, (4) anxiety due to coitus interruptus or coitus reservatus, (5) anxiety in widows and other who are voluntarily abstinent, (6) anxiety generated during the climacteric. Anxiety is caused in men by: (1) voluntary abstinence, (2) frustration of sexual excitement, (3) coitus. interruptus, (4) the experience of a climacteric, (5) when habitual masturbation is stopped (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1). Freud also identifies a common factor, that is overwork or exhaustion from activities such as nursing (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 124). Only after he has identified the symptoms and causative factors does Freud venture his theory on the anxiety neurosis. This example illustrates quite clearly the pattern of Freud's thinking. He first discusses the symptoms, then the syndromes, makes a differen­ tial diagnosis, discusses aetiological factors, and finally integrates the various aspects in a theore­ tical statement.

2.2.2. The differential diagnosis of the neurosis

Freud introduces On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena with the sentence, "Stimulated

23/ ... - 23 - by a chance observation, we have for a number of years been investigating the most varied types and symptoms of hysteria with reference to the exciting cause, the event which evoked the phenomena in question for the first time, often many years before" (Freud, 1950, c. p. 1 , p. 24) • This introduction reflects two important aspects in Freud's thinking.

In the first place he will proceed to indicate an underlying connection between a variety of symptoms which were traditionally, and are in fact still placed in different nosological categories by main-stream psychiatry. He indicates that symptoms such as anaestesias, neuralgias, paralyses and contractures, hysterical attacks and epileptic convulsions, petit mal, tics, chronic vomiting and anorexia nervosa, as well as disturbance of vision and visual hallucinations share a common aetiology (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 25).

Secondly he intends arguing that this common aetiology is to be found in the nature of the 'exciting cause'! The exciting cause being "das akzidentelle moment" (Freud, 1972, Gesammelte Werke val. 1, p. 82) -that is the traumatic experience.

24/ •.• - 24 -

With this statement, Freud situates the aetiology of the hysterias in the field of the psychological, doing so in direct contradiction to the prevailing approach of the day.

'Das akzidentelle moment' (Freud, 1972, G.W. 1, p. 82) which constitutes the psychological cause of the hysteria, is linked by Freud to the aetiology of the traumatic neurosis in its formal characteristics. "In traumatic neurosis the active cause of illness is not the trifling bodily injury but the affect of fright the psychic trauma. Similarly, our investigation of many, if not of the majority, of hysterical symptoms have revealed causes which must be described as psychic traumas" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 27). Freud at this stage still accepted, probably under pressure from Breuer, the hypothesis that experiences during hypnoid states can cause hysterical symptoms. This hypothesis also had support from the research by Charcot and Bernheim and so must have carried some weight in academic circles.

However, Freud and Breuer in the Preliminary Communication refrain from identifying the true nature of this psychically traumatic experience. It

25/ ... - 25 - is left to Freud in the paper on "The Defence Neuroses-Psychoses" in 1894 to identify the sexual nature of the traumatic experience. And even so, it is done in a very tentative and progressive fashion. In discerning the defensive nature of the repressive act he states, "Such unbearable ideas develop in women chiefly in connection with sexual experiences and sensations" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 62). He continues "In all the cases I have analysed it was in the sexual life that a painful affect - of precisely the same quality as that attaching to the obsession - had originated" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 66). He goes on to state that it could have arisen in other areas as well, but then becomes more positive about the sexual nature of the cause:

"when one draws these patients' attention to the original idea of a sexual nature," and then,

"successfully represses the intolerable sexual idea" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 67). The discussion then becomes based quite blatantly on the hypothesis that incompatible sexual ideas lie at the root of the hysterical symptom. The case studies that are later presented also give evidence of the sexual nature of the original idea, rather tha~ being examples of a more general type of causation which Freud (and

Breuer in the Preliminary Communication) used earlier on.

26/ ... - 26 -

In the paper, "The Anxiety-Neurosis", the sexual factor as a causative agent comes from a different sphere: "But where there are grounds for regarding the neurosis as an acquired one, careful enquiry to that end reveals a series of injurious conditions

(noxiae) and influences within the sexual life as important factors in the aetiology" (Freud, 1950,

C.P. 1, p. 87). In the case of the anxiety-neurosis it is not the intolerable idea (as is the case with the hysterical, obsessive and compulsive neuroses) which causes the symptoms, it is a far more direct causative action, that is inadequate release of sexual tension.

In both the hysterical and obsessive compulsive neuroses, an unacceptable sexual idea is repressed.

He differentiates between them in the way the person disposes of the idea. In the hysterias, there is a conversion into a somatic innervation (Freud, 1950, c . p. 1 ' p • 65) • In the obsessional neuroses the threatening sexual idea is "dislocated or transposed" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 68) to another suitable but less threatening idea. In the phobias, the idea is displaced into a situation or activity which is then tre'3.ted as if it is the original threat.

27/ •.. - 27 -

In this differentiation of causative factors, Freud is creating a structure for the differential

diagnosis of the neuroses on the basis of the

different roles sexuality plays in their aetiology.

And in doing this he successfully unites the Major

Neuroses in terms of their common causative agent, sexuality, while at the same time differentiating

between them in terms of the type of mechanism

employed to cope with the unbound energy.

2.3. The structure and functioning of the psyche.

There is sometimes explicity and sometimes implicit­ ly a theory of the structure and functioning of the

psyche in Freud's thinking. This theory of

psychological functioning is probably the most

important aspect of Freud's thinking to emerge in

these early years. One ought not to underestimate the extent to which Freud was in the for,efront of

the fight against physical reductionism which was the main approach in the cultural centres of Vienna, right through Germany and also in Paris. Freud, in

contradistinction to the patho-anatomical approach,

makes psychological functioning the main explanatory

force in his attempts at discovering the aetiolo­

gical factors, as well as the mechanisms, involved

28/ ••. - 28 - in mental disease. In the Preliminarz Communication (1893), Freud and Breuer hint at the theory which was yet to be developed, by indicating that the primary causative factor in hysteria is to be found in an event - a life event which occured many years before the actual outbreak of the first hysterical attack. To explain the causative mechanism of the hysterical attack, Freud and Breuer refer to the traumatic neurosis where an extreme physical threat causes the development of some form of neurosis.

With the physical neurosis this extreme fright is not caused by a physical threat, but by an emotional threat: "In traumatic neurosis, the operative cause of the illness is not the trifling physical injury but the affect of fright - the psychical trauma. In an analogous manner, my investigations revealed, for many, if not for most, hysterical symptoms, precipi­ tating causes which can only be described as psychical traumas" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 56).

He goes on to indicate that any experience which is distressing and where feelings such as fright, anxiety, shame and physical pain are triggered, can operate as a trauma and finally culminate in the hysterical neurosis. The fact that the emotional

29/ •.. - 29 - trauma does not immediately precede the hysterical attack is explained by the fact that it is not the psychical trauma in itself which creates a sufficient condition for an hysterical attack or neurosis, but the activity of the memory of the trauma which in the final instance causes the neurotic breakdown. This discovery is made as a result of Freud and Breuer's therapeutic approach which, at this stage, is known as the cathartic method. They discovered that every hysterical symptom disappears as soon as the memory of the initial trauma is remembered with the affect accompanying it the affect which was aroused in the original situation and which is repeated when the patient describes this intitial situation in its fullest detail. The reason why the memories of emotionally traumatic experiences cause a hysterical neurosis many years after the event has actually taken place is to be found in the fact that these experiences are cut off from the patient's everyday consciousness and are therefore not available for associative correction. It is furthermore brought to light that these memories are specifically of traumas which were not fully abreacted when the trauma occured. This creates the necessary conditions for the development of a hysterical

30/ ... - 30 - neurosis, namely, 1) the experience of an emotio­ nally traumatic situation and 2) the fact that there is not a sufficient emotional response to the situation, which is then split off from conscious­ ness, only to be triggered years later by some seemingly trifling experience. In this explanation of the causation and mechanism of hysteria, there are some fundamental concepts which need further elaboration.

In the first place, Freud and Breuer accept, and explicitly state, that there are different states of consciousness. Secondly, the question of the quantity of emotional reactions becomes important.

Thirdly, they make a distinction between the memory image and the emotional content which is linked to the memory image, and fourthly, there is the original experience with the concommitant emotional reaction. These concepts form the very basic structure of the early Freudian theory, in that the relationship between these various concepts form a logical network which is used by Freud and Breuer.

In their discussion, it becomes clear that once the experience and the affect that goes with the trsumatic experience have been separated from normal

31/ •.. - 31 - consciousness, this group of feelings and memory images form a separate or second consciousness - the

'condition seconde' of Charcot. During a hysterical attack, this secondary consciousness, which is organised around the memory images of the traumatic experience, take over the everyday consciousness of the person, and so an acute attack of hysteria is manifested: "A state of equilibrium, as it were, may then be established between the two psychical groups which are combined in the same person : hysterical attacks and normal life proceed side by side without interfering with each other. An attack will occur spontaneously, just as memories do in normal people; it is, however, possible to provoke one, just as any memory can be aroused in accordance with the laws of association" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 67) •

The main thesis in the paper, the "Defence

Neuro-Psychosis" (1894)' is that an unacceptable idea comes into consciousness and this idea is rejected by the ego. A feeling, an experience or an idea which is extremely painful to the person is aroused, the person is determined to forget this, because this feeling or idea is incompatible with the rest of the ideas which are held in the ego.

32/ ... - 32 -

The goal of the ego is therefore to defend itself against this unacceptable idea and it does so by trying to treat the idea as if it does not exist.

This attempt is doomed to failure since both the memory trace and the affects attached to the idea are permanently there. What the ego, however, manages to do is that by changing a strong idea into a weak one, it deprives this idea of its affect so that this weak idea will make no demands on the ego for associative connection with all the other ideas that are held in the ego at that time. However, the affect or quantity of excitation which is divorced from this idea and memory trace, must now be utilised in another way. It is in connection with the distribution of this divorced amount of excitation that Freud introduces two new concepts: conversion and displacement. If the energy which has been divorced from its original idea is converted into a physical excitation, a hysterical symptom results. If however, the energy is attached to another idea, an obsessive compulsive neurosis results.

The close connection between the physical and the psychological is again illustrated in the paper on

"The Anxiety-Neurosis" (1894) when Freud discusses the mechanism operating in the anxiety neurosis:

33/ •.. - 33 -

"In the sexually mature male organism, somatic

sexual excitation is produced probably continuously and periodically acts as a stimulus.

In order to define this idea more clearly, let us

interpolate that this somatic sexual excitation

takes the form of pressure on the walls of the

vesiculae seminales which are lined with nerve

endings; this visceral excitation will then actually develop continuously, but only when it reaches a

certain height, will it be sufficient to overcome

the resistance in the paths of conduction to the cerebral cortex and express itself as a psychical

stimulus. Thereupon, the constellation of sexual

ideas existing in the mind becomes charged with

energy and a psychical state of libidinous tension

comes into existence, bringing with it the impulse

to relieve this tension" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p.

97).

In Freud's discussion of the case of Frau Emmy von N, in Studies on Hysteria (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 164), he again indicates the close connection

between the development of a psychological pathology and the inability of a person to cope with a

physical excitation: "In short, the mechanism of

the retention of large sums of excitation, apart

from everything else, cannot be overlooked in this

case" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 164).

34/ ... - 34 -

In a footnote to the case of Frau Emmy von N, Freud makes one of his first statements on the process of censorship: "On each occasion, what was already

present as a finished product in the unconscious, was beginning to show through indistinctly. This

idea, which emerged as a sudden motion, was worked

over by the unsuspecting, official consciousness (to

use Charcot's term) into a feeling of satisfaction,

which swiftly and invariably turned out to be unjustified" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 134 - 135). This constitutes one of the very earliest statements

on some sort of censorship controlling the movement

of ideas from the unconscious to consciousness.

At this stage in Freud's thinking, it is curious to

see that the ego assumes the quality of something of

a little man inside the human being, inside the

psyche, who determines what will enter into consciousness and what will not enter into consciousness. This is very often reflected in his

paper on "The Defense Neuro-Psychosis" (1894): "These patients whom I analysed and enjoyed good mental health up to the time at which an intolerable idea presented itself within the content of the

ideational life; that is to say, until the ego was

confronted by an experience, an idea, a feeling,

35/ •.. - 35 - arousing an affect so painful that the person resolved to forget it" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1 ' p. 61) • And further on he states "I do not of course assert that an effort of will to thrust such things out of the mind is a pathological act" (Freud, 1950,

C.P. 1 ' p. 62). And again, on page 67 he says "Between the patient's effort of will which successfully represses the intolerable sexual idea, and the appearance of the obsessional idea, which though having little intensity in itself is now endowed with incomprehensibly strong affect, there lies a gap which the theory here developed aims at filling in" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 67).

The ego is that agency which controls the repression of what is not wanted in consciousness, whereas the censorship is that agency which controls the return of the repressed to consciousness, hence it represents two sides of the same coin.

Another very important concept in Freudian theory finds its final term in the case history of Frau Emmy von N. Freud introduces the term 'cathexis' which refers to the investment of energy in an idea: "I showed from examples from ordinary life that a cathexis such as this of an idea whose affect

36/ •.. - 36 - is unresolved, always involves a certain amount of associative inaccessibility and of incompatibility with new cathexes" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 150).

This concept of the investment of energy in certain ideas, or now in this term, cathexis, has a physical counterpoint in the physical excitation which takes place as a result of normal physical processes or because of some sort of external stimulation. This line of thought is already evident in Freud's paper

"Organic and Hysterical Paralysis" in 1893: ''Every occurence, every psychic impression is supplied with a certain affective value (Affektbetrag) of which the ego rids itself either by means of a motor reaction or by a process of mental association"

(Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 58). The fact that a certain idea can be charged with a variable amount of energy means the ego can divest a strong idea of its energy so that the idea becomes weak and therefore makes very little demands on the ego for associative incorporation (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 63). He refers directly to this variable quantitative factor in the paper on the anxiety­ neurosis where he states "The neurosis then breaks out as soon as the influence of another ordinary injurious factor is added to the latent affect of

37/ ... - 37 - the specific factor; the former can reinforce the specific factor quantitatively but cannot replace it qualitatively" (Freud, 1950, C.P. 1, p. 95).

The question of quantities in excitation is also highlighted in his reply to Lowenfeld's criticism:

"It will readily be granted that aetiological factors exist which, in order to become effective, must act with a certain intensity (or quantity) and over a certain length of time, which therefore

summate; the effects of alcohol are a standard example of illness produced by summation" (Freud,

1950, C.P. 1, p. 116).

This early model of the mind is based on two concepts which were originally created by Breuer,

i.e., the concepts of tonic and mobile energy. It

is true that Breuer gives the concepts a neuro­

logical twist, but their conceptual structure nevertheless predates Freud's psychological use of the terms 'bound' and 'unbound' energy: "Apart then from a potential energy which lies quiescent in the chemical substance of the cell, and an unknown form of kinetic energy which is discharged when the

fibres are in a state of excitation, we must assume

the existence of yet another state of quiescent

38/ ... - 38 - nervous excitation tonic excitation or nervous tension" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 269). Breuer goes on to describe people with high nervous tension as extremely lively and restless and craving for various sensations and mental activity. They have a great intolerance for monotony and boredom and he suggests that the reason for this is that these people release excesses of excitation which must be employed. This predisposition to excessive excitation is increased by the excitation which is generated by the activity of the sex glands, and it is from this excess quantity of free energy that the pathological symptoms of hysteria are produced. This excess of free-floating excitation can also be directed into the sensory systems, or into the vegetative organs which are usually isolated or separated from the central nervous systems by strong inhibitions. He points out that due to the fact that there is such a large amount of free-floating excitation, it can increase any perceived pain until every small problem is increased to an extraordinary degree. He also points out that in normal people, after a sensory path has been invested with energy, this quantity of excitation will then decrease. In the hysteric this wearing away of the intensity of

39/ ... - 39 - the perception remains, and is in fact fed by further fresh excitations which lead to any slight injury becoming a major problem, e.g. any painful feeling due to the swelling of the ovaries leads to chronic ovarian neuralgia (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p.

331 - 332) •

Breuer indicates that various behaviour patterns and symptoms of the hysteric are determined by this excess of excitability. Even in the motor sphere, pathological symptoms, such as tic-like movements and epileptoid attacks, can be regarded as a result of surpluses of excitation. The question arises as to why any amount of excitation tends towards discharge, and if not a normal discharge, then towards pathological discharge. The tendency towards discharge is so basic that Breuer and later

Freud see this as a reflex action, and make the abreaction of strangulated affect the basis of their therapeutic endeavours: "If the psychical reflex was fully achieved on the original occasion, the recollection of it releases a far smaller quantity of excitation. If not, the recollection is perpetually forcing on the subject's lips, the abusive words which were originally suppressed and which would have been the psychical reflex to the original stimulus" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 282).

40/ ... - 40 -

If the affect which was generated in the original situation is not discharged in the normal way but in an abnormal reflex, this reflex action is also released by any later recollection. This abnormal reflex is in fact the conversion of the affect into a somatic symptom. Breuer hypothesizes that this reflex discharge of excess excitation is in fact a need of the organism. This need of the organism to discharge excitation is formulated in Freud's principle of constancy: "And here for the first time we meet the fact that there exists in the organism a tendency to keep intra-cerebral excitation, constant (Freud)" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 272).

It is very important to note that the tendency towards discharge is not towards a discharge of all excitation, but towards a discharge of surplus excitation.. Breuer gives a very clear explanation of the reason for keeping intra-cerebral excitation constant and not at minimum: "I think that we may also assume that there is an optimum for the height of the intra-cerebral tonic excitation. At that level of tonic excitation, the brain is accessible to all external stimuli, the reflexes are facilitated, though only to the extent of normal

41/ ... - 41 - reflex activity, and the store of ideas is capable of being aroused and open to association in the mutual relation between individual ideas which corresponds to a clear and reasonable state of mind. It is in this state that the organism is prepared for work" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 273). Breuer is indicating here quite clearly that the level of excitation in the organism has evolved into an adaptive readiness. This seems to be in complete contradiction to the later hypothesis that the psyche tends towards total discharge of excitation which is certainly also more Freud's theory than

Breuer's. Nevertheless, this very important principle of constancy and yet not minimal excitation, seems to be one of the key problems in

Freudian theory. There can be no doubt that the tendency towards discharge must not be seen as a tendency towards discharge of all excitation, but simply excess excitation. Breuer gives a clear indication of this by describing the nervous system as being in a state of dynamic equilibrium and he also indicates that the verbal and motor reaction to feelings such as anger very often serve no purpose other than to re-establish the psychical equilibrium

(Freud & Breuer, 1974, pp. 276- 277).

42/ ..• - 42 -

2.4. The structure of ideation.

Freud indicates that a neurosis is always

constituted by a number of symptoms which are to

some extent interdependent. This is also reflected

in the ideational component of the neurosis. One

does not find only one traumatic memory and a single pathogenic idea at the centre of the neurosis, but

rather a series of partial traumas and of pathogenic

chains of thought. The ideational dimension

presents itself as a stratified structure, with, at

its centre, the memories or thoughts which

constitute the point at which the critical

crystallization of the neurosis has taken place.

Around this critical centre are a large number of thoughts and memories which are related to each

other and the nucleus in three different ways.

Firstly, the development of every chain of thoughts or chain of memories shows a clear temporal sequence. Every sequence starts with the most recent memories or thoughts and can then be traced back in reverse chronological order to the earliest

and first memory and thoughts. Freud uses the

analogy of a dossier with various files indicating

the different themes neatly arranged in the sequence

43/ •.. - 43 -

in which the events and thoughts occured (Freud & Breuer, 1974).

Secondly, these themes, as Freud calls them "als Bildung eines Themas bezeichnet" (Freud, 1972, G.W. vol. 1, p. 292), are also organised according to their proximity to the neurotic nucleus. The proximity to the pathogenic centre is indicated by the degree of resistance to the memory or idea becoming conscious. Different ideas can have the same degree of resistance attaching to them, so that the ideational field which is built up around the pathogenic nucleus takes the form of a number of concentric circles, with the same degree of resistance attaching to all the ideas on each circle. And as the strata or circles get closer to the nucleus so the degree of resistance increases. The strata furthest from the centre contains memories and thoughts from different themes that are easily remembered and have always been conscious. As the strata get closer to the pathogenic nucleus, the memories and thoughts become more difficult to recognise when they are remembered, until one gets near the nucleus where memories and thoughts are denied even as they are recalled.

44/ •.• - 44 -

The third organizational determinant of the

ideational dimension is the logical nature of the

thought content. This is in contrast to the

morphological character of the organization of the

other strata. It is a dynamic movement of the actual

thoughts according to a certain logic, through the

field constituted by the dimensions of temporality

and degrees of consciousness. These thoughts can be

described as a system of converging lines with nodal

points where different lines of thought flow into

each other. There also exist connecting lines which

serve as lines between parallel running lines, with

all of these logical trains of thought finally

ending in the nucleus (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 376).

2.5. The interpretation of dreams

After discussing the many theories that exist on

dream activity, Freud comes to the conclusion that his theory offers something radically new. He bases this conclusion on the fact that his theory stresses

the interpretability of dreams. He claims that

although the whole work is aimed at clarifying this

technique and proving its validity, The

Interoretation of Dreams also offers his most ~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~ comprehensive attempt at explaining the functioning

45/ ... - 45 - of the psyche. This is due to the fact that he sees dream formation as an integral part of the general functioning of the psyche so that, in fact, by their very nature, dreams expose the most intricate mechanisms of the psyche (Freud, 1945).

This is, however, not immediately accessible to the observer, but can only be exposed through the technique of free-association. When the dreamer free-associates to the recalled dream content, it becomes clear that there are many thoughts and feelings which are intimately connected with the dream content, but which do not find clear and direct representation in the dream. According to

Freud, these thoughts and feelings which are exposed through free-association are the dream thoughts which form the basis for the creation of the dream

(Freud, 1945, pp. 105, 166). Once these dream thoughts have been exposed, it becomes clear that the dream represents an attempt at fulfilling a wish. The conclusion leads Freud onto the problem of why the wish-fulfilling character of dreams is not immediately apparent, and he comes to the conclusion that this is due to a process of dis- tortion. The distortion comes about as a result of two factors, the conditions inherent to the process

46/ ••. - 46 -

of dream formation and an active attempt at disguise by an intrapsychic agency. The explanation of these two factors and how they relate to the structure and functioning of the psyche constitutes the main part of The Interpretation of Dreams.

2.5.1. Free and bound energy

The basis for Freud's discussion on the psychic processes as reflected in dreams is to be found in the theoretical statements on the nature of psychic energy in Studies on Hysteria (Freud & Breuer, 1974: pp. 150, 269). Although in their initial statements the concepts of free and bound energy still had a strong physiological component, this had disappeared from Freud's theorising by the time he wrote The Interpretation of Dreams.

According to Freud, psychic energy could be either mobile or it could be bound within a structure. Co-incidentally constituting the structure and getting caught in the structure, it could be any one of the psychic phenomena such as ideas, images, memories and sensations. The process whereby energy creates and supports these structures was called cathexis.

47/ ... - 47 -

The difference between bound and mobile energy constitutes a gap between psychic structure on the one hand and on the other, psychic work force. Psychic structures can become cathected or de-cathected according to exigiencies in the psychic world. This mobility in dream activities is reflected in two processes, condensation and displacement (Freud, 1945).

The processes of condensation and displacement reflect the extreme maleability and mobility of energy in the psychic world. It is an indication that the rules of function in the unconscious are totally different from the rules of logical, rational thinking. The operations in the unconscious are not generated by the presenting reality of the external world, with its components of identity, interaction and temporal sequence, but they are determined by the reality of subjective experience and affective reactions (Freud, 1945).

2.5.2. Condensation

In the process of condensation, objects, experiences, people and feelings which belong together in the subjective experience, find plastic

48/ •.. - 48 -

representation as a unity. During the process of free-association, the single dream element is dissected into its constituent parts. Through this process of dissection into its dissimilar constituents, and then finding the unifying thread which uniquely binds them together, the final

integrative affect and experience is discovered and brought back to consciousness (Freud, 1945).

Freud discusses a dream of his own to illustrate

this process. The dream content is as follows: "I have written a monograph upon a certain

(indeterminate) species of plant. The book lies

before me. I am just turning over a folded coloured

plate. A dried specimen of the plant is bound up in

this copy, as in a herbarium" (Freud, 1945, p. 272).

The image is inspired by an experience during the

dreamday. Due to the fact that it is so difficult to demonstrate the intricacy of the process and the

play on words I will quote extensively from Freud's discussion.

"The most prominant element of this dream is the

botanical monograph. This is derived from the

impressions of the dreamday; I had actually seen a

49/ ... - 49 - monograph on the genus Cyclamen in a bookseller's window. The mention of this genus is lacking in the dream-content; only the monograph and its relation to botany have remained. The 'botanical monograph' immediately reveals its relation to the work on cocaine which I once wrote; from cocaine the train of thought proceeds on the one hand to a Festschrift, and on the other my friend, the oculist, Dr Koenigstein, who was partly responsible for the introduction of cocaine as a local anaesthetic. Moreover, Dr Koenigstein is connected with the recollection of an interrupted conversation I had had with him on the previous evening, and with all sorts of ideas relating to the remuneration of medical and surgical services among colleagues. This conversation, then, is the actual dream-stimulus; the monograph on cyclamen is also a real incident, but one of an indifferent nature; as I now see, the 'botanical monograph' of the dream proves to be a common mean between the two experiences of the day, taken over unchanged from an indifferent impression, and bound up with the psychically significant experience by means of the most copious associations.

50/ ... - 50 -

Not only the combined idea of the botanical monograph, however, but also each of its separate elements, 'botanical' and 'monograph', penetrates farther and farther, by manifold associations, into the confused tangle of the dream-thoughts. To botanical belong the recollections of the person of

Professor Gartner (German: Gartner= gardener), of his blooming wife, of my patient, whose name is

Flora, and of a lady concerning whom I told the story of the forgotten flowers. Gartner, again, leads me to the laboratory and the conversation with

Koenigstein; and the allusion to the two female patients belongs to the same conversation. From the lady with the flowers a train of thoughts branches off to the favourite flowers of my wife, whose other branch leads to the title of the hastily seen monograph. Further, botanical recalls an episode at the 'Gymnasium', and a university examination; and a fresh subject that of my hobbies - which was broached in the abovementioned conversation, is linked up, by means of what is humorously called my favourite flower, the artichoke, with the train of thoughts proceeding from the forgotten flowers; behind 'artichoke' there lies, on the one hand, a recollection of Italy, and on the other a reminiscence of a scene of my childhood, in which I

51/ ... - 51 - first formed an acquaintance - which has since then grown so intimate - with books. Botanical, is the veritable nucleus, and, for the dream, the meeting-point of many trains of thought; which, I can testify, had all really been brought into connection by the conversation referred to. Here we find ourselves in a thought-factory, in which, as in The Weaver's Masterpiece:-

'The Little shuttles to and fro Fly, and the threads unnoted flow; One throw links up a thousand threads.'" (Freud, 1945, pp. 272- 273).

Displacement

Freud's observations of the dissimilarity between the dream-thoughts and the dream-content leads him to postulate a second process whereby dreams are constituted. This process, which he calls displacement, refers to an activity of the psychic force which initially strips the dream-elements of their high psychic values and then redistributes the psychic values, creating new psychic values for the dream-elements through the process of overdetermination (Freud, 1945, p. 295).

52/ ... - 52 -

Displacement can occur in what Freud calls

"different psychic spheres" (Freud, 1945, p. 323). In the first instance, displacement can occur through a chain of associations from one idea to another, for example, Freud reports one of his own dreams which is apparently set in Rome. The posters

in the street, however, are all in German and are

linked to Freud's thoughts about Prague (Freud,

1945, p. 194). The second type of displacement occurs when the verbal expression is exchanged for

the thought. This is often the case when an abstract thought is exchanged for a pictorial or concrete one. This process facilitates the

representation of the dream-thoughts in the dream because of the inherent difficulties involved in

representing abstracts thoughts in the primarily pictorial mode of the dream.

Freud quotes Silberer to illustrate his argument.

Example 1. I remember that I have to correct a halting passage in an essay.

Symbol. - I see myself planing a piece of wood. Example 5. - I endeavour to call to mind the aim of certain metaphysical studies which I am proposing to

undertake.

53/ ... - 53 -

This aim, I reflect, consists in working one's way through, while seeking for the basis of existence, to ever higher forms of consciousness or levels of being.

Symbol. I run a long knife under a cake as though to take a slice out of it.

Interpretation. My movement with the knife signifies 'working one's way through.' The explanation of the basis of the symbolism is as follows: At table it devolves upon me now and again to cut and distribute a cake, a business which I perform with a long, flexible knife, and which necessitates a certain amount of care. In particular, the neat extraction of the cut slices of cake presents a certain amount of difficulty; the knife must be carefully pushed under the slices in question (the slow 'working one's way through' in order to get to the bottom). But there is yet more symbolism in the picture. The cake of the symbol was really a 'dobos-cake' - that is, a cake in which the knife has to cut through several layers (the levels of consciousness and thought) (Freud, 1945, pp. 328- 329).

54/ •.. - 54 -

Regard for representability and symbolization

The third factor which plays a role in the formation of dreams is the potential of the dream thoughts to be represented visually, since this is the main mode of representation in dreams. The two types of displacement also contribute to the process of representation by allowing thoughts which are not easily represented in the pictorial mode to be replaced by others which are more suitable.

In the process of substitution the use of symbols is of great importance. Symbol substitution may take place according to three aspects. In the first place Freud identifies a genetic unity between the word which signifies the object, and the symbol which stands for the object. In the second place, there can be a physical similarity between the object to be represented and another object which is used to symbolize it. And in the third instance, certain activities such as climbing stairs or flying are used to symbolize sexual behaviour and feelings due to the similarity of the movements that are involved in the different activities (Freud, 1945).

55/ ... - 55 -

2.5.5. The structure of the psyche

In his dicussion of the dream of the father whose son had just died, Freud indicates that the dream

was a hallucinatory wish-fulfilment, because it

shows the child to be still alive. The second

aspect of the dream which Freud highlights is that

it inevitably entails a visual representation.

He then attempts to explain these two cardinal

aspects of the dream process by developing a set of

propositions built around the concepts of system and

process. He formulates a description of the psyche

which states that it consists of different systems

which are related to each other in a number of

consistent ways. He argues that· the psychic process

develops from an initial stimulus which might be either external or internal and which ends in

innervations. He initially ascribes to the psyche

two systems, the sensory and the motor and he

defines the relationship between them as one of

sequence, stating that the psychic process generally moves from the sensory to the motor (Freud, 1945).

He then differentiates in the perceptual system two

subsystems: the perceptual system which continuously

56/ ... - 56 - registers the sensory input, and a memory system which consists of memory traces of the sensorial input which contitutes a permanent change in the organization of the psyche. This differentiation between the perceptual and the memory system is necessitated by the postulated inability of one system to continously register change and at the same time maintain a register of all changes.

The perceptual system is conscious, whereas the memory system is unconscious. The memories are linked through associations, that is, that the connection between certain memories are facilitated as a result of experience or categories of thought. Freud identifies these patterns of unconscious memories as the character of the person.

When memories become conscious they show very little if any sensory quality. This leads Freud to the formulation of an important proposition "that for consciousness memory and quality are mutually exclusive in the 1fJ-systems" (Freud, 1945, p. 498).

Freud argues that although the material for dreams may come from the experience of the day, the impetus comes from the unconscious. This assumption,

57 I .. . - 57 -

however, leaves Freud with the interesting problem

of explaining the visual content of dreams since the

previous hypotheses about the sequential order

between the systems of the psyche predicts that the

excitation would move from the unconscious to the

motor end of the psyche. He suggests that dreams

are peculiar exceptions to this rule and that they

owe their hallucinatory quality to the

deconstruction of the dream thoughts into the

original material through the process of

regression. He then links this process to the

neuroses and the psychoses stating that the process

represents the same need in both cases, that is, the

attempted return of the infantile scene to

consciousness.

2.5.5. Wishfulfilment

The way in which the unconscious infantile scene

demands representation, albeit by transference to more recent ideational content, alludes to and

illustrates indirectly the functioning of the infantile psyche.

Freud postulates that the infant attempts to keep

itself free of excitation by organizing itself along

58/ ... - 58 - the principle of a reflex arc which is geared towards a motor discharge of any excitation reaching it via internal or external sense perceptions. The immediate discharge of all tension is however not possible, which forces the infant to deal with the tension. The satisfaction of the need to discharge tension becomes linked to the percept of that which satisfies it, for example the percept of food becomes linked to the excitation issuing from the experience of hunger. This link creates the basis for the process of wish-fulfilment, which Freud describes in the following way: "Thanks to the established connection, there results, at the next occurance of this need, a psychic impulse which seeks to revive the memory-image of the former percept, and to re-evoke the former percept itself; that is, it actually seeks to re-establish the situation of the first satisfaction. Such an impulse is what we call a wish; the re-appearance of the perception constitutes the wishfulfilment, and the full cathexis of the perception, by the excitation springing from the need, constitutes the shortest path to the wish-fulfilment" (Freud, 1945, p. 521).

59/ •.. - 59 -

To put it differently, what Freud is saying here is

that there is always a somatic stimulus for any

ideational activity and that this activity at its

most primitive level seeks an identity of perception

between the satisfaction and the need. The process

of creating an identity of perception through activity in the external world represents the result

of repeated experiences of frustration of an attempt

to satisfy the wish regressively through

hallucination. As such, hallucinating attempts at

satisfaction represent the primary process of the

psyche, and the attempts at satisfaction through

activity in the external world a learned or

secondary process.

It is important to note that the Freudian wish by

definition is not the 'wish' of everyday language

but refers to a psychological process which reflects

the basic functional organisation of the psyche. It

is by definition unconscious since it is a way of operating and not the identification of a specific object.

Freud points out that although a wish is the only

process which can motivate the psyche to activity it

is impossible for it to form dream images by itself.

60/ ... - 60 -

The predominance of pre-conscious images indicates

that the process can only find expression if it is

'substantiated' by the pre-conscious, and as such

the dream is overdetermined by the coincidence of

the psychic process of wish-fulfilment and

pre-conscious ideation. Similarly, Freud then

identifies the neurotic process as a conflict

between the two systems, unconscious and

pre-conscious, which finds expression in a symptom or symptoms.

Freud however adds to the confusion about the

concept 'wish' when he also ascribes the process to the pre-conscious (Freud, 1945, p. 524) . It is quite clear though that the wish of the

pre-conscious is not of the same order as the

unconscious wish. The pre-conscious wish is a learned condition defined by cultural content. This

is clearly evident in the example Freud cites to

illustrate the neurotic process. The unconscious wish is a sexual wish which obviously has its roots

in a somatic stimulus and is therefore consistent with Freud's formulation of the process of wish-fulfilment, but the 'wish' which he identifies

in the pre-conscious is an attempt to deny the

sexual wish which is obviously the result of an

in ternalisa tion of cultural rules on sexual satisfaction.

61 I ... - 61 -

2.6. Death and destruction

The problem of destructive behaviour was highlighted

for Freud as a result of three factors. On a

societal level the First World War had ravaged the

communities of Europe. On a more personal level his increasing age and the death of a daughter and grandchild brought to his attention the phenomenon

of human destructiveness. As a result of this he

made two major changes to his theoretical thinking.

He introduced the concept of the death instinct as

co-determinant with the life instincts at a metapsychological level, and he changed the

topographical theory to include the structural theory (Freud, 1920, Standard Edition vol. 18;

Freud, 1923, Standard Edition vol. 19).

2.6.1. Beyond the pleasure principle

Freud begins his argument by indicating that the pleasure principle which governs mental life is really a second order principle which is deduced from the principle of constancy or the tendency towards homeostasis. He links the increase of excitation which is not bound to the experience of

displeasure, and the decrease of excitation to

pleasure.

62/ ... - 62 -

Freud then uses the example of traumatic neurosis, child's play and the transference phenomenon to

indicate that there is a mechanism operative in the psyche which compels it to repeat previous experiences (Freud, 1920, S.E. vol. 18).

Having indicated the existence of the compulsion to

repeat he then explores the processes underlying

it. He argues that a barrier develops around the

organism to protect it from the onslaught of

external stimuli. This barrier also develops into

the perceptual organ of the body which is not only

turned toward the environment but also to inside the

organism. This organ which is initially the

epidermis, and its highly evolved and differentiated

parts the nervous system and the cortex, becomes as a result of its perceptual function the seat of

consciousness. The ability of the organism to deal

with excitation depends on the amount of bound

energy in the system. If the system is not prepared for the influx there is not enough quiescent energy available to bind the influxing energy. The

compulsion to repeat represents the repeated attempts of the organism to convert the influx of mobile energy into bound energy.

63/ ... - 63 -

Freud then postulates that the compulsion to repeat

has an instinctive character which is aimed at

restoring a previous state that is before there

was an influx of excitation. According to Freud if

this argument is taken to its logical conclusion one

can say that 'the aim of life is death' (Freud,

1984, p. 311).

He concludes his argument by reassessing the

traditional opposition between the self-preservative

and the sexual instincts, classing them together,

and placing them in opposition to the death

instincts (Freud, 1920, S.E. vel. 18, p. 61).

2.6.2. The Ego and the Id

The distinction which Freud makes in this paper

between the ego and the id is really just a further

refinement of his initial statement on the structure

of the psyche in The Interoretation of Dreams. He

makes a number of clarifications that are however

quite important for an understanding of Freudian

theory.

The ego is that part of the initial amorphous psyche

which, as a result of its proximity to the external

64/ ••. - 64 - world, develops an organised structure which is determined by its relation with the external world

He states, "in each individual there is a coherent organization of mental processes; and we call this his ego" (Freud, 1984, p. 355).

The ego, however, is not wholly conscious: much of it is unconscious, for example, the defence mechanisms. The ego which controls access to motility, functions according to the reality principle (as a result of the fact that its structure is generated from interaction with external reality). The id which has no direct link to external reality demands immediate satisfaction, that is, reduction of tension, which Freud calls the pleasure principle. The id in contrast to the ego is wholly unconscious, and in fact can never become conscious. The ego which originally develops out of the id, is not separated from the id but merges into it: "The ego is first and foremost a bodily ego (Freud, 1984, p. 364) .

The super-ego develops out of the ego as a result of the setting up of a lost sexual object in the ego through the process of identification. Since the parents are the original erotic object-cathexes, the

65/ ... - 65 -

identification with them during the resolution of the Oedipal complex constitutes the primary alteration of the ego which forms the super-ego. The super-ego has no specific relation to consciousness since part of it is conscious and another part unconscious. The super-ego which evolves out of the Oedipal complex becomes the expression of the libidinal strivings constituting the Oedipal complex, and as such has intimate links with the id (Freud, 1984, pp. 373, 376, 390).

The development of the super-ego creates a third source of anxiety for the ego. Whereas before anxiety was generated from its interaction with the repressed and reality, it now also has to deal with the categorical imperative of the super-ego which can draw on the id for its energy (Freud, 1923, S.E.

vo 1. 19 ' p . 55) •

2.7. Conclusion

Although I have concluded the discussion by referring to concepts such as "ego" and "super-ego" my reading of Freud was specifically designed to avoid concepts which reflect the reification of psychological processes, and to emphasize the

66/ •.. - 66 - dynamic, processual and organizational nature of the processes Freud identified. This not only avoids the seductive certainty, and stagnation of the huge theoretical super structure, but also reintroduces Freud's basic concepts into the theory.

67/ ... - 67 -

CHAPTER 3

THE PHILOSOPHICAL CRITICISM OF FREUDIAN THEORY

3.1. Introduction

The criticism directed at Freudian theory comes from two very different points of view. On the one side there is the hermeneutic critique which emphasizes the contextual, subjective and interpretive qualities of the psychoanalytic session, arguing that the theory should reflect this, and in fact can reflect this only if it is a hermeneutic theory. From the other point of view Popper (1962; 1986), Farrel (1981; 1986) and Cioffi (1970; 1986) argue that Freudian theory can only be deemed scientific if it satisfies the traditional (positivist) criteria for theory building. Between the two Freudian theory is caught with no answer.

3.2. The hermeneutic critique of Freudian theory

One of the major criticisms of Freudian theory has been developed by the philosophers Jurgen Habermas (1971) and Paul Ricoeur (1970). This critique has also served as the basis for the hermeneutic

68/ ... - 68 - revision of psychoanalytic theory. The main theme of the hermeneutic critique of Freudian theory is aimed at Freud's purported attempt to place psychoanalysis within the parameter of the natural sciences, which has led him into what Habermas has termed "scientistic self-misunderstanding" (Habermas, 1971 , p. 246 252). The criticism states that Freud attempted to accord his clinical theory scientific status by making a misextrapolation from the metapsychology to the clinical theory via a correspondence between concepts used in the two theories. According to Habermas, Freud makes this forced misextrapolation because he accords his metapsychological theory primordial scientific status.

Habermas and Ricoeur argue that this attempt at natural science status reduced Freud to an objectivism indicative of a crude form of contemporary positivism (Habermas, 1971, p. 252). Ricoeur argues further that it is precisely the failure of Freudian theory to satisfy the standards of the natural or empirical sciences which indicates the basic fallacy of trying to place it in the field of the natural sciences, and indicates as a logical result to this that it should be placed in the field of the hermeneutic sciences (Ricoeur, 1970).

69/ ... - 69 -

This c~itique of Freudian theo~y and the subsequent

development of the he~meneutic inte~p~etation of

F~eudian theo~y have gained such support that the

c~itique of this theo~y has to be discussed in any

work dealing extensively with F~eudian theory

(Grunbaum, 1984). This critique of F~eud's view of

the scientific status of his theo~y and the . . subsequent he~meneutic refo~mulation are also

specifically ~elevant to this study due to the

implications they have for a study such as this

where an attempt is made at an empirical

ve~ification of F~eudian theo~y.

3.2.1. Freud's views on the scientific status of

psychoanalytic theo~y.

Freud ve~y clea~ly and emphatically stated his

intention to develop psychoanalysis as a natural

science, and also his opinion that only as a natural

science could psychoanalysis have any explanatory

and therapeutic value. In his pape~ on

'Weltanschaung' in 1933 he states; ~the intellect

and the mind a~e objects fo~ scientific ~esearch in

exactly the same way as any non-human things~

(F~eud, 1933, S.E. vol. 22, p. 159).

70/ ... - 70 -

But this attitude was not a late development in Freud's thinking. As early as in 1895, in his paper Project for a Scientific Psychology, he said "The intention is to furnish a psychology that shall be a natural science" (Freud, 1950, S.E. vol. 1, p. 295), and even though at this stage of his thinking his quest was for a quantifiable physical substrate to mental functioning, which he subsequently realized was doomed to failure, he never gave up the claim to natural scientific status. The failure to accordingly identify the neurological substrate to mental functioning moved Freud to give up his ontologically reductive claim to scientific status in favour of a methodological, epistemological one (Grunbaum, 1984, p. 3).

Having granted that Freud initially attempted to find a neurological basis for his theory, it must be added that this was at most an auxilliary activity of secondary importance, and that the main thrust of Freud's attempt to develop a scientific theory was firmly based on clinical observation. In the clinical setting there were two aspects which were the cornerstones of his research activity: the process of free-association and the presentation of psychopathological symptoms. It was primarily by linking the production of thoughts and feelings to

71/ ••• - 71 - the disappearance of psychopathological symptoms, that Freud arrived at his first theoretical statements.

This is clearly evident in the early papers,

'Preliminary Communication' in 1893 and 'Studies on

Hysteria' in 1895. When rebuffing his critics Freud repeatedly indicated that they were unqualified to assess his statements of observation or theory because they did not know how to employ the technique of psychoanalysis. Freud also bases his arguments on the observation that psychopathological symptoms disappeared after the production of certain memories and their associated affects. It was furthermore as a result of observation of a lack of therapeutic results (the non-disappearance of the symptoms) when the full affect associated with the memory was not also re-experienced (abreacted) that

Freud formulated a theoretical explanatio~ about the function and relationship between ideas and affects. Freud also states that it was as a result of observations he made that the seduction theory was dropped, and replaced by the theory of infantile fantasies (Freud, 1962).

72/ ... - 72 -

Another important theoretical statement made in Studies on Hysteria which is largely overlooked in the literature, is the statement on the structure of ideation which serves as one of the most important bases for Freudian theory due to the fact that it is the first clear description of the characteristics of that most basic of Freudian objects the thoughts produced by the patient when he free- associates.

Apart from the clear indication of Freud's theory building one gets from scanning his papers, and the historical dependence of his theoretical concepts on the clinical setting, Freud also stated his views on the matter quite succinctly: "the foundation of science upon which everything rests ..... is observation alone" (Freud, 1914, S. E. vo 1. 14, p. 77); and later, "Psychoanalysis is founded securely upon the observation of the facts of mental life" (Freud, 1923, S.E. vol. 20, p. 266). In fact Freud stated that the metapsychological theory was far less important than the clinical theory: "Such ideas as these are part of a speculative superstructure of psycho-analysis, any portion of which can be abandoned or changed without loss or regret the moment its inadequacy has been proved" (Freud, 1925, S.E. vol. 20, p. 32 - 33). Quite

73/ •.. - 73 -

clearly, Freud accords his clinical theory primary

importance so that the charge which the

hermeneuticions Habermas and Ricoeur level at Freud

of crediting his clinical theory with natural

scientific status by misextrapolation from his metapsychological theory is shown to be false and is

based on a misreading of the Freudian text.

3.2.2. A discussion of Habermas's critique of Freud

One of the main points of Habermas's critique of

Freud's views is that the lawlike causality present

in nature does not inhere to the dynamics of the

therapeutic situation, which Habermas describes with

the term "self-reflection". To support his argument

Habermas uses the example of an obsessional patient

who overcomes his compulsion to repeat once the repressed pathogenic thought or experience is made

conscious. He describes this process as a

dissolution or an overcoming of the causal

connection between the pathogenic repression and the

compulsive behaviour. He then argues that this

dissolution of a causal connection is peculiar to

the process of self-reflection and therefore

indicates the basic difference between the causality

of therapeutic dynamics, and the causality in nature

74/ ... - 74 - which by definition cannot be dissolved. As a result of this purported difference he uses the Hegelean concept "causality of fate" to describe the causal functioning in the therapeutic situation (Grunbaum, 1984, p. 10; Habermas, 1971, pp. 256- 257' 271).

But this argument is clearly fallacious for two reasons. In the first place it is clear that Habermas confuses the specific concrete instance of the dissolution of a causal connection between say X (the pathogenic repression) and Y (the compulsive behaviour) in a specific therapeutic situation say Z, with the existence of a universal condition where say all a's (pathogenic repressions) will necessarily cause, and will also potentially cease to cause (as a result of therapeutic intervention) b's (compulsive behaviour).

In short by confusing the more concrete level of description with the more abstract level of formulating general principles he has committed a logical error. Supporting this argument in a somewhat different form Granbaum states, "Clearly, if a repression of type R is indeed the causal sine qua non for the presence of a neurosis of kind N,

75/ •.. - 75 - then it follows that the removal R will actually issue in the obliteration of N. Hence, any patient who rids himself of R and thereupon becomes emancipated from N plainly instantiates that R is the causal since qua non for the presence of N.

Amazingly enough, Habermas claims that this very causal linkage itself is dissolved by the patient's therapeutic achievement. But surely the instantiation of a causal connection cannot possibly also qualify as the dissolution of this linkage!

Hence Habermas's notion that a therapeutic achievement can "overcome an etiologic linkage by dissolving it is incoherent" (Grunbaum, 1984, p.

11). Habermas not only fails to realize that it is a deductive consequence of the Freudian hypothesis on the aetiology of the neuroses that the lifting of the pathogenic repression will cause the disappearance of the neurotic behaviour, but he also fails to realize that therapeutic success actually supports this hypothesis.

Habermas argues further that Freudian theory does not make use (or should not make use) of nomological explanations which, according to Habermas are generally ahistorical in the natural sciences.

Habermas maintains that causal explanation in

Freudian theory has to be fitted into the life-history of the patient, is therefore

76/ ... - 76 - historically contextual, and ontologically a hermeneutic science. In its logical form, according to Habermas, explanatory understanding differs in one decisive way from explanation rigorously formulated in terms of the empirical sciences. Both of them have recourse to causal statements that can be derived from universal propositions by means of supplementary conditions: that is from derivative interpretations (conditional variants) or lawlike hypotheses. Now the content of theoretical propositions remains unaffected by operational application to reality. In this case we can base explanations on context-free laws. In the case of hermeneutic application, however, theoretical propositions are translated into the narrative presentation of an individual history in such a way that a causal statement does not come into being without this context (Habermas, 1971, pp. 272 - 273).

Grunbaum (1984) indicates that Habermas has made a pseudo-distinction between the nomothetic and hermeneutic sciences, because theories in the natural sciences also incorporate a historical perspective. Grunbaum uses the theory of classical electrodynamics to illustrate the historical element in exp,lana tion in the natural sciences: "It follows

77/ ... - 77 -

that at any one instant, the electric and magnetic

fields produced throughout infinite space by a

charge moving with arbitrary acceleration depend on

its own particular entire infinite past kinematic

history. The specifics of this result are evident

from the so-called 'retarded' expressions for the electric and magnetic fields at a point P at time T"

(Grunbaum, 1984, p. 17).

3.2.2.1. Habermas's epistemological criticism of Freud

In the analytic situation the general hypotheses of the theory are used to generate specific

interpretations about the. individual patient.

According to Habermas, specific interpretations can

only be validated by the patient him- or herself.

Having made this initial statement, Habermas deduces from it that any psychoanalytic construction of the

patient's dynamics cannot be interpersonally substantiated, and that this holds not only for that

specific interpretation but mutatis mutandis for the general propositions of Freudian theory. This deduction allows him to come to the conclusion that

the validation of general propositions in

psychoanalysis cannot be done in the same way as in

the empirical sciences (Habermas, 1971).

78/ ... - 78 -

Habermas states that the validation of interpretations depend on the accomplishment of self-reflection and subsequent communication between the investigator and his "object" (Habermas, 1971, p. 261). He goes on to say "In the case of testing general interpretations through self-reflection

(that is in the framework of communication between physician and patient), this application becomes self-application by the object of inquiry, who participates in the process of inquiry. The process of enquiry can lead to valid information only via a transformation in the patient's self-enquiry"

(Habermas, 1971, p. 261).

This argument is however vacuous, since Habermas is simply emphasizing the recursive ordering of feedback loops in the psychoanalytic situation and as such it is quite unavailing to him in his attempt to prove the patient's pre-eminence in judging the validity of the interpretat~on. It is however true that the validation of any specific interpretation depends on the patient's reaction and further free-associations, but this can be observed by any number of people, and certainly does not lead to the conclusion Habermas reaches. It is in fact one of the aims of this study to assess the interplay of

79/ ... - 79 - verbalizations between therapist and patient, and to describe the recursive ordering of the interactions which in their totality determine the degree of verification which the initial hypothesis receives, and this process can be observed and judged by any number of observers once the psychoanalytic session is recorded and made public.

According to Grunbaum (1984), Thoma and Kachele point out that it was precisely psychoanalysis which exposed the distortions attendant to introspection and self-reflection. They also indicate that the patient's overcoming of his repressions and their effects on him cannot be ascertained through the patient's self-evaluation, but by the extent to which therapeutic progress is intersubjectively observed. And as Grunbaum (1984) points out, subjects do not have priviledged insight into their consciously motivated behaviour. Although people have direct access to their own conscious thoughts and feelings, they only have inferential access to the causal links between them.

Habermas's emphasis on the role of the patient as final (and only) judge of the validity of interpretations made about him by the analyst is

80/ •.• - 80 - also under-mined by the suggestibility of the patient, which is deter-mined by the patient's personality and by the nature of the analytic situation, which is so designed as to incr-ease the patient's vulner-ability. These two factor-s combine to constitute the pr-oblem of suggestibility and the possibility of a spur-ious confir-mation by the patient of the therapist's inter-pr-etations. It is also impor-tant to note that the patient's ability to r-ecall pathologically r-elevant childhood memor-ies is, even accor-ding to Fr-eud, limited. The use of constr-uctions to fill in the gaps left by the amnesias, which is justified by Fr-eud and Haber-mas on the basis of the consilience of data, is also unavailing to Haber-mas since the acceptance of the constr-uction by the patient is also contaminated by the possibility of suggestion. Never-theless, Haber-mas also ar-gues that the use of consilient inductions in the pr-ocess of falsification in psychoanalysis, constitutes yet another- case illustrating the asymmetr-y between physics and psychoanalysis. However- this use of consilient indications has been accepted in the natur-al sciences since the nineteenth century when William Whewell pointed them out (Gr-unbaum, 1984).

81 I ... - 81 -

Habermas goes on to argue that the process of falsification of a hypothesis in the so called empirical sciences is radically different from what pertains in psychoanalysis. He indicates that

falsification in psychoanalysis is far more

uncertain because it depends on the patient's

resistance at the time the interpretation is made

(Habermas, 1971). Grunbaum, however, points out

that the factor of resistance can be built into the

propositional statement as an auxiliary hypothesis, and as such would not constitute anything different

from what is commonplace in the physical sciences

(Grunbaum, 1984). Habermas's argument about the

uncertainty attending the falsification of Freudian

hypothesis seems rather naive when one keeps in mind

that the control required over extraneous and

intervening variables, and the careful delineation

of population parameters, are pre-requisites for good research in sciences ranging from physics and biology to sociology and economics.

Conclusion

From the above argument one can only conclude that

the acceptance which Habermas's argument has in

certain psychoanalytic circles depends first of all

82/ ... - 82 -

on an epistemic and ontological naivete as far as Freudian theory and the theory of science is

concerned, and secondly it depends on the needs of some psychoanalysts to mystify and idealize the

psychoanalytic process.

3.3. Cioffi's criticism of Freud

Cioffi (1970, p. 472) indicates that it is not enough for a theory to be refutable for it to claim scientific status. He argues that there are many

theories that can be refuted that are not

scientific. The scientific status of a theory does

not only depend on the logical consistency of the

propositions but also on methodological procedures. He indicates that through the use of interpretation

Freud avoids any refutation of the formal theory by

giving another interpretation of the data.

Cioffi gives examples of Freud's inconsistent thinking and how cases which apparently contradict the theory are reinterpreted so that they can be fitted into the theory. The defense mechanism of

reaction formation has also often been used to

illustrate how concepts in Freudian theory are

designed to avoid refutation.

83/ ... - 83 -

This criticism is valid but only in a qualified way. In many cases where Freud changes the interpretation of the motivation for behaviour he is simply illustrating the principle of equifinality and multideterminism. The many changes Freud did make to his theory, e.g. the economics of sadism and masochism, the relations between ego instincts and libido, and the function and cause of anxiety, indicate that the theory was changed when there was disconfirmatory evidence. The fact however remains that when inferences about childhood experience are drawn from work with adults or by an adult observing an infant, any number of interpretations can be given without any way of deciding which one is true. The complexity of the phenomena and the number of variables which have to be taken into account further increase the problem of refutation.

It certainly seems as if concepts such as the

Oedipus complex have some empirical reality but

Freud and his followers have grossly overgeneralized their applicability with a concommitant unwillingness to demarcate the applicability of the concepts. This is a major weakness in the developmental, dynamic and adaptive theories of

Freud. A far more rigorous explication of the important variables and their relative strengths

84/ ... - 84 - compared to each other is needed before these theories can claim scientific respectability.

Cioffi also points out that the principle "no contradiction exists in the unconscious" allows any interpretation of the patient's communication. He demonstrates how Freud uses allusion and metaphor to escape refutation and finally convinces himself and other psychoanalysts of a number of ridiculous

links, e.g. ''It is this which enables him to find allusion to the father's coital breathing in attacks of dyspnoea, fellatio in a tussis nervosa, defloration in migraine, orgasm in a hysterical loss of consciousness, birth pangs in appendicitis, pregnancy wishes in hysterical vomiting, pregnancy fears in anorexia " (Cioffi, 1970, p. 497).

Cioffi certainly has a valid criticism here, but he weakens his argument by a seemingly random selection of examples to prove his point. By taking

statements and interpretations out of their theoretical and historical context he is more or

less doing what he accuses Freud of doing

selecting data to prove his theory.

85/ ... - 85 -

Farrel (1970) in his reply to Cioffi also takes Cioffi to task for making categorical statements

about the refutability and scientific status of

theories. Farrel points out that Popper was not

rigoristic about this, indicating that there were

degrees of testability and that the separation

between theories that are scientific and those that

are not is not always easy to ascertain. Although

Cioffi's need to despatch Freudian theory decreases

the power of his argument, he nevertheless

highlights one of the major difficulties in Freudian

theory.

3.4 Farrel's critique of Freudian theory

One of the most frequently quoted criticisms of Freudian theory comes from Popper (1962; 1986) who

argued that Freudian theory is really a

pre-scientific myth on the grounds that it does not

generate testable hypotheses - the main quality of myths being their closed nature. However Freudian theory can hardly be called mythological due to the

fact that major revisions have been made to the

theory as a result of clinical observation.

86/ ... - 86 -

Another major criticism is that the theory is so vague and poorly constructed that it is impossible to validate it empirically. If the theory is not open to confirmation or disconfirmation then it is obviously not a scientific theory (Farrel, 1981; 1986).

According to Farrel (1981) scientific theory contains two types of concepts: (a) those whose instances are observable and (b) instances which are not observable. A statement comparing two concepts both with observable empirical referents can be confirmed empirically. But if one or both concepts do not have empirical referents, then no direct observation can be made to either confirm or disconfirm the statement relating the two concepts.

Psychoanalytic theory contains statements that have instances that can be directly observed and also statements that cannot be directly observed. An example of a statement with directly observable empirical referents is: the first part of the body in which the child is predominantly interested is the mouth. This type of statement can be verified by direct observation. But a statement such as: 'The self-preservative and sexual instincts co-operate to intensify oral experiences, .cannot be

87/ ••. - 87 - validated by direct empirical observation due to the abstract nature of the concepts, 'instinct' and to a lesser degree 'sexual' and 'self-preservative'. It is clear that a large number of concepts in Freudian theory do not have direct empirical referents, e.g. the structure of the psyche, 'super-ego', 'ego',

'id' and the defence mechanisms. The scientific value of these concepts are that they can be used a) to describe systematically and b) explain logically the observed and inferred activities of a person.

Unfortunately these qualities are not sufficient to qualify a theory as scientific. There are two pre-requisites for this to be possible. Some of the abstract theoretical statements must be linked to empirical instances in such a way that the applicability of the concepts can be empirically assessed. Farrel states, "some of the theoretical concepts must be tied down to fairly definite and unambiguously specified observable materials by way of rules of procedure which have been called

'correspondence rules' or 'co-ordinating definitions' or 'operational definitions"' (Farrel,

1981, p. 30). If some of the important concepts cannot be operationalized the theory is empirically indeterminate and is therefore not open to empirical falsification. The second pre-requisite is that the

88/ ... - 88 - theory must be logically determinate. This means that the generalizations in the theory must allow the deduction of determinate consequences.

To state the two principles in experimental terms: theoretical abstract statements must facilitate logically consistent deduction of specific hypotheses, and these hypotheses must allow operational definitions.

Two studies can be quoted to indicate the extent of the problem. Brunner and Postman (1949) conducted an experiment where words that could be described as emotionally charged such as 'whore' and 'shit' were presented in a tachistoscope to see if people would take longer to recognize these words than words which are neutral. Farrel states that this experiment could be fallaciously used to prove or disprove the functioning of the mechanism of repression. Farrel starts his criticism of the validity of the experiment by describing the theoretical logic underlying the experiment in the following way: "Suppose we argue that repression serves in most of us to keep emotionally disturbing or emotionally toned words out of consciousness" (Farrel, 1981, p. 34). At first reading of Farrel's

89/ ... - 89 - critique this seems to be an acceptable statement of

Freudian theory, but on closer examination a serious weakness emerges. It is true that emotionally charged words are sometimes subjected to repression as in forgetting somebody's name, but it is equally true that there is a pressure for these words to become conscious, as is manifested in slips of the tongue. It is also clear from the study of obsessional neurotics that some of them constantly repeat highly-charged emotional words or sentences.

It is also true that both these processes are in response to internal stimuli, whereas in the case of the experiment, what was being measured was the reactions to external stimuli. The paranoid person's response to (what is for him/her) emotionally charged stimuli is in fact characterised by a heightened sensitivity, which in turn will increase the speed of his/her reactions. It is obvious that in terms of Freudian theory what happens to emotionally charged words depends on a number of contingent events and is not the simple unilinear affair that Farrel thinks.

In his second example Farrel discusses the research of Hall on the analysis of manifest content in dreams, to support Freudian theory. Hall thought

90/ ... - 90 - that some of his experimental findings indicated the existence of the Oedipal Complex. Farrel goes through a hypothetical set of generalizations to indicate the fallacious logic behind the experiment. He states one generalization in the following way: "Boys, unlike girls, go through a period of being jealous of their fathers" (Farrel,

1981, p. 35). But this is obviously not Freudian theory because it completely misses the concept of penis envy in little girls.

Farrel's argument is already irrelevant from his first sentence due to the fact that he bases his argument on statements that are not Freudian theory. He uses Freudian terms but not in a systematic way indicated by the theory. This problem is prevalent in most of the criticism directed towards the scientific nature of Freudian theory. It also characterises the most commonly quoted research done by sceptics to prove Freudian theory wrong. Eysenck and Wilson's (1973) research is a good example of this type of research.

Unfortunately what is true of experiments that are intended to invalidate Freudian theory is also true of experiments that are intended to validate

Freudian theory.

91 I ... - 91 -

3.4.1. The use of case material to validate Freudian theory

But of course for many people these scientific

pre-requisites for acceptability are not all that

important. The importance of qualities such as

intelligibility, extensiveness and efficacy of the

theory when implemented are also criteria which are

used.

One of the major techniques used to indicate the

usefulness of psychoanalytic theory and practice is

the use of case material. There are three aspects

which are relevant in the use of case studies. The

first aspect concerns the degree to which

psychoanalytic theory makes a certain class of

phenomena intelligible.

The main criticism by Sartre (1953), Habermas and

Ricoeur is that psychoanalytic theory tries to

explain the dynamics and components of the psychic system, whereas in analysis the goal is to explain

the thoughts and feelings of a particular person.

This can only be done by discovering the meaning of the material brought by the patient. They contend

that the meaning which is attached to a person's

ideas and feelings can unfortunately never be

92/ ... - 92 - embraced by theory. They only have an idiosincratic existence. This is a meaningful and important criticism with serious implications for research theory as well as practice. The central theme behind the development of this study is an attempt to overcome this problem.

Although the material for psychoanalytic research can be taken from many areas it is particularly important to assess its credibility in the psychoanalytic session. The main argument runs as follows. The therapist is_ presented with seemingly inexplicable material. By using Freudian theory the meaning of the person's behaviour, for example the verbalization of dream material, suddenly becomes clear. The theory has given the therapist an understanding of what is happening to the patient. The theory is therefore useful and has value.

This may be so but there is an immediate problem. The question arises whether this theory can be shown to explain the person's behaviour more accurately than any other theory. This is obviously at the present time an almost impossible task. Just in terms of psychodynamic theories, a therapist with either a Jungian, Kleinian or Adlerian approach will

93/ .•. - 93 - also be able to give very plausible explanations. In fact they would assert that their explanations are better. This is, however, not the end of the problem: there are also the Behaviourists and theorists like Kelly who could give totally different explanations of the person's behaviour.

The only way to solve this problem is to link the problem of intelligibility with the question of truth. How can the truth or validity of the explanation be tested (Adler, 1924; Jung, 1982;

Kelly, 1955; Klein, 1975; Skinner, 1950)?

In the psychoanalytic field a number of criteria are used to assess the truth of the therapist's statements. If the patient accepts the interpretation, it is taken to indicate the truth of the interpretation. This is overly optimistic because the patient may say "yes" because he wants the therapist's acceptance. The patient may also say "yes" because he genuinely believes the therapist. But this may be due not to the truth of the interpretation, but to the suggestibility of the patient, which is the result of the peculiar situation in the psychoanalytic session which increases hypnoidal elements in the person's awareness and also increases the dependence of the patient on the therapist.

94/ ... - 94 -

Another type of criterion is the amount of movement or restricted movement in the patient's verbalization that follows an interpretation

(Farrel, 1981, p. 71 - 73). The argument runs that if a patient produces a flow of associations after an interpretation has been made, this indicates the truth of the interpretation. This is further qualified by the statement that the direction of the movement must also be explained and be only explicable by Freudian theory. The impossibility of this task is obvious. When the therapist says to the patient "you feel jealous of your father" and a male patient then gives a flow of associations, this does not offer proof of Freudian theory. The statement "you feel jealous of your father" can be fitted into a number of theories, for example

Adler's emphasis on organ inferiority, Kleinian concept of primary envy, as well as Freud's theory of the Oedipal complex. If the theory generating the statement cannot be determined it is obvious that the following reactions by the patient can also not be determined (Adler, 1924; Klein, 1975).

The one important positive fact to emerge from the discussion is that a statement of the type "you feel jealous of your father" could not have been generated from a theory that is not psychodynamic.

95/ ... - 95 -

The resultant flow of verbalizations as well as the reduction of tension can only be explained by psychodynamic theories.

Because of the failure to indicate the validity of

Freudian theory in terms of its content and predictive ability, researchers have turned to the results of the application of psychoanalytic theory. The results can be assessed by the insight the patient has gained and his improved functioning outside therapy. The use of insight as a criterion fails immediately because of the historical fact that patients and their analysts have come to the same illuminating insights which later proved to be wrong! Two examples from Freud's work illustrate this quite clearly. Freud first came to the insight along with his patients, that they were seduced as children and that this has caused their problems.

Later on, he came to the insight that in fact these seductions were infantile fantasies. The second example comes from Freud's views on sadism and masochism. He initially discovered that masochism was aggression which was primarily directed against the outside world or object, and later redirected at the self due to the dangers and fears involved with directing it at an external object. He then

96/ ... - 96 - retracted this statement and later claimed that aggression directed against the self was the primary state, and that only later a partial deflection is made onto external objects.

The problem of using insight as a criterion of success is related to what Farrel (1981) calls method-determined data. The process of psychoanalysis and free-association is geared to the production of certain types of verbal material and the ideational content that underlies it. In this sense psychoanalytic theory is self-confirming and not open to falsification.

The studies of outcome research on the efficacy of psychoanalysis has several problems. One of the major problems is the difficulty of agreeing on criteria against which to assess the patient's improvement and related to this the measurement of the improvement.

Farrel (1981; 1986) suggests that Freud's theory was premature because he used concepts such as 'instincts' which are not acceptable in current scientific thought. This meant that Freud's theories on the role of sexuality and aggression in

97/ ••• - 97 - pre-Oedipal and Oedipal stages of development can also not be accepted. Secondly, the empirical basis for the theory is mostly found in clinical observations, which have been shown to be subjective, self-confirmatory and method-dependent. It is also important to note that this theory, which emphasizes development, does not say anything important about cognitive and perceptual development. It is also incomplete in the sense that it does not state the relations between social, biological and psychological factors in determining human behaviour. Farrel (1981) suggests that it is therefore important to make psychoanalysis more amenable to integration with other social sciences which explain other aspects of human behaviour, psychopathology, group functioning and the dynamics of leadership.

The generally accepted point of view that Freudian concepts cannot be tested (Eysenck, 1986; Popper, 1986) is inaccurate if it is unqualified. The research indicates that a blanket statement rejecting the researchability of Freudian theory is invalid. Farrel (1981) divides Freudian theory into a "high level" and "low level" theory. Freud's

98/ ... - 98 -

"high level" theory comprises the structural and economic theories. His "low level" theory is equated with the dynamic theory. Farrel views research on the "low level" part of Freudian theory in the following way: "It is clear that scientific inquiry has uncovered evidence which confirm some generalizations of the theory, and thereby gives us reason to accept them as true. It has found evidence which gives us reasons to believe that some generalizations may be true, or an approximation of the truth; that other generalizations are false; and that still others may be false or pointing away from

the truth" (Farrel, 1981, p. 168).

Farrel indicates that the "high level" theory is

logically vacuous, and also empirically

indeterminate. This however is not an inherent flaw

in the theory. Recent research in neuropsychology and psychobiology is increa~ingly in a roundabout way supporting Freudian hypotheses although, and naturally, with some modifications. It is important therefore to make the "high level" theory usable. Farrel says, "it is very difficult to find any

reason why the theory cannot be restated and filled

out in ways that would allow us to obtain testable

consequences from it" (Farrel, 1981, p. 170).

99/ ••. - 99 -

The importance of the economic theory cannot in this regard be overemphasized. In giving an overview of the research, Farrel comes to the conclusion that four regulative principles can be identified in the research on the "low level" theories that find support. These principles are psychic determinism, goal-directedness, the role of unconscious elements on behaviour, and the importance of early experiences. These principles can all be subsumed in the economic theory and give an indication of the direction Freudian theorizing and research should take.

It is clear from the epistemological criticisms of Popper, Cioffi and Farrel that the criticism on Freudian theory can be divided according to whether it is directed at his "high level" or "low level" theory. The criticism that the "high level" theory is logically and empirically indeterminate stands. This indeterminacy is mostly due to the way the theory was formulated and is therefore not inherent. The "low level'' theory, although having some empirical determinacy, suffers from logical indeterminacy. The reason is simple. The dynamic and structural theories are over-generalizations of specific types of developmental phases, personality

100/ •.• - 100 -

types, and the psychopathology which is determined

by these aspects of development. Attempts at

linking there over-generalizations to specific

instances are doomed to failure since the logical

steps linking them are inadequately explicated.

3.5 Conclusion

The hermeneutic criticism levelled at Freudian

theory is mostly misdirected. Although they stress

important aspects of Freudian theory their

conclusion that these aspects make it an exclusively

hermeneutic endeavour is ill-founded. The criticism

by Popper and to an even greater extent Eysenck is

based on an inadequate understanding and a

contentious misreading of the Freudian text.

However the criticism by Farrel, Cioffi and Grunbaum

is valid and demands an answer from psychoanalytic

circles.

101 I ... - 101 -

CHAPTER 4

EPISTEMOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN SYSTEMS THEORY

4.1. Introduction

According to Bateson (1978), two difficulties are

encountered when the scientist tries to understand

and organize the vast amount of information which is

contained in even the simplest social interaction.

In the first place the statements about such

interaction consist of the most varied types of

information which are also at different levels of

abstraction. This makes it almost impossible to

assess the implications and the extent to which each

factor is relevant in determining the interaction.

Secondly, it is extremely difficult to determine how

the different elements which are stated

theoretically combine to give an interaction its

manifest form. The scientific process is further complicated in the social sciences by the fact that the observer and the observed are ontologically of

the same order. Bateson suggests that all these

factors can be delineated and integrated by using a

systems approach.

102/ ... - 102 -

Laszlo (1973; 1983) and Von Bertalanffy (1968) also point out that a systemic approach developed out of

the need to organize and communicate the vast amount

of information which is currently being generated in

the sciences.

From the pioneering work of Von Bertalanffy (1936)

and Wiener (1948) the systemic approach gained

further momentum with contributions by Bateson

(1936). After this initial period the systems approach was adopted by, and adopted to, many fields in science. In psychology the family therapists

Jackson and Haley collaborated closely with Bateson

(1956) in research on schizophrenogenic families.

From the field of psycho-analysis Bowen (1975), Ackerman (1958), Whitaker (1982), Hartman (1958),

Kris (1970; 1974), Loewenstein (1970; 1974), Grinker (1967) and later Kohut (1968), all incorporated systemic principles in their approaches. Although there are various emphases in the different approaches, there is a general acceptance of the importance of identifying and elaborating the principles of systemic functioning.

4.2. Definition and properties of a system

Weiss (Koestler & Smythies, 1968, p. 11) defines a system as "a rather circumscribed complex of

103/ ... - 103 - relatively bounded phenomena which, within close bounds, retains a relatively stationary pattern of structure in space or of sequential configurations in time in spite of a high degree of variability in the details of distribution and inter-relations among its constituent units of lower order". He goes on to indicate that this system maintains its configurations and internal processes in a stable environment. When the environment changes, the system changes the componential processes adaptively so that systemic integration is optimally maintained. Maturana defines organisation as the relations obtaining between the components of a unity which define that unity as a system. The actual components, their properties, and the relations holding between them, which concretely constitute the system, are the structure. The organization of a system is therefore a subset of the relations which constitute its structure, and this implies that the organization in any unity may be expressed through the different structures which constitute it so that although its identity stays unchanged its structures may change (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. xx).

104/ ... - 104 -

A system is open to the extent that it is an allopoietic machine. This illustrates the principle of organizational hierarchies in ever-increasing size and complexity. A system is always at one and the same time a supraordinate and a subordinate system. In any system the co-existence and co-operation of all the subsystems is essential for the survival of the subsystems individually and also for the system as a whole. Von Bertalanffy (Gray et al., 1969) describes the whole universe as a hierarchical ordering of systems. The major levels are the inorganic, the organic and the symbolic.

The symbolic level typifies much of human behaviour and relationships. Weiss (Koestler & Smythies, 1969) indicates the necessity of a hierarchical ordering in the biological world due to the immense number of elements that exist on any one system; for

LO example, the brain contains about 10 cells, which in

~~ turn contains 10 ~icromolecules. The organization of these elements (or they may also be called subsystems) is bound by the organization of the next higher system. One of the important qualities of this hierarchical order is that the degrees of freedom of any one subsystem is contained in the relative invariance of the system of which it is a subsystem.

105/ •.. - 105 -

There are a number of principles which regulate the

development and functioning of all systems.

Progressive differentiation is a primary process

through which wholes develop to higher states of

organization. This process develops concommitantly

with a process of progressive segregation. This

process of development from undifferentiated

wholeness to a whole with differentiated parts,

indicates that, with differentiation and

segregation, parts of the whole system become fixed

in some of their actions. This process of

progressive mechanization necessitates the development of leading parts, where the whole system

becomes centered around a particular part. Any

change in this leading part will have an amplified

effect in the rest of the system. The leading part

has therefore become an area that functions as a

trigger for action in the whole system. This

phenomenon where a small change in the leading part

of a system can cause major change in the system is described by the concept instigating causality, as opposed to conservative causality where the effect

is equal to the cause. Due to the fact that the development of the leading parts is time-dependent,

progressive centralization occurs.

106/ .•. - 106 -

Centralization leads to stratification where the superimposition of higher order units play the role of leading parts. Or, to put it differently, where leading parts make a discrete jump onto a higher level of functioning, it leads to the possibility of progressive organization, which is important if organismic integrations is to be maintained with increasing differentiation and segregation.

The principle of equifinality describes the phenomenon where the same conclusion or end state can be reached from different starting points. This end state or new balance is maintained until anamorphic processes generate new development, which culminates in a new balance. This introduces the concept of a moving equilibrium, and also indicates the fact that living organisms do not only tend to homeostasis, but as a result of negative entropy strive for a moving balance. The concept of anamorphosis refers to the spontaneous development to higher orders in living organisms. Systems theory argues that these principles are general to all living organisms due to the existence of an isomorphism; that is, the functioning of a system is independent of the organism which displays systemic qualities and therefore the principles of systemic functioning are universal (Gray et al., 1969).

107/ ... - 107 -

Although some of these concepts have been called into question by people such as Keeney (1983),

Maturana (1980) and Dell (1982), it is nevertheless important to take cognizance of these concepts until

their importance in systems theory have been

clarified.

4.3. Epistemology

The concept of epistemology was introduced to systemic thinking by Bateson in the 1950's and has

since become an increasingly important aspect in

systemic theory. A number of approaches to systemic epistemology have developed over the years; for

example systemic epistemology, cybernetic epistemology, circular epistemology and ecosystemic

epistemology (Joubert, 1987). Although they have

various emphases, their approaches are all more or

less consistent developments of Bateson's work. Concurrently, but separately, Von Bertallanffy (1968) formulated statements on the holistic, circular and organizational qualities of systems.

His thinking was subsequently developed and extended

by a number of theorists who grouped themselves

under the name of 'General Systems Theory'. Their

approach to systemic thinking developed parallel to

108/ ... - 108 -

Bateson's approach and although in recent years there has been some animosity between the groups, the time has hopefully arrived where theorists will combine the two approaches fruitfully.

Definition of epistemology

Keeney (1983) defines epistemology as the basic premises which underlie cognition and action. It refers to a scientific activity which attempts to identify how people think, what they know and how they make decisions. It also includes the study of how we perceive, since the act of perception, what we perceive, and our cognition determine each other in a circularly recursive process.

The recursive nature of knowledge

Bateson (1978) originally pointed out that the first step in giving any knowledge is to make a distinction. Keeney (1983) develops a scheme which he describes as Orders of Epistemological Analysis which is based on the activities of making a distinction. This scheme purports to describe the process whereby a person comes to describe reality.

109/ ... - 109 -

Keeney (1983) sees the drawing of a distinction as the first step in giving order to chaos. He goes on to state "my purpose is to uncover patterns that connect both sides of these distinctions" (Keeney,

1983, p. 3). Once a distinction has been made it is followed by descriptions so that the process moves recursively between distinction and description.

This process becomes a punctuation of the stream of consciousness, indicating which distinctions are primary, so that a hierarchy of distinctions as levels of order are developed (Keeney, 1983, p.

24). Keeney identifies three levels: behaviour, context and metacontext (Keeney, 1983, p. 41).

Simple units of perception such as facial expression, words or a single movement (for example putting one foot in front of the other) form the basic units of behavioural analysis. When this is brought into relation with its context Keeney moves to a description of interaction so that, for example, what was described as putting the left foot in front of the right foot, and the right foot in front of the left at the level of behaviour, is described at the contextual level as dancing. Once the pattern of the dance is described, he moves to

11 0/ ••• - 110 - the level of metacontext where the different dances are integrated into complex patterns of choreography

(Keeney, 1983).

Cybernetics

Keeney defines Cybernetics in the following way:

"Cybernetics, most simply defined, is part of a general science of pattern and organization"

(Keeney, 1983, p. 6) and as such it represents ~n attempt to move the scientific focus from material to pattern, from object to organization (Keeney,

1983, p. 95).

Explanation in cybernetics, according to Bateson

(Bateson, 1978, p. 375) is always negative. The course of events is directed by certain restraints otherwise the progressive unfolding of action would be random.

Bateson (1978) identifies three different types of restraint, those which are due to the economics of alternatives, feedback and redundancy. In contrast to the physical sciences where limitations are set on what happens by the economics of energy, cybernetics deals with the economics of

111 I ... - 111 - probability; that is, with the restraints operating in a system which are imposed by the available alternatives (Bateson, 1978).

The second type of restraint Bateson identifies is the process of feedback. Feedback can be defined as

"the introduction of a system's output into part of its internal behaviour so as to 'correct' (i.e. negative feedback), or amplify (i.e. positive feedback), the behaviour of some target variable"

(Dell, 1982a, p. 27). This concept is not used, however, without certain attendant problems, as Dell

(1982) points out. He argues that to isolate the target variables constitutes an unacceptable dualism since such a distinction implies that the target variable operates independently of the whole system, in which case, he points out, it would not be part of that system (De 11, 1982a, p. 27) . Dell argues that feedback should be seen within the context of the whole system which implies that, for example, by keeping this 'target variable' constant, it may initiate change in the system as a whole. This perception of the feedback process invalidates the commonly-held view that feedback processes are only instrumental in maintaining the status quo, which is taken to be identical with homeostasis. Feedback is

11 2/ ••• - 112 - therefore an evolutionary process rather than a conservative one. Keeney (1983) also supports this point of view by indicating that in a cybernetic process there is a continuous fluctuation around a central value. Keeney (1983) argues that all change should be seen as an attempt at maintaining stability, and that stability on the other hand regulates change. Keeney also supports Dell in that he refuses to accept the traditional distinction between negative and positive feedback, but his argument is somewhat different to Dell's since he bases his refusal on the opinion that although a positive feedback may seem to occur it is in actual fact part of a higher order negative feedback loop (Keeney, 1983).

However, Keeney and Dell's efforts at clarifying the concept of homeostasis are sadly misdirected (Maturana and Varela, 1980). The tendency to stay the same under certain conditions and to change under other conditions are not described by the process of maintaining a balance or a moving equilibrium, but by the tendency of all systems to maintain their organization (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 79):

113/ ... - 113 -

"The 'living' organization is a circular organization which secures the production or the maintenance of the components that specify it in such a manner that the product of this functioning is the very same organization that produces them. Accordingly, a living system is an homeostatic system whose organization has its own organization as the variable that it maintains constant through the production and functioning of the components that specify it" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 48).

Dell's argument finally concludes by resolving the problem of resistance and homeostasis with his concept of coherence, which is based on Maturana's work. It is, however, clear that Dell has understood Maturana's contribution and translated it more directly into the field of psychotherapy without developing the extensive theoretical underpinnings which Maturana has explicated. Dell's contribution is that his restatement of Maturana's work is more concise and more easily assimilated by somebody involved in the social sciences. For example, he restates the principle Maturana formulated in the above quote in the following way: "not only do all behaviours issue from the coherence, but they recursively affect the

11 4/ ... - 114 - coherence" (Dell, 1982a, p. 31), and further on he states "the interactional system is a consequence of the nature (i.e. the behavioural coherence) of the individuals who compose it" (Dell, 1982a, p. 37). This statement could be translated to describe any system for example, the cognitive domain is a consequence of the nature (i.e. the ideational coherence) of the individual thoughts which compose it.

Since it is basic to systemic thinking to assume an infinite regress of subsets (Bateson, 1978) it follows that the organization of one system is contained in the organization of the next higher system, which is contained in the next higher system in a series of subsummations which constitutes ~n infinite regress (Weiss in Koestler, 1969). It becomes unnecessary when one grasps this quality of systemic functioning to describe different levels of feedback as Keeney (1983) does with his concept, the cybernetics of cybernetics. Maturana's (1980) description of the interaction between a system's organization and the constituent components which can be reflected in an infinite regress of subsets offers a more elegant description of recursively­ ordered hierarchical systems (Maturana, 1980).

115/ ••• - 115 -

In fact, it seems like a risky venture for Keeney to suggest such a simplistic repetitive application of the concept of feedback loop. Apart from it having been made redundant by Dell and Maturana's work, it also quite possibly constitutes an error of logical typing. This possibility is suggested by Russel's theory of logical types (Bateson, 1978).

Bateson (1978) maintains that the theory of logical types, which Russel developed in Principia Mathematica which he co-authored with Whitehead, is an essential perspective for any scientist whose studies include some form of communication.

Briefly stated, the theory deals with the problems of classification. It asserts that any class A cannot be an element of itself, say A (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). It asserts futhermore that this class cannot be an element of a set of elements which are correctly classified as non-members. It is therefore neither a member nor a non-member; it belongs, so to speak, to a different order of abstraction. It belongs to the order of classes. From this it follows that any class which is non-A can only be described in terms of A, as for example A' and not in terms of the members of A- for example (not 1, not 2, ..... ).

116/ ... - 116 -

Bateson illustrates an error of logical typing in the following quote. He argues that learning theorists make the statements (a), (b) and (c), and that (c) is obviously false :

"(a) Changes in frequency of items of mammalian behaviour can be described and predicted in terms of various 'laws' of reinforcement.

(b) 'Exploration' as observed in rats is a category, or a class, of mammalian behaviour.

(c) Therefore, changes in frequency of 'exploration' should be described in terms of the same 'laws' of reinforcement.

Be it said at once : First, that empirical data show that the conclusion (c) is untrue" (Bateson, 1978, p. 253). He argues that the following conclusion (c) would be more accurate :

"(c) If, as described in (b), 'exploration' is not an item of mammalian behaviour but is a category of such items, then no descriptive statement which is true of items of behaviour can be true of 'exploration'" (Bateson, 1978, p. 253).

117/ ... - 117 -

If this argument is extrapolated to the description of feedback loops, it can surely not be seen to imply anything else but that a feedback loop is a specific process at a specific level in any one system. Also, that to describe the recursive process where several feedback loops are variously, that is, together, separately and differentially involved, in terms of feedback loops or equivalent terms such as calibration, or the correction of correction, constitutes an error of logical typing.

On causality

Dell (1982a) also points out that the concept of feedback clearly implies an epistemology of causality albeit a circular causality: "Whereas the dichotomy of fit and causation distinguishes fit from causation, the dichotomy of circular and linear causation distinguishes only between types of causation. The problem with the latter dichotomy is that the concept of causation is an epistemological error" ( De 11 , 1 9 82a , p . 21 ) .

However, it seems that Dell's argument is flawed on two counts. Firstly, his own statements contradict his professed rejection of causal notions. For

118/ ... - 118 - example, "Jackson's 'as if' position contained clear, incisive thinking that should have gone a long way toward eventually ending these confused ideas concerning homeostasis" (Dell, 1982, p. 23).

Although he steers clear of causal terminology, what

Dell is saying is that Jackson's thinking should partially have caused others to think differently.

Subsequently, however, Dell exposes the causal notions underlying his thinking far more explicitly when he states, "Because the field subsequently ignored Jackson's 'as if' clarification of rules, the concept of homeostasis became further contaminated" (Dell, 1982a, p. 24).

Secondly, Dell (1982) refers to Maturana in support of his argument, but Maturana's statements on causality unfortunately do not suggest Dell's conclusion unequivocally. Maturana deems the concept of causality inadequate because it belongs to the domain of the observer making his descriptions, and is not part of the phenomenal domain; that is, the world of the object. He also suggests that it is misleading because the concept of property, as it is used by the observer when making distinctions, is sufficient for the description of the phenomenal domains generated by

119/ ... - 119 - the unities. It is also misleading because it does not reflect the non-intersection of the phenomenal domains created by the components as components, and the phenomenal domain created by the simple unity in an environment (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. XVIII).

It is clear that Maturana is not rejecting the notion of causality as fallacious, but as inadequate and misleading. This distinction highlights an important aspect of what Maturana is doing, which is to redefine and differentiate our understanding of the process of causation. By using concepts such as specification, identification and structural coupling, Maturana (1980) is pointing out the unity of operations which constitute an autopoietic system, while at the same time accepting the fact that we have to make some distinctions if we are going to say anything.

Dell's refusal to make the distinction 'feedback loop' seems partly to be a simple-minded attempt at emphasizing the unity of a system. Nevertheless, in

Dell's discussion on feedback loops and homeostasis, he makes two extremely valid points. Firstly, he points out that formulations utilizing the concept of homeostasis very often entail circular reasoning,

120/ ... - 120 - or what Keeney calis 'invoking a dormitive principle'. Dell states, "To answer that the system remains stable 'because it is homeostatic' is circular reasoning" (Dell, 1982a, p. 25).

Secondly, he points out that teleological explanation very often underlies descriptions using the concepts homeostasis and feedback. Dell states the result of this type of thinking in the following way: "Believing that a family has a purpose can only lead to a trend of fuzzy thinking best described as systemic animism" (Dell, 1982a, p. 26).

When these two arguments which Dell puts forward are taken into account, it becomes clear that a new way of describing the processes previously known as feedback and homeostasis is necessary. At this stage in systems theory thinking, that is partly accomplished by redefining the context in which these processes take place, and also, in a more fundamental way, by reconceptualising systemic processes as Maturana and Varela, (1980) have done.

121 I ... - 121 -

Autopoiesis

Stafford Beer, in his preface to Maturana and Varela's work, (Maturana & Varela, 1980) states "The second reason why the concept of autopoiesis excites me so much is that it involves the destruction of teleology. When this notion is fully worked out and debated, I suspect it will prove to be as important in the history of the philosophy of science as was David Hume's attack on causality" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 67). There is no doubt that in pointing out the redundancy of teleological explanation by formulating a theory of autopoiesis, Maturana and Varela have made a major breakthrough in scientific thinking.

In essence, their contribution consists in formulating a theory which describes how the components of a system themselves determine the organization of that system, which in turn will determine the operation of the constituent components.

They define an autopoietic system in the following way: "An autopoietic machine is a machine organized (defined as a unity) as a network of processes of

122/ ..• - 122 - production (transformation and destruction) of components that produce the components which:

(i) through their interactions and transformations continuously regenerate and realize the network of processes (relations) that produce them, and

(ii) constitute it (the machine) as a concrete unity in the space in which they (the components) exist by specifying the topological domain of its realization as such a network" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, pp. 78

- 79).

They continue by pointing out that the systemic organization is produced by the components of the system which in turn are specified by the organization in a continuous regeneration of the system, with the organization of that system as a constant. Throughout their work when they discuss this crucial feature of systemic functioning, they use the concept 'homeostasis' which is most unfortunate, since the trend of their theoretical statements is to get away from the theoretical stance and logical difficulties (as Dell (1982) also points out) involved in using concepts such as homeostasis. They seem to sense their error when

123/ •.. - 123 - they correct themselves in the following sentence: "Therefore, an autopoietic machine is an homeostatic

(or rather a relation-static) system" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 79). It is nevertheless important that they have a more consistent formulation of the theory which clearly states the qualities and processes involved in the maintenance of systemic organization without using concepts such as

'homeostasis' with its attendant problems.

Maturana and Varela (1980) identify the following properties of autopoietic systems: Autopoietic systems are autonomous; that is, all change is subordinated to the maintenance of their organization. This is in contradistinction to allopoietic systems which produce something other than themselves, and whose organization is therefore necessarily subordinated to the creation of the product. It is interesting to see Maturana and

Varela lapsing into dualistic and teleological statements in their discussions on the qualities of autopoietic organization.

They state: "Autopoietic machines are autonomous; that is, they subordinate all changes to the

124/ ... - 124 -

maintenance of their own organization" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 80). Autopoietic machines do not own their organization they are that organiza-

tion. Furthermore, there is no 'subordination' in

the sense of purposive behaviour in autopoietic

organization. It is simply a reality, a functional

and logical imperative, that the organization of a

system is maintained. Their difficulty in

formulating without falling into the old trap of

· teleological, anthropomorphic and dualistic

description is also echoed by Bateson (1978). This

serves to illustrate how hard it is to break away

from the scientific paradigm which generated those

concepts. If the present author also falls into

this trap occasionally (which could be argued from

this and the previous sentence), it identifies a

difficulty which he shares with most systemic

thinkers, and which will stay with us until the new

paradigm is fully assimilated.

Maturana and Varela (1980) also point out that

autopoietic machines have ~n individuality which is

maintained independently of their interaction with

the environment. Autopoietic systems form unities

because they specify their own boundaries through

the processes of self-production. Allopoietic

125/ ... - 125 -

systems, on the other hand, have their identity and boundaries determined by the observer.

Autopoiesis and cognition

According to Maturana, the basic cognitive activity that an observer performs is the act of distinction. In this way, a unity is separated from

a background and is situated in a space defined by

properties and a phenomenal domain which is generated through its interactions with other

entities (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. xix).

4.3.6.1. Language and self-awareness

An autopoietic system such as the human being which

is capable of interaction with its own states as a

result of the existence of a nervous system, and which also has the ability to develop with others a

consensual linguistic domain, can interact with its own linguistic states and use them as sources of

change in a closed linguistic domain. As a result

of developing recursive levels of interaction the organism reaches a level where it interacts with

representations of interactions, and so becomes an

observer which can interact with descriptive states

126/ ... - 126 - of itself which are linguistic. This activity generates a domain where the organism can act as an observer of itself, observing. Since the observer observing always acts in a linguistic descriptive domain, no absolute description of reality is possible since it is acting in a relative cognitive domain (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 121) • Nevertheless, there remains a universal logic describing the relations between unities which is valid for all phenomenological domains.

Form and substance

Bateson (1978) argues that the fundamentals of science and Western philosophic thought were not developed by induction, but were formulated a priori as is reflected in the creation myth of the Judaeo-Christian peoples. Their primitive formulations about the nature of reality already foreshadow the dichotomous separation of reality into pattern and substance in scientific thinking. He goes on to illustrate that other cultures such as the Iatmul of New Guinea separate their cosmologies about material creation and the development of order and differentiation. This separation, Bateson states, between form and substance also holds for

127I .. . - 127 - the basic division between the fundamentals of scientific thinking.

He then makes a rather startling statement: "The nineteenth century scientists (notably Freud) who tried to establish a bridge between behavioural data and the fundamentals of physical and chemical science, were, surely, correct in insisting upon the need for such a bridge, but, I believe, wrong in choosing 'energy' as the foundation for that bridge"

(Bateson, 1978, p. 28). Bateson argues that they built the bridge 'to the wrong part of the dichotomy by directing it to the fundamentals dealing with substance'. He concludes by making a statement which is at once concise and explicit about the basic rationale of the systemic approach in the behavioural sciences: "The conservative laws for energy and matter concern substance rather than form. But mental process, ideas, communication, organization, differentiation, pattern and so on, are matters of form rather than substance.

Within the body of fundamentals, that half which deals with form has been dramatically enriched in the last thirty years by the discoveries of cybernetics and systems theory. This work is

128/ ... - 128 -

concerned with building a bridge between the facts of life and behaviour, and what we know today of the nature of pattern and order" (Bateson, 1978, p. 31').

4.4. Empirical observation and systems theory

The rejection of the validity of empirical observation as a basis for social scientific activity has gained increasing support in the social sciences. Among the critics of dogmatic empirical observation as the only scientifically acceptable technique, are the hermeneuticians, ethno­ methodologists, Jungians and existentialists.

Scientists who use a systemic approach very often see themselves as supporters of this modern critique of the empirical approach. Yet, when one scans the basic epistemological works in systems theory one finds scant support for such an extreme rejection of the methods of empirical observation.

Bateson ascribes some of the difficulties he had with students in the United States to the fact that they were taught only to think inductively from data to hypotheses, but that they were never taught to test hypotheses deductively against the fundamentals

129/ ... - 129 - of science (Bateson, 1978, p. 23). Bateson describes the logical process of scientific activity by distinguishing between three levels. On the first level there are 'various sorts of uninterpreted data'. Bateson is at pains to point out that data are not objects or events, but records or reports (such as tapes and films) of events and objects. This is really a primary distinction which is also accepted in the physical sciences, since not to do so would be to commit a fundamental error; that is, to confuse the 'map for the territory'.

Bateson also indicates that the collection of data also invariably involves a selection of data, so that the recorded data or report does not give a complete transcription of the event or object that is studied nevertheless, and this is extremely important, he states the following: "But still the data are the most reliable source of information and from them the scientist must start. They provide his first inspiration and to them he must later return" (Bateson, 1978, p. 24).

Here Bateson unequivocally states his views on the importance of empirical observation. This view is

130/ ... - 130 - also supported by Wiener (1965) and Maturana and Varela (1980).

The second level of scientific activity Bateson describes refers to heuristic concepts which are used as explanatory devices. He identifies concepts such as 'ego', 'anxiety', 'mind', 'self', and 'intelligence' as examples of this type of activity. And on the third level he indicates a list of fundamentals, the fundamentals of science.

They are of two kinds; truistic propositions and propositions which are law-like.

Using this description of the scientific process

Bateson states that much can be said about any specific activity in terms of this frame of reference. For example, 'explanation' can be seen as the 'mapping' of data on to fundamentals. But, argues Bateson, the explanation is not the final goal of science. For him the raison d'etre of science is the increase of fundamental knowledge.

Bateson rejects not the validity of empirical observation and data, but he rejects the sole use of induction in the search for fundamental knowledge.

He states that "in science you start from two

131 I ... - 131 - beginnings, each of which has its own kind of authority the observations can not be denied, and the fundamentals must be fitted. You must achieve a sort of pincers manoeuvre" (Bateson, 1978, p. 26).

Bateson therefore argues that both inductive and deductive reasoning is required to reach the goals of scientific activity. Bateson does not reject the use of empirical observation in science; on the contrary, he re-affirms its importance, while qualifying its role in the scientific endeavour. It is interesting to note that not even quantification is ruled out.

Wiener, in his book on the cybernetics of the nervous system, makes this claim: "However, I think that I have helped to suggest the liberty to think of neurological and other physiological problems on a statistical basis" (Wiener & Schad,, 1965, p. 407).

If one takes the above statements from the pioneers of systemic thinking into consideration, it becomes clear that there is no epistemological basis for the radical rejection of empirical observation or quantification of observations in systems theory.

132/ ... - 132 -

It is far more sensible to accept that observation

and quantification should be allowed into the

scientific endeavour when they are relevant, and in

such a way that they clarify our perception and

thoughts, rather than obfuscating them with a

pseudo-clarity induced by statistical rigid­

ification.

4.5. Conclusion

The reformulation of basic systemic concepts, which

is taking place at the moment, heralds an increasing

level of theoretical sophistication which allows for

a more consistent and cogent explanation of systemic

functioning. Unfortunately, with the loss of old

theoretical beacons, a loss of theoretical facility

and certainty is inevitable. This problem can only

be resolved if the new concepts are frequently

utilized and incorporated into systemic thinking.

133/ ... - 133 -

CHAPTER 5

TOWARDS THE REFORMULATION OF IMPORTANT FREUDIAN CONCEPTS

5.1. Introduction

A detailed reformulation of all the Freudian theoretical constructs in terms of systemic concepts is at this stage neither possible, nor is it desirable. It is not possible because of the vast number of constructs which need individual understanding, while an assessment of the reformulation that would reflect the Freudian intention and theoretical context would also be necessary. This can only be accomplished in an ongoing process and not in the initial statem9nt. Secondly, Freudian constructs are very often

conceptualized at a level which ~pecifies a process in such a unique, detailed and yet abstract way that to reformulate them at this stage would be a step backwards rather than forward.

The reformulation of Freudian theory is done in three domains which intersect partially. The main thrust of the restatement concerns the reformulation of Freudian constructs in terms of systemic

134/ ... - 134 -

principles. This entails changing the explanation for processes Freud identified. In this section

problems such as the anthropomorphic, teleological,

pre-formationistic and mechanistic aspects of

Freudian explanation are replaced by systemic

concepts. Secondly, an attempt has been made to

reformulate the theory so that the logical

consistency and determinacy is improved. And

thirdly, some of the descriptions Freud offered

about the psychic processes are questioned and a

different statement about psychic reality is

offered. In the last two sections the logic of the

argument is based on systemic principles, although

Freudian terminology is used. This allows for a

clear perception of the exact interface between

Freudian theory and systems theo~y that is attempted

in this study.

5 .1 .2 A first statement

The different levels at which human existence

manifests itself depends on the pe~ception of the

observe~ and is therefore ultimately not knowable.

Nevertheless, the view which is currently maintained

by convention can be seen to constitute some sort of

hierarchy with at its lowest level the inorganic

135/ ... - 135 - domain, at the next level the organic and finally at the highest level, the informational domain (Stoker,

1969). Although the components and their properties differ from one level to the next, the person as a system is constituted by the relations which obtain between the components on the same level as well as between components on different levels which defines the person as a unity.

Furthermore it is clear that the organization at the lowest level sets the parameters for the recursive ordering of components/elements at the next level, so that the organization at the inorganic level will be reflected in a general way at the organic level, and in an even more indirect way at the informational level. (Possibly Eysenck's concept of extraversion-intraversion could be seen as an example of the reflection of the organization of the inorganic level at the informational (psychological) level).

Freudian theory is an attempt to identify the common human patterns at the inorganic and organic levels which determine the informational (psychological).

It is hypothesised that the erogenous organization at an organismic level will set the basic patterns

136/ ... - 136 - which will be recursively constituted at the psychological level (as, for example, oral, anal and phallic complexes).

Freudian theory furthermore hypothesised that, at the inorganic level, the principles of organization which emerge from the energic interactions are the tendencies towards tension reduction and homeostasis, which are reflected at the organic level as the pleasure principle, and at the psychological level as the hallucinatory wish-fulfilment and the process Freud described as censorship. This Freudian formulation of the process of censorship indicates that the process is played out within the pleasure-pain dichotomy. That is, that nothing can enter into consciousness which causes pain.

This however does not imply that the pleasure principle is the only organizing principle which specifies what enters into consciousness. In a more general sense it can be stated that the organization at any given level is not only determined by the parameters set by the previous levels, but also by the added restrictions imposed by the relations obtaining at that specific level. To use Wiener's

137/ •.• - 137 -

(Wiener & Schade, 1965) example again: the pecking order which is generated through the interactions of the chickens is spontaneously generated out of the activity of pecking. So that the activity of pecking determines the pattern of dominance, which in turn determines who will peck who. But it is also quite clear that there are other influences from the organic and inorganic levels which determine who will peck who. For instance, it is obvious that the bigger chicks will be able to peck the smaller chicks harder than the smaller chicks will be able to peck the bigger chicks, so that through a process of feedback, the bigger chicks will peck others more and the smaller chicks will peck others less. Furthermore it is also quite clear that the more energetic chicks will peck others more, so that the whole process described above in terms of size will also be influenced by energy levels.

In a general sense, it can therefore be stated that the organization of relations at any one level is not only developed within the limits set by the organization of the lower levels, but is also more specificaly organized through the activities at that level.

138/ ... - 138 -

It must also be clearly stated that the relations at any one level are not only specified by the patterns of organization at that and lower levels, but also by the properties of the components at that level. This means that the degrees of freedom at any one level are not only determined by the properties of the components at lower levels, but by the organization of the lower levels plus the properties of the components at the level in question plus the organization obtaining between these components.

In Freudian terms, what this means is that entry into consciousness is not only determined by the nirvana and pleasure principles, but also by the property of the components of consciousness which is language (Freud, 1984).

5.2. On the processes which determine the changes from unconsciousness to consciousness

Freud defines consciousness in the following way: "Here we arrive at a very definite conception of the "essence" of consciousness; for us the state of becoming conscious is a special psychic act, different from and independent of the process of becoming fixed or represented, and consciousness

139/ ... - 139 - appears to us as a sensory organ which perceive a content proceeding from another source" (Freud,

1945, p. 149).

The problematical nature of this statement is quite apparent when one bears in mind that a "sensory organ" in the ordinary sense of the term refers to the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and touch organs. To extend the term to include the perception of ideas and affect, immediately raises the question as to what sense organ is operating in this instance. Possibly it could be answered, the cortex. Since the cortex is also the organ of thought, it immediately becomes clear that in the case of perceptions of thoughts, the organ of perception and the perceived coincide. It follows logically that the seperation between sense organs and perceived objects which Freud describes, creates an artificial separation between two aspects of a process which essentially forms a unity. The perceived and the act of perception coinciding as they do can only be the recursive manifestation of a single process at two different levels. From this it follows that the principles determining the perception of thoughts will be inherent in the thoughts themselves. Stated differently, if the organization of the ideational

140/ ••• - 140 - domain does not allow for the representation of

certain ideas, thoughts or memories, then they

cannot become conscious.

The question however arises as to how it is possible

that certain ideational units do not find automatic

representation in consciousness as a simple de facto

result of their existence.

A possible resolution to the problem is to use a

systemic description of the processes of becoming

conscious, which is based on Wiener's view that the

increasing development of organization is predicated

on a random process spontaneously developing into a

differentiated structure: "Thus we have a

self-organizing process in which the necessary non-linear interaction of the chicks produces a process with a recognisable structure" (Wiener & Schade, 1965, p. 405). The important concept in this statement is that it is a self-organizing

process. The structure which finally emerges in

Freud's theory, which is constituted by the dream

elements, or during free-association words, images and ideas, are determined by the interaction of the

unconscious elements themselves - and not by some ad hoc force, namely the censorship.

141/ ... - 141 -

The problem, however, is to be able to describe this process rather than just indicating its existence.

Breuer, in Three Studies on Hysteria, makes an extremely important statement on factors determining the entry (into consciousness) of unconscious ideas. He states: "On this view the clarity of our ideas, and consequently this capacity for being observed by our self-consciousness - that is, for being conscious - is determined, among other things, by the feelings of pleasure or unpleasure which they arouse, by this quota of affect" (Freud & Breuer,

1974, p. 302).

He adds another important qualification to his statements about consciousness without, however, stressing it. In his discussion on the conditions under which ideas become conscious, he uses the term

"Bewusstseinsunfahig" (Freud and Breuer, 1974, p.

304). By using the term 'Bewusstseinsunfahig' which, if translated literally, means 'incapable of consciousness', Breuer avoids the use of the concept censorship and at the same time indicates that the reason some thoughts do not become conscious is to be found in qualities inherent to the thoughts themselves. This means that the principles of

142/ ... - 142 - organization in the system 'psyche' or 'personality' are generated from the interaction of the elements of this system with each other and from the interaction of the elements with their environment.

As it stands now, Freud's formulation of the process of censorship defines it as an ad hoc defensive manoeuvre by one system, the ego, against another system, the unconscious, to stop dangerous elements (dangerous to the organization of the ego) from entering the ego.

One should rather formulate from the bottom to the top, that is, in a theoretical sense. One should begin by defining the inherent qualities in the lower order elements which (a) make it impossible for them to be taken up in a higher order system and (b) create the basis for the development of boundary conditions which make it impossible for elements in one system to transfer into another system.

The difference between (a) and (b) is that in (a) the inability of elements to move into another system is the result of some quality inherent to them, whereas in (b) there is a process external to

143/ ... - 143 -

these elements which determines their transfer to another system. Between Breuer and Freud, in a piecemeal way, and with poor theoretical formulation, the description of these processes has been given, only to be contradicted at higher level theorizing.

In the case of (a), the inherent qualities which limit certain ideas, images, feelings, notions of self to the system unconscious are defined by Freud in the 1915 paper 'The Unconscious' where he indicates that the linking of words to unconscious elements is an essential pre-requisite for their becoming pre-conscious: "We now seem to know all at once what the difference is between a conscious and an unconscious presentation. The two are not as we supposed, different registrations of the same context in different psychical localities, nor yet different functional states of cathexis in the same locality; but the conscious presentation comprises the presentation of the thing plus the presentation of the word belonging to it, while the unconscious presentation is the presentation of the thing alone"

(Freud, 1984, p. 207). In this paper it also becomes clear that the major boundary is between the pre-conscious and the unconscious, and not so much

144/ ... - 144 - between the unconscious and the conscious. The extreme importance of language in Freudian theory has been indicated and extended by Lacan and his followers. "For the present let is suffice us to bear in mind that the system Pes shares the characteristics of the system Cs and that the rigorous censorship exercises its office at the point of transition from the UCS to the Pes (or Cs)" (Freud, 1984, p. 175) .

In the case of (b), i.e. boundary conditions, the role of, as Breuer calls it, 'affect', is the basic element out of which the boundary conditions are built up. There . are two important aspects to

'affect' which in different ways determine the boundary conditions. In the first place there is the 'quota of affect' which determines whether something which is unconscious will become conscious. Stated differently, if an idea is not strongly enough cathected it cannot become conscious.

The other important way in which affect determines entry into consciousness is the quality of the affect. Where a painful affect becomes linked to an unconscious idea, feeling, etc. this idea cannot become conscious. The mechanism whereby these two aspects of affect, that is, its quality and

145/ ... - 145 -

quantity, determine entry into consciousness differs

radically. The quantity of affect determining entry into consciousness through the degree of innervation

present, and the quality of the affect determining

entry into consciousness by either facilitating or

inhibiting associative links with other conscious

elements.

5.3. Language as an organizing principle in the psyche

"The system Ucs contains the thing-cathexes of the

objects, the first and true object - cathexes; the

system Pes comes about by this thing-presentation

being hypercathected through being linked with the

word-presentations corresponding to it" (Freud,

1984, p. 207).

In terms of restating Freudian theory with the help

of systemic concepts, Freud goes on to make a number

of statements which can be used as connecting points. Continuing from the above quote Freud

states "It is these hypercathexes, we may suppose,

that bring about a higher psychical organisation and

make it possible for the primary process to be

succeeded by the secondary process which is dominant

in the Pes" (Freud, 1984, p. 207). This statement

146/ ... - 146 - indicates one step in a process which Freud is describing, a process which I shall indicate can clearly be defined as a recursive one.

Freud's discussion in this paper is based on his

1891 monograph on aphasia. In this paper, Freud explicates his views on the manner in which word-and sound-presentations are formed. He identifies four components to the word-presentation. They are the sound-image, the letter-image, the motor-speech image, the visual- and the motor-writing-image. He indicates that we learn to speak by linking the sound-image of a word with the sense of innervations of the word. Once the word has been spoken, there is also a motor-speech-presentation, as well as a sound-image of the word the person has just spoken. These word presentations are built up out of kinaesthetic, auditory and visual elements of e~perience (Freud, 1984, p. 217). Object­ presentations are built up in very much the same way out of different tactile, kinaesthetic, auditory and visual experiences. The word-presentation becomes linked to the object-presentations through a process of associative learning which allows for the object to find conscious representation.

147/ ... - 147 -

This process constitutes a recursive ordering of the discrete elements of experience through successive acts of integration with new elements which progressively constitute the raw sense data at higher levels of psychological functioning.

The recursive ordering of this process can be diagramatically presented as follows.

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

CONSCIOUS ~EATION

+- LOGICAL COHER NCE OF IDEAS

PRE-CONSCIO S IMAGE

WORD PRESENTA~ION IS LINKED TO OBJECT

...... OBJECT IMAGE

INTEGRATION THROUGH ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

DISCREET SENSORY EXPERIENCE (tactile) (acoustic) (visual) MAINTAINING NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION 148/ •.• - 148 -

The exclusivity of word presentation in allowing thoughts into consciousness should not be over-emphasized. Language should be seen as one of the most important organizing principles of experience, which acts as an entrance for experience to enter into consciousness. Its importance is linked partly to its inherent functional qualities but far more important is its quality of being used as an organising principle. The important concept here is that experience has to be organised to have psychological meaning. It is obvious that language does not have the monopoly on this function. In the perception of music it is one's ability to perceive the rhythmic and melodious organisation which seems to be (a) indepedent of language (b) improved with repeated exposure (c) dependent on a different symbolic notation.

The perception of visual pattern seems also to be dependent on an organizing principle other than language. It does, however, obviously rely on language to an unknown extent where the visual pattern is an object which is also represented in our language, that is patterns of everyday objects such as man, horse, plant and house.

149/ ..• - 149 -

Finally, all these principles act as determinants of pattern discrimination. Without discriminating the pattern, without separating the figure from the background, there can be no awareness of the object. The identification of patterns becomes exceedingly problematical as the object becomes more ephemeral, so that where the human being deals with feelings and motives which are so ephemeral that the distinction between the structure and process becomes blurred, the organizing principle becomes increasingly important as a determining factor.

Furthermore, it becomes possible due to the temporality, complexity and exclusively subjective nature of emotional experience to mistype experience, to use the term Freud borrowed from the

French, to form a 'mes-alliance'.

It follows from this that neurotics could be said to organise their experience according to principles which do not allow for adequate awareness of themselves or reality, and that in consequence they consistently form false connections.

150/ ... - 150 -

5.4. The homeostatic function and the organization constituted in the organism.

Freud's emphasis on the biological basis of

behaviour and motivation have been severely criticized as a reflection of the materialistic

determinism and his naive nineteenth century positivistic perception of man, and yet now at the

end of the 20th century the systemic theories are

accepting the same premises in an altogether

different epistemology. Bateson state, "Therefore,

it seems permissible to conclude that biological needs are at the root of social interaction, and

that interaction systems are formed to insure

gratification of certain needs" (Bateson, 1972, p.

434). Maturana and Varela (1980) also state, "To

the extent that human beings are autopoietic systems, all their activities as social organisms must satisfy their autopoiesis. This they do in the

social domain through the fulfilment of the basic biological preferences (states of pleasure) and

rejections (states of displeasure)" (Maturana &

Varela, 1980 p. XXVI) o

The problem for Freudian theorists, however, has

always been their inability to specify convincingly

151 I . o o - 151 -

how the highe~ human functions such as cognition, language, self-awa~eness and social o~ganization develop out of the biological given. This difficulty is compounded by F~eud's emphasis on the homeostatic impe~ative. This led him into the quagmi~e of teleological explanation which constitutes one of the fundamental flaws of the theo~y. Maturana and Va~ela (1980) suppo~t the

F~eudian view that the o~ganism tends towa~ds maintaining homeostasis, without slipping into a teleological explanation which includes statements about the o~ganism wo~king towa~ds some desi~ed goal state: "This ci~cula~ o~ganization constitutes a homeostatic system whose function is to p~oduce and maintain this ve~y same ci~cula~ o~ganization by dete~mining that the components that specify it be those whose synthesis o~ maintenance it secu~es ...

The ci~cula~ o~ganization in which the components that specify it a~e those whose synthesis o~ maintenance it secu~es in a manne~ such that the p~oduct of thei~ functioning is the same functioning o~ganization that p~oduces them, is the living o~ganization" (Matu~ana & Va~ela, 1980, p. 9).

Matu~ana's fo~mulation of the homeostatic p~inciple contains two ext~emely impo~tant insights which constitute majo~ advances ove~ F~eudian theo~y.

152/ .•. - 152 -

Firstly, the homeostatic principle is manifested in the maintenance of the circularity of organization, and not in a simple tendency towards tension reduction. Tension management can be, and usually is, a sub-class of the activities maintaining homeostasis, but with the tendency towards homeostasis linked to the maintenance of systemic organization rather than tension reduction, it becomes possible to explain theoretically why certain organisms are sometimes stimulus-seeking, and will tolerate and even seek increases in tension levels. In fact, it allows for a statement where it could be hypothesized that organisms (such as human beings?) may exist whose organization depends on progressive increases in tension.

And, secondly, by linking the development of organization to the functioning of the components themselves, the use of a teleological explanation is avoided (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 48). One can agree with Maturana that "Notions of purpose, function or goal are unnecessary and misleading" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. XIX).

The relationship between organization and constituent components is not a unilateral one

153/ ... - 153 -

between different entities, where the one (the components) strives to achieve the other (organization). It is a recursive relationship where the components which constitute the pattern through their interactions are recursively ordered by that pattern in the circular organization which constitutes the organism.

5.5. On the genesis of hysterical symptoms and the general functioning of the psyche

Maturana (1980), in his discussion of cognitive function, describes a process which in its essentials supports what Freud had stated about the functioning of the psyche. Nevertheless, Maturana avoids the anthropomorphic, teleological and unilineat:' causalistic explanation which Freud employed: "A living system, due to its cit:'cular ot:'ganization, is an inductive system and functions always in a pt:'edictive manner: what happened once

will OCCUr' again" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 26- 27). This is a clear for'mulation in systemic ter"ms, although not including the full implications of Freud's repetition compulsion.

154/ ... - 154 -

Freud states: "The manifestations of a compulsion to repeat (which we have described as occuring in the early activities of infantile mental life as well as among the events of psychoanalytic treatment) exhibit to a high degree an instinctual character" (Freud, 1984, p. 307).

Maturana continues, "For the same reason living systems are historical systems; the relevance of a given conduct or mode of behaviour is always determined in the past. The goal state (in the language of the observer) that controls the development of an organism is, except for mutations, determined by the genome of the parent organism. The same is true for behaviour in general; the present state is always specified from the previous state that restricts the field of possible modulations by independent concommitances" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 27). The above quote subscribes to what surely must be one of the central assumptions of Freudian theory, that is, that the original patterns of behaviour which are laid down in early childhood create the parameters within which all future behaviour will develop.

155/ •.. - 155 -

Maturana also points out that a certain excitation

(in Freudian terms) will at all subsequent occasions elicit this same behaviour. He states, "If a given state of relative activity in the nerve cells originates a given behaviour, a recurrence of the same state of relative activity should give rise to the 'same behaviour' no matter how the recurrence originates" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 27). To appreciate the implications of this statement fully, one has to refer to two central hypotheses in

Maturana and Varela's work. The first is stated as follows, "But what was still more fundamental was the discovery that one had to close off the nervous system to account for its operation, and that perception should not be viewed 'as a grasping of external reality, but rather as the specification of one, because no distinction was possible between perception and hallucination" (Maturana & Varela,

1980, p. XV). The second hypothesis refers to the human being's ability to relate to internal states or cognitive domains as if they were separate to him/herself: "As a consequence there are organisms that include as a subset of their possible interactions, interactions with their own internal states (as states resulting from external and internal interactions) as if these were independent

156/ ... - 156 - entities, generating the apparent paradox of including their cognitive domain within their cognitive domain" (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 13).

These two hypotheses combine to form the logical infrastructure of Freud's theory on the formation of hysterical symptoms and the generation of phobic and obsessive-compulsive behaviour in the following way. The 'relative activity' of the nervous system which is originally triggered by some traumatic experience involves at a behavioural level some form of activity. Subsequently, whenever the 'relative activity' of the nervous system is triggered, this time not by some external event, but by an internal relation, that is, by a memory, the same behaviour will follow. And thus Freud can state "Hysterics suffer mainly from reminiscences" (Freud & Breuer, 1974, p. 58).

The Traumatic Experience Traumatic experience ~ relative activity .~ b ehav~oural response / new experience relat~e activity be~ioural response

157 I ... - 157 -

The Neurotic Process

Internal event (memory)

relat~ve. ~ ac t•~v~ •t y ampliircation of memory

th~tition of relative activity

memory reactivated through association

relative activity behavio~al response

5.6. Defence and repression

Defence only becomes operative when new developments such as a new object cathexis or a new influx of libido ·(as a result of changed hormonal activities), take place. These changes in the psyche threaten the existing organization of the ego. Defence and censorship is therefore not the result of some judgement made by the ego of acceptability of the

new developments in a value judgemental and anthropomorphic sense, but it is rather a case of the current patterns of organization being unable to give representation to the new developments, and these new feelings, cathexis etc. perforce remaining

158/ ... - 158 - outside the organized patterns (ego) and persistently threatening this organization, since, for it to become part of the organized patterns, the present patterns will have to be changed.

Although Freud's theoretical statements do not support this statement, some of his observations do. In the discussion on representation in dreams he describes the process which determines how the dream thoughts will find representation in the dream elements as follows: "and the dream work does not hesitate to recast the intractable thoughts into another verbal form, even though this is a more unusual form provided it makes representation possible" (Freud, 1945, p. 327) , and also "The pouring of the thought-content into another mould may at the same time serve the work of condensation, and may establish relations with another thought which otherwise would not have been established"

(Freud, 1945, pp. 327- 328). It is clear from the two quotes that Freud sees the problem of representation in dreams as one where translation has to take place for representation to be obtained, but in a more general sense the problem is that the conscious representation of the unconscious can only occur within the context of the existing conscious

159/ ... - 159 - representations. This implies that if there is no conscious representation for a certain unconscious thought then this unconscious thought will be represented in another conscious verbal form (and if no verbal form is compatible enough to allow expression it may be expressed in behaviour or in physical symptoms such as is the case in the major neuroses). But even more important than the process of representation of individual unconscious thoughts, these thoughts are also bound up in an intricate structure of relations with other thoughts, memory images and feelings, which in the process of becoming conscious must also find representation. The contemporary conscious patterns of thought also determine to what extent these relations will find representation and to what extent they will have to be represented in approximate ways rather than directly.

For example, a child learn~ in early childhood that anxiety about acceptance can be allayed by pleasing the parents with a certain activity. As the child develops it generalises this pattern to include the situation at school where achievement is linked to acceptance. The child now misperceives the need for acceptance as a pressure to achieve. When the child

160/ ... - 160 -

reaches adulthood the need for acceptance has been replaced in consciousness by a need to achieve.

5.6.1. Manifest and latent dream content

There is in reality no observable latent dream content. The concept of latent dream content is purely theoretical and very firmly based on and created out of, the method of free-association. When analysing a dream it is clear at the first telling of the story that the dream content is made up out of a jumble more or less coherent - of images of the previous day's experiences and physical stimuli impinging on the dreamer at the time of dreaming. In no way, and also by definition, is there any trace of the underlying needs which according to Freudian theory provide the motive power for the dream. It is only when the

process of fr~e-association is started that something very new happens.

When the dream elements are subjected to minute scrutiny, and the dreamer is also determined to verbalize any thoughts that may come up, there is

suddenly a new experience an experience of deepening, a feeling that thoughts and images are

161 I ... - 161 - rising out of the depths of the mind into consciousness. Suddenly there is a wealth of associations linked to each dream element, which allows for the processes of displacement and condensation to be exposed.

A feeling comes over the analysand that this is the crux of the matter. The analysand feels as if he/she is getting in touch with some deep stratum of his/her internal existence, a feeling of being in touch with oneself, a feeling of integration. At the same time there is a release of energy. No matter how unfortunate (to our judging mind) the new information about ourself is, there is a sense of relief, and sometimes even exhilaration.

But, how can we be certain that this material is at the basis of the dream? How can we be certain that the dream material as it is used in free-association is not just a trigger for the flood of material which is subsequently produced, and that it is this arbitrary triggering of the unconscious material which leads to phenomena such as displacement and condensation?

162/ ••. - 162 -

In reality there is a remarkable and very deep chasm between the manifest dream content and the thoughts which become conscious (the latent dream content) when the analysand free-associates around the manifest dream content. Associative links are made according to words, feelings, meanings, identity and categorization. Is it not possible that the dream is merely a gateway to the unconscious, and that the free-association around the dream elements is the actual road which takes us into the unknown, exposing to the eye of consciousness the unknown elements of our unconscious?

The question that we again have to try and answer is whether there is an inherent link between the formation of the dream and the unconscious material which is subsequently discovered. This gap, this missing link, is more or less ignored and glossed over in Freudian theory by simply assuming that the thoughts which come into awareness subsequent to the telling of the dream, are in fact intimately linked to the production of the dream - in determining the dream content.

Freud was also aware of this problem, and although he argues that in fact all the subsequent

163/ ... - 163 - associations or dream thoughts play a role in the formation of the dream, his argument is not at all convincing: "In view of the very great number of ideas which analysis elicits for each individual element of the dream content, the principal doubt in the minds of many readers will be whether it is permissible to count everything that subsequently occurs to the mind during analysis as forming part of the dream-thoughts in other words, to assume that all these thoughts have been active in the sleeping state, and have taken part in the formation of the dream. Is it not more probable that new combinations of thoughts are developed in the course of analysis, which did not participate in the formation of the dream? To this objection I can give only a conditional reply. It is true, of course, that separate combinations of thoughts make their first appearance during the analysis; but one can convince oneself every time this happens that such new combinations have been established only between thoughts which have already been connected in other ways in the dream-thoughts; the new combinations are, so to speak, corollaries, short circuits, which are made possible by the existence

164/ ••. - 164 - of other, more fundamental modes of connection. In respect of the great majority of the groups of thoughts revealed by analysis, we are obliged to admit that they have already been active in the formation of the dream, for if we work through a succession of such thoughts, which at first sight seem to have played no part in the formation of the dream, we suddenly come upon a thought which occurs in the dream-content, and is indispensable to its interpretation, but which is nevertheless inaccessible except through this chain of thoughts"

(Freud, 1945, pp. 270- 271).

Although Freud is describing the process accurately, he nevertheless does not address the problem of proving his argument about the generation of the manifest dream content. It seems as if Freud in his attempt to explain everything causally felt himself obliged to indicate a direct causal link between the manifest dream content and the subsequent free-associations. This is, however, unnecessary, since the process can be explained without assuming such a direct link.

It could be said that the way in which the patient categorises the thoughts, images and memory traces

165/ .•. - 165 - that become conscious as a result of the discussion (free-association) around the manifest dream-content, are used by the therapist as indicators of already-existing schemata in the patient's psyche. The schemata as patterns of organisation or even categories of experience

(internal and external) are not only generated by logical rules, or their correspondence with external reality, but in a far more important way by the affective content of the patient's past experiences. It is towards these schemata (or patterns of internal life determined by the affective content of experience) that psychoanalysis directs itself. This is done by using the free-associative technique because it is ideally suited to rendering the other schemata of internal organization inoperative, while at the same time enhancing the function of emotionally determined schemata.

It is obvious that the schemata that one uncovers during this process will be identical with the ones which determine the outcome of the dream process. This allows one to link the manifest dream content and the subsequent free-associations in essentially

166/ ••. - 166 -

the same way Freud did, without having to postulate a direct link between specific dream thoughts and certain dream elements.

5.6.2. Explicating and extending Freud's views on the factors determining the organization of dream elements

The importance of the sexual drive in Freudian theory hardly needs emphasizing; in fact it must be qualified. Although, as will become clear in this discussion, Freud accepted that factors other than sexual determine the formation of dreams, he sometimes clearly states that the sexual determinant is all-important, only to re-affirm on the very next page that although he emphasizes the sexual component, there are others (Freud, 1945).

In general, Freud's explanation is that the thoughts of the day, that is, the dream thoughts, are reorganized to allow symbolic representation of the sexual feelings which are not accorded their full recognition or release in the waking state.

167/ ••• - 167 -

Howeve~, he points out that d~eams do not always have a sexual meaning: "But that all d~eams a~e to be inte~p~eted bisexually, as Stekel maintains, and

Adle~, seems to me to be a gene~alization as insusceptible of p~oof as it is imp~obable, and one which, the~efo~e, I should be loath to defend; fo~ I should, above all, be at a loss to know how to dispose of the obvious fact that the~e a~e many d~eams which satisfy othe~ than e~otic needs (taking the wo~d in the widest sense) as fo~ example, d~eams of hunge~, thi~st, comfo~t, etc. (F~eud, 1945, p. 373).

This statement ~eflects F~eud's main p~e-occupation at this point in The Inte~p~etation of D~eams which is explaining how the body and physical states find symbolic ~ep~esentation in d~eams. But in fact the needs that instigate d~eams a~e mo~e extensive than is indicated in this statement. It is clea~ f~om the examples F~eud gives th~oughout that, fo~ example, ego needs also play an impo~tant ~ole in the fo~mation of d~eams.

In his discussion of his own d~eam about "Count

Thun" (F~eud, 1945, pp. 400 - 402), F~eud moves fa~ beyond his own emphasis on sexual needs as instigato~s fo~ d~eams.

168/ ••. - 168 -

In Freud's words certain dream elements sre structured around "a certain opinion that demands representation" (Freud, 1945, p. 401). On recounting the dream day experience he recounts how he was given two riddles at a party which he could not solve, he goes on to describe the situation "As they were known to the other members of the party, I presented a somewhat ludicrous figure in my unsuccessful attempts to find the solutions (Freud,

1945, p. 401). Since his self-esteem took something of a knock, he attempts to recover his sense of well-being by ridiculing the riddles and it is this opinion which demands representation.

It is not surprising in view of the above discussion that Freud is moved to say "The assertion that all dreams call for a sexual interpretation against which there is such an untiring polemic in the literature on the subject, is quite foreign to my Interpretation of Dreams" (Freud, 1945, p. 373). But although Freud clearly accepts other determinants in the organization of dreams, firstly by the examples he uses, and secondly by explicitly saying so, he does not develop a theoretical statement which includes and explains the other factors in dream formation.

169/ ... - 169 -

The second order hypothesis which Freud employs to explain why the sexual instinct is the major determinant in the organisation of dreams is summed up in this statement: "No other instinct has had to undergo so much suppression, from the time of childhood onwards, as the sexual instinct in all its numerous components:- from no other instinct are so many and such intense unconscious wishes left over, which now, in the sleeping state, generate dreams

(Freud, 1945, p. 373). The repression hypothesis and its importance in the explanation of dream formation derives from a yet more basic third order hypothesis about the general functioning of the psyche, which relates to the fundamental need of the organism to discharge tension (Freud, 1945, p.

495). It could therefore be said that whenever there is tension in the different systems of the psyche, there will also be a concommitant tendency towards discharge.

The tendency to discharge tension can be triggered by such diverse aspects as affects of anger, jealousy, fear, love; or physical states such as cold, hunger, thirst, over-eating; or ego needs such as self-esteem, self-assertion, dominance, ego integration, and mirroring. The number and quality of the different aspects of the psyche which tend

170/ ... - 170 - toward discharge are as many and diverse as there are facets to human existence. The reason why Freud emphasizes the sexual instinct is because of the genetic intensity of this instinct and the extent of

the repression to which it is subjected.

The intensity of the instinct is a relatively

invariant factor which manifests itself over a certain range in each species, and which changes

relatively little over hundreds of years, probably thousands of years for each species. This ensures

that sexuality will always be an important determinant in the formation of dreams and in a broader sense the motivation of all behaviour. But

the amount of repression to which sexuality is

subjected will vary from culture to culture, over

time in the same culture, and also from individual

to individual.

With the increasing acceptance of sexual needs and behaviour in Western society it has become

increasingly clear that the importance of the sexual drive in explaining the development and functioning

of the psyche has decreased. The development of ego

psychology and the increasing emphasis on the ego

states as determinants in the functioning of the

171/ ••• - 171 -

psyche, reflects an increasing awareness amongst analysts that object relations and ego needs have to

be seen as co-determinants with the sexual and aggresive drives. And as such they are also

subordinate to the general principles according to which the psyche functions, specifically the

tendency to discharge tension.

A general statement about the factors determining

the content of dreams cannot exclude factors which are not sexual. The statement has to be formulated at the level of tension reduction and organismic

organisation, and not at specifying the various

sources of tension and identifying exclusive sources

of tension as determinants of dream content.

It could therefore be stated that any tension in the

psyche will tend to become a determinant in the

formation of dreams and their contents.

The groundwork for this state~ent has already been

created by Freud in the statements ~nd discussions

that I have quoted, so that although there is a

fairly radical shift away from the sexual hypothesis

it is accomplished by applying higher order

principles, the principles of tension reduction and

172/ •.• - 172 - psychical organization, more consistently to all aspects of psychological functioning, and, as such, the statement remains firmly rooted in classic

Freudian theory.

Bateson ( 1978) describes dreams as metaphoric

statements where the relationships which consciously or unconsciously determine the person's waking perceptions are reflected. Dreams suggest the

relevance of a pattern without however making a

statement as to whether this pattern should be applied or not. He continues in a similar vein

"Still less can it make an indicative statement about any identified referent, since no referent is

identified. The pattern is the thing" (Bateson,

1978' p. 398) •

The criticism raised by Farrel (1981) and Grunbaum

(1984) as regards the inadmissability of material through dream recall and made meaningful through free-associative communication, is answered in this description of dreams and dream interpretation.

Freudian interpretation of dreams is not so much an attempt to find the meaning of the dream by analysing its different parts or holistic

173/ •.• - 173 -

impression, but an attempt to identify patterns of perception and experience in the dream and to reveal these patterns at different levels of recursion in the waking state through the process of free-association. In Freudian terms, dreams are susceptible to different interpretations, and also to interpretation at different levels.

5.7. Transference and repetition

Freud in the New Introductory Lectures (1983) describes transference in the following way: "We have been struck by the fact that the forgotten and repressed experiences of childhood are reproduced during the work of analysis in dreams and reactions, particularly in those occuring in the transference; although their revival runs counter to the interest of the pleasure principle; and we have explained this by supposing that in these cases a compulsion to repeat is overcoming even the pleasure principle" (Freud, 1983a, p. 140).

In Studies on Hysteria Freud gives an example of a love tranference where the patient had an impulse to be kissed by her therapist which she immediately denied in consciousness. He then suggests that this

17 4/ •.. - 174 - wish was a repetition of an earlier wish which she had many years before analysis started, and which ws triggered by the man she was walking with at the

time. The wish to be kissed and its immediate denial was then repeated in analysis without it

being linked, however, to the original man but by making a false connection linking it to the analyst

(Freud, 1974).

By describing the wish and its subsequent denial as a unity, Freud creates a logical problem which he

can only resolve by utilising the concept of a

compulsion to repeat. The need to be kissed and the

defence mechanism of repression constitute two

different processes which are linked by the patient

in the original experience. The need to be kissed

represents a sexual wish, which is there from birth

and recursively constituted in different forms at

different stages in life. In the original

experience the patient has to accept the frustration

of this need because to demand its satisfaction

would have been inappropriate under the social circumstances at the time. The repression of the

need because its satisfaction is denied is a

response which is the result of a completely

separate process which is based on learning

experiences involving frustration and anxiety.

175/ •.. - 175 -

To put it more concretely, the patient has on the one hand a constant sexual need (fluctuating around a central value), and also a habitual response to the denial of sexual satisfaction which is repression.

One could therefore argue that the behaviour in analysis does not represent a repetition of the earlier experience, but that they both represent a pattern of behaviour which is spontaneously triggered when the patient is in a typical situation. The transference is therefore not the repetition of an earlier experience but it is the repetition of a pattern of behaviour. The patient does not recollect the previous experience because it is causally linked to the present one, but because it is associated with the present one as a result of the fact that they both represent the same patterns of behaviour.

5.8. Conclusion

Lacan (1987, p. 12) identifies four concepts which are fundamental to Freudian theory; the unconscious, repetition, transference and the drive. The aim in this chapter has not been to make a comprehensive

176/ ..• - 176 - reformulation of Freudian theory, but to show how these fundamental concepts are amenable to systemic reformulation.

The advantages of reformulating Freudian theory are threefold. By using Freudian theory as a basis rather than formulating a new theory, one has theoretical access to the processes which Freud identified. The theoretical critique of Freudian theory cannot claim to make a statement about the processes he identified, but is aimed at the structure of his statement. By reformulating it in systemic terms one retains the acute observations he made but at the same time avoids the theoretical weaknesses in his arguments. The third advantage of a systemic reformulation is that the incoherent plethora of concepts Freud employed, are reduced to the concepts of pattern, organization and componential processes.

177/ ... - 177 -

CHAPTER 6

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

6.1. Introduction

The problem of verifying Freudian theory is as old as the theory itself. Nevertheless, after almost a hundred years of practice, psychoanalysis as a discipline still has no clearly formulated research design. There are in fact some analysts who would agree that the proof of psychoanalysis is self-evident in the analytic situation and that no specific research program is required to further verify psychoanalytic theory. There are, however, numerous critics outside psychoanalysis such as Popper (1962; 1986), Eysenck (1973; 1986), Grunbaum (1984), Farrel (1981), Kline (1981; 1983), Cioffi (1970; 1986) and other analysts themselves who are agreed that the ongoing verification and refinement of psychoanalytic theory is imperative.

Although these critics are agreed upon the need for verification, this is unfortunately where their agreement ends, since they have widely divergent views on the research procedure which would be relevant to the psychoanalytic domain. On the one

178/ .•• - 178 -

hand, there are those such as Habermas and Ricoeur,

who question the conventional views of what

constitutes scientific activity and who certainly,

as far as psychoanalysis is concerned, argue that a

hermeneutic inquiry would be the most suitable

research procedure. On the other hand, the more

conventional critics such as Popper (1962) and

Grunbaum (1984) maintain that the nee-positivist

criteria for scientific acceptability are the only

criteria, not only for psychoanalysis, but for any

other science as well. It is also on the basis of

these criteria that they fault Freudian theory.

6.2. Ricoeur's views on the verification of Freudian

theory

Ricoeur (1977) argues that the problems which beset

research on Freudian theory are due to the fact that

some essential preliminary questions are not

addressed. The first question which he points out

concerns what are defined as facts in Freudian

theory. He argues that Freudian theory is the

codification of what takes place in the

psychoanalytic session. It is therefore important

to identify the criteria which are used for the

selection of 'observables' in the psychoanalytic

session.

179/ .•. - 179 -

Firstly he points out that only what is capable of being said enters into the field of investigation:

He states "not even desire as energy, but desire as a meaning capable of being deciphered, translated, and interpreted" (Ricoeur, 1977, p. 837) will enter into the research. By saying this he explicitly limits the field to a semantic dimension, excluding even the physiological explanations Freud used in his theory.

He extends his argument from the first criterion to state that it is not only that which is capable of being said which is selected, but that which is said to another - another person that is, which counts as an 'observable'. This criterion, according to

Ricoeur, limits the investigation of Freudian theory to the transference situation.

The third criterion Ricoeur mentions is identified with what can be termed psychical reality.

According to Ricoeur, it is the psychoanalytic experience itself which necessitates the

introduction of the concept psychical reality to describe a class of phenomena which is characterised by its coherence and resistance, rather than by a concrete presentation. These phenomena, which are

180/ •.• - 180 - presented in analyses as fantasies, do not only include archaic scenes, but also the processes pertaining to that domain, for example substitution and mourning (Ricoeur, 1977).

The fourth criterion comes in the form of a very important qualification to the phenomena defined in the third. The fourth criterion involves the narrative quality of the memories and fantasies. It refers to the completeness, logicality and intelligibility of the reconstructed life history.

The second preliminary question Ricoeur addresses is

the relation between 1) the method of investigation,

2) the method of treatment and 3) the theory of psychoanalysis. Ricoeur ( 1977) argues that the method of investigation focuses primarily on relations of meaning, the method of treatment on energic relations between systems, and thirdly the theory which effects the integration of these two dimensions of psychoanalytic praxis. Although Ricoeur (1977) concludes that Freudian theory does not do this adequately, partly because of Freud's predeliction for economic metaphors and partly because he inverts the relationship between the metatheory and the clinical theory by making the

181/ ••• - 181 - metatheory autonomous, he nevertheless states that both meaning and energy are essential elements in the analytic praxis and should therefore find representation in psychoanalytic theory.

In his discussion Ricoeur highlights one of the central problems of the psychoanalytic endeavour and probably the pivotal question, which is: How is it possible for relations of meaning to determine relations of energy? Or, to put it differently, what is the interrelationship between the psyche and the soma, the mental and the physical?

On the basis of these preliminary questions, Ricoeur specifies the problem of proof in psychoanalysis in terms of the type of truth claim made in psychoanalysis and the procedure necessary to verify it.

Ricoeur (1977) argues that since the analytic experience is the voicing of desire, the type of truth best suited to it is that of saying-true rather than being-true. Saying true in this instance means self-recognition, that is the analysand's discovery and recognition of himself through the analytic discourse. The second aspect

182/ ... - 182 - of the truth claim is that it is intersubjectively constituted. The analysand's misunderstanding of himself is coincidental with his misunderstanding of the other, that is the analyst. The third aspect to the truth claim which refers to the role of fantasy in therapy, concerns the movement from alienating fantasy to a discovery and articulation of the symbolic which creates a basis for both individual and communal identity. The fourth aspect to the

truth claim which Ricoeur (1977) discusses is the narrative intelligibility of the case history as it

is intersubjectively constituted in the analytic experience. He states that the intelligiblity turns on the critical evaluation by the analyst and of his

self-reflection. He states, "we must maintain the critical dimension of narrativity, which is just that of self-recognition, of recognition of the other, and of recognition of the fantasy" (Ricoeur,

1977, p. 862).

On the basis of this fourfold distinction of what constitutes the truth claim in psychoanalysis, Ricoeur identifies four procedures which should be used together to verify Freudian theory. He states,

"in psychoanalysis the means of proof reside in the

very articulation of the entire network constituted

183/ ... - 183 - by the theory, the interpretive procedures, the therapeutic treatment and the narrative structure of the analytic experience" (Ricoeur, 1977, p. 865).

It is really quite difficult to see in which way Ricoeur proposes to use the 'articulation of the entire network' to verify Freudian theory. It seems rather as if Ricoeur has confused the criteria for good theory building and research with the actual process of verification itself. Ricoeur's contribution is therefore not that he has discovered and described the way to verify Freudian theory, but that he has translated the quite mundane criteria of the logical empiricists for good scientific activity (which he so abhors when applied directly to psychoanalysis) to fit the domain of psychoanalysis.

The implication of Ricoeur's views, as a statement of the prerequisites for research in the psychoanalytic field, is extremely serious, since it quite simply shows the irrelevance of virtually all the research which has purportedly been done on Freudian theory. I say purportedly, because the research really has nothing to do with Freudian theory if viewed in the light of Ricoeur's statements.

184/ ••• - 184 -

6.3. The pre-conditions for research on Freudian theory

The pre-conditions can be summarized as follows:

6.3.1. The object of the research (to reify a process) must be the transference situation. At this stage no

other research 'object' can be used to validate

Freudian theory.

Within the transference situation the focus is on

what is said. Although the therapist and the

analysand may use all sorts of non-verbal cues to

gain information about each other, this is only

relevant to the research process to the extent that

it enters into the verbal interaction.

The discourse between the pa~ient and the therapist

has to exhibit certain qualities before the

therapeutic process can be defined as a

psychoanalytic one. This aspect refers specifically to the fact that the patient has to verbalize

free-associations. No amount of psychoanalytically framed or motivated intervention by the therapist,

or Freudian insights by the patient qualifies the

therapy as psychoanalytic unless free-associations

by the patient constitute a substantial part of the

185/ ... - 185 -

discourse. To try and assess Freudian theory without using free-association is like trying to do

research on molecular structures without a

microscope.

The complete text should be available for

inspection, because it is only through the logical

structure of the narrative that so many Freudian

concepts, specifically the defence mechanisms such

as reaction formation, can be illustrated and

verified.

6.4. A historical survey of research on Freudian theory

Research on Freudian theory can be categorised as

either experimental or historical, which includes

case histories, hermeneutic readings, and anecdotal

evidence. The historical approach can at best be

described as illustrative, but certainly as it is

used at the moment, never validational.

Although psychoanalysts very rarely publish experimental studies, many studies purportedly

testing Freudian theory have been published by

psychoanalyticly-inclined psychologists, and also by

the many critics of Freudian theory. The discussion

186/ •.. - 186 -

on the research has been structured according to that part of Freudian theory to which the research is most germane. Much of the research discussed here has come as a response to critics, and as an attempt to use scientifically acceptable methods in the validation of Freudian theory. These studies represent a partial answer to the charge that Freudian theory cannot be tested empirically.

6.4.1. Research on the dynamic theory

According to Kline ( 1981 ' pp. 8 9) three independent groups of hypotheses can be derived from Freud's theory on psychosexual development:

1. Mature adults exhibit personality types; 2. These personality types are related to child-rearing practices; 3. The mouth, anus and phallus are capable of sexual arousal early in childhood.

These hypotheses are integrated in the theoretical statement that the personality types observed in adults are due to influences of the child-rearing practices on the child's feelings about his erotogenic areas. Although Freud stated the initial

187/ ... - 187 -

theo~y of psychosexual development, the detailed

desc~iption of the pe~sonality types which develop

f~om t~aumas in the majo~ developmental phases is

detailed by late~ psychoanalysts.

6.4.1 .1. o~al cha~acte~

It has become standa~d p~actice to diffe~entiate

between the o~al-sucking and o~al-sadistic phases.

The type of pe~sonality t~aits which develop a~e

also influenced by the facto~s of ove~indulgence and

dep~ivation.

Goldman-Eisle~ (1948; 1951) did ~esea~ch on a no~mal

population, and Laza~e, Kle~man and A~mo~ in (1966)

used the same scale in an abno~mal population to

assess whethe~ they can identify an o~al pe~sonality

type. Goldman-Eisle~ found the people who had

ext~eme sco~es could be identified as o~al optimists

and o~al pessimists. Laza~e's study unfo~tunately

did not p~oduce such clea~ ~esults. The~e a~e,

howeve~, a numbe~ of p~oblems with Goldman-Eisle~'s studies. The scale had a mean split-half

~eliability of 0,56 which is satisfacto~y, but

validity was only dete~mined in te~ms of face

validity. The~e was also no check on ~esponse sets

188/ ... - 188 - of acquiescence or social desirability. The factor-analysis was also not rotated to a simple structure, with the result that a more elegant solution not appropriate to Freudian theory was not ruled out.

Kline and Storey (1978) found an oral factor in their study which could be identified as oral optimism. They developed two scales, one to test oral optimism (OOQ) and the other one to measure oral pessimism (OPQ). Test-retest reliability for the OOQ was 0,64 and for the OPQ 0,765. To assess the validity, a large battery of tests were administered to 126 subjects. Tests included were, Eysenck's EPI, the 16 PF of Cattell and the Ai3Q developed by Kline. They also administered a number of psycho-sexual tests, the Gottheil scale, the Lazare scale and the Dynamic Personality Inventory. A principle components-analysis followed by an oblique Promax rotation was performed. Two factors emerged which could be described as oral optimist and oral pessimist. However, Strauss and Ryan (1987; 1988) found no difference in ego development between subjects with eating disorders and normal subjects.

189/ ... - 189 -

6.4.1 .2. Anal character

The anal character is variously described as tending towards hoarding behaviour, giving excessive attention to detail, being extremely conservative, having a tendency to stick to routine and being extremely authoritarian. Authoritarian attitudes are expressed in extreme submission to authority figures on the one hand, and an emphasis on law and discipline on the other hand. These characteristics are built into all the scales purporting to identify anal characteristics. Grygier's (1961) development of the Dynamic Personality Inventory (DPI) incorporated items attempting to measure these typical qualities. Most of the research giving some support to the concept of an anal personality use this scale. The work by Glasberg, Bromberg, Stein and Luparello (1969) and Stringer (1970) give some support to the notion of an anal character. A pilot study in 1968 by Kline was followed up in 1978 by an extended study (Kline & Storey, 1978) which also supports the existence of an anal character.

Most of the research aimed at determining the existence of oral and anal personalities also included items for the identification of a phallic personality. There is, however, no support for the

190/ •.• - 190 - concept of a phallic personality from the research. The work by Emmons (1984; 1987) and Raskin and Howard (1988) with the Narcissistic Personality Inventory is promising, but by their own admission still in its initial stages (Raskin & Howard, 1988, p. 900) •

Kline (1981, p. 45) indicates four problems which characterize the research to identify Freudian personality types:

1. Too much emphasis is placed on the face validity of the items included in the scales;

2. There is very little control over contaminating factors such as social desirability and acquiescence;

3. Related to these problems, very little has been done to assess the validity of the scales;

4. Researchers erroneously assume that if a common factor which accounts for the item-variance is found, through item-analysis or factor-analysis, this indicates the validity of the items.

191 I . .. - 191 -

The relationship between adult personality types and infantile experiences

The studies designed to research the supposedly causal relationship between infantile experiences and adult personality types can be categorized according to the methodology used in the study (Kohlberg, Ricks & Snarey, 1984).

6.4.2.1. Retrospective studies

There are two related problems inherent in retrospective studies. When subjects are interviewed on their own childhood experiences, recall is poor and distortion is also an important contaminating factor. Newson and Newson (1963) also found that parents recall of the child's training-milestones become inaccurate after only one year. Robbins (1963) found that parents recollection of weaning practices did not correspond to the observations made by research staff at the time of weaning. Studies by Mussen and Distler (1959) and Beloff (1957) did not support Freudian theory. Only Goldman-Eisler (1951) gives some support to the hypotheses that early weaning is related to oral pessimism. McCrae and Costa (1988) also questions in a more

192/ ... - 192 -

general way whether parent-child relationships determine later personality development.

6.4.2.2. Cross-cultural studies

Although the problems involved in cross-cultural research are enormous, as well as the difficulties pointed out by many researchers, psychoanalytic researchers have done a number of studies to indicate the universality of Freudian personality types and their origins. The use of projective tests are of even more doubtfull reliability and validity than is the case when using it in Western societies. A number of studies, for example Whiting and Child (1953), Kerlinger (1953), Strauss (1957)' and Scofield and Sun ( 1960) give support to various Freudian hypotheses. Unfortunately their methodological problems are so severe that the results are of very little importance.

Current and longitudinal studies

Freudian theory states clearly that during the latency period the psychosexual activities are repressed. Furthermore the identification of personality types are made in adult populations,

193/ •.. - 193 - not in children. An important methodological problem is the lack of validity and reliability of questionnaires, so often used in the studies with young children.

Nevertheless a number of studies have been done and quite a few report no link between infantile experience and personality types. The studies of Sewell and Mussen (1952), Sears, Maccoby and Levin (1957) and Bernstein (1955) on the oral character and its relation to feeding and weaning experiences indicated no link. Research on the aetiology of the anal character equally disconfirms the Freudian hypotheses (Hetherington & Brackbill, 1963; Sears, Maccoby & Levin, 1957; Sewell, 1952) • No research on the phallic personality was found.

Unfortunately all of these studies either report very poor or no reliability and validity figures, and are so loosely related to Freudian theory that the results cannot be seen as a final statement on the relevance of Freudian theory in this area.

194/ .•• - 194 -

Studies on the erotic nature of oral and anal activities

The cornerstone of Freud's developmental theory is the concept that the exitation of various erotogenic areas are important in early childhood, and that the sensitivity of these areas to stimulation follows a genetically determined progressive unfoldment. The way in which behaviour which is related to these areas facilitates or inhibits satisfaction determines the amount of fixation on these erotogenic areas and the developmental phases related to them. A number of studies have been done to determine the existence of infantile eroticism.

Oral eroticism is identified by separating nutritive sucking and non-nutritive sucking. Various hypotheses were generated about the relation between time and satisfaction gained from nutritive sucking, and the amount of non-nutritive sucking children indulge in. Levy (1928), Klackenberg (1949) and Levine and Bell (1950) found support in their research for hypotheses derived from Freudian theory. There are, however, a number of studies which disconfirm Freudian hypotheses. Davis, Sears, Miller and Brodbeck

195/ .•. - 195 -

(1948), compared babies who were cup-fed and babies who were breast- and bottle-fed and found that those who were cup-fed did not increase sucking behaviour while the infants who were breast-fed actually increased the amount of sucking in the 10 days they were under observation. Sears and Wise (1950) compared breast, bottle- and cup-fed children in terms of their reaction to weaning. Their hypothesis was that the more deprived children (those who are weaned early) will show more substitute non-nutritive sucking such as finger sucking. Contrary to expectation the later weaned children showed a greater reaction and more thumb-sucking than the others.

But this can also be predicted by Freudian theory because it is more likely that later weaned children have been over-indulged and are therefore partially fixated at the oral level. The problem is obviously one of measurement. How to define deprivation, appropriate satisfaction and over-indulgence and then to measure the extent of the deprivation or overindulgence is difficult, if not impossible due to the idiosiricratic nature of the infant's sucking needs. What constitutes satisfaction for one child may be deprivation for another.

196/ ... - 196 -

Research on anal erotism is confounded by the fact that there is no behaviour which can be identified as designed to satisfy erotic anal needs. Consequently studies are usually based on disorders of bowl function. Prugh (1954), Anthony (1957) and Woodmansey (1967) indicate that disorders of bowl function can all be related to toilet-training procedures. These results can, however, also be predicted from learning theory, and certainly do not indicate any elements of anal eroticism.

A large number of studies using the Blacky Pictures have been done with adults to gauge the amount of oral and anal eroticism in adults. It is, however, impossible to extrapolate the results from this test to Freudian theory (Eysenck & Wilson, 1973, p. 93). Furthermore the validity and reliability of the Blacky Pictures is also unacceptable (Kline, 1981, pp • 11 0 - 11 3) •

Research on the Oedipus complex

Hypotheses derived from the Oedipus complex deal with castration anxiety, penis envy and the sexual feelings of the children for parents of the opposite sex. Many of these hypotheses can be clearly

197 I ... - 197 - derived from Freudian theory, and the results explicity linked to the theory. Unfortunately many of the studies use extremely unsatisfactory projective tests which invalidate much of their results.

Freedman (1950) used an unfinished story which is supposed to measure castration anxiety. A sample of 305 children between the age of five and sixteen were asked to complete the story. It was hypothesized that boys at the age of five and thirteen would be more reluctant to give endings which involve cutting or loss of parts of the body due to castration anxiety. This hypothesis was confirmed. Schwartz (1955; 1956) used a test derived from the TAT to differentiate between a high castration anxiety group, a high anxiety group and a control group. He then tested the Freudian-derived hypothesis that homosexuals have more castration anxiety, and that men would have higher castration anxiety than women. These hypotheses found limited support (Kline, 1981).

Biddle (1957) did a study on Oedipal fantasies. He regressed 100 subjects to the three-year-old level and then asked them to report on their fantasies and he came to the conclusion that children strive for

198/ ..• - 198 - intimacy with both parents. He concludes that this result disproves the Freudian hypothesis about the child's attraction to the parent of the opposite sex (Kline, 1981). But this conclusion, typically for so many of these studies, is completely fallacious. To assume that three-year old children only have a need for intimacy with the parent of the opposite sex is quite contrary to Freudian theory, since the theory maintains explicitly that apart from the incestuous feelings for the parent of the opposite sex, the child, for example the young boy, also has passive homosexual feelings for the father.

Rabin (1958) found that boys living on a Kibbutz have less intense Oedipal feelings and also identify less with the father than controls not living on a Kibbutz. Hammer (1953), using the House-Tree-Person Test and Lasky and Berger (1959) using Blacky Pictures give some support for the existence of the castration complex. Unfortunately these studies are limited as a result of the weakness inherent to the tests they use.

Sarnoff and Corwin (1959) related castration anxiety to fear of death. They hypothesized that sexual arousal would co-vary with fear of death. This hypothesis was supported, and they interpreted this

199/ ••. - 199 -

as indicating suppo~t fo~ the cast~ation complex.

This type of rationale and inte~p~etation of ~esults

indicates why so many studies which show suppo~t fo~

F~eudian concepts acco~ding to thei~ autho~s, fail to convince othe~ ~esearchers. The link between castration anxiety and fea~ of death is tenuous.

The very opposite could be a~gued f~om Freudian theo~y. Castration anxiety is the fea~ of injury specifically to the penis, and maybe by generalization to othe~ pa~ts of the body. Fea~ of death can be theo~etically and clinically ~elated to fear of ego disinteg~ation. The study can the~efo~e be faulted on theo~etical as well as methodological grounds because their a~gument is logically

indete~minate, and methodologically they a~e hampe~ed by using the Blacky Pictures.

Simila~ly, many of the anthropological studies on the Oedipal complex suffe~ from the p~oblem of

logical indeterminacy. Whiting, Kluckhohn and Anthony (1958), Stephens (1961) and Parker (1976) evidence this essential feature of anthropological studies t~ying to test Freudian hypotheses. Galtung (1967) has shown conclusively the invalidity of applying concepts which a~e designed to explain individual phenomena, to g~oup, and even wo~se,

200/ ••• - 200 -

societal phenomena, when neithe~ the class of objects no~ the level of abstraction is held constant.

Kreitler and Kreitler (1966) found that European and Oriental boys and girls, between four and five-and­ a-half years, knew that boys and girls were different and also realized that children could not be born through the anus. The majority of the children also did not understand how the fathe~ contributes to the creation of a baby. According to the authors this refutes many of the basic concepts of the castration complex. Kline (1981, p. 150), however, indicates that the interviewers who were kindergarten teachers might have influenced the

~esponses of the children unduly. Anothe~ problem is that although the results have some bearing on the concept of the Oedipus complex, it is not quite clear how to relate the ~esults to the theory, and secondly, how important the findings a~e to the central concepts of the Oedipus complex.

Hall in collaboration with a numbe~ of autho~s did studies on the content analysis of manifest d~eam content (Hall, 1963; Hall & Domhoff, 1963; Hall & Van de Castle, 1963). Since the manifest dream

201/ •.• - 201 -

content is by definition unimportant in exposing personality function and structure, it is difficult

to see how the researchers may argue the relevance

of their studies for Freudian theory.

More recently studies making use of subliminal

stimulation offer the most promising attempts at

researching these aspects of Freudian theory (Hayden & Silverstein, 1983; Geisler, 1986). Unfortunately Geisler (1986) used stimulus words such as "Loving

Daddy is Wrong" and "Loving Daddy is O.K." to test

subjects' responses. It seems rather naive to

assume that using a simple sentence like this can

trigger the Oedipal complex.

6.4.5. Research on the structural theory

Although the tripartite theory of personality was

proposed as long as 2,300 years ago by Plato, and

although the concept of the unconscious was not

Freud's creation, the theory of the superego, ego, id, and it's precursor the unconscious, preconscious

and conscious division of the mind in the form given

it by Freud is an entirely new theory, going far

beyond the older theories in terms of its

sophistication, abstraction, extensiveness and the

202/ ••• - 202 - degree to which it is linked to empirical observation. The concepts of superego, ego and id are of vital importance to Freudian theory, but is at present virtually unresearched due to theoretical and methodological problems. The first theoretical problem derives from the difficulty of generating empirical hypotheses from the concepts superego, ego, id. Mental processes are not directly observable except to the subject. In the case of intellectual activities reliable indicators can be created, for example if a person is presented with the problem 2 + 4 and he gives the answer six. Then it can be stated that the relations between all elements 2, +, 4 and 6 were correctly retrieved from memory. The difficulties involved in researching mental processes are exposed, though, when the debate on how and where this process of retrieval takes place is observed in neuropsychological articles. The empirical referents of the superego, ego and id are extremely difficult to pin down. This has a theoretical complication related to it because Freud stated that behaviour was determined by all three structures (Freud, 1984).

Cattell (1957), tested 374 male subjects on motivational tendencies. He identified three

203/ ..• - 203 - factors alpha, beta and gamma which he interprets as tapping some of the functioning of the id, ego and the superego. Two second order factors emerged after factorising of the intercorrelations of the primary factors. Cattell identifies integrated self-sentiment interests and unintegrated unconscious interests. These factors were interpreted as indicating the functioning of the pleasure and the reality principles (Kline, 1981, p.

176).

Pawlik and Cattell (1964) did an oblique rotation (Obliman & Maxplan) on the correlations between second order factors from which three main factors emerged, namely immature self-centered temperament, restrained acceptance of external norms, and high self-assertion. The loadings on immature self-centered temperament were temperamental ardour, low self-consciousness and narcissism. Restrained acceptance of external norms loaded on socialization, low self-consciousness and a history of a restraining environment. High self-assertion loaded on expansive ego and the need to achieve.

They conclude that these results give tentative support to the structural theory of Freud.

At Western Reserve University a number of studies were undertaken to develop a test of the structural

204/ ••. - 204 - theory. The I.E.S. test (Id, Ego, Superego) consists of four subtests: the picture-test, story completion, photo-analysis and arrow-dot test.

Responses to all the tests are scored in terms of id, ego and superego categories. Test - retest reliability was low, ranging from .35 to .83.

Interscorer reliability on the picture test was .91. Internal consistency as measured by the Kuder­

Richardson 20 formula was .55. Dombrose and Slobin

(1958), came to the conclusion that the results of the studies using the I.E.S.-test support a number of Freudian hypotheses. Kline, however, disagrees, indicating that the reliability scores are too low and that the validity has not been accurately assessed due to the fact that the samples for the validation studies were too small (Kline, 1981, pp. 178-181).

The use by Loevinger (1983; 1985) and Avery and Ryan (1988) of Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test and the Blatt Object Relations Scale to assess ego development is undermined by their own admission that the tests have only tenuous links with psychoanalytic theory. The results also do not support their hypothesis unambiguously since the results may also be determined by cognitive maturity

205/ ••• - 205 - rather than differences in object relations and ego development (Avery & Ryan, 1988, p. 567).

From the discussion of these studies it seems as if factor analytic studies may be useful in researching structural theory but that at the moment the experimental set-up and the results of the studies are too far from Freudian theory to accurately interpret the results in terms of the structural theory.

Defence mechanisms

This is one part of Freudian theory which specifies clear empirical referents and the processes which trigger the operation of these activities. Consequently a large number of studies on defence mechanisms have been done, some of the results giving strong support for the existence and functioning of certain defence-mechanisms. The studies will be discussed in terms of the defence-mechanisms that were researched.

206/ ••• - 206 -

6.4.6.1. Studies on repression-proper

Most of the research on repression-proper studies the differences in learning rate for emotional and neutral material. In some of the studies anxiety is experimentally induced by presenting the subjects with emotionally-laden stimuli, in the others an attempt is made to assess the operation of repression-proper of material which is theoretically defined as anxiety provoking, for example, memorization of stories with an Oedipal content.

In studies by Glixman (1949) and Rosenzweig (1934) where anxiety was experimentally induced, a number of problems in isolating and defining the variables make it difficult to interpret the importance of the results. One of the most important problems is that where the Zeigarnik effect has been studied as an example of repression-proper the results have been ambiguous due to the complexity of the Zeigarnik effect. Zeigarnik found that if people were interrupted in a task, recall was better for tasks in which they were not ego involved. If, however, people completed a task, recall was dimished if the people were not ego involved (Kline, 1981, p. 201).

207/ ••• - 207 -

Another problem is that even if forgetting is demonstrated, it does not mean that it is due to repression. Zeller (1950) gave subjects nonsense syllables to learn, and experimentally induced anxiety by telling subjects that they had failed a tapping test, while controls were told that they had done well. On retest those who had been told that they had failed the tapping test did much worse on recall of the nonsense syllables. Zeller explained to the subjects what he had done, then retested them and found that recall was the same for the experimental and control group. He accepts this as indicating the operation of repression-proper. Unfortunately this effect may also be due to performance impairment as a consequence of increased anxiety or loss of motivation as a result of negative feedback.

There are a number of other problems which further invalidate this type of research. Where the recall of taboo words is tested, it must be shown that the taboo words and the neutral words are equally difficult to learn. It must also be assessed to what extent subjects remember taboo words but refrain from telling the experimenter due to the societal prohibition against the use of such words.

208/ ••• - 208 -

The differences between subjects in the extent to which they make use of repression is also a factor which contaminates results. These problems are also pertinent to studies where the material which is presented to the subjects is supposed to be inherently anxiety-provoking.

Wilkinson and Carghill (1955) found that recall of a story with Oedipal content was significantly worse than a story with no Oedipal content. The stories were balanced for learning-difficulty and length. The Oedipal story was not overtly sexual to the extent that it would arouse voluntary withholding of information. They maintain that this study gives strong support fur the Freudian concept of repression-proper.

Levinger and Clark (1961) measured differences in galvanic skin response (GSR) reaction time, extent of recall, and number of associations to emotive and neutral words. Due to the problem of the conflicting response syndrome in this type of research they developed two indices of response competition, population variability (number of responses on first testing) and retest variability (subjects were asked to repeat their associations).

209/ ••. - 209 -

By holding the measures of response competition constant it was demonstrated that recall is related to the emotionality of the words. A rotated factor analysis showed that emotionality and response variability are the two important factors in the forgetting of word associations. The effect of response competition is unimportant once the extent of this effect is estimated, and is either excluded with a different experimental procedure or is kept constant.

Eysenck and Wilson (1973, p. 204) cannot criticize the study on its methodology, but instead suggest an alternative explanation of the results with Walker's theory of action decrement. This neuropsychological theory is based on concepts such as reverberating circuits in the cortex and chemical engrams in the cells. Apart from the fact that this is ad hoc reasoning, the speculative nature of the theory does not make it a viable alternative.

The research by Davis (1987), Davis and Schwartz (1987) and Hansen and Hansen (1988) on the accessability of memories and the emotions which are linked to them seems promising. Their reasoning is questionable though, since they seem to invoke a

210/ •.. - 210 -

dormitive principle by concluding that people who tend to repress have a more discrete associational structure.

6.4.6.2. Studies on primary repression

These studies make use of experimental procedures involving perceptual defence. Bruner and Postman (1947) found that emotionally-disturbing words were more difficult to recognize than neutral words, which they ascribed to perceptual defence. They also discovered that some emotionally charged words were easier to recognize as a result of perceptual sensitization. According to Kline (1981, p. 214) research on perceptual defence should satisfy the following criteria: the effects of word familiarity, word length, mental set and response suppression must be neutralized. The stimuli must also be shown to be anxiety-provoking, repression must be effective, and the differences between subjects in their tendency to using repression should be taken into account.

Dixon (1971) did a number of studies on perceptual defence using the method of closed-loop control. Subjects look through a stereoscope at a screen

211/ ... - 211 -

which divides the visual field in two. On the one screen the subject is presented with two light spots of different intensity which he has to maintain by operating the mechanism determining the brightness of the two light spots. On the other screen neutral and emotionally charged words were successively presented at a subliminal level. When a word is presented and the subjects perceptual threshold is raised he increases the brightness of the spot. Controls were built into the experiment for word familiarity and the effects of light intensity. Dixon and his co-workers found that the perceptual threshold was raised for emotionally-charged words. This indicates the operation of perceptual defence to emotionally charged stimuli which supports the Freudian concept of primary repression.

6.4.6.3. Displacement

According to Kline (1981, p. 237), this defence mechanism has been shown to exist by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer and Sears in (1939), Miller and Bugelski (1948) and Sarnoff (1962). Their studies all focus on the displacement of aggression. This is the most commonly displaced feeling due to the dangers involved at expressing it directly at a

212/ •.. - 212 -

person who is important or more powerful than the person experiencing the feeling.

6.4.6.4. Projection

The only study which is methodologically reasonably acceptable which supports the concept of projection is the work of Helpern (1977). Students were given a scale to assess their acceptance of sexuality. They were then asked to rate the pictures of six people from most likeable to least likeable. They were then shown a number of pornographic pictures. The hypotheses was that subjects who find their sexuality less acceptable will be more inclined to project sexuality when they were aroused. After the subjects were shown the pornographic pictures they were asked to rate the photograph of the person they liked least in terms of twenty traits including sexual ones. The hypothesis was supported.

6.4.6.5. General studies on defense mechanisms

There are many studies which attempt to research defence mechanisms but are unfortunately not theoretically and methodologically sound enough to be accepted as proof or disproof of the defence mechanisms they were assessing. The studies of

213/ ••• - 213 -

Sarnoff (1951) on identification with the aggressor and in (1960) on reaction formation, Wallach and Greenberg's (1960) study on sublimation in music, and Gleser and Ihilevich (1969), on the Defence Mechanism Inventory are examples of this type of research.

The work by Weinberger, Schwartz and Davidson (1979) on repression, and Biscardi and Schill (1985) on typical defensive responses show an increasing sophistication but is nevertheless theoretically too inadequate to be taken as firm proof of Freudian hypotheses.

The research by Cramer (1983; 1987) and Cramer and Gaul ( 1988) is, although theoretically adequate, unfortunately undermined by the fact that she uses the T. A. T. , in terscorer reliability is not always reported, and the use of statistical techniques (analysis of variance) which requires more sophisticated scaling techniques than the crude assignment of statements to categories, which she employs.

One of the most important methodological advances was made by Kragh and Smith (1971) with their development of a technique called Percept-genetics.

214/ •.• - 214 -

By breaking up a visual stimulus through a series of tachistoscopic presentations they are able to slow down the process of perception so that the process involved in building up a percept can be observed, the assumption being that the way a person builds up his percepts will reflect his internal processes. They use two techniques. Serial increases in stimulus intensity refers to the technique where a picture is presented to the subject from below awareness threshold of the stimulus, and increasing the exposure times with each successive exposure until there is full recognition of the picture. Successive distortions of the picture indicate the mechanisms underlying the individual's perception. In this way defense mechanisms can be demonstrated. With the Meta-contrast technique one picture is kept constant and a series of successive pictures are superimposed on this. These pictures are usually incongruent and threatening in the context of the stable background picture. The incongruent picture is flashed with increasing intensity onto or just after the exposure of the stable picture. Again the changes in the subject's percept indicate underlying personality functioning.

215/ ••• - 215 -

Conclusion

A survey of the empirical research done on Freudian theory indicates a number of conclusions. Many of the studies are seriously flawed methodologically. In the second place there are studies which give support to limited aspects of Freudian theory. And thirdly it is unfortunate that virtually all of the studies, those that support, as well as those which disconfirm Freudian theory, are largely irrelevant to the validation of Freudian theory, due to the tenuous links between the research and Freudian theory.

It must be added that only the most acceptable studies were included in the overview. There are literally hundreds of studies which are so seriously flawed that they simply did not merit inclusion in the discussion. It must al~o be noted that the studies were judged and criticized on positivist­ empirical criteria, and that one must add to this the blatant disqualification implied by Ricoeur's (1977) criteria to all the research.

216/ ••. - 216 -

The methodological perspectives structuring the research in this stud~

Following Bateson (1972) and Keeney's (1983) pleas for a binocular approach to research, an attempt will be made in this study to combine different scientific perspectives on the psychoanalytic experience.

Firstly, an attempt is made to reinterpret the methodological demands of Ricoeur (1977) so that their compatibility with the demands of the logical empiricists are illustrated. This reinterpretation does not address the content of Ricoeur's statement but rather its logical structure, in the sense that Ricoeur's statement is taken to specify the criteria which have to be met before research can claim to be psychoanalytically relevant, rather than taking Ricoeur at his own word and accepting his statement as a description of the research process proper.

Although Ricoeur's contribution is framed in hermeneutic terms, it is supported and extended by the systemic approach. The research activity in this study will attempt to incorporate a systems perspective at all levels. This implies that the emphasis will be on the identification of sequences

217 I .. . - 217 - of events and behaviour. It is larger rather than smaller patterns which are important, because, as Ricoeur also indicates, it is only through the inspection of the sequence of interaction that the psychoanalytic punctuation of therapy is revealed.

The field of research is not only the patient's verbalizations, but is constituted by both the patient and the therapist's verbalizations in a dialectical development of the therapeutic discourse. The research process is then further extended to include the therapist's critical reflections on the analytic discourse which is partly used to expose the therapist's epistemology. By incorporating the therapist's and the patient's verbalizations in therapy and their reflections on the discourse the research process is extended to include the researcher in a recursive sequence of punctuation.

Secondly, a rapproachment will be attempted between a systemic approach and the research methods based on a unilinear perception of causality. This will be reflected in the data-selection procedures by using qualitative and quantitative techniques, as well as at the level of the interpretation of results. The quantitative procedures will also be

218/ ••• - 218 -

used in such a way that they will add to the identification of patterns and sequences rather than atomistic perceptions.

6.6. The Quantitative analysis

6.6.1. Historical perspective

The development of a computer systems approach to content analysis arose out of the need to assess on a quantitative level what is happening between therapist and patient. Since analysis and other psychodynamic therapies are basically 'talking cures', it was assumed that the verbal communications between therapist and patient will afford key insights into the process of psychotherapy.

The pioneering work on the development of techniques where the data will determine their own categories of content was independently but concurrently started with research on methods for automatic indexing in information retrieval. The work of Luhn, Maron and Kuhns in the late fifties was continued by Borko who was the first to research the logic of programmatically applying multivariate techniques to intercorrelation matrices produced by word-to-word frequency contiguities (Iker, 1974).

219/ ••• - 219 -

The pi'oblem was that until the development of the WORDS pi'ogi'am all the methods of content analysis depended on some a pi'iOI'i categoi'ization accoi'ding to which the data was classified (Ike I' & Hai'way, 1968) • Using contiguity association logic the WORDS pi'ogi'am was developed on the assumption that thei'e is sufficient meaning inhei'ent in the woi'ds and in theii' tempoi'al I'elationships to develop categoi'ies using this infoi'mation: "In bi'ief the I'elationships among and between the data themselves genei'ate theii' own thematic 'centi'oids'. WORDS is designed expi'essly to avoid dependence on any methodology which pi'edetei'mines these thematic findings" (Ikei' & Klein, 1974, p. 430).

6.6.2. WORDS systems logic

The WORDS package is constituted by a numbei' of compatible, intei'linked but independent pi'ogi'ams. This allows the use!:' to opei'ate in the system of pi'ogi'ammes fi'om the initial input of the infoi'mation to the final statistical analysis of the I'esults. This enables the I'eseai'chei' to avoid the complications involved in intei'facing diffei'ent pi'ogi'ammes which ai'e not pi'imai'ily designed to function as a system.

220/ ••• - 220 -

6.6.3. The WORDS procedure

The sessions are divided into segments, per communication, per person and per session. The word frequencies for the segmen t s are then determined. After this has been done function words and punctuation marks are deleted. The editing program then disambiguates words at both grammatical and semantic levels. The remaining words are then changed to root form through the creation of an ad hoc strip list. A procedure is then introduced whereby the associational network between the words is optimized by raising the power of significant

correlations. This is done by emphasizing high correlations at the expense of lower ones. The co-occurence of words is then transformed into an resolved by intercorrelation matrix, that is recursively clustering the word intercorrelations. This is done by the method developed by Overall and Klett (1972) and which Iker supplemented with a

recursive algorithm.

technique can be Overall and Klett's ( 1972) a matrix of described as the treatment of product-moment co-efficients in such a way that the is enhanced. Every multiple cluster structure c original profile vector is rotated towards the

221 I ... - 221 - vectors with which it has the strongest relationship, and away from the ones with which it has a weaker relationship. This produces a matrix where related profiles in each cluster have co-efficients approaching 1 , while co-efficients approaching 0 characterize relationships between profiles of different clusters (Overall & Klett, 1972) •

The recursive algorithm is introduced because there may be correlations between words in different clusters. The correlation between clusters are determined and then re-introduced into a direct cluster-rotation analysf's. This procedure continues recursively until no correlations larger than .30 are found. Clusters derived from the first intercorrelation are called "level-zero" clusters and are designated by the digits 0.1, 0.2, etc. The subsequent inter-cluster correlations are called

"level one" and designated by the digits 1 .1, 1 .2 and so forth. The third intercluster correlations are called "level two" clusters and designated by

2.1, 2.2 and continued in this manner for all the clusters at all the levels (Hogenraad & Segers, unpublished paper). The specific way in which the statistical results are used in this study is discussed in chapter seven.

222/ ... - 222 -

CHAPTER 7

A PUNCTUATION OF THE FREUDIAN HOUR

7.1 • Introduction

According to Joubert (1987) one of the most

important qualities of systemic thinking is that it

exposes the concurrent and reciprocal nature of

systemic interactions.

This emphasis on the quality of systemic functioning

is an indirect attempt at addressing the

atemporality which characterizes so much of systemic

functioning. The inability of the observer to

distinguish the chain of causation along a time

dimension should not, however, be taken to indicate

that there is not a progressive unfolding of

organismic organization. It also does not mean that the process which has taken place is reversible. What it signifies is that the interplay between

systemic elements does not necessarily follow a

linear path, for example, A~B---.C--tD, but that it

can be represented in the following way:

223/ ••. - 223 -

If the organization of a system can be represented /A~ at point (i) in time as B I C and at point (ii) ~D/

where A B C and D represent different systemic elements, we can identify the first configuration and also indicate that it has changed to the second configuration. But if the interactions between the elements were simultaneous and reciprocal it is impossible to identify a linear chain of influence. The only statement which can be made is that the configuration at point (i) in time has changed to the configuration at point (ii).

In the psychotherapeutic situation there are a number of systems which can be distinguished. The distinctions can be drawn according to different criteria, for example, what the patient says; what the therapist says; what the patient's response is to the therapist and vice versa; what is said per time unit; what is said per session; and even what is not said. If one distinguishes between two systems, what the patient says and what the therapist says, and if the organization of the

224/ ••• - 224 - patient's statements change over time, it cannot be assumed that what the therapist has said has caused the change, since both these systems are also sub-systems of the system which could be called psychotherapeutic encounters and as sub-systems of this system they are reciprocally and coincidently interactive. They are also subject to influences from other sub-systems which can be distinguished, notably the enduring patterns underlying what is said, that is, the personality. Say for example the situation of the interaction between patient and therapist can be represented as follows:

Patient statement one (P1) Patient statement two (P2) therapist statement one (T1) Patient statement three (P3) therapist statement two (T2) and so on, so that the interaction can be represented as follows P1 --4 P2~T1~P3~T2---~

P4--~P5--~T3--~P6.

It would be completely premature if not erroneous to say that P6 was caused by T3. P6 might have been triggered by any one of the preceding statements, or any combination of them. It might also have been triggered by the lack of statements by the therapist at certain times. What can be said, though, is that

225/ ... - 225 - the preceding statements and silences created the context for P6.

Freudian theory on therapy could therefore be said to be a statement about the context which has to be created for the patient to feel certain emotions and say certain things. But Freudian theory claims to say more than this, it states that if a certain context is created a patient will necessarily say certain things and experience certain feelings. Also, Freudian theory states that since these verbalizations and feelings will occur in all patients once the context has been created, and since the context can be shown not to be related to the verbalizations and feelings of the patient (transference) other than to allow their expression, the thoughts and feeling must be generated from another system in interaction with the therapeutic encounter. This other system is the system unconscious. Freudian theory furthermore states that this system will generate these activities in interaction with any suitable context. And finally Freudian theory states that these feelings and thoughts represent mechanized (in a systemic sense) parts of the personality, and that they were developed and fixed in early childhood.

226/ •.. - 226 -

The qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results should be seen against this theoretical

background an attempt to create an explicit picture of a culture, to expose the steps in the

psychoanalytic dance.

7.2. Research procedure

Research procedure was dictated by essentially two

factors, the need to obtain free-associative

material and the relative inability of so many

patients to actually produce free-association. The

difficulty of getting patients to free-associate was

noted by no less a person than Reich who stated,

"The psychoanalytic technique made use of free-association to ferret out and interpret

unconscious fantasies. ( ••. ) There were but few

patients who were capable of free, unconscious association" (Reich, 1983, p. 117). The subject of

this study, a woman aged 49, was asked for permission to tape the sessions with her for a limited period for research purposes. It was made clear to her that although her identity would be

concealed the sessions would be published. She

agreed quite readily, stating that she has always

had a positive attitude to scientific research and

was glad to help.

227/ ... - 227 -

7.3. Case history and contextual briefing

At the time when research started the patient had

been on the couch for six months. Initially there

had been no free-associations, but this changed

dramatically in one specific session about four

months after therapy started. Very early in the

session the patient reported an image from a screen

memory. I instructed the patient to try and focus

on the image (in the manner illustrated in the

transcripts). I asked her to report the image in as

much detail as possible as I would do with dream

interpretation. While the patient was doing this,

the image started changing. The rest of the session

was taken up with the patient reporting a succession

of images, sometimes with an exclamation at the

extraordinary quality of the pictures she was

seeing. She was also amazed at the involuntary

nature of the images; they seemed to have a life of

their own. ' Quite simply, the patient was

free-associating in visual images. At the beginning

of the following session the patient was somewhat

apologetic at this 'nonsense' she had spoken in the previous session, clearly indicating her lack of

knowledge of psychoanalytic procedures. I

immediately contradicted her, saying that on the

228/ .•• - 228 -

/< ~ contrary it was in fact the very essence of therapy and that she should continue with this, which she

has been able to do virtually at will since then.

Nevertheless, when I did not try to influence the

patient to free-associate she would spontaneously go

into cycles of free-association followed by periods

of discussion and self-reflection.

The recording was started the moment the patient lay

down on the couch. The end of the tape which was

indicated by a loud click as the machine stopped was

used to indicate the end of the session whereupon

the patient was told "let us stop now".

The tapes were transcribed and also stored on

computer disc for quantitative analysis. The

patient continued in therapy until the present time

which is six months after the sessions were taped.

7.3.1. Contextual background

The patient is a middle-aged English speaking woman,

divorced, with two grown-up children. She holds a position at lower management level in one of the

major corporate groups in South Africa. She \vas

diagnosed as suffering from endogenous depression

229/ ••• - 229 - ten years ago, and had been on some form of anti-depressant since then. She was, however, not referred for treatment of the depression, but for a chronic dermatitis which she had been suffering from for a year. Extensive testing indicated that there was no physical cause, for example an allergy or an infection which was causing the skin condition.

When psychotherapy started the rash was extremely severe, covering most of the arms, hands, feet, legs and across the stomach in a shingles type circle.

The only treatment which alleviated the condition was cortisone, but unfortunately the rash would return within a couple of days after a course of treatment was stopped, which clearly indicated the need for another type of therapeutic intervention.

Within two months after the patient started psychotherapy the rash disappeared completely. This condition was maintained for three months unti~ the patient faced an emotional crisis whereupon the rash reappeared in full strength.

The rash now appeared to take on a life of its own. It would appear in areas which had never before been affected. I suggested to the patient one day that it is quite remarkable that the rash never appeared

230/ ••• - 230 - on her breasts or genital areas. Very soon afterwards the patient reported that the rash had spread to these areas as well. Although the rash had been a chronic condition for one year before the patient came for therapy and then disappeared for three months in psychotherapy, the rash now fluctuated much quicker, for example, it would appear in the morning and by the afternoon it would be completely cleared. Another pattern which the patient noticed was that she would be clear during the week only to have the rash break out over the weekend, and then disappear again on the next

Monday. This, however, was not the only variation - the rash also changed shape. It sometimes presented as large round areas, then it would change so that it presented as small red dots like pin pricks. An extreme itch used to accompany the rash which the patient had to scratch compulsively. Sometimes the patient verified that although there was no rash, there was an extreme itch.

Shortly after the sessions were taped the patient decided to stop using the anti-depressant. Although the patient was extremely apprehensive about stopping the medication because of her extreme reaction which she mentions in the taped sessions,

231/ •.. - 231 -

this time she had no adverse reaction. Six months

later the patient is still off all anti-depressent

medication.

7.4. Therapist's perception of the patient

The patient can obviously be diagnosed in terms of

Freudian theory as suffering from conversion

hysteria. This diagnosis is supported by the fact

that the patient is inorgasmic. This type of

diagnosis, however, does not suggest any working

hypotheses to my mind. I defined much of what the

patient said to me as an indication of an intense

Electra conflict.

Following Keeney and Bateson's suggestions for a

hierarchical development of punctuation, I first

focus on the way the patient responds in individual

statements to me. The first aspect which struck me

is how co-operative and rational the patient's

response is. "Yes", she says, "she can see that the problem is really psychological although the

symptoms are physical". I must simply explain to

her what she has to do and we will immediately set

about solving the problem. She is quite witty and

sometimes she is able to view herself quite

232/ ••. - 232 -

'objectively', and even laugh at herself. All this I don't believe, seeing it as some sort of defence. I therefore direct my remarks at this aspect of her behaviour to gain further information. It then becomes clear to both of us that she uses this attitude to cope with her life in general. This is her personality the type I would call, 'the manager'. She copes with all the misfortune, pain and challenge that life presents to her with the response, 'let us identify the problem, find out what are the means at our disposal to solve it, develop a plan of action, and then set about solving the problem.' This kind of practical approach to life constitutes an avoidance of her feelings, and finally an avoidance of awareness of herself. This avoidance of herself and her feelings gives rise to an experience of deadness which is reflected in her depression and her inability to reach an orgasm. Again this inability to reach an orgasm recursively constitutes the avoidance of deeper feelings. These are the guilt feelings she has (which are experienced as pain and depression) because of her sexual feelings (in general) which were directed at her father. In other words we have here the elements of the Electra complex.

233/ .•. - 233 -

The question however arises as to why her guilt feelings are so strong. Since the sexual feelings towards her father are not permissible because of his sexual relationship with the patient's mother, it is logical that the patient's guilt is so strong because of an extremely strong prior commitment to the mother. This in turn exposes the symbiotic relationship between the patient and her mother at an earlier age.

I define the therapeutic goal as an attempt to get the patient to articulate feelings, thoughts and images which she has not been able to incorporate into the conscious organization of her personality.

By putting the patient in a situation where she has to verbalize the images which are breaking into consciousness, I hope to create a verbal bridge to those feelings and experiences which are inaccessible to the patient. By facilitating a free movement between the various subsystems of the per~onality, the organismic tendency towards wholeness is satisfied.

234/ ..• - 234 -

7.5. Data and discussion

The discussion of the sessions and of the

quantitative results have been interwoven into the

verbatim report of the sessions, and frequent

subsequent referrals to relevant communications.

Instead of simply reporting the statistical results

produced by the WORDS suite in tabular form it was

decided to discuss those communications which the

results indicate loaded highest on the different

clusters. This procedure is made possible as a

result of a feature of the WORDS suite, which

performs a re-run of the clusters already identified

over the session, identifying the communications

which loaded highest on any particular cluster. In

this way the thematic content of the statistical

analysis is retained and enhanced.

Since the clustering procedure incorporated in WORDS

is recursive, clusters ~t different hierarchical

levels are identified if the data allow it. The

maximum number of levels identified in this study

are three, but sometimes only one level was

identified, very often where the therapist's

communications are concerned. In reporting the

235/ ... - 235 -

thematic content of the clusters I have consistently selected only the clusters at the highest level. This was done because the thematic centroids are progressively crystallized with recursive clustering. This is quite obviously illustrated by the fact that at the first level of clustering up to 28 clusters are identified, at the second level not more than 17 are identified, and at the third level not more than four clusters are identified. This suggests that the results have a pyramidal structure, with the highest points reflecting the thematic centroids.

2 2 2

1 D Level ~0 0

Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Session 4

The four sessions are reported in chronological order with the satements numbered by session, e.g. S1, whether the statement is made by the therapist or patient, T or P, and the sequential numbering of each statement, e.g. P1--;>P2-::>P3->P4 •.•• The

236/ ... - 236 -

length of a pause is indicated by the numbe~ of dots. A silence which continues fo~ a couple of minutes is indicated by dashes.

The ve~batim ~epo~ts a~e inte~spe~sed with

desc~iptions of what is taking place. These desc~iptions fo~m the basis fo~ the sequential analysis which follows eve~y session. The

sequential analysis is p~og~essively ~efo~mulated

until patte~ns of communication a~e identified.

Following this an analysis is made of the

f~ee-associations which occu~ed in the sessions. It

~ep~esents an attempt at a contextual validation of

ce~tain F~eudian hypotheses about p~ocesses which can be specifically identified in the sessions.

The analyses of the sessions a~e p~esented in

slightly diffe~ent forms culminating in the analysis of session 4.

237/ ••• - 237 -

7.6. Session 1

S1 . P1 : I am not feeling so depressed today ...... I had a lot of spots this morning but they have gone away it's like a bar urn across here ---- like a T like a T on the bridge of my nose you know the top bar is across my eyebrows .....

The patient starts the session as usual. She constantly verbalizes her complaint about the dermatitis during this phase of therapy. The extreme rapidity with which it appears and disappears is apparent from her statement. The reference to a bar across the forehead is a reference to an experience of tension. The patient in her first communications has already told the therapist about her physical condition, her mental state, and displayed her readiness to talk about her physical sensations.

S1 . T1 : Stay with that ....

238/ ... - 238 -

The therapist responds by supporting the patient with a directive to continue her focus on the sensations on her face.

S1 • P2: The top bar is slightly curving down at the ends and here's another line above it they're not joined ...... eh what sensations as if it's crushing my eyebrows down over my eyes .....

The patient elaborates.

S1 • T2: Allow that to happen.. and see where it takes you

The therapist again supports her with a directive to follow the development of the sensation.

S1 • P3: Just a few edges ..... doesn't come all the way down.. just a little way accross ....•. it's like a a series of of bars above the T you know just parrallel lines

239/ ... - 239 -

The patient continues to elaborate.

S1 • T3: Keep the focus on that ......

The therapist supports and directs.

S1.P4: See that scoop thing .. or shovel or whatever it is it is again ...... it's just a vague vague outline ...... as if urn there's a shovel the line is eh continuous so that it the line of the shovel goes under something like eh whatever it's lifting makes it into a longer line from the shovel down ...... shape ...... you know it's like a dark side and a light side to me ...... I

think one of those I don't know if you have ever seen them .. they're old fashioned things .. before

cardex.. ja I think they are they were an early part of the cardex system eh .. like a drum with all the cards attached urn as as it turned round you know you could look at various cardex eh

240/ ... - 240 -

The preceding supportive sequence develops

into the first free-associative

communication by the patient. It is

important to note how the free-association

flows from the focus on the physical

sensations. It is also important to note

that the verbalization of the physical

sensations also approach the structure of

a free-association.

S1.T4: Yes

The therapist's 'yes' does not only

indicate that he has seen the object referred to, but that the patient should

also continue.

81 • P5: Urn .. urn it looks like one of those I don't know what it is urn it's that similar type of thing and

the pages of a book flicking .....

The patient continues.

241/ ... - 241 -

S1 • T5: Stay with that image .....

The therapist supports.

S1 • P6: And a picture of the North Wind eh like you see in a child's book like the the cloud is the shape of a face

The free-association now jumps typically and inexplicably to something different.

S1 • T6: Yes .•..•••

The therapist supports.

S1 • P7: There's still that the the picture the· the the pages of a book .. being flicked rapidly a T'

square a d~awing board...... I see the drawing office where my father and I worked and those I don't know what you call it urn not set-squares

242/ ••• - 242 -

I don't know what you call them .. those

rulers the they're like two rulers that joined

together together on a hinge urn they use in a

drawing offices ...... that when he came back from

Kenya he went back to the firm that he'd work for

before but eh they put him in the drawing office

instead of the factory and then I went to work

there as a tracer a trainee tracer ...... I just

see the the drawing office with all the drawing

boards and the equipment and eh

The patient elaborates and via the

sensations on her forehead, the cardex

system and the North Wind she arrives at

dynamically important material about

working with her father. Out of context

this may not seem very important but the patient has had extreme difficulty recalling any interactions with her father

before the period of time which she is now

referring to in her statement.

S1 • T7: Stay with that

243/ 0 0 0 - 243 -

The therapist supports.

S1 .P8: There was a manager's office at one end .. and the tracing offices at the other there were two spinsters .. old ladies that I worked with they used to wear smocks •....

The patient elaborates.

S1 • T8: What else can you remember about that?

The therapist asks for more information for the first time. By using the word 'that' the therapist avoids being too specific and unnecessarily directing the patient's thoughts.

S1 . P9: urn one was very quaint she was like someting out of a book she wore her hair very gray hair she wore it all in a a bun .. with the spectacles and

244/ .• - 244 -

she was like a caricature of a spinster she'd worked here for years and years she was very kind totally disapproved of me but very kind all the same

The patient elaborates.

81 • T9: Totally disapproved of you but very kind?

The therapist queries what she is saying but not in a confronting way, rather as a request for clarification.

S1.P10: Um she used to sort of look down her nose you know didn't approve of dancing and going out and the things kids do chose to do then...... it's actually quite difficult working there because they were .. I worked with these two old ladies I suppose they weren't that old but they seemed very old to me and then the men in the drawing office were all in their thirties I suppose I was only about I must have been quite young I always imagine that was about eighteen but I mean dad died when I was

245/ ... - 245 - about seventeen so and I'd already been I must have been about sixteen •.••• because I worked .• ...... I lived with him for a year so it must have been after I came back from Kenya ---- must have been a year I must have been sixteenish •.•.••• and I didn't have •. urn •• very many •• friends then so •• urn •• my father and I lived in a caravan---- I kept house then me and a cat •.••• I had one friend •• a girl called •. I think her name wasP (Cough) she was very worldly •• compared to me •• she was bit older than me •••••• urn •. I remember she was pregnant ...•••.••• (laugh) •• and urn she fell •• I thought she fell down the stairs one day •• and I leapt out and saved her from falling and she was so angry •• cause she was trying to get rid of the baby •• but I was so---- naive then •• I didn't realise •• I didn't understand this was what she was trying to do..... I was all sort of •. urn •• very concerned about her and the baby and the whole situation I went out with her brother a couple of times...... I used to travel to and fro to work with my father .••••. the cat used to come and meet us in the car park •• he seemed to know what time we came home •••••• and I bought all dolls toys •. toy brooms and things •. because •.••••.• to work in the caravan •• and and I had to cook and clean there .....

246/ .•• - 246 -

The patient in her response gives the therapist much information. She tells him how confused her memories are about this period in her life, her ignorance about sex, and she introduces the topic of living with her father.

S1 .T10: How have you both managed to live in a caravan?

The therapist selects this topic when he directs her attention.

S1 .P11: There was a bedroom .. and eh .. urn .. kitchen .. a lounge .. and the lounge turned into a bedroom .. you could eh .. the setee thing .. you just pulled it out we even had a bath .. was the .. the working surface in the kitchen .. the top came off .. and it was a bath (cough) .. and then ...... and I had a eh the bedroom and my dad had the

lounge •. I remember it was very difficult because those were the days when you those huge petticoats and the eh .. wardrobes were obviously very narrow I could never get these bloomin petticoats to

24 7 I . .. - 247 -

stay inside the cupboard ••...•. I cou .. could never imagine how I did so many things in such little time .. it just doesn't make any sense .•.... each .. each occurance seems to .. I mean it doesn't seem to be for a few weeks .. it seems to have been a long time I mean .. I .. I .. lived with my dad and I .. I went to .. and I •. I worked there for a year .. so I must have lived with him for a year •.•...•. and yet I was already nearly sixteen when I went to England.

She again tells the therapist about her girlish sexuality and her confusion, linking it to living with her father.

S1.T11: And he only came urn to England quite a while later?

The therapist request for more information indicates that he supports her need to discuss her confusion about what happened at that time in her life.

248/ ... - 248 -

S1.P12: Yes! And I was it was the year after I left •. I went to live with my mother .• that he died---­ cause the following year was only 1959 ---- when I met my .• um •. oh no wait a minute ----I met my husband in 1959 •. my hus •• my dad had already been dead then •. forum •• quite a while---- so where did I work? •••••. I was working in a library •. when my father died...... he must have died in '57 ...... 57...... it just seems incredible •. because all the things I can remember living with him •• I can remember living in a hotel I don't think we stayed very long in a hotel or very long in the eh •. um •. over the cafe but I mean I accumulated quite a few friends and .. and I can remember going to dances and things with •. with my cousin so I must have been in Tripptree for a few months I .• I just can't ----get that period of time in •. in any kind of a sequence .....• and then •. when I was living with my mother •• and my father was living with a .. eh .. what ever her name was I used go up and see him and he used to write to me so I mean •. that must also must have been at least a year after I left him •. that he died ---- at least a year...... I know •• cause I ----I use to go to eh •. the

249/ •.• - 249 -

Hammersmith Palaise and eh Chiswick and places like that dancing and eh .. I was living with him ......

I used to go on my own .. cause I didn't know anybody

and then I got um .. in with a crowd that---­ must have been a long time •. because I got in with a crowd of •. of what we then called bohemians and we got very .. I got very into traditional jazz and use to go to a place called the Eel Pie Island

and eh you know .. we use to have duffel coats •. long hair and lots of eye make up

use to buy eh .. slacks from the eh .. army surplus places and sit in baths with very hot water to shrink them .. with them on .. (laugh) ----used to wear these great big duffel coats ---- and go to Eel pie Island and sit on the floor listening to jazz and talking very intellectually about nothing much...... so that time must have been quite a while .•.••. I can remember trying to be a housewife •. and .. and do all the right things by my dad and trying to be a teenager at the same time ......

The patient immediately responds with a

long communication, indicating that she

has a need to discuss this and also that

she heard the therapist's support. She

250/ ... - 250 -

again introduces her adolescent sexuality and also expresses her confusion openly. She makes an exposing slip when she starts to refer to her father as her husband and then corrects it.

S1.T12: Did you at that time consistently try and make up for the time for the years of eh .. distance between the two of you?

The therapist is trying to direct the patient very subtly to an area about which he considers the patient to be sensitive.

S1.P13: I don't think so .. urn .• eh .. sigh as I remember it at those .. at that time .. all that

period of time I was ---- my mind was terribly busy sorting out ---- what I was suppose to be doing whether I was suppose to .. urn .. be young and a teenager or whether I was suppose to .. urn .. be what my mother had seem to think I should be .. which was .. eh studious and at home and .. you know .. I don't know .. I .. I .. didn't think about things like

251 I ... - 251 - that for •. for quite a while---- it was only when he was dying---- that I became to realise I think •. that eh .• I haven't been very nice to him .••... was only then that I began to realise it I'm sure ....

•••••• and also .• of course •. even that I lived with him .• I got to know him a lot better ..•.•. yet .. I still cannot remember .• really •. eh .• the .. the .. the memories of him are still very .. eh •• they .. they're still memories .• they not •. you know I can't remember any real scenes and of eh .. interactions of any kind is .. is strange •..... I can remember that he shocked me rigid .. because um .•

I use to go to the .. the Hammersmith Palaise and get the train home ---- I use to take him very much for granted um •. and I remember missing the train .. for the umpteenth time and phoning .. go to the police station and ask him .. and to take a •. to go and tell him that I couldn't get home ---- and they came back .. they eh .. they sent a patrol car around there .. and they came back and said eh .. your father says •. "stay there" and I was absolutely astounded .. I couldn't believe it .. that he would dare to do such thing to me ---- and I remember being quite amused .. you know that um ----he just never said no to me .. you know I was just it was a shock .. but I was also quite ---- what can

252/ ... - 252

I say .• I .. I found some respect for him .. because he'd said no and eh ---- people that I'd met there was a boy •• that's right •. I'd met a boy at this Hammersmith Palaise •. and he took me home and I slept in his mother's house •• for the night I never did it again •....• but I just .. I used to take him totally for granted .. I mean .. if I think about it now •. he'd have to get out of bed and eh put that leg on and and then .. go all the way out to the car and .. and come out and get me ---- which was actually a hell of a lot to ask ---- I didn't think about it •. in those days •.•.• he spoiled me dreadfully ....•. after that I always made sure I got the train home ....•. we use to go to a place called the Boat House .• that is right ..... I think I was just very busy trying to be a teenager .. and .. and learn everything thing that all these kids I knew .. took for granted urn .•••.• when I think back .. I .. I seem to spend a long time being a teenager •. but I couldn't have done ...... and again they're all very separate lives ..... it was like being a came leon ...... I use to go to places .. watch what was going and .. and how people dressed and .. and cultivate it ...... cause I was only a •. Bohemian when I was living there when I went to

Colchester .. I didn't eh .. eh then became what

253/ ... - 253 - today .• I suppose .. be called a Yuppie---- urn---­ I got in with a crowd at the Red Lion eh I'd never drank Bitters in my li .. eh .. bitter in my life •. but I started drinking bitter .. cause everybody else drank bitter ••.•• when I first went there I used to go to the American Air Base on the W.V.S. use to run a bus my mother in law use to say to me ---­ "Now drink Babycham" most intoxicating drink you can get all the nice girls was told to drink Babycham .• by our mothers---- if only they knew ----it's like wine .• it goes to your head very quickly...... I must have been a hell of a handful for my father •• at that time •...• so •. I think •. I was out most •. every night ...•.•

Although the therapist's question seems to be fairly innocent and well-rooted in the patient's previous communication, the patient's response clearly constitutes a denial of what she was saying in P12. She immediately refers to her mother, saying that she only did what her mother wanted her to do. She then continues to deny virtually any memories of her father. The whole communication, is designed to

254/ ••• - 254 -

support her initial denial the length of

which indicates the amount of anxiety

(energy) released by the therapist's

question and also her need to deny any intimacy with her father. The patient's

anxiety is also reflected in her extreme

hesitancy, indicated by all the pauses and

repetition.

81 .T13: And he allowed it?

The therapist's questions is designed to

stop the patient from becoming silent.

81 • P14: Urn

The patient's reply indicates her defensiveness.

81 .T14: Sounds as if he pretty much let you do what you

wanted to do

255/ ... - 255 -

The therapist simply repeats his question

as a statement.

S1.P15: Ja I think he use to put his foot down every

now and again and think I could always talk him

out .. I can't really remember---- ja .• I know he

spoiled me a lot ---- I always seemed to get my own

way...... I remember bringing a---- I must have

been working for V A when I first .. first

went to live with him it doesn't make any sense

because I remember living with him .. and

meeting a guy •• and the guy was built like a side of

a house he was massive ---- and bringing him

home for supper to the caravan ---- so I must

have also have worked at V A •. because that

is where I met that guy ---- I'm so confused about

that period of time it's so difficult to

remember..... I must admit you couldn't really stay

out late because you had to get the last train

home .. you see .. in a lot of cases and so quite often I missed it .. but most of the dances and

things ended at about half past eleven ..

anyway ••... I can remember being very if I

look at it now being very .. um studied about what

role I was playing ---- for instance I remember on

Saturday afternoon I use to clean the caravan ----

256/ ... - 256 - and I can remember that I use to put on an apron and tie my hair up and urn •. be very much the housewife..... I think I was just totally out of my depth •. all round I mean •. in Kenya we'd had servants I didn't really know how to be a housewife •. anyway in urn---- the social life was so utterly different that I .. I had to learn as I went a long ..•.• I won the South of England .. jive championships •. now---- it doesn't ..... where did I learn to jive? So I must have been living with him then •..... I don't remember where I first learn't to jive .. either ----I thought it was at the American Air Base •. but that was later ......

It's such a jumble ----I cannot sort it out ...... I can remember going to meet my mother for her to introduce the boyfriend D S I met her at Waterloo Station we went and have a meal

and I can remember being d~eadfully unimpressed with this guy ---- she came up just to introduce him to me ---- I think we had a meal on the station ---- I can't remember now ...... because I remember .. he wrote to me afterwards and said how pleased he'd been to meet me and •. eh .• if I wanted a postal father .• he would .. eh .. be very pleased to write to me I wrote back and said I had perfectly adequate one .. thanks ...... never liked that

257/ ... - 257 - man...... not because he was •• pause •• urn taking my father place or anything like that---- I •• I just thought he was a •• pause an absolute snob and a eh he just used mom •.••• was horrified when I •• I went to see them and •• eh •• he's he said we go down to the local every •• every night for a quick drink so we went down to the local and he walked into the public bar and I was absolutely horrified I said: "what you doing taking mother into a public bar?" so he he said: "no •• these people are the salt of the earth" and when we went in •• I realized why because they were all wearing cloth caps and Mr S was all dressed up in his suit he was a bus driver ---- a bus conducter dressed up in his suit ---- so they all touched there forelocks and said: "Good evening Mr. Simes" and I think that the •• the first time I'd ever •• or it was the second time I've met him other .• other than Waterloo---- and I summed him up then and I said: "Ja .• I can see why you like coming in here"...... and sure enough •. once he lived with my mother ---- only once they sort of got the house and everything he •• eh •• left his job •• because he really didn't think he was cut out to be a bus conducter...... I had the greatest satisfaction in pouring a drink over his head in the pubs afterwards ---- best thing I ever did that was

258/ ••• - 258 -

The therapist's persistence forces the patient into another long response. The patient again refers to her adolescent sexuality and her confusion about this part of her life. She also again contradicts her denials of her intimacy with her father. She also reports her anger towards her mother's lover which she links to feelings of loyalty to her father.

S1 .T15: What happened?

The therapist maintains the focus.

S1 . P16: I he left ----he left my mother on the •. he went out to work on the Friday morning and he never came back and he got married on the Saturday ---- eh .. and she saw it in the Sunday p9.pers ---- she didn't know where he was and .. oh .. it must

have been six months later I was in Colchester .. visiting my mother and I went into my

259/ ... - 259 -

local watering hole the Red Lion .. and there was Mr. S sitting at the bar ----and I went up to him my husband was with me ---- and he said: "now .. don't you do anything" and I said: "you stay out of this" ---- and I went up to him and I said: "hallo D how are you?" and he said: "Oh" .. he went bright red •. you know and he said: "no .. no I'm fine" and he got up .• half of the beer on the bar ---- I just picked the beer up .. poured it over his head and I said: "get out don't let me ever see you in here again" (laugh) ---- and he scuttled of like .. like a rabbit ---- I felt very much better after that

The patient elaborates with great satisfaction.

S1 .T16: If you think back to the session on Monday .. and again today .. you seem to talk a lot about your father and the men in your life ---- on Monday it is mostly your husband

260/ •.. - 260 -

The therapist now makes a very tentative interpretation. Really just making the patient aware of this main theme of the session.

81 . P17: Urn

The patient is really non-commital, probably because she is defensive.

S1.T17: Your ex-husband---- and it seems to be focussing on two themes the one is your father and how difficult you find it to remember clearly .. your relationship with him in any situations or experiences with him .. on the one hand ---- on the other hand your contempt and your anger that you feel towards the other men

The therapist now makes a stronger interpretation.

261 I ... - 261 -

S1.P18: Urn they are very similar types ••••• urn ••••••. I seem to have a hell of a lot of contempt for •• for weak men what I consider to be weak men although my ex-husband had a lot more integrity than D •• but he still was very ----couldn't do anything for himself...... I don't know where I get this idea that •• that men should be so strong and capable of everything •• but I still feel that at least they should be as strong •• if not stronger than me ---- I think that's where the contempt comes in it's when I can cope with something they can't cope with .•••••• though why I should feel contempt •• instead of •. compassion or •• or anything at all •. I don't know

The patient avoids this interpretation and really sidetracks the therapist which is indicated in his response in T18.

S1.T18: Well •• the contempt didn't get into anger

S1 . P19: Urn ...... I really don't know why •••••••• I can't remember ever thinking that my father was weak or •. urn .• any of those things I can't remember

262/ ••• - 262 - feeling like that •• so •• I just don't know where I get this um •• .. . . . this attitude except that those sort of situations always seem to cause me problems •• because as a teenager whatever D couldn't do •• which was a lot of things •• I used to have to do um •• looking after my mother eh •• and looking after the two kids and eh ---- I was just so horrified that he should spunge off her like that ----you know •• this was the woman who'd always been looked after •• all of a sudden along comes this guy who eh •• bloody cheek really he was just such a ..••• I mean what guy .• my mother was working at Trust Houses .• as a house-keeper •• working all

~y looking after his 2 kids •• providing for him •• his 2 kids and his mother who was living with us •• and he didn't think a bus •• conductors job was quite the thing he even ripped off his own mother •• she told me that she sent him to the post-office to get her pension and he pocketed it ---- so she went to the police and he did time in Wormwood Scrubs or somewhere my mother didn't know ---- the woman he eventually married after living with my mother for 8 years was the local publican's daughter .• so that would have suited him very well ---- then when my brother didn't show up to give me away •. my mother tried to insist that he gave me away but I wouldn't

263/ .•. - 263 - have it ---- one of his sons was very nice C the youngest •. very nice kid---- I actually got quite close to C the other one turned gay .• can't remember what his name was A ? even as a kid .• when I first met them the eldest one must have been about 8 •• he used to dress up in my mother's clothes and put her jewellery and her make up on I caught him several times .. poor little buggers both joined the navy ---- but he was such a weak man he really was I used to go to the labour exchange and get him jobs (laugh) he always turned them down because he didn't think he should be a blue collar worker ---- terribly well spoken! absolute jerk ---- he eventually got a job in a mens' haberdashary •. selling gloves and hats and things •• that was ok he could do this I used to treat him with absolute contempt •. as only a teenager can when they get their teeth into something like that ---- I used to give him a hard time usually but still his mother was a nice old lady .. I liked her got on very well with her actually I can remember all those things about living there •. but I can't remember about my dad •. I can't really remember very much about living with him •• any instances •. I can't remember very much at all.

264/ ... - 264 -

The patient having sidetracked the therapist now returns to it briefly then

goes into a tirade against her mother's

lover and then ends her communication by

referring to her father, again.

7.6.1. Sequential analysis

In the sequential analysis the statements are

defined as either positive or negative depending on

whether:

a) there is movement in the interaction;

b) the therapist's and patient's statements are

explicit developments of previous statements;

c) there is an obvious refusal to accept what the

other person said;

d) the communication gives important information.

P1

patient gives positive statement l T1

therapist supports

1 265/ ... - 265 -

P2 patient elaborates 1 T2 therapist supports and directs l P3 patient elaborates 1 T3 therapist supports and directs 1 P4 patient free-associates l T4 therapist encourages

P51 patient free-associates l T5 therapist supports l P6

~patient's free-association extends

1 266/ ... - 266 -

T6 therap1s1 supports

P7 patient's free-association is linked to personal experience

T7l therapist directs the patient l P8 patient accepts directive l T8 therapist encourages 1 P9 patient elaborates

T91 therapist questions in a supportive way 1 P10 patient responds with giving information l T10 therapist asks for more information

1 267/ ... - 267 -

P11 patient gives more information 1 T11 therapist asks for more information 1 P12 patient gives information more relevant than the two previous statements. 1 T12 therapist directs patient to talk about father 1 P13 patient extremely defensive 1 T13 therapist asks for more information l P14 patient very defensive 1 T14 therapist repeats focussing on father 1 P15 patient elaborates again, exposing conflicts

l 268/ ... - 268 -

T15 therapist maintains focus l P16 patient elaborates with much feeling 1 T16 therapist interprets 1 P17 patient is defensive 1 T17 therapist makes interpretation stronger l P18 patient responds by expressing strong feeling about men l T18 therapist makes an ambiguous statement 1 P19 strong emotional communication by patient l The session begins with the patient being very open and responsive to the therapist. Their interaction

269/ ... - 269 - escalates after P4 when the patient starts free-associating. It develops to P7 where the patient spontaneously links her free-associations to personal experiences. The therapist in T7 directs the patient to talk about something which breaks the escalating interaction and returns the conversation to a more mundane level of asking and giving information. The interaction again starts escalating up to P13 when the patient becomes very defensive. This leads onto a sequence of interactions where the therapist maintains the focus in spite of the patient's defensiveness. It culminates in T17 when the therapist makes an interpretation which triggers the strong emotional response in the patient in P18 and P19.

Something which is not very clear in the transcripts is the extent of the silences and hesitations indicated by the dashes and dots. To get an idea of the extreme difficulty the patient was experiencing when she was talking one only has to look at the number of communications in session 2 where there are 95 communications as apposed to the 19 in session one. The discrepancy is partly an indication of the difficulties the patient experienced in session 1.

270/ ••• - 270 -

7.6.2. Quantitative analysis

The analysis of the patient's verbalizations in session 1 produced 16 clusters at level 0, 4 clusters at level 1, and 1 cluster at level 2. At level 0 all the clusters are drawn from the latter part of the session, that is, S1P10 to S1P19 except for one cluster which only loaded on S1P4, which is the free-association about the cardex system and a shovel swinging.

Four clusters are generated at level 1 , which produces only 1 cluster when they are re-introduced into the clustering procedure at level 2. This means that the original 15 clusters finally cristalize into only one cluster, which indicates the thematic unity in the latter part of the session.

The central theme in the session is the patient's relationship with her father. This central theme is supported by background information. There is on the one hand her working experience with the prude spinsters and pregnant teenager, and on the other her mother living with a lover and his two sons, one who turns out homosexual.

271 I .. . - 271 -

The patient's communications in session 1 present an aesthetic balance. There are really only two clusters; S1P4 which introduces into the patient's consciousness her relationship with her father via the image of the cardex system, and the elaboration of the initial free-associative material in the second cluster, which loads on S1P10, S1P11, S1P12, S1P13, S1P15 and S1P19.

shovel

cardex

prude father pregnant spinster teenager

The therapist's statements resolved into 8 clusters at level 0, which in turn produced one cluster at level 1, with the highest loadings S1T16 and S1T17.

272/ ... - 272 -

These statements represent two themes. A central theme which is the patient's relationship with her father and a subsidiary theme which is her

relationship to other men.

S1 T16 If you think back to the session on Monday

and again today •. you seem to talk a lot about you and the men in your life

on Monday it is mostly your husband

S1 T17 Your ex-husband and it seems to be focusing on two themes the one is

your father and how difficult you find it

to remember clearly ---- your relationship with him in any situation or experience

with him .... on the one hand---- on the other hand your contempt and your anger

that you feel towards the other men.

Apart from clearly stating the theme of the session, the therapist is also hinting at two

interpretations. Firstly he is trying to make the patient aware of her exclusion from awareness (repression in Freudian terms) of significant

feelings for, and experiences with her father.

Secondly he is linking the absence of these feelings

273/ ... - 273 -

to her feelings and perceptions of other men, thereby attempting to facilitate in the patient's thinking the perception of a link between her feelings for her father 33 years ago and her present life situation.

Analysis of free-association

S1 P4 Physical awareness has the same structure as mental free-association. It must in some way represent elements from the same system.

S1 P5-6 The gap between P5 and P6 is what Freud defines as the unconscious. Something some experience, thought or feeling links the cards, pages tearing and the picture of the North Wind. It is also important to note how specific the image of the North Wind is.

S1 P7 The line of associations moved from the physical sensations to images of a cardex system, pages flicking, the North Wind and now when the patient links her thoughts to her life, it is to her father, and living and working with him. One can only assume that the picture of the North Wind is in some way relevant to her relationship with her father.

27 4/ ... - 274 -

P12 When the patient continues in P12 her anxiety is beginning to break through, which can be seen in the difficulty she has in verbalizing fluently, for example, "when I met my . . . . urn . . . . oh no wait a minute I met my husband in 1959 ... my hus . . . . . my dad" The parapraxis which follows at the end of all that hesitation and confusion can be used as a starting point for a theoretical elaboration which concludes with the essentials of the Oedipal Complex. The line of thought can be punctuated as free-association working with her father spinsters disapproving of her teenage sexuality her sexual innocence living with her father confusion between father and husband sexual relationship with husband. This leads on to the conclusion that the contamination between husband and father must in some way reflect a sexual confusion, and therefore at least the existence of some sexual feelings towards her father.

The patient at the end of P12 summarizes and concludes by stating the essentials of what she is saying ---- "I can remember trying to be a housewife and and do all the right things by my dad and trying to be a teenager at the same time." The patient is however unaware of any sexual feelings towards her father.

275/ ... - 275 -

The therapist tries to introduce the patient's feelings for her father in T12 into the conversation. Note that the therapist does not even mention sexuality. The patient, however, is so defensive about any feelings for her father that she immediately denies in P13 what she had said in P12.

And in her denial she exposes another element in the

Oedipal complex: "I was supposed to ..• urn •.. be what my mother had seem to think I should be" ---­ note the complicated sentence structure. And she continues "You know ... I don't know".

After having said what her mother wanted her to be,

"You know I don't know" seems like a complicated denial whereby the patient is suggesting that the therapist knows, and that she does not know.

The patient is describing the conflict between being a teenager and playing housewife for her father, who at that time was separated from the patient's mother, and was living with the patient in a caravan.

The patient is suggesting that if she was playing housewife for her father it was per instruction from

276/ ..• - 276 - her mother. In other words, she is trying to convince herself that there is nothing to feel guilty about because the responsibility for her relationship, and by implication her feelings for her father, lies with her mother. This attempt at denying her guilt is, however, gainsaid by the need she has to .avoid experiencing any feelings towards her father.

In fact the pressure to deny any feelings towards him is so strong that the patient now maintains that she could only feel for him when he was dying. · It is quite remarkable that she then says, " . . . was only then that I began to realize it I'm sure .... and also of course . . . even that I lived with him." It seems that the patient is saying that she did not even realize that she was staying with her father (Referring back to the full text, it is possible to construe another meaning. Again note how awkwardly the patient is phrasing her statement.)

The patient continues making a statement which surely can be used to illustrate repression brought on by her increasing anxiety about her feelings for her father.

277 I ... - 277 -

II I still cannot remember ...• really •.. eh ... the the the memories of him are still very they're still memories .. they not ... you know I can't remember---- any real senses and of eh •.. interactions of any kind is ..• is strong .•• 11

The patient's communication in P15 shows her pre-occupation now with maintaining (or giving up?) the repression.

278/ ... - 278 -

7.7. Session 2

S2. P1 : These spots I don't know where ---- I've these these shoes are the only shoes I can wear ---­

if I wear anything else .. it makes my feet swell and

itch like hell .••...

The therapist waits for the patient to

start the session, which she does by

complaining about her rash.

S2. T1 : And yesterday?

The therapist asks for more information.

S2.P2: And yesterday the pads of these two fingers was

swollen and itchy and they just ---- I tried

keeping a graph .. but that don't make any sense at

all it just comes and goes within the same day or ..

like this foot has now been swollen and itchy since

yesterday morning

279/ ... - 279 -

Which the patient gives.

S2.T2: And now you have to divide your graph into parts of the body.

The therapist makes a joke about the rash

which is accepted by the patient in P3.

S2.P3: Yes (laughing) ----a hell---- ah •. it doesn't you know .• I wake up in the morning and my legs

itch .. my arms itch .. but there isn't anything there

----it's just the skin itches .••....

S2.T3: It can't by any stretch of the imagination be

described as temporary?

It is unclear what the therapist is

referring to, but the patient seems to

know, responding in P4.

S2.P4: No ---- the itch is a definite irritation

280/ ••. - 280 -

S2.T4: So •. you say your •• the feet are beginning?

Therapist asks for more information.

S2.P5: Ye •• and you know when the feet come up the •. there isn't a spot ----it's because the feet •• the toes swell and underneath my feet swell •. and eh •• it irritate •. like eh .• oh •. they itch crazy---- and if I wear any shoes which are closed---- you know •. these are all sort of old and saggy so they are okay .• but yesterday •• I wear •. I wore a pair of high-heeled shoes and all day yesterday •• in fact last •• last night when I came home I had to come home .. with eh .. with one shoe off---- (laugh) I couldn't get my foot in a shoe they're itching like •• like swollen ••...•. I get the few odd spots on my legs •. but they not eh •. just no where near like the other ones ---- the original ones were •. but these are---- are red angry spots like eh .. mosquito bite ----but •• they raised as opposed to the other ones •. were flat with a sort of red round ring round the outside ..••.•

Which the patient gives.

281 I ... - 281 -

S2.T5: You say angry spots?

The therapist again asks for

clarification.

S2.P6: Yes red angry looking I think I need

trading in for a new one ---- I just haven't got the

energy .. feel tired all the time

Which the patient gives.

S2.T6: It sounds as you have become virtually immobilised

in your attempt to um avoid something which you

don't want to think about

The therapist amplifies the patient's response which leads to the longest

communication yet in this session from the patient in P7.

282/ ..• - 282 -

S2 .P7: Ya you know after we were talking last week I've been thinking .• something I hadn't realised only last week did I realise you know when I was a teenager I can remember now .. I didn't recognise it then •• feeling terribly um out of place •• all the time .. even when .• feeling very insecure and not fitting •• not being one of the crowd •. not fitting---- which of course I wasn't urn I was very aware of it ...... I can remember it being a very uncomfortable feeling •..•. I thought I'd have another go at writing to my mother and asking she's never written since I wrote when March since she sent the priest she's

never written and I know she's ok because the house would write and tell me if there was anything wrong ...... and it's her birthday next week and I haven't done anything about it .. which is very unusual for me I keep forgetting it (cough) probably cause I'm cross with her ...... I feel very impatient •. and fed up and .• pause .. just at the end of my tether the whole thing I'm sick of being---- ill .• not ill .. but not well .• not having any energy and being so confused I'm just totally fed up with the whole thing the doctor •. incidentally •. urn •. I went to get a new prescription for eh Tryptanol .. and eh .. he's put me down to 25mg from 75 ---- (cough)

283/ ... - 283 -

I wondered if it wouldn't be a good idea to stop it altogether and see the real me .. so to speak what do you think?

This is a very open response by the patient linking her feelings with her growth and her mother. She ends by stating a need to get down to the 'real me' by stopping medication.

S2.T7: Don't you think that that might be partly the reason why or the cause of your inability to come to grips with anything?

The therapist seems to miss the positive statement by the patient by repeating her statement as a question indicating a progression in the therapy.

S2.P8: What the lower dose of tryptanol?

32. T8: No just the fact that you've been taking it

32. P9: I don't know .. I just don't know

284/ ... - 284 -

S2.T9: Since it's masking your feelings you're never forced to really confront anything.. it blunts the intensity of what ever is going on .• so that you live in a mediocre misery

S2.P10: Ja that was what I was thinking •. that maybe I should stop taking it •• but .. but the problem with that is •• that I'm okay for a couple of weeks then I get very sick but we can but try ---- I'm not only eh •• eh very depressed and emotional •. I feel so terribly ill .• but we can try .. if it's going to help •• I just .. at the moment will do anything to .. just feel well

In this sequence they therefore go over what the patient has already verbalized in P7 coming to same conclusion in P10 which the therapist again misses by asking the patient for more information in T10.

S2.T10: Were you on the Tryptanol before you went into hospital?

S2.P11: I've been on Tryptanol for about ten years

285/ ... - 285 -

S2.T11: Ten years

The therapist's reflection in T11 leads to the patient's elaboration in P12.

y~/ \ / S2.P12: Urn .•.•.•.. not ~ch a heavy dose---- I've only been on the heavy\doze,. 75 •• since this lot started ...•••• previousty~ was on what I'm on now •• 25mg a night then every time I stopped .• or tried to stop taking it •. I'm fine a couple of weeks or so and then I get suicidally depressed it starts off •• I don't feel so good and then I can't .. because I've been alright for a couple of weeks .• I forget about the Tryptanol ----and eh .. I start to feel ill •• and eh •• really .• I feel totally grotty and then I started getting irritable and very depressed and I cry very easily ---- and it takes me ages .. it's actually quite dangerous .. because it takes me a long time to realize .. and it's only from experience that I realize it's the Tryptanol that I'm not taking ..•..•.

286/ •.. - 286 -

S2. T12: The •. the Tryptanol .. can only last for a short while after you've stopped taking them ---- you can't carry on for weeks

The therapist tries to clarify the situation which leads onto the following sequence.

S2.P13: Well •• it seems to. I •. I seem to •• I go on for week •• two weeks---- which seems to okay

S2. T13: ...... not five weeks or eight weeks.

S2.P14: Oh no .. a couple of weeks eh .. about two •. three at the most and I start to feel unhe ..•. okay progressively worse

S2.T14: Urn

S2.P15: Until either .. P orR will say to me: "are you

taking Tryptanol ?" or I remember I realize .. because •. you know •• the whole world seems to be against me.. I don't .. nobody likes me •. I'm thorougly •• a proper .. bloody misery .. and I eh ..

287 I ... - 287 -

the thought process is actually so bad •. you can't remember that you're not taking Tryptanol ---- it's not your fault .. it's everybody else's fault •• the whole world is against you as far as •• it's actually quite dangerous .. because you can get so .. if you don't •. if you haven't got the experience to realize what it is •. (cough) •• your mind just take over and eh you could be suicidal •. before you actually remember makes you really think about it everything get out of proportion .• but eh .. that what I'm saying •• maybe if I didn't take .• them you could •• maybe you could eh •• maybe it would go better from your point of view

S2.T15: So you actually get paranoid when you don't take the Tryptanol.

The therapist makes a very mild interpretation which strangely the patient cannot accept.

S2.P16: Ooh .. well .. I don't know now •. but I used to originally .. very sick p . • I •• I never .. eh •• I

288/ ••. - 288 -

would never want to go through it again ---- I was

so ill •..•.•

S2.T16: So when you say the whole world is against you ---­

then I take it •• if you should go off •• that you

will also think that I'm against you

The therapist now interprets the symptons

into the context of therapy.

S2.P17: Possibly ----that's a chance you have to take isn't

it ---- (laughter)

The patient accepts it. She laughs

probably expressing some anxiety about it.

S2.T17: Well.. the way you describing it •. there's no

chance .. there's not a chance---- (laughter) ----

289/ ... - 289 -

The therapist implies that what the patient is saying is that it is a certainty that she will also be paranoid towards him. But it may also be taken to mean that there is no possibility of the patient getting paranoid towards him, which hints at the therapist's awkwardness with a negative response to him by the patient. His laughter also supports this hypothesis in that it seems to be a communication to the patient that her paranoia does not threaten their relationship.

S2.P18: I don't know it just •• it just depends urn •. eh •• it depends how I react to you •• you know •• so I'm alright with some people and not with others the's •• it's eh •• there's no logic to it at all ah.. before.. before I ever heard of Tryptanol •• before I was ever put onto Tryptanol •. I use to eh •. for instance •• in bed .. I wouldn't •. I couldn't turn I couldn't move •• I would eh •• I •• eh •• be drifting off to sleep and I couldn't even move a finger or a toe ---- it's the most terrifying experience •. it is petrifying •• and you

290/ •.. - 290 - can hardly •. you can't even actually take a breath that's how paralysed you get---- you •. you •. you can't move •• and it's just •. you got to try and control yourself to the extent where you force a toe or a finger to move ----when you do •• then you can turn over or move your body •. and you're okay •. but it's the most dreadful feeling ---- and I use to wake up crying •. every day---- if I slept at all •. I was getting •• maybe two or three hours sleep a night that was about all I was getting very •• very bad •. very bad insomnia---- and eh .. everything was a problem I mean •. like even more of problem than it is to me normally ---- out of all proportion ---- very easily affected ---- um .•..•• lots and lots of thoughts of suicide •••••••• lots of plans and how to commit suicide ..••.•• um .. it really is •• the •• the biggest problem is •. is not just your mind it's you feel so dreadfully ill ---- it is such an effort to put one foot in front of the other ---- to actually function is.. is really.. really very difficult...... but •• if you think that we might get to the root of the problem quicker that way ---­ then I'm quite willing to give it a while ---- we can but try...... of course you don't believe in um .. clinical depression •. do you---- didn't you

291/ ••• - 291 -

tell me that you thought that was also curable?

when I first came here •• I was telling •• I was

suppose to be clinical depressive .• and I think you

said that •. that can also urn .• be solved

The patient responds with an open

statement about the way she feels when she

is in this state. She ends her

communication with a plea for hope based

on a statement by the therapist in a

previous session that he did not believe

in such a syndrome (basically rejecting

the etiological implications of such a

diagnosis).

S2.T18: I don't think you're what I would call an endogenous

depression

The therapist responds by re-affirming his

opinion.

S2.P19: Eh .• that's what I'm suppose to be that's why

I'm taking the Tryptanol ---- I don't know if you

292/ ... - 292 -

know Dr. Fisher ---- she a psychiatrist at the Gen she was the one who diagnosed me as clinical depressive and put me on Tryptanol ••.••. there were times when I would be driving a car and I would have

to stop •• because I couldn't remember urn •. couldn't

co-ordinate what I had to do ---- I just couldn't urn it was just impossible ----I .. I would get

urn •• so panic-stricken at those time •• of

course •• I was living with D •• which was enough

to make •••••••• anybody we but eh •• I don't know

how bad I would be now or how good I would be now

usually I remember I take •• I start taking them again before it gets that bad ---- (cough) but •• we can try it •••••••

The patient continues her line of thought again concluding with a statement of her willingness 'to try'. This does not only mean to try and give up the pills, but also to try and deal with her feelings, dynamics in therapy.

S2.T19: Do you remember •• you remind me of that urn •• is it now a Rolling Stones song about "mother's little helper"

293/ ••. - 293 -

S2.P20: (Laughter) listen chum .. I'm not just helping you •. I'm trying to help me---- I am so fed up with

it ---- I'm just making a suggestion now

Therapist's referral to Rolling Stones song is taken as an insult by patient and

she responds accordingly. Therapist's

response also does not tie up with

patient's communication but rather cuts accross the flow of communication. The therapist is picking up on the patient's

doubts about being cured but instead of addressing it directly he trivializes the

patient's communication which leads to the

patient's aggressive response P20. The therapist's response T20 could be taken to

say "No don't be cross", and then offers the patient a way out by explaining why he

said that. The patient accepts that but in P22 again indicates that she is not accepting the statement, but the therapist is adamant about pointing out some sort of emotional dependence on the pills, by linking the patients statement P22 about

deserving a medal for her living with her

294/ ... - 294 - ex-husband to the pills. The patient in P23 seems to accept but then rejects by

starting to say 'I can assure you'. The

therapist interrupts in T23 by dismissing

the patient's plea for commiseration and admiration and then continues to make a

refocus of the discussion so that the

patient's motivation becomes the topic.

The patient accepts this in P24 and

elaborates by stating that she was not afraid of coping on her own. The

therapist doesn't accept this in T24 and

brings into play a previously-shared

perception of the patient as an extremely

competent person; he is therefore also now

attacking one of the patient's basic

defenses against an awareness of herself and her feelings. The patient in P25

forgetting her previous statement then contradicts herself by stating that she really stayed in the relationship because

of her need to look after her husband. This really illustrates one of the basic defenses of the patient which is to deny

her own inadequacies and fears by

focussing on the other person's needs.

295/ ... - 295 -

Instead of interpreting it the therapist calls her 'altruistic' motives into question in an indirect way by pointing out that the patient should have been so angry by then that it is highly unlikely that she would have cared much about her husband's welfare. The patient refuses to accept this in P26, whereupon the therapist again makes a direct interpretation about the patient's inability to separate from her husband.

The patient P27 seems to accept the therapist's statement but then distorts it so that her inability to leave becomes a question of external factors rather than her internal motivation. The therapist in

T27 then responds by doing the same thing, he seems to accept what the patient is saying, but then incorporates it into a larger statement which is a direct focus on the patient's motivation for staying in the marriage. The interaction in the session had been escalating since the therapist started cutting the patient's communication with a refusal to talk about the practical issues and reality and

296/ ... - 296 - trying to focus on her internal world.

Although initially both the therapist and the patient show reluctance to disagree openly, the patient is now pushed into a corner and she responds with an open rejection in P28. The therapist resists this rejection in T28, although not at the same level of intensity as shown by the patient. The patient however stands firm in P29, the therapist again questions it mildly in T29. The patient remains resistant in P30 and the therapist in T30 turns what the patient says in P30 against her in a stronger rejection of her statements. The patient now seems to resign in P31 by repeating "I did, I did". The therapist again turns her statement against her by pointing out the duration of the marriage. The patient seems to be frozen, repeating again in P32 nr did, I did". The therapist is unsympathetic and responds sarcastically by repeating the patient's statement as a question. The patient again repeats herself in P33, but this time she manages to put a sentence together. The therapist

297 I ... - 297 -

in T33 tries to create a way out of this confrontation by addressing the patient directly, thereby trying to re-establish the working relationship, but then continues to repeat the interpretation, virtually trying to seduce the patient into accepting it. The patient, though adamant in her rejection, also addresses the therapist directly by name, re-affirming their connections. The therapist's reassurance then cuts the patient's response (which he perceives as a rationalization) short, to point out the inconsistency of the patient's response. The patient, however, in P35 feels quite confident of maintaining her rationalization appropriating from legal jargon her statement "but I have to be seen to be fair" and then "you see" to indicate that in all fairness it has been seen.

S2.T20: No .. the .. the song is about pills .. pills that she 's taking

298/ ... - 298 -

S2.P21: Ooh •. I don't remember that one---- oh •• the pill

being the little helper

S2.T21: Ja

S2.P22: Oh •• no •• I don't remember that---- I don't know

about Tryptanol I think I deserve a medal

living with D for 21 years

S2.T22: And they're little medals?

S2.P23: Ja (laughing) it's a wonder I wasn't in

Tara married to that guy---- I can assure you ...•.•

S2.T23: You see .• there's only the one part of the story

the other part of the story is that you have

stayed with him for so long which says

something about you

S2.P24: Ye •. I .. I use to think eh .. tell myself .. and tell other people that was because of the kids .. but I

don't think it was ---- I think I was just ---- I was terrified of .. of being alone of .• of

trying to find somewhere to live and all those sort

of jazz because .. being the dumb thing that I

am •. it never occured to me that I could keep the

299/ ... - 299 -

house it just um •• that also says something about what I am •. too---- because •• if I had been bright enough •• I could have kept the house and the kids in the house and •• but I just---- I don't think along those lines

S2.T24: And yet •• you're such a competent person---- so •. eh •• managerial

S2.P25: Ja •• but you see •• the other person never can survive as well as I can---- this is •• this is the thought process I just couldn't see him living in a flat---- I just ••

S2.T25: But surely •• after a while that wouldn't have been your problem ---- you wouldn't have felt that to be your problem

S2.P26: I don't know •• but at the time eh •• it just seemed eh •. an automatic assumption that I would be the one to move out and take the kids and find somewhere to live and I suppose it was just eh •. a continuous process as the way we always lived

S2.T26: Well •• eh •• I think partly •• you were also seeing it in this impossible way •• because you were simply not ready to do it then

300/ ... - 300 -

S2.P27: Ja •. I was waiting for the gap---- for years what a friend of mine calls: «waiting for the gap«

and .• eh •. I think if he hadn't beaten me up •.

I would have still been there ---- and live a

quite got up the courage to go

S2.T27: So apart form the •• the physical abuse being a

trigger •• to you the fact that you wanted to

stay with him for so long •. does not only have an

effect on your misperceptions of your abilities and

your ability to cope with a different situation ---­

it also must in someway reflect on your needs and

that you must have fitted emotionally with him in some way

S2.P28: No •• I can't agree with you there---- no ways---­

the man is a total fruitcake ---- there is no way I

could possible want to stay with him

S2.T28: Well .. you did want to stay with him for 21 years

S2.P29: I wanted the house .. and the security and the kids ..

there's no way I wanted him

S2.T29: Those are your reasons?

301/ •• 0 - 301 -

S2.P30: Yes partly? I will argue with you this one for •• till kingdom come---- you did---- nobody •• in there right mind would want to stay with him

S2.T30: Nobody stays in a situation like that if it is that dissatisfying

S2.P31 I did •• I did

S2.T31: For that length of time

S2.P32: I did ---- I did

S2.T32: You did?

S2.P33: Believe me I did

S2.T33: You know •• what I'm saying is that somehow .• the way he was •• must have fitted into something inside you and it's not a practical consideration it's something personality wise •. emotional

S2.P34: He was a pig •. P ---- he mentally abused me ---- he was mentally cruel ----he was a ----there's no way he could have fitted in any way---- he •• just •• it was because I just •• I was petrified of •• of

302/ ••. - 302 -

making a move •. and I also had to have the

justification I always got to justify in my own

mind I always got to feel that I'm being fair

and that I'm doing the right thing---- and I was •.•

S2.T34: If you were that fed up •. you would have been quite

sure or certain about the •. the fairness to the act

S2.P35: Ah •• yes •• but I have to be seen to be fair .• you

see in my own mind I knew •. but I always felt

that I have to be able to see •• you know .. I used to

feel .• if he was a drunk .. or if he beat me up .. or

any of those things.. then I would have

justification ----but •. even though I don't think I

would have .• I don't think I would have left him

because I was so scared of being alone and

trying to cope with the children and support them

and everything because it didn't occur to me

that he would I suppose I was thinking of the

times when I didn't have anywhere •. when I was a youngster

S2.T35: I think that must have certainly been a big thing

a big part of it ---- but I'm suggesting to you

that you should think about it in a different way

303/ ... - 303 -

Although the therapist acknowledges the partial validity of what the patient is saying (thereby also implying a multiplicity of views) he nevertheless reiterates in a very vague way that the patient is avoiding the issue.

S2.P36: do you know---- it is so strange that .• from the time I left him •. I can't really eh .. eh .. I have.. I have certain memories .. certain instances •. but I cannot remember any .• any way that I felt whilst I was living with him---- like .. it •. it is so it was such a complete break •. and I only became very bitter about him after I have left him .• with the way he had treated the children prior to that •. I wasn't bitter about him .. I wasn't even that angry with him .. I just wanted out .. but I didn't I wasn't bitter or any of those things eh •• eh what he did afterwards were the reasons I got very bitter and twisted about him because •• I mean he got .. he got off actually scott free there was .. he kept the house the cars the money .. everything .. his lifestyle didn't really change that I mean •• he had to employ a maid .. instead of me .. which wasn't a hell of a lot difference ---- urn ---- he was never that interested

304/ ... - 304 -

in his kids •• anyway •• so he didn't lose out there either it was just his •• his .• the •. the sort of things he did afterwards ---- like stopping the children's medical aid ---- the twelve rand fifty a month •• I ask you and I was so broke ----and I .• but I had to pay for their medical aid things like that really •• I got very upset with him •. because I just thought •. he was just taking advantage of the whole situation

Although the therapist's response was rather tentative and vague the patient in her response shows that she knows quite clearly what the therapist is aiming at, that is, her feelings. She maintains however that she can't remember any feelings directed at her ex-husband during this marriage, not even anger: And then continues discussing the practical issue of the marriage.

S2.T36: Well you should be angry with him then •. but you know twenty one year of this eh •. extremely unhappy situation •. and you never really managed to build it up to some sort of a climax

305/ ... - 305 -

The therapist again directs the patient towards her feelings by referring to her unhappiness, but also hints at a sexual meaning by using the word 'climax'.

S2.P37: No

The patient's short response 'No' indicates her agreement with the therapist, but may also be taken to mean 'I don't want to think about this'.

S2.T37: You know that's simply •. you know you can say whatever you like ---- it simply doesn't wash there must have been some reason why you wanted to .. other reasons why you wanted to stay with him but .. I think maybe you're misunderstanding what I'm hinting at I'm hinting at a possibility that you may have to be involved in a dissatisfying relationship .. or an unsatisfying relationship you may have to be involved .. for some reason with your from the past •. with a man who cannot touch you emotionally

306/ •.. - 306 -

The therapist refuses to accept the patient's resistance but suddenly realizes

that the patient has been thinking that

the therapist is trying to force her to

admit to positive feelings towards her

husband when in fact the therapist was

trying to reach a rather different line of

thought, which is her need to maintain

some distance from the man she is involved

with at this time.

S2.P38: Ja •. okay .. that I .. it's possible---- but •. he did

touch me emotionally he used to hurt me

terribly

Initially the patient accepts it, but then

rejects the therapist's interpretation by

stating that he used to hurt her, which

actually contradicts what she said earlier

about not remembering any feelings towards

her husband during the marriage. The

patient is prepared to accept the

interpretation about the negative quality

of the marital relationship, but she again

307I .. . - 307 -

resists the therapist's attempt to make her aware of the role her own dynamics played in the relationship.

S2 • T38 : Pain ...•.••.

By only saying 'pain' the therapist focusses the patient on her feelings.

S2.P39: Pain •• very painfully

The patient concurs.

S2.T39: But not in a pleasant way?

The therapist qualifies the previous statements, again eliciting the patient's agreement in P40.

S2.P40: No

308/ ... - 308 -

S2.T40: It seem to that you even repeat your relationship .•

now although it was so good for the first six months

it has now been going on for .. how long .. seven

eight years

He now uses this short sequence of

interaction from P37 to launch another

interpretation directed at the patient's

dynamics, but this time from a different

angle, which is her unhappiness in the

present relationship.

S2.P41: Seven years •. ja

The patient is forced to agree but avoids

the therapist's point by focussing on the

length of time, again a concrete reality.

S2.T41: And it's been decidedly eh •. unsatisfying for the

rest of the time

309/ ... - 309 -

The therapist redirects her to her feelings.

S2.P42: Um

Which the patient glumly accepts.

S2.T42: And you again •• have yourself stuck in the same sort of relationship with the same kind of fears about leaving him •. of practical considerations

Tha therapist elaborates, drawing parallels between her marriage and the present relationship.

S2.P43: Eh

The patient is caught in the logical structure of the therapist's argument and therefore has to agree. She limits her

31 0/ •.• - 310 -

agreement, however, to another brief noncommital response.

S2.T43: Eh •• so that you have repeated this now---- you are again involved with a man who eh .. in some ways can't look after himself ---- who is rather to be supported than to be supportive um •. who doesn't cope with your emotional needs •. who is not affectionate .• eh .. he's not as overtly abusive as your husband

The therapist elaborates further; he senses however a disagreement from the patient, and tries to pre-empt it by verbalizing it.

S2.P44: Eh

The therapist forces another reluctant agreement from the patient and then continues to reinforce his statement in T44.

311 I ... - 311 -

S2.T44 But he's certainly fairly unsatisfying as things go

S2.P45: Eh but I just have this •. the only way I can •.

I can explain it to you is just say that I feel that

is all I'm going to get I know that sounds

ridiculous .. but that's how I feel about it

The patient now responds by voicing the

reason why she is so reluctant to admit to

what the therapist is saying, which is her

fear that at her age she cannot find

another man.

S2.T45: And you're making sure?

The therapist argues, rather maliciously

turning her statement around to direct her again at her dynamics. The tenor of the

statement indicates for the first time the

therapist's growing frustration with the interaction.

312/ ••• - 312 -

S2.P46: I don't know especially now .. but I have the

feeling that is what I felt all the way along

The patient's ' I don't know' probably indicates that she has heard the therapist's irritation and that she is prepared to reconsider her stance. Ostensibly the words 'Especially now' refer to her love relationship but it can also be taken to refer to this particular point in the session.

S2.T46: I think so

The therapist agrees, indicating that she should continue.

S2.P47: But •• I mean now .• I don't feel that it's even more so •. but eh .. I think when I try to weigh up the situation •. I don't think thought about it in those terms •• but I think •• ja •• I •• if I want to be honest about it .. I .. I think that I felt that •.

31 3/ 0 • 0 - 313 -

that's what I was going to get .. anyway---- I just don't feel that any really strong .• competent man would be interested they're not •. from my experience of life •• they're just not interested

The patient seems to want to backtrack but then continues to clarify her previous statements P45 and P46. But again she focusses on the man's motivation rather than her own contributions.

S2.T47: Well •• you may not be giving them a gap

The therapist accepts the direction of the patient's communication but focusses it on herself. The patient responds with a more affirmative 'Ja' in P48 which allows the therapist to elaborate further in T48.

S2.P48: Ja •.••••

S2.T48: You're not •. may not be acting in a way that would be attractive to them

31 4/ ... - 314 -

S2.P49: Well •• obviously •. I don't •. because I've never .. never been able to relate with those men ---- the sort of guy that I imagine •• I would be happy with I don't know whether I would or not ---- never really had the opportunity •..•••.. there was actually a .. a song •. I've never heard it before you talking about songs earlier .• and there was a song on the television .• last night---- and it absolutely typified our relationship ---- I can't think •. I must think what it was called and tell you urn •• but it was exactly eh •• it could have been written I was quite amazed that urn •• pause •. this is the •. the video of it was this woman getting very emotional about the fact that she didn't get eh •• enough eh .. from the relationship and that she would have to go somewhere else ---- that type of thing.. it was very.. I was actually quite stunned...... except that I don't now believe that there's anywhere else to go ---- if I'm honest about it ......

The patient continues with the central statement but still manages to avoid herself.

315/ ... - 315 -

S2.T49: Well •• you see in a way you neve~ believed it

The the~apist suppo~ts, at the same time

~epeating his attempt to get the patient

to examine he~ own contributions to the

situation.

S2.P50: Ja •• p~obably ••.•.•.. you see I .. I tend to believe

the so~t of things that my husband use to say to

me •. that I .• all I have to offe~ is urn .. I'm not

talking f~om a logical point of view this is

how I feel emotionally •• that what I have to offe~

is mo~e p~actical things in life •. a good home •.

good housekeeping urn •. capable so~t of a .. I just

don't believe that I have •• I don't emotionaly feel

that I have anything else to offe~

The patient finally ~esponds to the

the~apist by focussing on he~self, but in

T49 the the~apist unwittingly hit on the

key to success. By ~efe~~ing to he~

beliefs about he~self he was ~eally

accessing a mo~e cognitive domain in the

316/ ... - 316 -

patient where the patient is more at ease

and is also more aware of herself. The

therapist's interventions up to this point

had been too deep, or misdirected, because

of the patient's very obvious inability/

resistance to delve into her feelings and

deeper dynamics.

S2.T50: Maybe you don't

The therapist's cruel response on the one

hand reflects his irritation with the

patient but is also an attempt to force

the patient to face the reality of what

she is saying since her preface 'Ja

probably' is indicating to the therapist

that she is theorizing on a purely

intellectual level about her femininity.

S2.P51: I don't know ---- I've become quite fascinated with

women who don't have those things to offer ---- it

tends to fascinate me as to what they are offering

317 I .. . - 317 -

The patient responds with a far more open and meaningful response by exposing some of her exploratory activities and thoughts about femininity in this statement and also P52.

S2.T51: They're not offering the practical advantages of life

S2.P52: Ja •• I mean •• I do •. I do know women who are totally useless they can't run a house or keep a job or.. or urn knit anything •. or make anything or and I'm always quite eh •. I find myself actually watching them quite closely to see what it is they have to offer

S2.T52: And who knows

S2.P53: Ja ......

S2.T53: Do you know what they're offering?

S2.P54: Not really

S2.T54: They offer sex

318/ ••• - 318 -

The therapist again uses as in P37 - T40 the sequence of agreements P50 P54 (which is part of a longer positive sequence P37 - P54) to make a very direct statement.

S2.P55: There must be more than that

The patient, probably shocked by the directness of the statement, disagrees weakly.

S2.T55: They're offering femininity or

The therapist, realizing that his statement was partially inaccurate, restates it, which the patient immediately accepts in P56.

S2.P56: Ja •• I think that's more like it •.••••••

319/ ... - 319 -

S2.T56: You see •• this is exactly what you .. in a way ..

refuse to offer

By using the word 'refuse' the therapist

is indicating to the patient that her

inability to be more feminine is not

inevitable but that it is a result of the

way the patient functions. This is

slightly supportive and the patient

immediately responds by verbalizing her

insecurity in P57.

S2.P57: I can't help it •..••... I feel such a fool being

helpless

The patient is also exposing in P57 one of

the constructs which determine her

functioning which is that she links

femininity and helplessness, which again is a more cognitive insight.

S2.T57: I don't think you have to confuse femininity with

helplessness ---- as many of these women do ---- but

320/ ..• - 320 -

I think that's an archaic perception of femininity

but there's another more subtle way of .. of

eh .• giving or projecting femininity .• which doesn't

include helplessness

The therapist immediately questions it,

trying to elicit a more emotional

response.

S2.P58: You see •. I don't know what that is •...•••.• I think

when it all comes down to it I actually don't know

what femininity is •.••••.•.

The patient responds to T57 by verbalizing

this 'gap' in her psyche. This is a

rather stunning admission made in the face

of a hostile onslaught by the therapist.

It hints at a very strong positive bond

between the therapist and the patient which is not evident from this session,

but which nevertheless underlies all the

interactions.

321 I . .. - 321 -

S2.T58: Well you see •• that is what I •• this is how you feel

and I think from what you're saying and from what

you say you believe your husband is saying •• you

agree with that •. you accepted it .• anyway---- then

we must take this as being true

The therapist reinforces the patient's

statement, again in a rather cruel way.

The patient reponds with an explicit

affirmative P59.

S2.P59: Ja

S2.T59: But since you have a female body you must have had

access to that knowledge anyway ---- at some stage,

and you must still have it ---- the point is that

access to that knowledge of what femininity or just

the feeling of what it is has been cut of or is blocked

The therapist then makes a supportive

interpretation, at the same time trying to

direct the patient to her feelings.

322/ •.. - 322 -

S2.P60: Ja

The patient again ~esponds with a sho~t

affi~mative.

S2.T60: And so you need to be with a man who doesn't

constantly t~igge~ that •• that pa~t of you---- but

you have constantly have to stop it f~om coming

th~ough ----which puts you into a conflict .....••

This allows the the~apist to make a deepe~

inte~p~etation about the patient's

~ep~ession of he~ femininity and he~ need

to maintain it. The the~apist is

obviously moving fa~ too quickly (p~obably

due to his i~~itation and the fact that the session is being taped).

S2.P61: The thought immediately comes I couldn't bea~ to

live on my own again I think P would

actually like me to be quite feminine. . • . . • • • P

is a ve~y urn .. lazy pe~son. He goes along with the

323/ ••• - 323 -

circumstances if you know what I mean ---- so that if the circumstances •. were that he had to reverse his role and become more assertive •. more protective •. etc. he would do it urn •• but Peter would never •. ever actually •• eh •• make the effort to change his lifestyle •. his ways or whatever the situations has to trigger P to •• to ----what I'm trying to say is ---- if I was more feminine he would be more male

The patient responds surprisingly with a very open statement, concluding with an indirect agreement with the therapist.

S2.T61: But again.. you see •. these roles in a very stereotyped way of protecting and being strong as opposed to being helpless and weak

The therapist misuses the agreement from the patient, and uses it rather crudely to call into question her stereotypes.

S2.P62: Ja ..••.•.•.

324/ ••• - 324 -

The patient, still very open, indicates

her willingness to go along with the

therapist.

S2.T62: So I cannot see anybody who has to be helpless and

weak as to be loved that happens ---- but I

cannot see you doing that so by perceiving

femininity to be that you obviously can't choose

femininity

The therapist and the patient seem to have

reversed roles the patient is responding

on a very deep emotional and undefended

level, and the therapist seems bent on

questioning her cognitive stereotypes,

pointing out the cognitive dissonance

arising from her constructs.

S2.P63: No •....•..

S2.T63: And I think you're confusing femininity with all

sorts of eh .• cultural •• stereotypes of what a

female should behave

S2.P64: I confuse femininity with weakness ......

325/ ... - 325 -

S2.T64: And probably with (inaudible) and eh associating (inaudible) or lack of activity (inaudible)

S2.P65: You see my mother was highly feminine •• or at least I perceived her as being highly feminine •• and so did everybody else seem too ---- she was frequently laughed at for getting things back to front or um .. but it's always a sort of eh .• a kind laughter eh •• you know .• or eh •. ----what can you expect from a woman ---- type laughter

The patient responds surprisingly to the therapist's unempathic responses with another very significant communication about the development of her dynamics by referring to her mother. Instead of asking for more information the therapist gives a qualified agreement in T65.

S2.T65: Well •• certainly sometimes when a woman do a it that way that's perceived as feminine ---- it could turn the men on although they laugh at their inadequacy .• I mean they must still be turned on because it exposes their femininity

326/ •.• - 326 -

S2.P66: Now you see .• that sort of thing in me by my ex-husband was also perceived as stupid ••••.... he was not afraid to say as much either

The patient again communicates meaningful information, but by focussing so much on the husband the beginnings of a resistance are showing (which is hardly surprising in the face of the therapist's responses).

S2.T66: I have a suspicion that you yourself may have perceived it that way

The therapist, sensing this, immediately focusses the discussion on the patient, which immediately leads to a clear rejection in P67.

S2.P67: No •. I think he taught me to

S2.T67: I think after your trauma at .• with your .• when you went back to the U.K .. I think you must have perceived any inadequacy as very negative

327 I . .. - 327 -

The therapist now tries to support his

argument with an opinion which was

mutually agreed on earlier in therapy.

S2.P68: You know •. I was thinking about myself the other day

when I first •• when I was first married I actually

was not urn •• particularly assertive or eh •• eh .• I

was a housefrau ----and I was quite happy to be •. I

was not eh •..

The patient is unfortunately again caught

in a resistance, to the extent that she is

prepared to revoke previously agreed upon

perceptions of herself. This must really

indicate how strong the resistance is,

because the revocation threatens the

therapeutic culture developed by the patient and the therapist.

S2.T68: Ja •. but you must also remember .. you were very

young

S2.P69: Ja

328/ ... - 328 -

S2.T69: Even boys of that age are not all that assertive

S2.P70: Ja

S2.T70: It has also something to do with you ••...•

S2 .P71: But I can remember that I looked to him for ••

automatically I put him into that role.. eh (inaudible)

S2.T71: Eh

S2.P72: And I always believe that I've become assertive and

capable urn .. I never actually put it down to my

youth •• I put it down to my marriage

S2.T72: Eh

The weakness of the threapist's responses in this sequence reflects to what extent

he is taken aback by the patient's response in P68.

329/ ... - 329 -

S2.P73: because somebody has to and eh .. there's two children .• you can't just ---- somebody has to get up and sort it out ......

S2.T73: Well.. once again .• capability and eh •• coping skills is never a negative ---- but for you became involved in all sorts of negative complexes such as the inability to let go •• an excessive emphasis on control •• and also .. I think your withdrawal from vulnerability

The therapist stages a slight recovery, again referring to the patient's constructs. This leads to an immediate agreement.

S2.P74: Ja I had to ---- I would never have eh ---- I couldn't have survived with D unless I had eventually managed to stop him hurting me

S2.T74: Yes well that is obvious

The therapist's agreement may have a double meaning, he is not only agreeing

330/ ..• - 330 -

that the patient had to protect herself

from her husband, but he may also be

saying that he accepts that she has to

defend herself against him (the

therapist).

S2.P75: I had to stop him hurting the children

especially B which is um •. you know

every time I see him now .• amaze •••. it actually

amazes me •• because he's so •. to me now he is such a

non-person he just has nothing .. no

personality •. no nothing •...••.• and you know •. once

I left.. it was all so much easier than I ever

visualised it was going to be ---- I visualised such

trauma

The patient seems to respond to this

'kindness' by moving towards an agreement

with the therapist about the invalidity of

the previously mentioned practical problems of leaving her husband.

S2.T75: Whichever you have to find that out ---- that your

perception of the difficulties •• in a way .. served

331 I . .. - 331 -

othe~ needs it wasn't the p~actical difficulties involved that stopped you .. but it was

the othe~ needs •• which you don't ca~e to admit to

and the pe~ception of p~actical p~oblems se~ved to

maintain these othe~ .• the situations satisfied the

othe~ needs

The the~apist focusses on this to ~eaffi~m

his inte~p~etation and also to cla~ify the

defensive p~ocess, which is that the

patient uses p~actical ~ealities to

justify but also obscu~e he~ dynamics.

S2.P76: But •. you know .• what othe~ needs we~e the~e. I

mean eh •. emotional needs .. I mean nobody has eve~ supplied my emotional needs

The patient ~esponds with a ~equest fo~

mo~e info~mation which hides he~

disag~eement.

S2.T76: That's it what I'm saying is that maybe you

needed to maintain this dep~ived situation

332/ •.. - 332 -

The therapist uses the patient's words 'I

mean nobody has ever supplied my emotional

needs' to reinterpret her dynamics, his

interpretation bolstered by the patient's

own words.

S2.P77: Bad emotion is better than no emotion •. you mean

The patient agrees and clarifies.

S2.T77: No simply that you needed to be deprived ---- that in some way this is what you wanted to maintain

The therapist's response is vague and

inappropriate. He is not really

responding to the patient but is addressing a theoretical issue in his

mind, that is, that the motivation for all activity is ultimately the maintenance of

the organism's organization.

33 3/ ••• - 333 -

S2.P78: Why would anybody want to maintain that •• doesn't

make .••

The patient does not understand,

understandably so.

S2.T78: Well.. you did maintain it and you just

described the realization that it wasn't that

difficult for you once you'd left wasn't it ---- so

somewhere you obviously did want to maintain it ..

because you did

The therapist retreats into a reiteration.

S2.P79: .•....•• I always felt a bloomin hero staying

married to him •. I might tell you---- martyr

The patient actually manages to respond to

it with a meaningful communication.

S2.T79: So that's part of it

334/ ... - 334 -

The therapist surprises the patient by using the statement to support his own argument.

S2.P80: Eh

S2.T80: You need to feel like a martyr .. which you still do

S2 .P81: Okay •• why do I still do? (laughing)---- because I was still staying with P

S2.T81: Yes

S2.P82: I don't feel like a martyr staying with P the only •• thing is that my emotional needs are not

being satisfied.. but they never have been ---- I

mean like •• I cannot remember anytime when they were except in the first few months we were together it's a status quo for me

S2.T82: So .• your life is not all that pleasant at all---­ surely that's enough reason to feel like a martyr?

S2.P83: I don't know ---- I think I'm coming to terms with it I think I'm just •• so it's just not one of those things I'm ever going to have

335/ ... - 335 -

S2.T83: A stoic ----you're now becoming a stoic instead of

a martyr

S2.P84: Ja

S2.T84: Okay well •. that might be amusing .• but in fact I

think it is the whole truth ---- your resistance to

being dissatisfied and your virtually your disgust with being so dissatisfied the last couple of weeks

and your great appreciation of your lack of

emotional need .• say two months ago---- before you

went into hospital is typically stoic ---- sort of

appreciating the renouncing of all needs and

dissatisfactions it's simply accepting your fate in life

The sequence PSO T84 ends with the therapist clarifying the patient's need to deny her feelings.

S2.P85: It's all very well •• P ----I understand in what you say .. but what the hell is the point in

admitting that I need an emotional interaction?

where the hell am I going to find emotional

interaction?

336/ ... - 336 -

where am I going to find somebody? if I have never

done it this far •. I mean I don't really

express it doesn't work there's something

about me that just puts them off

The patient responds with a touching

admission of her fears.

S2.T85: Well •. partly you've already you're giving the

answer to that •. in the sense that you're saying: "I

don't even anticipate finding it"

The therapist responds by referring the

process back to the patient's dynamics.

S2.P86: I don't

The patient accepts it.

S2.T86: So obviously if you never anticipated finding it •.

you had never any chance of finding it ---- since

you would have walked right past it and not seen it

337/ ... - 337 -

The therapist uses the patient's agreement to make the interpretation 'stronger'.

S2.P87: I think I anticipated it •• I think that's why I was so damned unhappy is that I um .. very much acknowledge •. that need what I'm saying to you know •• what is the point in acknowledging it now you know what it's like out there •. in my age group it's a hopeless situation---- I know •. cause I've tried I mean guys that •. when I left my husband •• I met P I was forty two---- now .. the same guys who were prepared to take me out then •. are still taking out forty two year olds ---­ they don't take woman out of my age •...•• I mean •. I'm not saying all guys are like that •. but the likelihood of actually meeting anybody .. the likelihood of •. okay .• say you meet one---- what is to say ••••

The patient immediately rejects it by contradicting a previous statement.

338/ .•. - 338 -

S2.T87: Let me just point out that what you're doing •. is you kept saying there's serious practical problems involved in this

S2.P88: Which there are---- I mean hope and •• and admitting to emotional need is all very well •• but there is a real world out there it just doesn't work it is a practical problem

S2.T88: So •. you just •. you very clearly and emphatically now affirming what I have been saying

S2.P89: (Laughing) ja .• okay •. so •. I've decided there just is no other way ••••••••.

The therapist uses the patient's rejection in P87 to point out the contradiction and support his argument.

S2.T89: You're prepared to admit there was another way ---­ thirty years ago .. or twenty

339/ ... - 339 -

The therapist, having gained a laughing admission, develops another line of thinking by linking the present with the past in the following sequence.

S2.P90: Oh yes---- yes •. I think I was just a ..•

S2.T90: Which you didn't see then either

S2.P91: I don't think I saw it and I don't think would have had the courage either

S2.T91: And you don't think you making the same mistake again?

S2.P92: Urn

S2.T92: Well .. you making it halfway .• anyway---- the only thing that you saying is that this time "my perception is not wrong"

S2.P93: I don't think it is wrong ---- the other thing is

I . . .

S2.T93: Which you didn't think either twenty years ago

340/ •.• - 340 -

S2.P94: (Laughing) I don't think I thought about it twenty years ago

S2.T94: You didn't even think about it

S2.P95: No •. I don't think I've even thought about it---- I think I •. I was urn •• more emotion than thought at that time •• I think I got upset ----I think I blamed •••.•.•

7.7.1. Sequential analysis

exchanging information 1 open statement by patient 1 negative response by therapist 1 exchanging information

open statementl by patient

negative response1 by therapist 1 negative response by patient

l 341/ •.. - 341 -

therapist backs down 1 patient gives positive response 1 therapist makes an interpretation 1 patient accepts interpretation l negative response by therapist

patient rejects repeated interpretation1 by therapist 1 therapist backs down 1 patient responds positively with lengthy communication 1 therapist makes interpretation 1 patient accepts interpretation l mutual clarification of interpretation 1 strong interpretation of patient's femininity 1 patient accepts

1 342/ •.• - 342 -

therapist gives negative response 1 patient responds negatively by rejecting therapist's statement 1 therapist backs down 1 mutual clarification follows 1 therapist makes interpretation 1 patient accepts

negative therapist response1 because inappropriate

patient continues lpositive response l therapist clarifies interpretation l open acceptance by patient l therapist makes a strong interpretation 1 patient rejects it 1 therapist confronts patient with contradictions

1 343/ ... - 343 -

patient accepts interpretation

The interaction between the therapist and the patient follows a cyclical development which starts out as an exchange of information or a clarification of previous statements. This builds up to a point where either the therapist or the patient make a 'strong' statement, the patient an open statement about herself, or the therapist an interpretation.

Instead of the interaction developing on this basis, it returns for the first part of the session back to where they more or less started out from because of the therapist's negative responses to the patient, so that the interaction looks something like this: positive negative

patJ.ent i therapist patient

344/ ... - 344 -

It is quite clear that in this session that the therapist obstructs the progress of therapy by constituting a pattern which can be described as:

"if you say 'yes' I say 'no'; if you say 'no' I say

'yes'"·

The session starts off on neutral tone with the patient and therapist giving and asking for in£ormation which culminates in P7 when the patient refers to her (1) youth (2) mother (3) feelings and (4) her motivation to engage in therapy. The therapist, by missing this, sounds the first false note in T7, which leads onto another sequence of asking and giving information which culminates in P18, which is again a very open and positive statement by the patient. This time the therapist responds positively, but in a very neutral way. The patient continues in the positive vein in P19 but is finally brought to a halt by the therapist's facetious joke about the Rolling Stones song. The therapist back-tracks by clarifying her statement, which restores the patient's positive attitude and which allows him to make the interpretation in T23 which directs the patient to her internal motivations for staying in the marriage. She accepts his direction in P24 specifically by saying

345/ ... - 345 -

"I was terrified of - of being alone," but in his response in T24 the therapist does not accept this opening, choosing rather to attack her defense mechanisms. He returns to his original interpretation T23 in statement T27 but this time the patient rejects it. This leads on to an argument which ends when the therapist backs down in

T35, which allows the patient to recover and make a lengthy communication. This leads on to a sequence where the therapist is making a number of interpretations which the patient nominally accepts, which culminates in P47 with a clear substantiated acceptance by the patient. A number of clarifications follow which terminate in the therapist's interpretation directed at the patient's femininity in T55. Another series of clarifications follows, but due to the therapist's lack of response to the patient it ends in a rejection by the patient in P67 and P68. The therapist again backs down and the interaction develops into a process of clarifications which ends when the therapist makes an interpretation in T75 and T76. A series of clarifications follows until the therapist interprets the patient's need to avoid her feelings in T83. The patient accepts this and substantiates by verbalizing her insecurities. The therapist

346/ ... - 346 -

repeats the interpretations in a stronger form in T87, which the patient weakly resists, indicating

her acceptance in P89, P91 and P94.

Quantitative analysis

The 28 clusters which are extracted at level 0, are

drawn from communications over the duration of the

whole session. They are all included in the level 1

clustering which produces 10 clusters.

Cluster 6, 9 and 10 are not included in the level 2

clustering. It is therefore important to look at

the themes which are represented in these clusters.

Cluster 6 loaded significantly on statements S2P50,

S2P51, S2P61, S2P68 and S2P72. The theme in these

statements refer to the patient's femininity; her

doubts about it; the negative feedback she had from

her husband about it; in relation to her lover, and

the problem of femininity and assertiveness.

Cluster 9 and 10 loaded high on S2P15, S2P19, S2P85

and S2P87. The theme revolves around her inability

to cope without medication, her need for affection

and the despair that she will never find it.

347/ ... - 347 -

At level two, 2 clusters are identified. Cluster 1 loaded significantly on S2P5, S2P7, S2P36, S2P49, S2P24 and S2P61. Cluster 2 loaded on S2P7, S2P12,

S2P18, S2P19 and S2P75.

The two clusters focus on two themes. The first theme revolves around the patient's physiological state (the rash, the depression and the medication). The second theme revolves around her dissatisfaction about her relationship with a) her mother; b) her ex-husband; c) her present lover, and her inability to end her relationships with them.

One could postulate that the two themes expose a causal connection in the patient's thinking. She seems to be saying that her relationships with her mother, ex-husband and lover caused her depression, rash and the need for medication.

348/ •.• - 348 -

7.8. Session 3

S3. P1 : The spots are still coming and going •• it was quite bad over the weekend not as bad as they have been •• but I mean •. they were there •......

The patient again starts the session off by referring to her spots. This allows her to 'talk therapy' without actually saying anything about herself.

S3. T1 : It reminds me of your reluctance to accept my sexual interpretations

The therapist responds by referring to the previous session and trying to introduce the interpretation on femininity immediately.

S3.P2: I was very depressed over. the weekend •. I was in tears yesterday ---- just briefly ---- my feet! and my hands! all day Sunday it drove me crazy ---- it

349/ ... - 349 -

was still painful this morning ---- I was hobbling around as soon as I got to work •. they were fine •..•.. been fine all day ......

The patient makes a double communication. She refers to her feelings but then continues talking about her rash. One can assume that this first part of her statement is a response to T1 and the second constitutes her defence.

S3.T2: So the rash seems to come on only when you're with P over the weekend

The therapist responds with a clarifying statement about the rash.

S3.P3: Ja that's it seems so---- I don't know •. it comes and goes during the week •. but I was really •. my feet were so painful

The patient accepts it.

350/ •.. - 350 -

S3.T3: You have reported before that it is worse over weekends

The therapist elaborates.

S3.P4: Ja.. it is much worse but it was just astonishing this •. morning .• cause I was really

hobbling and eh .. as soon as I got to work it's fine never thought about it again all day ...... I'm very tired and my legs ache up here---- but .. eh.. the itch and the swelling on my feet seem to have vanished

Patient responds with a further elaboration.

S3.T4: You say have eh .. your legs are very tired up here?

The therapist asks for more information. It is however not an innocent request since the therapist already has the interpretation in T7 in mind.

351 I . .. - 351 -

S3.P5: Just here .. my hips •. the top of my legs eh .. they ache ---- I'm very tired

The patient responds by giving more information, and also by complaining.

S3.T5: But .. you haven't done anything which would .• eh cause that .. the legs to be tired

The therapist maintains the focus on the legs by asking a rhetorical question.

S3.P6: No

The patient responds as expected.

S3.T6: So .. it must be some sort of tension

The therapist makes a preliminary interpretation.

352/ ... - 352 -

S3.P7: Urn. Ja •. it feels like tension .. where you have been very •. up tight and now I've got eh .. First National Bank phoned me today urn .• they want me to go and have an interview on Friday for a job

I don't know what the hell to do •••••••• I want to get away from .• (Pty) Ltd but I'm just nervous about my health to go to another company now ...... I've got a theory about eh .. this relationship with P um .• it just struck me this morning •. actually ----I think that it isn't as I say I'm quite convinced the man loves me urn •• I think he just is not interested in sex .. and eh the sort of things that I look for in a relationship .. the cuddles or the odd touch .. or whatever urn either are stimulated by the fact that you are, you are sexually active •. or possibly he feels that if he kisses and cuddles me •. I might want to go to bed .• but I've come to the conclusion that that's the reason •. he just isn't interested in sex he's never been very sexually active he's •. he's just •. we haven't had sex for .. it must be well over a month •...•....

The patient accepts it and, although seemingly going into another topic,

35 3/ •.• - 353 -

actually links the tension in her legs with the sexual aspect of their relationship.

83. T7: You realise the tension in your hips •. is probably related to sexual tension

The therapist makes the interpretation but in such a way that he does not acknowledge that the patient has already said as much. He therefore structures his intervention in a confrontational tone which indicates that he really missed the patient's admission in P7. In a way, the therapist is suggesting to the patient that she should have difficulty accepting what he is saying, so that the patient initially responds tentatively and then more affirmatively in P8.

S3.P8: Could be •• ja ja

354/ ••• - 354 -

83. T8: But you •. you've displaced it you see •. because the tension shouldn't be on the outside of the thighs .. of the hips •. it should be on the inside

The therapist now elaborates.

S3.P9: Urn ••••••••• what made me think of it is •. you know •. when I was married I would avoid any contact with D at all •• in case he got ideas .• and eh .. I eh •. suspect that that's it---- plus the fact he just is .. I told he was with his wife for twelve year---- he never •. he didn't have sex at all .. yes

By saying 'what made me think of it is' the patient shows that she has already made the connection.

S3.T9: Let me .. point out to you what's happening with your legs the tension that you're feeling in the legs is related to sexual tension •. and what is happening is that you're taking the tension which should be between the legs •. and you're putting it

355/ •.. - 355 - on the outside of the legs ---- and the way the link is made is that when you're having sex and you're pulling your legs up •• you've been using your outer muscles on the sides .. the waist actually .• so .. that if you experiment now ---- if you pull the legs up you will feel the tension in exactly those muscles and those areas where you feel the tiredness and so by that activity of pulling up the legs or opening the legs and this tension that's put in the hip area that is now experienced as a tiredness •• anyway •. but it really comes from the tension which is on the inside or a focus which is on the vagina and instead of pulling up your legs or opening the legs which would be putting the pressure on the outside of the thighs .. you don't do that •. but the tension is nevertheless there and the tiredness is nevertheless there ...•.•.••. I think what is happening more •. and more and I think it is happening with the rash as well ---- is that because you refusing to speak your sex out .. your body is becoming more and more explicit in what it's saying and although I think we have discovered the whole language that your rash is talking to us .• I think the tension in the thighs •. on the outside or the hips •• the hip area is certainly quite explicit

356/ ... - 356 -

Instead of directly discussing her sexual needs the therapist persists with his elaboration. His statement is however not completely amiss in that the elaboration is not so much designed to explain something to the patient but to actually make her aware of the sexual tension which is present at the moment.

S3.P10: I did something the other week which I .. I realised after I'd done it what I'd done it for urn •. I went to the •• I wasn't very busy one afternoon •• I went to the Plaza .• and p had his watch stolen last year and I saw a watch on sale .• I couldn't afford it •. but I bought for him ---- and .. urn he was very pleased with it and all that •. but I suddenly realised afterwards .. I actually expected it to make a difference I hadn't realised at the time •. but •. you know .• afterwards I thought to myself •. ja .. it's •. I really expected •. it's stupid really •. but I really expected it to make a difference ---­ so •• again I was trying to engineer the situation

357I .. . - 357 -

The patient responds with an elaboration which amazingly the therapist doesn't perceive.

S3.T10: But •. I don't see how that follows with what I've said

S3.P11: Probably doesn't •..•••••• I really think I'm in between a rock and a hard place •. P •. I mean •• I feel very strongly about P •. for a start and eh •. alright his not good for me from the point of view that there's no emotional stimulus and not enough sex etc ••• but then if I don't have P I'm lonely and I'm broke .. so •. either way .. I'm not doing too well

The patient responds by withdrawing and going into her usual defence which is a discussion of the practical difficulties.

S3.T11: You see •• by constantly referring to the practical implications of what you're doing now we're avoiding the focusing of the experience of what I'm

358/ ••. - 358 -

pointing out to you so that instead of your focus now going to your legs and the outside of your hips and taking the session from there •• you're now involved with what happens with this that and the other and it's all ......

The therapist interprets the resistance, and it also becomes clear why he responded the way he did in T10. The therapist was trying to push the patient into deepening her focus on her physical experiences with the result that he saw P10 as an avoidance of this, rather than as an elaboration. From his statement it is clear that he wants the patient to be more aware of herself in the present situation to experience her sexual needs rather than just talk about them.

S3.P12: But •• I haven't been very sexually interested either just can't be bothered

The patient now exposes her resistance to experiencing the feelings that she is talking about.

359/ ... - 359 -

S3.T12: But now you see your legs are saying something

different

The therapist confronts her by referring

to the agreed-on interpretation that the tension in the patient's legs indicate

sexual tension.

S3.P13: I don't think I want to face the disappointment of having to approach him ...•.••.••

The patient accepts it.

S3.T13: You see.. again you're constantly interpreting what's happening here in terms of your relationship with him

The therapist repeats his interpretation.

S3.P14: Ja

360/ .•• - 360 -

Which the patient accepts.

S3.T14: So you keep on avoiding just being here and focusing on you legs and see where that takes you

The therapist elaborates on the interpretation.

S3.P15: I'm not usually so reticent in talking about sex .• I don't know why I should be ---- I suppose it's because in this specific •..••••.

The patient begins to accept the interpretation when the therapist interrupts.

S3.T15: Try to relax ---- you don't have to be that focussed just relax ---- breath a little bit more ---­ focus on your breathing ••••••..

361 I ... - 361 -

The therapist, perceiving that the patient's resistance is weakening, but that at the same time her nervousness is increasing, supports the patient and suddenly lifts the pressure which he has been applying since the previous session.

S3.P16: I was just trying to workout why I enjoy sex when I don't climax .....•••.. but •. I think it's because I associate sex with being loved and wanted and needed and all those things um ...... being attractive and desirable and eh.. . •.•..•• which.. I think is why I .. I'm not interested at the moment because it doesn't prove anything? ...... although I'm very urn .. outspoken and broadminded ect about sex •• I think I'm actually urn •. what we were talking about the other day---- ah •. like my sensitivities about sex are very highly defined ---­ ah .. can't explain it ...•..... my ex-husband---- I always felt .. if he had to cut me in half .. he'd take the bottom half. Which urn .. made me feel used urn ---- thinking that somebody just want sex doesn't do anything for me ---- it's me that they have to want •...... •• and I suppose I've tried to prove to myself that I'm eh •• desirable •....•...

362/ ... - 362 -

The patient immediately responds with an open and lengthy communication.

S3. T16: Your thoughts seem to be in some way .. related to sex or to your legs but seems to be in a very distant way try to focus on your legs ---- on that tiredness on that tightness that you feel there ..---- just focus on that and take it from there

The therapist however is not satisfied. Contrary to his previous responses to the patient he responds far more sympathetically by accepting the patient's statement, but then redirecting her to the physical sensation in her legs.

S3.P17: all I can think of is like a eh .. like a pinion? urn ...... when two bars connect •.•.....

The patient is on the verge of a free-association. She is describing the sensations in terms which the therapist knows is going to lead to freer thinking.

363/ ... - 363 -

S3.T17: Go on

He therefore encourages her.

S3.P18: Like two uprights and a cross bar .• the pain is

where the two intercept

She continues.

S3.T18: Stay with that

He supports the patient by focussing her

attention.

S3.P19: (Inaudible)

S3.T19: (Inaudible)

Both the patient and the therapist realize

what is happening. The intimacy and the

364/ ••. - 364 -

confidentiality of the interaction suddenly exposes both their resistance to the intrusion of the tape recorder.

S3.P20: Somehow •• I don't know a sensation of the legs is traveling up to my mind .. the pain

The patient is describing here a real experience. It is not a metaphorical statement. It is a quite stunningly vivid example of the links between the body and the thought process.

S3.T20: Try to keep it there in your awareness and tell me what •.•...

The therapist responds by supporting the patient.

S3.P21: ...... the words pick and shovel come to mind I don't know why

365/ ... - 365 -

And suddenly the unconscious material

breaks through. The patient verbalizes

the inexplicable nature of this

experience. The words come out of

nowhere. There is no conscious build-up

to it, as is evidenced by the preceding

part of the session.

S3.T21: Stay with that

The therapist responds supportively.

S3.P22: that shovel is the wrong way up ---- it's eh •. a swinging movement •. it's •• the scoop .. the

face of the shovel .. it's down and it's •.•....•.

and eh •• it seems to be on a cross bar ----it's

attached somehow or another .. swinging up and down

like one of those swings .. I don't know if you've

ever seen one a bird things on a cross bar ..

dips it's beak in water ---- toy thing

The patient moves immediately from the

verbal representations to images. The

366/ .•• - 366 -

image of a shovel comes into her mind. This also refers to the shovel in session

1 •

S3.T22: (Inaudible)

S3.P23: Ja •.••.••••• there's an awful lot of acitivity but I can't see what it is

It is unclear what the therapist is saying in T22 but it is probably something supportive, and the patient responds by continuing. The therapist in T23 supports the patient.

S3.T23: Keep the focus •.••••.•.. what did you see

S3.P24: I don't know .. there a ...... •. this .. this thing is going up and down and there's such a lot of surrounding it that I can't see what it is ---- there's a lot of .• looks like violent activity ...... •. and .. and um looks like one of those •• I don't know what they are •. they are

367 I ... - 367 -

very decorative things.. like a ball with plumes •••..•••• it's this •• this shovel going up and down .•

The patient continues to verbalize the images which are coming into her mind.

S3.T24: Try to keep the focus and verbalise it

The therapist supports her.

S3.P25: There's a eh plank or a door or something in eh •• behind the shovel---- the shovel is red •. the ground is red .. the door is red •. everything is red there's always activity in eh .. on the fringes...... And the door .. or whatever it is •. is church door shaped that type of a door...... and there's a leg .. bent at the

k..."'lee.. and it 1 s. • . . • . • . . . • it 1 s also kicking up and down •. but it's not straightning •• it's kicking up and down at that angle---- it's ••....••. boot or something...... a thing going around with---­ spokes sticking out of it •....•••• and like the •.

368/ .•• - 368 -

the springs of a eh .• flat springs •. you know those metal pieces .. that are all pancaked on top of each other the springs of eh •• locomotives or machines or something •.•..•••. (cough) ..••••..

The patient continues to verbalize what she sees. The therapist continues to support the patient in T25.

33. T25: Keep your focus ..•••.....•••

S3.P26: ...... th •• are like two V shapes .. pointwise on top of each other like urn .. such a lot of movement it's like machinery •..•...•..• urn .. what do you call those things ----urn .. have you ever seen these things that they use to water eh .• fields they half turned

The patient continues and the therapist supports her in T26, which is again followed by the patient's verbalization in P27.

369/ ... - 369 -

S3.T26: Yes

S3.P27: Something like that ....•..•• there's an X•......

trees...... and a broom .• a broom sweeping---­

a urn •. a whole broom with a head •. like eh •. eh .• a

strawbroom like a witches broom •. that type of

thing...... I can't see any people all these

things are moving...... a hand on a tree

trunk...... something um •• off centre going

around .•••••.... and eh •••••••••• dancing

flames ••..•••••

S3.T27: Keep your focus on the images •• but •. don't control

the feelings whatever is going on in your

feelings allow that to go through as well

The therapist again supports the patient,

but now adds an instruction. He probably senses that the patient is trying to maintain some control.

S3.P28: I get the impression of gypsies .••...... all sorts

of things like um ---- 2h •. eh a lane of trees with

eh .. eh •. but you can only see one end of it and

370/ ... - 370 -

there's eh •• eh •• a cart going into the trees •. into

the lane ----and .. just very vague images •...•...•

it's definitely horses or eh ••.•...••• (laugh) ..

like the um •• lance that Indians throw in the ground

um.. a big thick pole with eh .. um .. tassles

something at one end .•.•..•..• none of it forms a

picture •. it's all bits and pieces •..•...•.. and

something like leaves or feathers •• or something on

a belt swaying backwards and forwards •••.•..••.

The patient's response shows that there

was a repression operating, that is, she

was keeping human beings out of the

picture, her reaction to the therapist's

instruction in T27 is to include people

for the first time. The therapist

responds supportively.

S3.T28: Keep your focus on that

S3.P29: Just a .. a straight piece of unknown leather material or something things •• either they

could be •. pause •. I think they are leaves

somehow stronger than that •....•.••. I have the

371/ ... - 371 -

impression of something .. many bodies pulling

something they're all in this sort of action

---- pulling something

Although the patient starts out by

describing objects she soon incorporates

people again. The people are vague, described only as 'bodies'. The therapist

responds supportively.

S3.T29: Keep your focus on that

S3.P30: ...... I can't see anything clearly ---- it's all such a jumble a long boat ---- looks like a long boat •..•..•.. and something .. could be an

elephant's trunk coming up swerving...... a

door opening and they are all falling through it

whatever it is ---- the whole scene is falling through the door the door is in the ground ...... everything is tumbling into a

hole ...... a lot of dirt and dust and eh .. like a cave in •.••.•••

There is an increasing resistance in the

patient's verbalization indicated by the

silences.

372/ •.. - 372 -

S3.T30: (Inaudible)

S3.P31: It's very symmetrical very round...... it's

pulsating •.....•..

S3.T31: Keep your focus on that

S3.P32: It's very dark like eh .. a vortex whirling •.••..•.. whirling •.•••••••

S3.T32: Keep it in focus

S3.P33: It's eh .• closed .••.....

S3.T33: Stay like that

S3.P34: ...... there's something flapping ..••.••.. I think of an eagle •.•...... urn .. pointy things like

urn...... and moving like writhing um ..

green and black ...... and urn .. I don't know what

you could...... I don't know .. I can't describe

them they're urn •. like tongues of flame except that they are green and black and they're all

writhing...... and there's a .. there was a

light.. something has been draped over the

light •...•...• like a bear trap or a •••.•.... that

373/ ..• - 373 -

type of shape like a big mouth ---- it's urn •.••••.•. metal trap...... I don't know about the urn •. pause •• what it came for---- a ledge •. anyway...... like a rock face---- like a ledge on a rock face •....••• something's going around .. and around and around like eh .. hat with a feather in it the feather is set off-centre as it's going round and round ---- a butterfly opening and closing it's wings ...•...••

The increasing number of silences indicates that the patient is increasingly struggling with a resistance. The image of a butterfly opening and closing it's wings suggests to the therapist that the patient is talking about her legs; he therefore directs her to that image.

S3.T34: Stay with the butterfly

S3.P35: ...••••• something is obscuring it---- I can only

see a bit of it •••.••.•• I can see it head on still opening and closing it's wings ---- it's very tired ---- it's a very dull butterfly ---- it's a brown

374/ ... - 374 -

butterfly •.••••• it's like •. it's very tired .. it's

wings come together it's it's sticky .• h~s trouble pulling it's wings apart •.••.••••• and it seem to be stuck together- altogether •..•.•..• now there's a little the wings are stuck together .. but it's at the top •• like that---- and there's all

sorts of colours and sparks and pretty lights ~nd things coming from it .•.....•. it's like a .. like a Tulip with urn •• but it's lit up it's a a neon Tulip ••..•••. and there's like puffs of eh .. falls of eh .•.•..•••.. of light all •• being puffed out of the Tulip at intervals there was something playing a flute or a .• urn •• some reed instrument •. but know it's just turned into eh •. like that play

dough stuff •••••... dragon? ••••... ~ dragon his mouth is square---- he's opened it now .. it's square •.•.... it's all gone

The patient responds by continuing.

7.8.1. Sequential Analysis

patient gives information 1 therapist repeats previous interpretation

l 375/ ... - 375 -

patient accepts and avoids 1 therapist accepts resistance 1 patient feels supported l exchange of information about resistance 1 therapist makes a preliminary interpretation l patient responds by accepting and completing interpretation l therapist formalizes interpretation

pat1ent. laccepts l therapist elaborates l patient accepts l therapist elaborates l patient elaborates 1 therapist makes a negative comment

l 376/ ••• - 376 -

patient becomes defensive 1 therapist interprets resistance l patient accepts interpretation 1 therapist elaborates 1 patient(ccepts

therapist openly supportive 1 open statement by patient l therapist redirects patient 1 patient accepts 1 therapist supports patient 1 patient continues 1 therapist and patient collude against tape recorder 1 patient immediately responds by linking her thoughts with her feelings

1 377/ ... - 377 -

therapist supports 1 patient experiences breakthrough of unconscious material 1 therapist supports

After this point in the session the therapist and

the patient maintain the sequence of the patient

verbalizing unconscious material and the therapist

supporting her.

The patient starts the session by referring to her

rash. The therapist does not accept this opening

gambit and immediately refers to the interpretation

of her sexuality. Although the patient partly

responds to the therapist's statement she responds

mainly by maintaining her focus on the topic of the

rash in P2. The therapist allows the patient to

decide on the topic and gives a clarification. The

patient accepts and the therapist elaborates, which

is again accepted by the patient in P4. The

therapist now asks for more information which is

given by the patient; the therapist then maintains

the focus on the topic, preparing to make a

preliminary interpretation in T6. The patient's

378/ .•. - 378 -

acceptance in P7 allows the therapist to make a strong interpretation in T7. The therapist misses

the fact that the patient has already verbalized his

interpretation, so that the patient is in fact

leading the discussion until T10. The therapist's

negative response immediately elicits the patient's

habitual defence which the therapist interprets in a

sequence which continues up to P15. The therapist's

supportive response in T15 immediately leads on to

P16 where the patient is verbalizing her hesitancy

about discussing sex. In T16 the therapist again

responds supportively but directs the patient's

awareness. This sympathetic directive is accepted

by the patient and she starts talking about the pain

in her legs. The therapist after this point remains

completely supportive while the patient increasingly

verbalizes the break - through of unconscious

material.

7.8.2. Quantitative analysis

The analysis of the patient's communications produced 24 clusters at level 0. Only three of these clusters were not included in level 1 clustering, that is, cluster 2, 3 and 12.

379/ ... - 379 -

Cluster 2 loaded significantly on S3P34 which is a free-association. It is unfortunately not clear what the meaning of the free-association is.

Cluster 3 and 12 which load on S3P10 and S3P11 refers to the patient's relationship with her present lover.

The 21 clusters which are incorporated in the level

1 analysis devolves into 7 clusters.

Cluster 4 represents the patient's complaint about her dermatitis. Cluster 2 and 7 load significantly on S3P7, S3P9 and S3P16 where the thematic content is focused on the patient's sexuality. All the other clusters represent free-associations.

The free-associations stand in the same relation to the rest of the session as they did in session one, where the image of the cardex system and the swinging shovel led the patient to recollect items about her life with her father.

The free-associations can therefore be said to be unconscious imagery which recursively constitute the conscious discussion on sexuality. This will be more clearly illustrated in the discussion of the free-associations.

380/ ... - 380 -

The therapist's communications break down into 13 clusters at level 0, with two clusters formed at level 1. Although 13 clusters are produced it seems as if there are 2 clear themes represented in the clusters. The one which is represented in all the communications up to S3T16 reflects the therapist's attempts to focus the patient on her legs and her sexual feelings. The other theme is represented in

S3T20 and S3T27 where the therapist give supportive but vague directions to the patient to keep her focus. The two clusters at level one are both drawn from the first theme, with the second theme not finding any representations at level one clustering.

Although the clustering procedure suggests a structure in the analysis of this session it does not reflect the thematic content adequately. This is possibly due to the associational looseness of the communications of both the therapist and the patient. The possibility that associational looseness (in the statistical sense) may be associated with the break-through of unconscious material has already been mentioned by Iker (1973). If this is the case then the applicability of clustering techniques as represented in the WORDS program may be seriously limited in researching

free-associative material.

381/ ... - 381 -

Analysis of free-associations

The verbal free-association in P21 is predicated on two very important interactions. The unfortunate negative quality of the previous session carries over into session 3 to some extent, colouring the interaction with a negative and confrontational tone. This, however, changes radically when the therapist gives the following response in T15.

Try to relax - you don't have to be that

focused just relax - breathe a little bit

more - focus on your breathing.

The very supportive quality of this statement takes away the patient's resistance, leading onto the verbalization of the free-associative material in the rest of the session.

The effect this communication has on the patient should be seen in the context of the tension which had been building up since the previous session.

The efficacy of this communication is the result of the dramatic change in the therapist's position vis-a-vis the patient, from threatening the patient's organization to supporting it. The

382/ .•. - 382 - disturbance in the pattern of relating between patient and therapist creates the gap through which the unknown, existing, but implicit patterns of thought and feelings (unconscious) manifest themselves. The pattern of the relationship between the therapist and patient (transference) represents recursively the pattern of feeling and thought in the patient which exclude from awareness the hitherto unknown thoughts and feelings. By changing his interaction with the patient the therapist disrupts the organization obtaining at the time, which allows for a new organization to be constituted.

The other important communication is made by the patient in P17:

all I can think of is like a eh •.. like a pinion urn ...... when two bars connect.

This statement again indicates how the mental

free-association is a recursive constitution of the experience of physical sensation. Precisely in what way the mental free-associations are predicated on

the free-flow experience of physical sensations is

383/ •.. - 383 - not clear. It is nevertheless quite clear from the development of the first and third sessions that the free-flow physical experiences are precursors of mental free-associations. It is quite possible that they both represent at different levels some functional principle, which Freud partly addressed with his construct of the primary process. The primary process is, however, supposedly defining a psychical process, whereas what we have here is a higher order principle which determines both the awareness of psychical content as well as physical experience. Whether the pattern is determined by the componential processes in the psyche and the

soma, or whether it is primarily determined by the qualities inherent in the process of awareness is

unclear. Although this is an important question, both theoretically and technically, it must also be borne in mind that wherever this process is primarily determined, it is ultimately always generated from the most basic componential processes, and then recursively reformulated at the different levels of functioning.

Although Freud explicitly stated that the id is the meeting point, or even the conjoint manifestation of

the psyche and the body, he never illustrated this

384/ ••. - 384 - clearly. Another remarkable example of the co-incidental nature of the psyche and the body is given by the patient in S3P20:

"Somehow I don't know a sensation of

the legs is travelling up to my mind ..••

the pain"

385/ ... - 385 -

7.9. Session 4

S4. P1 : I had a lot of spots on the back of my neck on

Monday night but othe~wise I didn't eh I had some

unde~ my feet ...... I haven't got any at the

moment •••.•..• I had anothe~ one of those so~t of

waking • . . • . • . . • . • • • • . • awake d~eam things eh

...... the~e was this eh plastic model laying down

and eh ••••.•• was a t~ap doo~ and it spoke and the

t~apdoo~ was open and the~e was a baby laying inside

its stomach .•.•....•.

At this stage in the~apy the patient is

using he~ ~ash as a depa~tu~e point in

eve~y session. She then immediately goes

into ve~balizing mate~ial f~om he~

unconscious which indicates that she is

~eally quite open.

S4. T1 : T~y to focus on that image again and stay with it

The the~apist ~esponds with his usual

di~ective when the patient ve~balizes

386/ •.. - 386 -

unconscious material, which is that she

should focus on it.

S4.P2: It was all very pink and very obviously hard hard substance •••••.. the trap door was eh was elongated

which struck me as strange as opposed to ---- I

don't know why but I just imagined a trapdoor to be

square this wasn't •••.•••.• and eh the trapdoor was

sticking out and there was this baby doll laying in

eh inside the trapdoor it was just a flash all

static nothing was nothing moving

The patient responds to the directive in

her usual way which is to continue with

her verbalization.

S4.T2: Try to visualise it now

The therapist realizes that the patient is

simply reporting the picture instead of

re-experiencing it. He therefore

encourages the patient to make the picture

more actual.

387 I ... - 387 -

S4.P3: I don't see it now it's you you just have the vague impression of the arms the legs and the head of the the model the focus is on the is on the stomach with the trapdoor open •••••.. it has no pubic hair it's just a plastic model ••••.•. and eh there's nothing no painted blood on it or anything like that there's just a this this trapdoor sticking out with this baby lying there this doll •.•.• this doll ..... it's all very obviously eh a model .•.•.•.

Although the patient has some difficulty initially, she manages to re-activate the picture.

S4.T3: Stay with it

The therapist supports this .

S4.P4: •••••.. the doll's actually far to well shaped and and rounded to be a new born baby it's more like a three month four month old baby •.•••.• and no hair it's just shiny plastic •.•.•.• I'm now getting the impression of a bubbly eh black substance underneath

388/ .•. - 388 -

underneath the baby •••..•. as if the stomach is full of this •. like urn thin liquid tar sticking boiling like hubble bubble toil and trouble type of thing

The patient elaborates and the therapist supports her.

S4.T4: Follow that thought

S4.P5: .•••••• like a cold wind of nastiness •.•••.

S4.T5: (inaudible)

S4.P6: Something like that ja ....•.• it's not apparent from the actual vision •. urn it's a bit like urn •.•.•.•. I'm sort of aware of it as oposed to actually viscious (inaudible)

S4.T6: (inaudible)

S4.P7: there's a --~-now I can see an arm in a raincoat with a bunch of flowers in his hand •. flowers are white smooth like urn like English

389/ .•• - 389 -

daisies the arm is in a raincoat and it's moving all the time .••.•.. the arm is eh not waving as in up in the air but from the natural length of the arm moving •.••••. I still see the arm but now out of proportion it's the front cover of a book and the book is enormous and the front cover keeps opening and banging into the arm they're going opening and closing um •..••••..•.

S4.T7: Keep the focus

S4.P8: Is um it doesn't fully open to a ninety degree angle it's um you remember that shovel effect at that sort of an angle I don't what you would call it um about forty degrees something like that •. now the book is getting smaller •.•.•.• the picture is just fading away nothing ......

During the above sequence the patient continues to verbalize and the therapist continues to support her. In P8 the patient finally cannot see anything anymore which immediately prompts the therapist to try and lead her on to another chain of thoughts in T8.

390/ ... - 390 -

S4.T8: If you think about the book does it remind you of anything? if you think about books what comes to

mind

S4.P9: Pleasure escapism ••.••.• the fact that I used to devour books at a rate of knots when I was a kid

I use to read books like Lesley Chartress 'the

tott' •••.•••.. I'd read them all by the time I was

about nine •• ten something like that •.••.•. I

used to read under the bed clothes with a

torch...... it always has been a source of

pleasure ..••••. urn I never get over the sense of

them being a luxury urn ---- sort of special thing to

buy •.••••. the book club I belong to •.•....• the

development of my reading habits •..••..•

The patient responds with memories of her

childhood which leads on to the therapist asking for more information.

S4.T9: What about that?

S4.P10: Sorry

391 I . .. - 391 -

S4.T10: What about that ---- what about the development of your reading

S4.P11: Oh I sort of got stuck into eh I didn't know what to

read I didn't have any real sort of guidance and in

Zambia.. the great eh developing .. urn eh top

favourite whatever suppose I met urn pause

people who are well read and I asked one of them to

give me a list of books and I read all the things

like War and Peace and Pride and Prejudice and all

those type of things um .•..••• it was a sort of

..••••• it was a bit like being able to walk and

finding out how to eh how to run and jump ......

and then in England when I was at college I asked

the eh I can't remember what the lecturer's name was

presumably an English lecturer I don't know for a

list of books I waded my way through most of

them ......

The patient responds by giving more information.

S4.T11: Did you ever get to Macbeth

392/ .•• - 392 -

The therapist's question refers the patient back to P4.

S4.P12: No I don't like Shakespeare I've read Richard III urn Midsummer Night's Dream I just urn I did not like it well perhaps that's a bit unfair I find it urn hard

going ......

The patient gives a matter of fact response.

S4.T12: Yet you know the quote from the from the witches urn chant

The therapist's persistence indicates that he is not satisfied with her response and that he senses that there is unconscious material linked to the topic which is ready to break through.

S4.P13: Those sort of things you tend to pick up in all sorts of reading •.••..•.

393/ •.. - 393 -

The patient resists by remaining matter of fact.

S4.T13: Urn if you think about that chant what comes to mind

The therapist persists by giving the patient an explicit directive to free-association.

S4.P14: Witches and darkness and evil and urn trees •.•••••

The patient's response again shows the remarkable discontinuity when unconscious material breaks through.

S4. T14: Trees?

The therapist's surprise shows in his voice.

S4. P15: Urn

394/ .•. - 394 -

The patient is reluctant to respond to the therapist's persistence with the focus.

S4.T15: Stay with that

S4.P16: Forests at night urn glens in inside the forests •. eh clearings urn gnarled old trees like in urn the Hobbit urn in the forest in the Hobbit was fantastic dreams eh making a roof ••.•.•• hiding away the air and the sky they just eh a depending on the eh situation it could be in a beautifull and romantic and urn •.•.... cosy yet •• it could be frightening and eh gloomy cold ••••..••. wet •••••••. forests tend to go with eh hay field ••..••• not really anything how you you see them like other things but particularly forests ...••.•• When you're feeling miserable they are gloomy cold frightening places ....•.. one can't imagine them beautiful enchanted and urn cool

The patient responds by talking about forests in general. The therapist perceives this as an avoidance of personal experiences so that in his response he directs her on to a more personal domain.

395/ ... - 395 -

S4.T16: Is there any forest in Zambia

S4.P17: Not particularly .• beautiful forests in Rhodesia .• pine forest I've been in a forest but I can't remember where •. yes my father Beechwood not Beechwood .• Virginia Waters I think it's called he

use to he used to love Virginia Waters urn which is ~ forest ••••..••• everywhere I like tore •• I suppose you do have it here •• I've obviously never seen any here but in the U.K. when there's •• when your're somewhere like that the the floor of of the forest is all inches thick in these leaves and it crunches as you walk •....••

The patient responds by producing more personal information.

S4.T17: Try to continue

The therapist supports this.

396/ .•. - 396 -

S4.P18: I was just thinking what eh eh simple easily satisfied person my father was •.••••• for him to go to the Waters for the day was enough he was very unsophisticated he didn't need lights and glamour and people and .•••••• he enjoyed to do that sort of thing ••.•.•. a picnic just go for a walk and lie on the grass or whatever ..••••• not very expressive not very demanding but he and P are actually very alike .•..... I never liked the outdoors very much I've never enjoyed sport or eh doing outdoor kind of things has never appealed to me at all ---- I once wrote an essay for •• again .. when I was doing my 0 levels in England at College •. about Brighton beach and eh (inaudible) who put your (inaudible) to the beach (inaudible) my essay and there was somebody else in the class who wrote also ---- we had a choice •• we two select the beach well not . . . • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • . . . and the difference in our perception of what was going on at the beach was absolutely incredible it was so incredible that eh the lecturer actually read them out ---- mine was very urn simple and eh I couldn't really find anything good to say about it and other woman's was so romantic and idealized it was actually incredible writing about the same subject

397 I ... - 397 -

The patient links the discussion to her father and her own feelings.

S4.T18: Somehow it seems to me that the beach is on your mind even to the extent that you said beech wood

when it was obviously not .• ?

The therapist now introduces a play on words involving the word 'beach' and linking it to the patient's father.

S4.P19: Ja

S4.T19: Urn beach does seem to come to your mind and it's also with your father

S4.P20: Ja

S4.T20: And should you change eh bitch yet again from beech to walking on the beach to wood urn change wood to would and you say the bitch would in the sense of you would do something like that

398/ ... - 398 -

The therapist is assuming that the patient must have had an unconscious reason to refer to Beachwood and through his own free-association arrives at 'the bitch would'. The lack of clarity in his communication is intentional because he wants the message to be so ambiguous that the patient's response will show more of her dynamics.

S4.P21: Ja

The lack of response from the patient indicates a strong resistance.

S4.T21: And when you think abqut green and forests and indoor and outdoors urn the dummy and the model and your father and your and your reading lessons •••.•••. what comes to mind---- just verbalise

The therapist now links all the themes in the session in a very loose way, again trying to jog the patient's unconscious.

399/ ... - 399 -

S4.P22: I was just thinking how eh educationaly under

developed I am urn and the reading list I think

that's that's what I was trying to do urn •...••. I

don't know .• my mother's influence probably I don't know urn

S4.T22: In terms of what

The therapist is nonplussed and asks for more information.

S4.P23: In terms of indoors and eh more ---- glamourous sort of life style I suppose to nature

The patient is verbalizing the conflicting influences of her mother and father, this in response to the therapist's 'the bitch would'.

S4.T23: Yes and what about improving your education or your place in society

400/ ... - 400 -

The therapist is obliquely referring to the patient's perception of her mother as a snob.

S4.P24: Um yes similar •. similar sort of thing except mine had to be for for for real for me

The patient rejects the implication that by identifying with her mother she also is a snob.

S4.T24: But nevertheless being ambitious or feeling as being ambitious intellectual say

The therapist persists.

S4.P25: Ja I don't know was it or was it that I was actually frustrated I don't know whether it was ambition or not it was eh curiosity I think then

But the patient rejects it again.

401/ ••• - 401 -

S4.T25: Or after War and Peace and Pride and Prejudice why not Frustration and Ambition

The therapist again persists by way of a play on words based on book titles which the patient mentioned in P11.

S4.P26: ...... is there such a book? (laughing)

The patient's laughter indicates that the therapist has struck a chord.

S4.T26: Your book

S4.P27: Ja I find my education background very frustrating

or eh I think it was the background urn I went to a

convent urn I don't know I just didn't develop at

school I was last at everything urn I don't know why •• and yet it's a one regret I do regret that I

didn't go to university didn't have 9. better

education I don't know I don't know what could have happened to have made it made me develop then as

402/ •.• - 402 -

opposed to later I don't know but I regret it so ja

I suppose you could say ••...•• I don't know I don't

I don't think it is actually ambition I I think it's

um I get very frustrated there's an awfull lot of

things that I want to say and a lot of things I want

to do and because I don't have the education I can't

but is it from a status point of view I don't think ...... I don't think it is ..••.••.. I think it's from a curiosity I feel frustration •••.•.. it isn't from status or or from eh for financial gain eh it's eh what comes to mind is .. it's there eh eh it's not been used and it it irritates me um

The patient is still resisting this notion but is far freer in her thinking and verbalization about it.

S4.T27: it's not been used ~nd it irritates you

By repeating her last sentence the therapist is insinuating a sexual connotation, referring to her vagina.

403/ ... - 403 -

S4.P28: (Laughing) ja ......

The patient understands and there is a release of tension.

S4.T28: (inaudible)

Therapist and patient talk very softly to keep this communication private.

S4.P29: (Lauging) ...... I think I'm my potential is eh or my potential was urn •..... from an academic point of view far better than than than was seen at the time or or was developed to at the time ..•••••

The patient tries to change the subject.

S4.T29: Can say that of you sexually as well

404/ .•• - 404 -

The therapist keeps the focus on her sexuality.

S4.P30: Aye ja I told you the other day it's a sheer waste yes there is a parallel I suppose ...... ••.••••.•• we were comparing myself and my mother and with my mom um ••.•••• I doubt whether she had a lot of education but I doubt also that if she had had urn that her advantages .•..••• urn I don't think she could have got very far academically but she certainly took advantage of the rest of her assets .•••••• she did something I can't do .• she she eh I think that's probably why I can't do it she pretended to be somebody she wasn't she live with that she could live that entire lie knowing it was a lie ••..•.• urn •••.••• and I find that in all sorts of instances I tend to rush in and deny it if ever urn the lie is implied to me if ever I'm drawn into her lie urn---- I have to .• I have to point out that it doesn't apply to me I'm afraid of it I'm afraid of eh be drawn into that lie .•.....

The patient responds by giving very important information about her dynamics.

405/ ... - 405 -

S4.T30: You mean getting trapped in it

The therapist now links the patient's statement to the unconscious material she verbalized at the beginning of the session.

S4.P31: I don't want to be part of it ---- to me it is such

an enormous lie I don't want to be part of it

The patient confirms what the therapist is saying without realizing he is making the link to her initial statements in the session.

S4.T31: Are you refering to the trapdoor

The therapist now makes the link explicit.

S4.P32: Oh yes •....•• and and the thing I really don't want to do eh really don't want to be trapped in is the

406/ ... - 406 -

lie that she lives in herself it's bad enough to to to live with this this false or misrepresentation to other people but I have an absolute obsession of not doing that to myself .• she does to herself

The patient confirms and elaborates.

S4.T32: It sounds as if you feel that the pretence that she put up was that she is this delectable urn woman urn eh delectable not only sexually but also um socially

The therapist now makes a clear interpretation.

S4.P33: Um

The patient affirms it.

S4.T33: And not only in the present tense but also in terms of her past in other words born and bred

407 I ... - 407 -

The therapist elaborates.

S4 • P3 4 : Urn j a

The patient agrees.

S4.T34: So that she was trying to project this good feeling about herself in in all sorts of aspects and you eh determined to refrain from ••.•.

The therapist elaborates.

S4.P35: Once I found out that it wasn't true

The patient qualifies.

S4. T35: Urn

The therapist agrees.

408/ ... - 408 -

S4.P36: Um ja

The patient agrees.

S4.T36: What I'm thinking of is the Christmas lights and the refusal to see the prettiness

The therapist now makes a link with material which is not mentioned in the taped sessions. Unfortunately he is interpreting beyond the ego so that the patient's agreements are rather hollow.

S4.P37: Ja

S4.T37: as if you are suspicious of the good feeling

S4.P38: Ja •••....

S4.T38: You don't believe in that

S4.P39: Um

409/ •.• - 409 -

S4.T39: in yourself

S4.P40: ...... no she never ever slipped up she never said things like urn •..•••• when we were older she she'd she would tell you I don't know maybe I got it confused she would tell you how ...... she would tell you the story of her leaving Lancashire and going to London during the depression eh she'd somehow manage to leave out her actual background and she would tell you the story about becoming a State Registered Nurse in a cottage hostibal hospital which is a down right lie she never did that at all

The patient's response shows that she has missed the interpretation and is still dealing. with her feelings about her mother. She makes the slip 'hostibal' instead of 'hospital' which the therapist immediately takes up. The slip also very ingeniously illustrates the mechanism of parapraxis, where the verbal slip reflects the unconscious feelings. In this case the feelings are not completely repressed

41 0/ ••• - 410 -

but partly pre-conscious. The intensity of the feelings are however, not accessible.

S4.T40: When you think about hostibal what comes to your mind

S4.P41: ..••••• hostibal I get tongue-tied a lot lately urn hostility •.•.•.•••••••• I can I c8n actually feel angry eh at the lie .• I can feel it •..•••• It is silly to get so angry about it but those things I I feel more angry about ---- the fact that she came to London and she was a State Registered Nurse .• my immediate reaction is she wasn't •. she was a bloody ward maid •. and she was never ever a nurse I found this out afterwards from various relatives .. I didn't ask them it came out in conversation .. I picked it up here and there urn ...•..• it isn't anything to be ashamed of why urn .•.•••. I am so much more angry about those things then I am about anything else ---- I don't understand it ---- things like taking D surname and having it changed by deed poll onto my father's name it's just so

~~ I can't explain it when I think about those things I get angry much more so than I

411 I ... - 411 -

can get angry about the things that happened to me and her whole attitude and belief that lawyers and bank managers were interested in her in particular •. I don't know why it makes me angry but it does •...••• It got on my nerves when I was a teenager ----she had to get bloody taxis •• couldn't

use a bus you know ---- I get very emotional when I think about it ---- whether it was embarrassment or

what I don't know ---- models herself on the queen mother!

The patient is now verbalizing anger at her mother, something which she finds extremely difficult to do.

S4.T41: Model •• getting back to the model right at the beginning of the session urn and then your quote from Macbeth now lady Macbeth was also a queen in Macbeth she sacrificed her womanhood so that she could do the terrible deed by killing the king ---­ so she had to sacrifce her femininity to satisfy her ambitions and the minute you have tar and a baby urn comes virtually straight from what she says in the play in that she was prepared to loose her ability to bear children if she could only have the

412/ •.. - 412 -

strength to kill the king now you say your mother modelled herself on the queen mother you in a way have sacrificed your womanhood in some way certainly in a sexual way ---- for what?

The therapist now picks up on the patient's closing sentence linking two previous statements in the session about the model in P1, P2, P3 and the quote from Macbeth in P4 and T11.

S4.P42: I don't know •• I was going to ask you that

so that I wouldn't be like my mother ••••••• I don't

.know •••••••

The patient responds with an extremely important dynamic but then comes up against a resistance. The therapist responds supportively by giving her a way around it. The patient responds by elaborating and deepening her statement in P43.

41 3/ ... - 413 -

S4.T42: Instead of thinking about it like that simply keep these things in mind and tell me what you think

S4.P43: I'm thinking that she killed and destroyed and .•••••• I don't quite know what •.•.•••• everything that was eh ...•..• decent and normal ••..... she sacrificed us all because she couldn't cope .. with what eh um I don't---- I'll never really know whether she was unhappy with Dad or whether she thought there was something better that she could have

7.9.1. Quantitative analysis

Although the 21 level 0 clusters are drawn from communication up to S4P43, the 4 clusters at level 1 load heavily on just the first four communications. Cluster 2 loading on all four communications, and cluster 4 loading on S4P2 and S4P4. The four communications S4P1, S4P2, S4P3 and S4P4 consists, except for the opening remark, solely of the report of the waking dream and an elaboration of the initial image. It is quite surprising in view of the inadequacy of the clustering technique to pick-up the thematic themes in the previous session, that it is able to identify the report of the waking

41 4/ ••• - 414 - dream thematically. The associational tightness which allowed this is probably the result of the fact that the communication is a report, and not the verbalization of unconscious material while it is becoming conscious. The therapist sensing this difference, directs the patient in S4T2 to try and make the image more immediate.

The therapist's statements produce 17 clusters at level 0, of which only four are included in the one cluster which is produced at level 1. This cluster loaded significantly on S4P8, S4P21, S4P42. These three statements reflect the therapist's primary focus which is an attempt to direct the patient's thinking in such a way that unconscious material will come into awareness. Although this is obviously only the one step in a dialectical process involving both patient and therapist and therefore also depends on the patient's communications, it is obvious when one compares session 2 and session 3 that the therapist is far more successful in eliciting unconscious material when he directs the patient's thinking rather than when he gets embroiled in an altercation involving content.

415/ .•. - 415 -

7.9.2. Sequential analysis

P1 open positive statement by patient 1 T1

the~apist suppo~ts l P2

patient elabo~ates 1 T2

the~apist and di~ects

patient responds positively to the~apist's directive

T3l

the~apist suppo~ts l P4

patient inc~easingly ve~balizes unconscious de~ivatives

T41

the~apist supports

1 416/ ••• - 416 -

P5 patientlcontinues

T5 inaudible

1P6 unclear what patient means

T6l inaudible again 1 P7 patient verbalizes unconscious derivatives 1 T7 therapisl supports

P8

patient fontinues

T8 therapist tries to regenerate the flow of unconscious material

l 417 I ... - 417 -

P9 patient responds by linking free-associative material with personallexperience

T9 therapist tries to support flow of thoughts 1 P10 patient doesn't hear l T10

therapir repeats

P11 patient gives more information but communication becomes more superficial l T11 therapist tries to link communication with unconscious derivatives 1 P12 patient becomes defensive 1 T12 therapist confronts

1 418/ ••• - 418 -

P13 patient defensive

therapist persists in confronting patient 1 P14 patient verbalizes of unconscious material

T14 therapist questions and focusses on unconscious material l P15 patient is defensive again 1 T15

therapist repeatl his instructions

P16 the patient defends by verbalizing unimportant but seemingly relevant material 1 T16 the therapist tries to get around the patient's defenses by focussing her directly on her own life

l 419/ .•. - 419 -

P17

in ~esponse the patient ve~balizes impo~tant pe~sonal memories l T17 therapisl supports

P18 patient continues l T18

the~apist tries to loosen the patient's associations by

introducing his own associations to wo~ds she used l P19

patient's ~esponse is non-commital

1T19 the the~apist feels p~essured to say mo~e but t~ies to keep it as as possible

P20

patient ~emains non-commital 1 T20 the the~apist ~esponds to the patient's lack of ~esponse by

stating the f~ee-association he is looking fo~ 1 420/ •.. - 420 -

P21 the patient remains defensive l T21 therapist maintains pressure on patient to access unconscious material 1 P22 patient introduces her mother in positive response to therapist l T22 therapist misses the link 1 P23 patient elaborates but with no feelings 1 T23 therapist tries to extend patient's line of thought 1 P24 patient becomes defensive 1 T24 therapist persists 1 421 I ... - 421 -

P25 patienl resists

T25 therapist persists

P261 the patient's laughter indicates that the humour has broken the tension

T261 therapist persists 1 P27 patient response is freer but she still resists 1 T27 therapist makes another joke with a sexual implication 1 P28 patient responds

T28 l P29 patient tries to avoid the sexual connotation 1 422/ ••• - 422 -

T29 therapist persists

1P30 patient now admits to her fear of being accused of snobbery 1 T30 therapist links conversation with beginning of session l P31 patient accepts what the therapist is saying but misses the point l T31 therapist repeats interpretation more explicitly l P32 patient accepts but again misses the therapist's point 1 T32 therapist now makes a clear, strong interpretation l P33 patient's response is a short agreement

l 423/ ... - 423 -

T33 therapist flaborates

P34 again patient's is equivocal

therapist continues to elaborate 1 P35 patient agrees and qualifies 1 T35 therapist agrees l P36

pat1enl agrees

T36 the therapist makes a very deep interpretation which leads on to a sequence of agreements from the patient and elaborations by the therapist from P37 to T39, and even though the patient seems to have missed the interpretation this sequence leads on to her slip of the tongue in P40 when she says 'hostibal' instead of 'hospital'. This

424/ •.. - 424 -

parapraxis exposes the heart of her feelings towards her mother, indicating the depth of awareness which has been breached in the session. 1 T40 the therapist immediately lfocusses on the parapraxis.

P41 the patient responds by verbalizing much anger which she is unable to rationally

T41 instead of allowing the patient to continue, the therapist directs her to other unconscious derivatives, using her last sentence to link it to the material he is bringing into the discussion l P42 although the patient is understandably nonplussed she seems to be responding with an unconscious grasp of what the therapist is aiming at 1 T42 the therapist senses this and supports her by suggesting a way around her inability to understand what is being said logically

l 425/ •.. - 425 -

P43 the long pauses and strong words the patient is using indicate the strength of the emotions which are surfacing at the end of the session

This sequence can be broken down even further in the following way:

support 1 free-association

support1

deepening lof material 1 support linking free-assqciation materiall to personal experience

support1 l patient continues 1 therapist interpr-ets 1 patient defensive 1 426/ •.. - 426 -

therapis~ confronts

patient persists 1 therapist persists l patient responds positively 1 therapist supports

patient 1continues therapist pushes for morel unconscious material l patient resists 1 therapist forces the issue l patient resists 1 therapist increases pressure l patient lesists

therapist breaks tension with humour ~' patient responds positively

1 427 I ... - 427 -

therapist starts linking and interpreting material l patient accepts this but without commitment 1 therapist increases strength of interpretation until he makes interpretation in T36

patient accepts but 1without understanding 1 therapist continue to elaborate 1 patient makes a slip of the tongue exposing strong feelings and dynamics l therapist focusses on the slip

breakthrough 1of feelings

The sequencing of the communication can be defined as developing in different ways. A positive sequence develops in the following way. Patient produces communications which the therapist perceives as constructive interactions. 1 therapist supports this and uses the opportunity to deepen patient's awareness

l 428/ ..• - 428 -

if the patient continues to respond in the way the therapist sees as positive, the therapist continues to support the patient on the one hand and leads up to an interpretation at the same time l this sequence climaxes when the therapist makes an interpretation

A negative sequence starts in the same way as a positive one with the patient making constructive

statements leading on to ~the therapist building

up to an interpretation~the patient then resists this build up ----7 the therapist then increases the pressure on the patient to accept whatever he is

saying -----~ the patient succumbs by verbalizing important information.

The session develops along these two lines of communication until it reaches a climax when the patient persists in refusing to accept what the therapist says, which creates a tension level which is so high that the therapist responds by breaking the tension with humour. This leads on to a third type of sequence where the patient freely verbalizes feelings and dynamic information.

429/ ••• - 429 -

Analysis of free-associations

The patient starts off the session by referring to a "waking dream" she had, a rather interesting description by the patient since it suggests that she is intuitively typing the breakthrough of unconscious material very accurately. If one keeps in mind the images of the vortex and then the square dragon mouth, and everything disappearing, this "waking dream" is the next statement in the developing line of unconscious communications.

The patient makes a number of negative qualifications. She says the trapdoor isn't square it has no pubic hair there is no painted blood it isn't a new-born baby

The negative structure of the statement suggests a denial. If one changes the negatives into positives, the statements may read like this: the trapdoor is oval/round it has been shaved there is real blood it is an unborn baby

430/ ... - 430 -

What I am suggesting here is that the patient is trying to deny something by verbalizing its opposite. Whether the process is identified in this way, or as a reaction formation, Freudian theory has been consistently lambasted by so many critics, such as Popper (1962) and Cioffi (1970), because they say this makes it impossible to refute Freudian theory. I maintain that although the logic underlying the mechanism of denial, by stating the opposite, may be abused to avoid refutation, the impression of logical vacuity and arbitrary manipulation is gainsaid when the rest of the sessions are taken into account. The contextual validation is supremely exposed in S4 P4 when the patient says:

as if the stomach is full of this •.• like um this liquid tar sticking •••• boiling like hubble bubble toil and trouble type of thing.

The quote comes from Shakespeare's Macbeth Act IV Scene I.

All. Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn and cauldron bubble.

431/ •.• - 431 -

Third Witch. Scale of dragon, tooth of wolf, Witches' mummy, maw and gulf Of the ravin'd salt-sea shark, Root of hemlock digg'd i' the dark, Liver of blaspheming Jew, Gall of goat, and slips of yew Silver'd in the moon's eclipse, Nose of Turk and Tartar's lips, Finger of birth-strangled babe Ditch-deliver'd by a drab, Make a gruel thick and slab: Add thereto a tiger's chaudron, For the ingredients of our cauldron.

All. Double, double toil and trouble, Fire burn and cauldron bubble.

Sec. Witch. Cool it with a baboon's blood, Then the charm is firm and good.

Although the patient denies reading Macbeth it is quite remarkable that the patient's next communication is

432/ •.. - 432 -

S4 P5 .•. like a cold wind of nastiness ...... which is thematically identical with Macbeth's direct response to the witches' chant.

Macb. How now, you secret, black and midnight hags! What is't you do?

All. A deed without a name.

Macb. I conjure you, by that which you profess, Howe'er you come to know it, answer me: Though you untie the winds and let them fight Against the churches; though the yesty waves Confound and swallow navigation up; Though bladed corn be lodged and trees blown down: Though castles topple on their warders' heads; Though palaces and pyramids do slope

433/ ... - 433 -

Their heads to their foundations; though the treasure Of nature's germens tumble all together, Even till destruction sicken; answer me To what I ask you (Act IV, Scene I)

Although not as convincing as to the patient's knowledge of Macbeth also note the reference to elves and fairies.

Hec. 0 well done! I commend your pains; And every one shall share i' the gains; And now about the cauldron sing, Live elves and fairies in a ring, Enchanting all that you put in. (Act IV, Scene I) and Macduff's description of his birth

Macd. Despair thy charm; And let the angel whom thou still hast served Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother's womb. Untimely ripp'd. (Act V, Scene VIII)

434/ ••• - 434 -

It is as if the patient is giving the therapist clues as to what she is talking about: first the quote from Macbeth, and then the reference to English daisies and immediately afterwards the images of a book opening and closing. The patient is telling the therapist something about her femininity. The scene she is describing is that of giving birth, and she is linking it to Macbeth. The issue in therapy at this point is her femininity. I therefore assume that she is trying to say something about her femininity by linking it to the story of Macbeth. Now the issue of femininity in Macbeth is intimately related to child-bearing and the right to be heir to the throne:

(Thunder. Second Apparition: A bloody Child.) Sec. App. Macbeth! Macbeth! Macbeth! Macb. Had I three ears, I'd hear thee. Sec. App. Be bloody, bold, and resolute; laugh to scorn The power of man, for none of woman born Shall harm Macbeth. Macb. Then live, Macduff: what need I fear of thee? But yet I'll make assurance double sure,

435/ ••. - 435 -

And take a bond of fate thou shalt not live; That I may tell pale-hearted fear it lies, And sleep in spite of thunder.

(Thunder, Third Apparition: a Child crowned, with a tree in his hand.)

What is this That rises like the issue of a king, And wears upon his baby-brow the round And top of sovereignty? All. Listen, but speak not to't. Third App. Be lion-mettled, proud; and take no care Who chafes, who frets, or where conspirers are; Macbeth shall never vanquish'd be until Great Birnam wood to high Dunsinane hill Shall come against him. (Act IV, Scene I)

However, as far as childbirth and femininity is concerned Lady Macbeth speaks for the patient when she says:

436/ .•• - 436 -

He brings great news. The raven himself is hoarse That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements. Come, you spirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full Of direst cruelty! make thick my blood; Stop up the access and passage to remorse, That no compunctious visitings of nature Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between The effect and it! Come to my woman's breasts, And take my milk for gall, you murdering ministers, Wherever in your sightless substances You wait on nature's mischief! Come, thick night, And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell, That my keen knife see not the wound it makes, Nor heaven peep through the blanket of the dark, To cry 'Hold, hold!' (Act I, Scene V)

437/ •.. - 437 -

Lady Macbeth is prepared to make this great sacrifice so that her ambitious nature can be satisfied, and Macbeth become King.

After the initial free-associations the session explicitly revolves around the issue of ambition, and the loss of femininity. The constellation of thoughts can be represented as follows:

my father with the simple needs (the bitch would)

my ambitious hypocritical mother (the queen)

me the patient (hostibal and potential unrealised)

438/ ••• - 438 -

The patient concludes with the following statement, exposing he~ insight and ~esistance at the same time.

I'm thinking

that she killed and dest~oyed I don't quite know what

eve~ything decent and no~mal 'cause she couldn't cope with what I don't know

I'll neve~ ~eally know. (84, P43)

Patient's commenta~y on the sessions

App~oximately 6 months afte~ the sessions were taped, these t~ansc~ipt's and the tapes we~e given to the patient with the ~equest that she writes a commenta~y on the sessions. Afte~ I went th~ough the patient's first ~esponse I told he~ that it was not what I had in mind since he~ obse~vations we~e only di~ected at her own verbalizations. I then

~equested he~ to include her obse~vations of me in the second commenta~y.

439/ •.. - 439 -

First commentary:

I had no idea my breathing was so distressed, I sound much sicker than I imagined myself to be. The London accent is dreadful my poor father would have a fit. I sound just like my Aunt Vi, Dad's sister.

Even at that time in the Drawing Office all my thoughts were for my mother. I sent her clothes when I got paid, and I missed her so much.

Really those years or months were the most stable,

Dad was always there, but I missed my mom. Dad treated me what I was, a young girl, he seems to be the only person that allowed me to be young to make the mistakes of the young, to be silly and to want nice things. He somehow understood. Each was a life a separate life unconnected with each other. It was like saying 'OK this is it now this is how it wi 11 be'.

Even when he was so ill he never blamed me for anything he was just sorry for it all. I think he was relieved to die, I can under-stand that very well. I seemed to spend a lot of time in trains always going somewhere.

440/ ••• - 440 -

She worshipped D , and again there were always those overtones of sex, innuendos when he had a row, things l~ke that. I think the boys and I tried very hard to be a family, how can adults do these things to kids. Push us together as brothers and sister and then rip us apart as if there had never been any relationship.

D was probably the only man in my life who I didn't put on a pedestal at first and therefore was not disappointed. I'm sure that as a little child I adored my Dad it was only the Kenya period that changed my outlook on him.

That strange exaustion in my voice that I am not aware of again.

The t-square and drawing board must relate to my working with ~d in his office. Slide Rules I'm referring to. I had to concentrate very hard on being an adult then, very conscious of being in an unknown environment and unsure of how to behave.

Thinking back I think the two ladies were sorry for me, and I was trying to show there was no need to be. There was a girl who got married, working there

441/ •.. - 441 - and I remember going out of my way to see her when she came back from honeymoon as I was sure she would look different - she didn't of course! I would not have been surprised to see a sign of her forehead "I've had sex, now I'm a woman"!

When Dad died I was in a kind of hysteria that year it was like every day was the prelude to some big event that would tell me who I was. I was also trying to deal with my mother's eratic behaviour. Listening to this I remember my teenage years as quite desperate feeling time for me.

When I stayed with Dad, I was invited to stay with De in Devon - the young man who had kissed and cuddled me and who I thought I loved in Kenya. I went there and it was very embarrassing as he paid his mother for special meals for me which I had to eat in front of his mother and sisters. He declared himself in love and we came quite close to intercourse but I no longer cared for him and eventually told him so. My family stil never believed he had ever shown any interest especially my brother. It seemed very important to me at the time that they did believe me.

442/ ••• - 442 -

My 'lives' seem to all be in a cubby-hole. As if I can take them out at will and be that person. It has its positive side in that I can relate to almost anyone.

Thinking about those years I cannot understand how I stayed a virgin, I'm sure it was not my doing, I must have just been lucky in the boys I met or I must have given off some kind of untouchable aura, maybe my personality said - make love to me and I'm yours forever literally! I know I believed that you only had sex with someone you loved and it followed that if a boy made love to you he loved you and therefore was committed to you. As I fell in love on a regular basis I must congratulate that generation of boys on their common sense.

I remember being very confused when my mother lived with D I addressed my letters to her in her maiden name - I have always been scathing about her changing her name to J - S from J by deed Poll. I'm very quick to point it out if anyone confuses my maiden name with hers.

My wedding day was a fiasco. I spent it telephoning the police etc - trying to find my brother, and

443/ ••• - 443 - trying to calm my mother - who seemed to feel that my wedding day was an excuse for seeing her son. She also invited all her pub cronies having told us we could only have 50 people there seemed to be more of her friends than ours. The rest of the time I spent looking after D 's brother and aunts.

Eventually I went on honeymoon without half my trouseau.

No one was ever strong enough to control my mother maybe I felt that one of the men in my life should rescue me from that whole situation. I think my father was passive and compassionate rather than weak.

It all seems to come back to the fact that no one has ever cared enough to care for me and still no one does and now I don't suppose anyone ever will. My brother was, is, a hypocrite and very weak, my dad passive, my husband self-centred and weak, P ineffectual and B selfish and unable to look after himself ever and me. Though it isn't his job anyway.

444/ ... - 444 -

Second commentary:

Reading about the time with my dad and my teenage life, strikes me forceably that I was frantically trying to be normal and cope with the abnormality of my life so to your questions as to if I consciously tried to make up for the years of distance, I don't think so, I am sure it didn't even occur to me, I was swimming against such a strong current to survive that I wasn't thinking at all, only functioning on instinct. I think I was using him and anyone or try else like one uses oxygen to breath like a life line.

Dad let me have a lot of rope and he was very conscious of what I was going through. He tried very hard to make up for my unhappiness. He was a man who could, love unreservedly, he was a great

'giver'. He also did not appear to feel I would 'go bad' I can never remember him lecturing me on morals or pointing out dangers - he seemed to trust me to know right from wrong.

Maybe my contempt for weak men turns from my mum's ability to use them. But in Dad's case perhaps I was confusing his love for her for weakness. She

445/ ••. - 445 - always showed such contempt for all the men in her life eventually except my brother, none of them could handle her and she openly taunted them with their inability to make her happy, she made mountains out of the smallest thing. She always made the most insignificant fault a trait of the worst kind of character.

That prompts the thought that maybe I was eager to show her that I wasn't of the same calibre as the men, that I had a strong character, I had to out- smart the men in order to win her respect, whenever she turned on you her vehemence was crucifying in its spite. Being at the mercy of my mother's tongue was an experience to which I would not subject many people. Her facial contortions alone explained the word 'hating' in great detail. She could make you feel, like the witches of old must have felt when all the village was pointing at you in fear and horror.

S2 T9: The mediocre misery is not comforting my feelings, is I suppose habit from the early years of trying to survive - and sometimes, from your comments here I feel that you don't realise the desperate

446/ ... - 446 -

necessity I used to feel to keep functioning. I don't get paranoid about Tryptanol, I genuinely felt ill mostly because I could't sleep. Thinking that would keep me going was worth a try.

Staying with D was kind of a continuance of everything I'd been used to, I do refuse to listen to you don't I? S2 T37. I had never had a man in my past who touched me emotionally had I, only men who •••••••• my mother emotionally!

It seems to me re-reading this that I gave up femininity to be all the things that my mother could not get from a man, To earn her appreciation and respect so that she would not treat me with the same contempt, therefore I had to find men with whom I could play the same role. I suppose that I feel a need for a 'strong' male to take over from me in looking after my (mother-me). As her idea of a man was very stereotyped plus of course dated, my idea of men-women relationships is the same. I grew up on a diet of what a man should be, reinforced by the films of the period. If a man did not stand up when my mother entered a room he was condemmed for life as ill-bred, a lout etc. B up to his teens always stood up when a woman entered a room!!

44 7 I .. . - 447 -

I wasn't a housefrau I was practising the indoctrination of what I was supposed to be as a young married woman, not that she was ever satisfied, even then she would find fault and let me know how much better she could have dowe whatever.

I think 30 years ago I was busy re-enacting my mother's life that my emotional needs were non­ existent consciously. My emotional need then was to have a home and children happiness would automatically follow since I was providing the strength and ability my mother tried to find in men.

And again, your being idealistic, I know what you are saying, but only when I come to the point (which I think is close) that I do not 'need' a man will I be able to live alone in any kind of fulfilled way.

Poor Pete, I do side step most of what you say don't I? I think the tension bit far fetched. I do miss sex, I miss the warmth, and the feeling of being admired, the closeness. I don't feel frustrated physically though, more neglected and lonely. I do feel wasted still, I feel sure I could blossom as a woman in the right circumstances. I am sure you will say I can do that without a man, but I confess

448/ ••. - 448 - to feeling that a man is the key to my femininity. I seem to have spent my life with my mother or relating everything to her.

Therapist's commentary on the patient's commentary

In spite of my explicit instruction to the patient to include me in her observations, which she nominally attempts to do, she is quite unsuccessful. This inability to observe what the therapist is doing, and certainly even more so to be critical of him, gives an indication of the patient's positive transference, and the mechanisms underlying it. Not only is she unable to be critical of the therapist, but her repeated remark on her resistance to hear what I am saying, suggests a turning around of the criticism and directing it at herself.

Although the patient is unable to become critical of the therapist, my refusal to accept her first commentary leads her, by generalizing from the therapeutic situation, to deepen her response in the second commentary. The first commentary consists mostly of remarks about her life, and reporting more detail about her life with her father.

449/ •.• - 449 -

The second commentary shows a clear shift of focus. The patient is addressing her dynamics and motivation for certain behaviours. She also focusses on two of the main themes in therapy; her character defense, which is coping with adversity (or from another perspective, the managerial personality) and she also focusses on the dynamics of the Electra complex.

Her insight into her Electra complex is, at this stage in therapy, still limited by her denial of her feelings for her father. She correctly perceives that her inability to express her femininity is linked to her mother, and secondly, her mother's relationships with men. But she then distorts it in the following way:

"I gave up my femininity to be all the things that my mother could not get from a man, to earn her appreciation and respect so that she would not treat me with the same comtempt".

She obviously avoids the guilt she feels towards her mother by inferring that her inhibition of her femininity is in order to be the man her mother always wanted!

450/ ... - 450 -

The only free-association the patient refers to is the one about the drawing board and T squares, which she links to working with her father. This link was already made in the session, so that this single reference to the free-associations only serves to highlight the patient's resistance (inability?) to deal with this level of her existence, unless she is acting under the compulsion induced by the therapist during analysis.

451/ ... - 451 -

CHAPTER 8

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

8.1. Reflections and refutations

When one consciously slices reality with the

intention of exposing its layers, the question which

remain unanswered is the extent to which the

rockface is a necessary specification of the

slicer's psyche. The dimensions of time, space and

language create the parameters, which we cannot

fully comprehend, that determine the possible

interactions between subject and object.

When the perceiver and the perceived are both human,

they inevitably share certain constructs which

determine their self-constitution. If this is the case, then the question about the extent to which

the perceiver projects his own constructs on to the

other person becomes irrelevant since the constructs

will be co-incidental. This implies that what the researcher reveals about himself in the research

process will inevitably also reveal the person who

is the focus of the research.

452/ •.. - 452 -

However true this may be, there remains two other possibilities that have to be taken into account. There also exists the other extreme, that is the possibility that the constructs which determine the researcher's domain, do not intersect with the other person's constructs, in which case the research process will only reveal something about the researcher and nothing about the other person. This implies that the researcher will also be the object of the research, and the subject who is ostensibly the focus of the research, only the 'other' around which the researcher constitutes himself as research object.

If that is true of this study, one can say that the researcher has shown that certain Freudian constructs, some reformulated others original, determine through his perception of the other, his constitution of himself. The study then reveals the psyche of the researcher, rather than the subject.

The second possibility which also has to be taken into account is based on the interaction which takes place between the researcher and the subject. The study could be taken to be a statement by the researcher on how he specifies himself in such a way

453/ ... - 453 - in the therapeutic encounter that the only way the patient can respond, is such that it can be defined in the theoretical terms developed in the study.

The question which then arises is: if these charges were true would it invalidate the study? The answer devolves around the possibility of acting out of character. Since it is one of the basic tenets of this study that any output by a system must be predicated in the first instance on its own componential processes, I must assume that the person can only behave in ways, in which it can behave.

The fact that the patient's behaviour in therapy is a response to the way the therapist specifies himself, then becomes irrelevant because the aim of the study is to show that there exist patterns (of feelings, thought and behaviour) in the patient, which given the necessary conditions, will be exposed.

The fact that I see this as the aim of this study immediately extends the argument to include th~ question as to the causation of the neuroses. It is quite clear, as Grunbaum (1984) also points out,

454/ ••• - 454 - that the existence of these patterns can hardly be used as proof of their role in the causation of neurotic or psychotic states. One has to approach this as a separate issue.

The response to that criticism is two fold. Firstly, that in the verification of Freudian theory all the attempts have been wasted because they were directed at higher order constructs which cannot be assessed prior to researching the primary constructs via the legitimate research procedure and context, the psychoanalytic session. Since we need far more information at a descriptive level (Bateson, 1978) before we attempt more ambitious explanation, the aim of this study was to expose patterns of behaviour in the psychoanalytic hour, and to describe them in fundamental terms.

This necessarily must leave aside the question of the role, for example, that the Oedipal complex plays in the causation of neurotic processes. The second answer to that charge is that the positive empiricists' concept of causation as exemplified by Grunbaum (1984) is in anyway inadequate in its explanation. In systemic terms the aim of research on Freudian theory, as far as the causation of the

455/ .•• - 455 -

neuroses is concerned, will be to identify certain configurations in analysis which will regularly precede the dissolution of neurotic and psychotic processes. This study has attempted to show that it is possible to expose and describe patterns in the patient, and in the interaction between the patient and the therapist, within the theoretical framework of a systemic-Freudian perspective, which can be used as a basis for future research, on for example, the development of the neuroses.

8.2. Weaknesses in this study and indications for future research

There are a number of pre-conditions which any future research should take into account.

1. The sessions should be taped from the first session, instead of making an arbitrary selection as was done in this study. This will allow the researcher to show the development of the analytic encounter from the beginning, through its various phases.

2. The number of sessions included in any study will depend on the specific goals of that study. Nevertheless, studies which include a large number

456/ •.. - 456 -

of sessions, maybe 100 sessions or more, will be able to illustrate the cyclical quality of the processual development in analysis.

3. Using a large number of sessions will also allow the researcher to explore the relationship between the analyst and the patient. This is an essential construct in Freudian theory which should be incorporated more explicitly in the research paradigm than was done in this study.

4. If a statistical procedure is included in the research, care should be taken that it is not unduly influenced by the varying lengths of the communications. Although WORDS was specifically designed to avoid this problem by emphasizing the associational tightness between the words, I nevertheless had the impression that longer rather than shorter communications were overrepresented in the clusters.

8.3. Conclusion

An attempt was made in the study to address two fundamental weaknesses in Freudian theory.

457/ ... - 457 -

The theoretical structure which is inconsistent and empirically indeterminate, and secondly, the research procedure which is inadequate because it does not expose the processes which the theory tries to explain.

In both instances a systemic approach was used to indicate possible solutions. The reformulation of

Freudian theory in terms of systemic concepts essentially involves the replacement of the concepts of force and energy with the concepts of pattern and organization.

The theoretical reformulation in chapter 5 which is suggestive rather than definitive, is developed in the discussion of the sessions, which culminates in the identification of the following three patterns which are crucial to Freudian theory.

The first pattern which is identified is a new statement about reality. It claims to expose something about human functioning which has not been perceived before, that is, that free-associative verbalizations are a recursive constitution of a free-flow experience of physical sensation. The identification of free-flow physical experience, and the link between that and free-association reveals

458/ ..• - 458 - unambiguously, not only a facet of the primary process, but in itself a fundamental organizing principle of the human system.

The second pattern which is identified is a pattern in the patient's verbalizations which is a reflection of a) the therapist's perception of what the patient says; b) the way the patient relates to the therapist; and c) the hierarchical levels of the patient's intrapsychic processes. Stated differently, the pattern that is identified reflects a logical structure which is either imposed by the researcher on, or isomorphic with a) the componential processes in the patient, and b) the structural coupling between the patient and the therapist.

This structure is a recursive ordering of the following events.

life events

dynamics1 1 feelings 1 free-associative material

459/ ••• - 459 -

The third pattern which is identified is constituted around the essential elements of the Oedipal complex, or in the case of a woman, the Electra complex. behavioural inhibition of level feminine qualities ::r

conscious guilt r------hostility towards feelings mother

unconscious repressed affection feelings for the father

The Structure of the Electra Complex

The identification of the three processes on the basis of the extensive description of the research process creates the possibility of an open discussion and a conclusion by convention as to the applicability of the constructs to the various elements in the psychoanalytic hour.

The research procedure which is developed attempts to satisfy both the positivistic and the hermeneutic demands for valid

460/ .•. - 460 - research. Although the distinction which Ricoeur (1970; 1977) draws between the two approaches is not accepted, it is nevertheless true that the hermeneutic demand for contextual validation adds an important dimension to the research which has been generated from a positivist approach. The combination of these two approaches is effected by using a systemic methodology which not only allows, but specifies the various techniques which can be employed.

461/ ••. - 461 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ackerman, N. ( 19 58) The Psychodynamics of Family Life New York : Basic Books

Adler, A. (1924) !he Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology New York: Harcourt Brace.

Anthony, J.E. (1957) An experimental approach to the psychopathology of childhood : encopresis, British Journal of Medical Psychology 30, 146 - 175.

Avery, D.D. & Experimental Methodology in H.A. Cross Jnr. ( 1978) Psychology Monterey, California: Brooks Cole Pub. Co.

Avery, R.R. & Object Relations and Ego R.M. Ryan ( 1988) Development : Comparison and Correlate in Middle Childhood, Journal of Personality 56, 547 - 569.

462/ •.. - 462 -

Barness, C.A. ( 1952) A statistical study of the Freudian theory of levels of psychosexual development, Genetic Psychological Monographs 45' 1 09 - 17 4.

Bateson, G. ( 1936) Naven London : Cambridge University Press.

Bateson, G. ( 1978) Steps to an Ecology of Mind New York : International Universities Press.

Bateson, G., D. Jackson, Toward a Theory of J. Haley & J. Weakland Schizophrenia, Behavioural ( 1956) Scientist 1, 251 - 264.

Bateson, G. in Semiotic Approaches to Human J. Ruesch ( 1972) Relations The Hague : Mouton.

Belloff, H. (1957) The structure and origin of the anal character, Genetic Psychological Monographs 55, 141 - 172.

463/ .•. - 463 -

Bernstein, A. ( 1955) Some relations between techniques of feeding and training during infancy and certain behaviour in childhood, Genetic Psychological Monographs 21, 3 - 44.

Biscardi, D. & Correlations of narcissistic T. Schill ( 1985) traits with depressive style, machiavellianism and empathy, Psychological Reports 57, 354.

Biddle, W.E. (1957) Investigation of the Oedipus fantasy by hypnosis, American Journal of Hypnosis 114, 175.

Borger, R. & Explanation in the Behavioural F. Cioffi (eds) ( 1970) Sciences London : Cambridge University Press.

Bowen, M. in S. Arieti American Handbook of Psychiatry (ed) ( 1975) Vol. V (2nd ed) New York : Basic Books.

Cattell, R.B. ( 1957) Personality and Motivation Structure and Measurement Yonkers : New York.

464/ ••. - 464 -

Cattell, R.B. ( 1970) Handbook for the 16 P F Questionnaire.

Cattell, R.B. & Motivation and Dynamic D. Child (1975) Structure London : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Cattell, R.B. & The Scientific Analysis of P. Kline (1977) Personality and Motivation New York : Academic Press.

Cheshire, N. ( 1975) The Nature of Psychodynamic Interpretation Chichester : Wiley.

Cioffi, F. (1970) Freud and the idea of pseudo-science in Borger, M.R. & F. Cioffi (ed), Explanation in the Behavioural Sciences Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

Cioffi, F. ( 1986) Did Freud rely on the tally argument to meet the argument from suggestibility? Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 9(2), 230- 231.

465/ .•• - 465 -

Cramer, P. ( 1983) Children's use of a defense mechanism in reaction to displeasure caused by others, Journal of Personality 21, 78 - 94.

Cramer, P. ( 1987) The development of Defense Mechanisms, Journal of Personality 55, 597 - 614.

Cramer, P. & The effects of Success and R. Gaul ( 1988) Failure on Children's Use of Defense Mechanisms, Journal of Personality 56, 729- 741.

Davidson, R. & N = 1 Experimental Studies of B. Costello ( 1969) Single Cases New York : Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co.

Davis, H.V., R. Sears, Effects of cup -, bottle - H. Miller & A.J. Brodbeck and breast-feeding on oral ( 1948) activities of new-born infants, Pediatrics g, 549 - 558.

Davis, P.J. ( 1987) Repression and the inacces­ sibility of affective memories, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53, 585 - 593.

466/ ..• - 466 -

Davis, P.J. & Repression and the G.E. Schwartz ( 1987) inaccessibility of affective memories, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, 155 - 162.

Deleuze, G. & Anti-Oedipus London The F. Guattari ( 1984) Athlone Press.

Dell, P.F. ( 1982) In Search of Truth : On the Way to Clinical Epistemology, Family

Process ~' 407 - 413.

Dell, P.F. (1982a) Beyond Homeostasis : Towards a Concept of Coherence, Family

Process ~' 21 - 41.

Dixon, N.F. (1971) Subliminal Perception: The Nature of a Controversy London: McGraw-Hill.

Dollard, J., L. Doob, Frustration and Aggression New N.E. Miller, O.H. Mawrer & Haven : Yale University Press. R.R. Sears (1939)

Dombrose, L.A. & The I E S test, Perceptual

M.S. Slobin (1958) and Motor Skills ~' 347, 389.

467 I ... - 467 -

Edwards, A.L. (1954) Experimental Design in Psychological Research New York: Rhinehart & Co. Inc.

Eissler, K.R. ( 1969) Irreverent Remarks About the Present and the Future of Psychoanalysis, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 50, 461 - 471.

Emmons, R.A. ( 1984) Factor analysis and construct validity of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Journal of Personality Assessment 48, 291 - 300.

Emmons, R.A. ( 1987) Narcissism : Theory and measurement, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, 11 - 17.

Epstein, S. ( 1973) The Self-concept revisited, or a Theory of a Theory, American Psychologist 28, 404 - 416.

Eysenck, H.J. (1947) Dimensions of Personality London : Kegan Paul, Trench and Trubner.

468/ ... - 468 -

Eysenck, H.J. ( 1986) Failure of Treatment : Failure of Theory? Behavioural and

Brain Sciences, ~(2), 236.

Eysenck, H.J. & The Experimental Study of G.C. Wilson ( 1973) Freudian Theories London Methuen.

Farrell, B.A. ( 1981) The Standing of Psychoanalysis Oxford : Oxford University Press.

Farrell, B.A. ( 1986) The probative value of the clinical data of psychoanalysis, Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 9(2), 236- 237.

Freud, A. ( 1965) Normality and Pathology in Childhood New York : International Universities Press.

Freud, S. ( 1945) The Interpretation of Dreams [ 1900] London : George Allen & Unwin.

Freud, S. ( 1950) Collected Papers London The [ 1925] Hogarth Press.

469/ ... - 469 -

Freud, S. ( 1962) Three Essays on the Theory of [ 1903] Sexuality New York : Avon Books.

Freud, S. ( 1972) Gesammelte Werke Frankfurt am [ 1925] Main : S. Fischer, Verlag.

Freud, S. & ( 197 4) Studies on Hysteria Middlesex, J. Breuer [ 1895] England : Penguin Books.

Freud, S. ( 1981) Two Short Accounts of Psycho-Analysis Middlesex, England : Penguin Books.

Freud, S. (1983a) New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis Middlesex, England : Penguin Books.

Freud, S. (1983b) Case Histories I Middlesex, England : Penguin Books.

Freud, S. (1983c) Case Histories II Middlesex, England : Penguin Books.

Freud, S. (1983d) On Psychopathology Middlesex, England : Penguin Books.

470/ ... - 470 -

Freud, S. ( 1984) On Metapsychology. The Theory of Psychoanalysis Middlesex, England : Penguin Books.

Freud, S. ( 1986) The Standard Edition of the [1953-1974] Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud edited by J. Strachey London : The Hogarth Press.

Galtung, J. ( 1967) Theory and Methods of Social Research London : Allen and Unwin.

Gedo, J.E. & Models of the Mind Chicago : P.A. Goldberg ( 1973) University of Chicago Press.

Geisler, C. ( 1986) The Use of Subliminal Psychodynamic Activation in the study of repression, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21, 844 - 851 •

Glasberg, H.M. , A personality study of P.M. Bromberg, M. Stein & asthmatic patients, Journal T.J. Luparello (1969) of Psychosomatic Research 12, 197 - 204.

4 71 I . .. - 471 -

Glesei', G.C. & An objective insti'ument foi' D. Ihilevich ( 1969) measui'ing defence mechanisms, Joul:'nal of Consulting Clinical Psychology 33, 51 - 60.

Glixman, A.F. ( 1949) Recall of completed and incompleted activities under' vai'ying degi'ees of sti'ess, Joui'nal of Expei'imental Psychology 39, 281 - 295.

Goldman, F. ( 1948) BI'eastfeeding and Chai'actei'­ Foi'mation, Joui'nal of Pei'sonality 1I' 83 - 103.

Goldman-Eislei', F. (1951) The pi'oblem of "oi'ality" and its oi'igin in eai'ly childhood, Joui'nal of Mental Science 97, 765 - 782.

Goldman, G.S. & Developments in Psychoanalysis D. Shapii'o ( 1966) at Columbia Univei'sitz New Yoi'k: Hafner' Pub. Co.

Gottman, J. ( 1973) N-of-one and N-of-two Reseai'ch in Psychothei'apy, Psychological Bulletin 80, 93 - 105.

472/ .•. - 472 -

Gray, W., F.J. Dahl & General Systems Theory and N. Rizzo (eds) (1969) Psychiatry Boston : Little, Browne & Co.

Grinker R.R. ( 1966) "Open-system" Psychiatry, American Journal of

Psychoanalysis ~' 115 - 28.

Grinker, R.R. (ed) (1967) Toward a Unified Theory of Human Behaviour (2nd ed) New York : Basic Books.

Grunbaum, A. ( 1984) The Foundations of Psychoanalysis Berkeley University of California Press.

Grunbaum, A. ( 1986) Is Freud's theory well founded? Behavioural and Brain Sciences 9(2), 266- 284.

Grygier, T.G. ( 1961) The Dynamic Personality Inventory Windsor : NFCER.

Hall, C.S. ( 1963) Strangers in Dreams: an Experimental Confirmation of the Oedipus Complex, Journal of

Personality 21(3~ 336 - 345.

473/ ••. - 473 -

Hall, C.S. & An Ubiquitous Sex-difference in B. Domhoff ( 1963) dreams, Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 66(3), 278 - 280.

Hall, C.s. & An Empirical Investigation of R. van de Castle ( 1963) the Castration Complex in Dreams, Journal of Personality 33(1), 20- 29.

Hammer, E. (1953) An investigation of sexual symbolism :a study of H.T.P.'s of eugenically sterilized subjects, Journal of Projective Techniques !I' 401 - 415.

Hansen, R.D. & Repression of Emotionally tagged C.H. Hansen ( 1988) Memories : The Architecture of less Complex Emotions, Journal of Personality and Social Psychologl 55, 811 - 818.

Hartman, H. ( 1958) Ego Psychology New York : International Universities Press.

47 4/ ..• - 474 -

Hartman, H. ( 1964) Essays on Ego Psychologx New York : International Universities Press.

Hayden, B. & The effects of tachistoscope R. Silverstein ( 1983) oedipal stimulation on competitive dart throwing, Psychologx Research Bulletin 23 ( 1 ) , 1 - 12.

Helpern, J. ( 1977) Projection and test of the psychoanalytic by patterns, Journal of Abnormal Psxchology 86, 536 - 542.

Hetherington, E.M. & Etiology and Covariation of T. Brackbill (1963) Obstinacy, Orderliness and Parsimony in young children, Child Development 34, 919 - 943.

Hogenraad, R. & M.J. Segers Parts of Speech as Unitarx Operators of Implicit Personalitx Theorx Unpublished Paper.

475/ •.. - 475 -

Iker, H.P. & A Computer Systems Approach N.I. Harway ( 1968) toward the recognition and Analysis of Content, Computer Studies 1(3), 134 - 154.

Iker, H.P. ( 1974) An Historical Note on the Use of Word-Frequency Contiguities in Content Analysis, Computers and

Humanities ~, 93 - 98.

Iker, H.P. & WORDS : A computer system for R.H. Klein ( 197 4) the analysis of content,

Computer Technology ~(4), 430 - 438.

Iker, H.P. ( 1975) SELECT : A Computer Program to Identify Associationally Rich Words for Content Analysis. II Substantive Results, Computers and Humanity 2, 3 - 12.

Iker, H. P. Content Theme Hierarchies Extracted by Recursive Clustering of Word-Word Intercorrelations Unpublished Paper.

476/ ... - 476 -

Joubert, M.F. (1987) Egpaarsisteme : 'n Metodologiese Verkenning Doctoral Thesis. Rand Afrikaanse University

Jung, C. ( 1982) On the Nature of the Psyche London : Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Keeney, B.P. ( 1983) Aesthetics of Change New York : Guilford Press.

Kelly, G. A. ( 1955) The Psychology of Personal Constructs New York : Norton.

Kerlinger, F.N. ( 195 3) Behaviour and personality in Japan : a critique of three studies of Japanese personality, Social Forces 21, 250 - 258.

Klackenberg, G. ( 1949) Thumb sucking frequency and aetiology, Pediatrics !, 418 - 424.

Klein, M. ( 1975) The Psychoanalysis of Children New York : Dell Pub. Co.

477 I ... - 477 -

Kline, P. ( 1968) The validity of the Dynamic Personality Inventory, British Journal of Medical Psychologl

_ll, 307 - 377.

Kline, P. & A 28 day case study with the J. Grindley ( 197 4) M.A.T., Journal of Multivariate Experimental, Personality and Clinical Psychologx 1, 13 - 32.

Kline, P. & The Dynamic Personality R. Storey ( 1978) Inventory: What does it measure? British Journal of Psychology 68, 375 - 383.

Kline, P. ( 1981) Fact and Fantasy in Freudian Theory London : Methuen.

Kline, P. ( 1983) Personality: Measurement and Theory London : Hutchinson.

Koestler, A. & J.R. Beyond Reductionism London Smythies (eds) (1969) Hutchinson.

Kohlberg, L., Childhood Development as a D. Ricks & predictor of adaptation in J. Snarey ( 1984) Adulthood, Genetic Psychology Monographs 110, 91 - 172.

478/ .•. - 478 -

Kohut, H. ( 1968) The Psychoanalytic Treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorders: Outline of a Systemic approach, Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 23, 86 - 113.

Kohut, H. ( 1971) The Analysis of the Self New York : International Universities Press.

Kohut, H. ( 1977) The Restoration of the Self New York : International Universities Press.

Kragh, U. & Percept - Genetic Analysis G. Smith ( 1971) Lund : Berlinska Baktryckeriet.

Kreitler, H. & Children's concepts of sexuality S. Kreitler ( 1966) and birth, Child Development 37, 363- 378.

Kris, E. ( 1970) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child Vol. III & IV New York International Universities Press.

479/ ... - 479 -

Kr is, E. ( 197 4) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child Vol. V New York : International Universities Press.

Krout, M.H. & Measuring personality in T.J. Krout ( 1954) developmental terms, Genetic Psychological Monographs 50, 289 - 335.

Lacan, J. ( 1977) The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis London : The Hogarth Press.

Lasky, J.L. & Blacky Test scores before and L. Berger ( 1959) after genito-urinary surgery, Journal of Projective Techniques 23, 57 - 58.

Laszlo, E. ( 1973) World System Models, Norms and Applications Buenos Aires Brazillier.

Laszlo, E. ( 1983) System Science and World Order New York : Pergamon.

480/ •.. - 480 -

Lazare, A., Klerman, G.L. Oral, obsessive and hysterical & D.J. Armor (1966) personality patterns : an investigation of psychoanalytic concepts by means of factor analysis, Archives of General Psychiatry 11, 624 - 630.

Lee, B. ( 1982) Psychosocial Theories of the Self New York : Plenum Books.

Levine, M.L. & The treatment of cholic in A. Bell ( 1950) infancy by use of the pacifier, Journal of Pediatry 37, 750- 755.

Levinger, G. & Emotional Factors in the J. Clark ( 1961) Forgetting of Word Associations, Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 62, 99 - 105.

Levy, D.M. ( 1928) Finger-sucking and accessory movements in early infancy (an etiological study, American Journal of Psychiatry z, 881 - 918.

481 I .. . - 481 -

Loevinger, J. ( 1985) Revision of the sentence completion test for ego development, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48, 420 - 427.

Loevinger, J. & Personality : Stages, traits and E. Knoll ( 1983) the self, Annual Review of Psychology 34, 195 - 222.

Loewenstein, R.M. ( 1970) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child Vol. III & IV New York International Universities Press.

Loewenstein, R.M. ( 197 4) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child Vol. V New York : International Universities Press.

Lubarsky, L. & D.P. Spence Handbook of Psychotherapy and in Garfield, S.L. & Behaviour Change: An Empirical A. Bergin (1978) Analysis (2nd ed) New York : John Wiley & Sons.

482/ ••• - 482 -

McFarland, D.I. ( 1971) Feedback mechanisms in Animal Behaviour London : Academic Press.

Mahony, P. ( 1987) Psychoanalysis and Discourse London : Tavistock Publications.

Maturana, H.R. & Autopoiesis and Cognition F.J. Varela ( 1980) London : D Reidel.

McCrae, R.R. & Recalled Parent-Child Relations P.T. Costa ( 1988) and Adult Personality, Journal of Personality 56, 417 - 434.

Miller, N.E. & Minor studies of aggression - R. Bugelski ( 1948) II: The influence of frustrations imposed by the in-group on attitudes expressed towards out-groups, Journal of Psychology 25, 437 - 442.

Mussen, P.H. & Masculinity identification and L. Distler ( 1959) father-son relationships, Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 59, 350 - 356.

483/ ••• - 483 -

Newson, J. & Infant Care in an Urban E. Newson ( 1963) Communitl London : Allen and Unwin.

Orpen, C. ( 1972) The Cross-Cultural Validity of the Eysenck Personality Inventory: A Test in Afrikaans­ Speaking South Africa, British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychologl 11, 244 - 247.

Parker, S. ( 1976) The pre-cultural basis of the incest taboo: towards a social theory, American Anthropologist 78, 285 - 305.

Patton, M., Kohut's psychology of the self, G. Connor & Journal of Counselling K. Scott ( 1982) Psychologl 29, 268 - 282.

Pawlik, K. & Third-order factors in objective R.B. Cattell ( 1964) personality tests, British Journal of Pslchology 55,

1 - 18.

484/ •.. - 484 -

Popper, K.R. (1959) The Logic of Scientific Discovery New York : Basic Books.

Popper, K.R. ( 1962) Conjectures and Refutations New York : Basic Books.

Popper, K.R. ( 1986) Predicting overt behaviour versus predicting hidden states, Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 9(2), 254.

Popper, K.R. & The Self and its Brain J.C. Eccles ( 1977) Berlin : Springer-Verlag.

Prugh, D.G. ( 1954) Childhood experience and colonic disorder, The American New York Academy of Science 58, 355 - 376.

Pumpian-Mindlin, E. in Developments in Psychoanalysis G. Goldman and New York : Hafner, Pub. Co. E. Chapiro (eds) ( 1966)

Rabin, A. (1958) Some psychosexual differences between Kibbutz and non-Kibbutz Israeli Boys, Journal of Projec­ tive Techniques 22, 328 - 332.

485/ ••• - 485 -

Raskin, R. & A Principle Components Analyses T. Howard ( 1988) of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its Construct Validity, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 574(5), 890- 902.

Reich, W. ( 1983) The Function of the Orgasm London : Souvenir Press

Ricoeur, P. ( 1970) Freud and Philosophy New Haven: Yale University Press.

Ricoeur, P. ( 1977) The Question of Proof in Freud's Psychoanalytic Writings, Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 25, 835 - 870

Robbins, L.C. (1963) The accuracy of parental recall of aspects of child development and of child-rearing practices, Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 66, 261 - 270.

486/ ... - 486 -

Rosenzweig, S. ( 1934) Types of reaction to frustration, Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 29, 298 - 300.

Sarason, S.G. & Stress and Anxiety III New C.D. Spielberger (eds) York : John Wiley & Sons. ( 1976)

Sarnoff, I. ( 1962) Personality Dynamics and Development London : Wiley.

Sarnoff, I. & Castration anxiety and the fear S. Corwin ( 1959) of death, Journal of Personality 27, 374 - 85.

Sarnoff, J. ( 1960) Reaction-formation and cynicism, Journal of Personality 28, 128 - 143.

Sartre, J.P. (1953) Existential Psychoanalysis New York : Philosophical Library

Schwartz, B.J. ( 195 5) Measurement of castration anxiety and anxiety over the loss of love, Journal of Personality 24, 204 - 219.

487/ .•• - 487 -

Schwartz, B.J. ( 1956) An empirical test of two Freudian hypotheses concerning castration anxiety, Journal of Personality 24, 318 - 327.

Scofield, R.W. & A comparative study of the C.W. Sun ( 1960) differential effect upon personality of Chinese and American child-training practices, Journal of Social Psychology 52, 221 - 224.

Sears, R.R., Patterns of Child Rearing E.E. Maccoby & Evanston : Paterson. A. Levin ( 1957)

Sears, R.R. & Relation of cup-feeding in G.W. Wise ( 1950) infancy to thumb-sucking and the oral drive, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 20, 123 - 138.

Sewell, W. ( 1952) Infant training and the personality of the child, American Journal of Sociology 58' 150 - 1 59.

488/ .•. - 488 -

Sewell, W.H. & The effects of feeding, weaning P.H. Mussen ( 1952) and schelduling procedures on childhood adjustment and the formation of oral symptoms, Child Development 23, 185 - 191.

Shevrin, H. (1986) An argument for the evidential standing of psychoanalytic data, Behavioural and Brain Sciences 9(2), 257- 259.

Skinner, B.F. (1950) Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review 57,193-216

Stephens, W. ( 1961) A Cross-cultural Study of Menstrual Taboos, Genetic Psychological Monographs 64, 385 - 416.

Stoker, H.G. ( 1969) Beginsels en Metodes in die Wetenska2 Johannesburg : De Jong.

489/ .•. - 489 -

Strauss, J. & Autonomy disturbances in R.M. Ryan ( 1987) subtypes of anorexia nervosa, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 96, 254 - 258.

Strauss, J. & Cognitive dysfunction in R.M. Ryan ( 1988) anorexia nervosa, International Journal of Eating Disorders z, 19 - 27.

Strauss, M.A. ( 1957) Anal and oral frustration in relation to Sinhalese personality, Sociometry 20, 21 - 31.

Stringer, P. ( 1970) A note on the factorial structure of the Dynamic Personality Inventory, British Journal of Medical Psychology 43 ( 1 ) ' 95 - 1 03.

Taylor, J.A. ( 195 3) A personality scale of manifest anxiety, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 48, 285 - 290.

490/ •.. - 490 -

Urist, J. ( 1977) The Rorschach test and the assessment of object relations, Journal of Personality Assessment 11, 3 - 9.

Von Bertalanffy, L. in General Systems Theory and W. Gray, F.J. Dahl & Psychiatry Boston : Little, N. Rizzo (eds) (1968) Browne & Co.

Von Bertalanffy, L. in Beyond Reductionism London A. Koestler & Hutchinson. J.R. Smythies (eds) (1969)

Weinberger, D.A., Low-anxious, high-anxious, and G.E. Swartz & repressive coping styles : R.J. Davidson ( 1979) Psychometric patterns and behavioural and physiological responses to stress, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 88, 369 - 380.

Weiss, P. in Beyond Reductionism London A. Koestler & Hutchinson. J.R. Smythies (eds) (1969)

491 I .. . - 491 -

Wiener, N. ( 1948) Cybernetics New York Wiley.

Wiener, N. & Cybernetics of the Nervous J.P. Schade (eds) (1965) System Amsterdam : Elsevier Publishing Co.

Wilkinson, F. & Repression elicited by strong D. Carghill ( 1955) material based on the Oedipus Complex, Journal of Social Psychology 43, 209 - 214.

Whitaker, C. ( 1982) From Psyche to System New York: The Guilford Press.

Whitting, J. & Child Training and Personality S. Child (1953) New Haven : Yale University Press.

Whiting, _T. W. M., The function of male initiation H. Kluckhohn & A. Anthony ceremonies at puberty, in (1958) Maccoby, E.E., T.M. Newcomb and E.C. Hartley (eds), Readings in Social Psychologz (3rd ed.) New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

492/ ••. - 492 -

Woodmansey, A. ( 1967) Emotion and the motions: an enquiry into the causes and prevention of functional disorders of defecation, British Journal of Medical Psychology 40, 207 - 223.

Zeller, A. ( 1950) An Experimental Analogue of Repression - II. The Effects of Individual Failure and Success on Memory Measured by Relearning, Journal of Experimental Psychology 40, 411 - 423.

Zuckerman, M. ( 1960) The Development of an Affective Adjective Checklist for the Measurement of Anxiety, Journal

of Consulting Psychology 2~, 457 - 462.