AP US HISTORY The Outline to End All Outlines

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE 3 EARLY SETTLEMENTS (chapter 1) PAGE 6 COLONIAL EXPANSION (chapter 2) PAGE 10 COLONIAL SOCIETY AND CULTURE (chapter 3) PAGE 13 BEGINNINGS OF REBELLION (chapter 4) PAGE 16 REVOLUTIONARY WAR (chapter 5) PAGE 20 NEW REPUBLIC (chapter 6) PAGE 25 JEFFERSONIAN ERA (chapter 7) PAGE 28 ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS (chapter 8) PAGE 32 JACKSONIAN ERA (chapter 9) PAGE 34 EARLY INDUSTRIALISM (chapter 10) PAGE 35 OLD SOUTH (chapter 11) PAGE 37 ANTEBELLUM SOCIETY (chapter 12) PAGE 39 WESTERN EXPANSION (chapter 13) PAGE 42 CIVIL WAR (chapter 14) PAGE 45 RECONSTRUCTION (chapter 15) PAGE 48 FAR WEST (chapter 16) PAGE 51 INDUSTRIALISM (chapter 17) PAGE 54 GROWTH OF CITIES (chapter 18)

1 PAGE 56 POST­RECONSTRUCTION POLITICS (chapter 19) PAGE 58 IMPERIALISM (chapter 20) PAGE 60 PROGRESSIVISM (chapter 21) PAGE 63 REFORM (chapter 22) PAGE 65 WORLD WAR I (chapter 23) PAGE 68 ROARING TWENTIES (chapter 24) PAGE 71 GREAT DEPRESSION (chapter 25) PAGE 73 NEW DEAL (chapter 26) PAGE 76 PRE­WWII FOREIGN AFFAIRS (chapter 27) PAGE 79 WORLD WAR II (chapter 28) PAGE 83 COLD WAR (chapter 29) PAGE 87 POST­WWII SOCIETY (chapter 30) PAGE 89 NEW LIBERALISM (chapter 31) PAGE 91 NIXONIAN ERA (chapter 32) PAGE 95 REAGAN ERA (chapter 33) PAGE 97 GLOBALIZATION (chapter 34) PAGE 98 APPENDIX A: SUPREME COURT CASES PAGE 101 APPENDIX B: CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS

Written by Mark Fallati, Alex Mabie, Ili Odouard, Noam Radcliffe

2 EARLY SETTLEMENTS (chapter 1) CULTURE North America ○ Small settlements: Most Native Americans in the 1490s lived in small groups of a few hundred. Some tribes were nomadic, like the Sioux and Pawnee. ○ Larger societies: The Pueblos in the southwest and the Woodlands in the east were examples of more complex tribes. These societies supported themselves by hunting, fishing, and farming. Central and South Americas It is estimated that more Native Americans lived in this region than in North America. Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas ruled over sophisticated societies. They were scientifically and economically keen groups. Europe ○ Improvements in Technology: The aftermath of the Renaissance prompted a rebirth in science and technology. There were various inventions coupled with advances in shipbuilding and mapmaking. ○ Religious Conflict ■ Catholic victory in Spain: Isabella and Ferdinand unified Spain in defeating Muslim invaders. They would soon sponsor Columbus’ voyage to the New World. ■ Protestant revolt in northern Europe: The Protestant Reformation added a religious motive for exploration and colonization. ○ Expanding Trade: European kingdoms competed for trade with Asia and Africa. A few considered traveling to Asia across the Atlantic in hopes of shortening the trip. ○ Developing Nation­States: In 15th century Europe, monarchs grew powerful enough to build nation­states. These monarchs needed trade to bring in revenue.

EARLY EXPLORATIONS Christopher Columbus Columbus landed in the Bahamas in October 1492. He died in 1506, still under the impression that he had found a western route to Asia. Exchanges When put into contact with one another, Europeans and Natives affected each other significantly. The Natives introduced Europeans to plants and foods. They also infected the explorers with syphilis. Europeans brought their own animals and crops along with guns, germs, and diseases. Millions of Natives soon died from smallpox and measles. Dividing the New World The Pope arbitrated the division of the New World between Spain and Portugal. Spanish Exploration and Conquest Spanish explorers and conquistadors were responsible for their country’s initial dominance in the New World. English Claims John Cabot’s voyage to Newfoundland 1497 marked the first of England’s claims to the new World. In general however, England was slow to explore and settle. In 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh tried to establish a settlement at Roanoke Island, but it failed. French Claims In 1524, France sponsored Giovanni de Verrazano in hopes of finding a northwest passage 3 through America to Asia. He ended up in new York. France was slow to colonize, like England. The first settlement was at Quebec, established in 1608. Dutch Claims In 1609, Henry Hudson sailed up a (Hudson) river and claimed the surrounding area as New Amsterdam. The Dutch West India Company, a joint­stock company, took control over the region for profit.

EARLY ENGLISH AND SPANISH SETTLEMENTS Background In the early 1600s, England was in a position to colonize. They had a strong navy and a depressed economy that instilled hope for new financial opportunities in the New World among the people. To found the new colonies, the English set up joint­stock companies, in which people of moderate means pooled their savings and supported the trading ventures in which they envisioned potential for profit. Jamestown King James I chartered the Virginia Company that established Jamestown in 1607. ■ Early problems: The first settlers suffered from Indian attacks, starvation, and disease. The settlement’s swampy location was prone to malaria outbreaks. The men weren’t used to physical labor; they couldn’t farm, they just wanted gold. Obviously, then, food was scarce. ■ Tobacco prosperity: Captain John Smith’s forceful leadership coupled with John Rolfe’s development of a tobacco industry helped Jamestown survive. Rolfe and his wife, Pocahontas, grew a new kind of tobacco that everyone liked in Europe. That said, Jamestown’s tobacco plantations required a large labor force. Initially, the Virginia Company preferred to used indentured servants, who would work for a certain number of years in exchange for free transportation to the colony. In 1619, several Africans arrived at the colony and became enslaved. ■ Transition to a royal colony: Despite its strong tobacco industry, the Virginia Company fell into debt. The company’s charter was revoked in 1624. King James I took direct control over the colony. Florida Spanish established a permanent settlement at St. Augustine in 1565. New Mexico In New Mexico, Pueblos revolted as a result of Spanish efforts to Christianize the Natives. The settlers were driven from the area until the 1700s. Texas After they were driven from New Mexico, the Spanish establish settlements in Texas. California The Spanish established permanent settlements at San Diego in 1769 and San Francisco in 1776.

PURITAN COLONIES Background Religious incentive, not profit, was the driving force behind the settlement of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. English Protestants, influenced by John Calvin, settled both of these colonies. Although the Anglican Church was Protestant in name, many felt as though it resembled the Roman Catholic Church. During the reign of King James I, many wanted to 4 purify their chruch of this Catholic influence. Henceforth, Puritanism was born. Plymouth Colony A group of Puritans knows as Separatists wanted to organize a completely separate church in their new colony. They didn’t want to simply reform the Church of England. After migrating to Holland and finding economic hardship, the Pilgrims set sail for Virginia on the Mayflower in 1620. Most passengers were Separatists. ○ Early hardships: After landing north of their destination, the Pilgrims settled on the Massachusetts coast. The first winter in Plymouth killed half of the settlers. Soon after, however, friendly Natives helped the new arrivals adapt to the land. Together, they celebrated Thanksgiving in 1621. The colony grew slowly under Miles Standish and William Bradford. They economized fish, furs, and lumber. Massachusetts Bay Colony A new group of Puritans, who weren’t Separatists, left England after Charles I had taken over and denied them religious freedom. They obtained a royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1629. John Winthrop led a group of Puritans to Mass Bay Colony in 1630 in what became known as the Great Migration. Politics ○ Majority rule in Plymouth: Pilgrims on the Mayflower signed the Mayflower Compact in 1620 to form a colonial self­government and an early form of a written constitution. ○ Jamestown: In 1619, Virginia colonists organized the House of Burgesses, the first representative assembly. ○ Massachusetts: All male members of the Puritan Church had the right to participate in annual elections. ○ Limited nature of colonial democracy: The colonies were partially democratic, but many were excluded from the political process. Only male property owners could vote for representatives. Governors ruled autocratically.

NATIVE AMERICANS Background Various settlers treated Indians in different ways. The Spanish conquered and ruled the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas.The English pushed the tribes they encountered inland. French generally befriended the Natives for economic and military advantages. Most Europeans considered the Natives inferior. Their colonization brought about the spread of disease, war, and subjugation of the Natives. Spanish Policy Spain used war, enslavement, and disease to conquer Native Americans. Spanish men intermarried with the Natives and Africans since there weren’t a lot of women from Spain. A rigid class system developed within the highly organized empire Spain had established. English Policy English and Natives initially got along in Massachusetts. The Indians taught the settlers farming and hunting techniques. They traded tools and weapons. The peace soon dissolved into conflict, however, since the English viewed the Natives as “savages.” French Policy French sought to control the fur trade, and therefore maintained relatively peaceful relations with the Natives. They built posts along big rivers and lakes and traded furs with Indians.

5 COLONIAL EXPANSION (chapter 2) CHESAPEAKE COLONIES New Colonialism After Jamestown was founded in 1607, 13 different English colonies developed through charters, grants from the English monarch. Three types of colonies grew as a result of three different types of charters. ○ Corporate colonies like Jamestown were owned by joint­stock companies. ○ Royal colonies like Virginia after 1624 were under the monarch’s rule. ○ Proprietary colonies like Massachusetts and Pennsylvania were under the authority of individuals to whom the king had granted charters. Maryland King Charles I granted George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) a charter for Maryland, the first proprietary colony. He was responsible for carrying out the king’s wishes, but he died before he could achieve wealth or substantial improvement for Catholics like himself. His son Cecil, the second Lord Baltimore, took over in 1632. ○ Acts of Toleration: Wealthy English Catholics emigrated to Maryland to escape religious intolerance back home. Protestant farmers quickly outnumbered the Catholics and had a majority in Maryland’s assembly. In 1649, Cecil Calvert convinced the assembly to adopt the Acts of Toleration, which granted religious freedom to all Christians. ○ Protestant revolt: After a brief civil war victory for Protestants in the late 1600s, the Protestants repealed the Acts of Toleration. Catholics lost their position in the assembly. Virginia ○ Economic problems: Low tobacco prices in the 1660s strained the Chesapeake colonies. ○ Political problems and Bacon’s Rebellion: Sir William Berkeley, Virginia’s governor, favored large planters. He didn’t protect the farmers on the western frontier from Indian attacks. Nate Bacon, led a rebellion in response to the lack of protection. In 1676, he raised an army and led raids against Indian villages. Berkley accused Bacon of rebelling against authority. Bacon’s army then defeated the governor’s forces and burned Jamestown. Bacon died soon after, and his army fell. ○ Lasting problems: Bacon’s Rebellion revealed the class differences between the planters and farmers. It also highlighted the presence of colonial resistance to royal control. Labor Shortages The climate coupled with diseases and Indians contributed to slow growth among the Chesapeake colonies. There was an imbalance between the number of men and women. ■ Indentured servants: British youth agreed to serve for several years in exchange for room and board. ■ Headright system: To attract immigrants, Virginia offered 50 acres of land to each immigrant or plantation owner who paid for an immigrant’s passage. ■ Slavery: The first Africans arrived with Dutch to Virginia in 1619. They were initially treated the same as indentured servants. In the 1660s, the House of Burgesses passed laws that discriminated between blacks and whites. Africans were to be treated as slaves for life, while white laborers could be set free after a certain period.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENGLAND Rhode Island 6 ○ Founding: Roger Williams, a Puritan minister, believed that an individual was beyond the control of church authority. Puritans leaders banished him from Mass Bay. He fled to Narragansett Bay, where he and his followers founded Providence in 1636. The colony recognized the rights of Native Americans, and it also provided complete religious toleration. ○ Ann Hutchinson: Hutch believed in antinomianism, the idea that faith alone, not deeds, was necessary for salvation. She was banished from the bay colony, and she founded Portsmouth in 1638. A few years later, Indians killed her in Long Island. ○ Charter: Williams was granted a charter that joined Providence and Portsmouth into the single colony of Rhode Island in 1644. Connecticut Reverend Thomas Hooker was also unhappy with the Massachusetts authorities. He led a group of Puritans to found Hartford colony in 1636. In 1639, they drew up the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, the first constitution in American history. In 1637, John Davenport started another colony in the Connecticut Valley called New Haven. The two colonies merged in 1655 and were granted a royal charter for the colony for Connecticut. New Hampshire King Charles II separated New Hampshire from the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1679 and made it a royal colony. Halfway Covenant In the 1660s, there was a new, less religious generation. In an effort to maintain the church’s influence and membership, clergymen offered a halfway covenant to those who were less committed to religion. New England Confederation In 1643, four New England colonies formed a military alliance, the New England Confederation, to protect each other from the Indians, French, and Dutch. King Philip’s War Metacom, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, was known to colonists as King Philip. He united many tribes in New England against the English settlers who were taking their land. Between 1675 and 1676, thousands on each side died. The colonists eventually won and killed King Philip.

RESTORATION COLONIES The Carolinas: Charles II gave a huge plot of land to several nobles in 1663. He awarded two nobles proprietorship to South and North Carolina. ○ South Carolina: Initially, the economy was based on the fur trade and giving food to the West Indies. By the mid 1700s, South Carolina had developed big rice plantations worked by slaves. ○ North Carolina: Different than in the south, North Carolina was home to tobacco farms. The region had weaker transportation than South Carolina, so there were less plantations and less need for slavery. New York Charles II wanted to take New Amsterdam from the Dutch to close the gap between New England and the Chesapeake colonies. In 1664, the Duke of York, James II, took control over the the Dutch colony. He ordered the renaming of the colony and that his agents treat the Dutch well. James also ordered new taxes without the consent of an assembly. After opposition, James allowed the governor to grant a representative assembly in 1683. 7 New Jersey In 1664, James divided a section of New York,. among two friends, John Berkeley and George Carteret. The land was broken into East and West New Jersey, each of which boasted religious freedom and an assembly. They attracted groups of Quakers. In 1702, the King decided to combine the two regions into New Jersey. Pennsylvania and Delaware ○ Quakers: The Quakers were a member of the Religious Society of Friends that believed in equality for men and women and non­violence. Their view that religious authority could only be derived from within was too radical for England. They were jailed for their beliefs. ○ William Penn: William Penn, a Quaker, inherited a lot of money and a grant with which he founded Pennsylvania in 1680. ○ “The Holy Experiment”: Penn wanted to provide a religious refuge for Quakers, develop a liberal government, and gain profits for himself. He guaranteed a representative assembly, and he drafted a constitution in 1701 that granted freedom of religion and unrestricted immigration. Unlike other proprietors, Penn supervised the founding of Philadelphia. He also vowed to treat the native Americans fairly. ○ Delaware: In 1702, Penn granted a section of Pennsylvania their own assembly, creating Delaware as a separate colony. Georgia Georgia, the thirteenth colony, was chartered in 1732. Britain wanted to create a buffer zone to protect South Carolina from Spanish Florida. Wealthy philanthropists in London thought the new colony would relieve overcrowded jail i imprisoned debtors from England were shipped to America. ○ Special regulations: James Oglethorpe and other philanthropists were granted proprietary charter, and they founded Savannah, the colony’s first settlement, in 1733. Oglethorpe enacted strict regulations like a ban on run and the prohibition of slavery. ○ Royal colony: Georgia was taken over by the British government in 1752, and the restrictions on rum and slavery were dropped.

MERCANTILISM Mercantilism An economic policy that focuses on trade, colonies, and wealth as the base for a country’s political and military strength. Throughout the 1600s, European kingdoms, including England, adopted this theory. Navigation Acts ○ Provisions ■ Only English ships could be used in trade to and from the colonies. ■ Good imported to colonies had to pass through English ports. ■ “Enumerated” or specified goods like tobacco could only be exported to England. ○ Positive Effects ■ Shipbuilding prospered in New England. ■ Chesapeake tobacco had a monopoly in England. ■ England’s military protected the colonies from the French and Spanish. ○ Negative Effects ■ Colonial manufacturing was limited. ■ Chesapeake farmers received low prices for their crops. ■ Colonists had to buy goods from England at high prices. 8 ○ Enforcement: The British government was generally lax in enforcing the acts. Occasionally the crown tried to overcome colonial resistance to the trade laws. Dominion of New England King James II wanted to increase royal control over the colonies. In 1686, he combined New York, New Jersey, parts of New England into the Dominion of New England. He sent Sir Edmund Andros to govern the dominion. He was unpopular since he levied taxes. After William and Mary’s Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, James II was deposed from the throne. The dominion was divided again into its original colonies.

INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY Increased Demand for Slaves ○ Reduced migration: There was a waning supply of immigrants due to wage increases in England. ○ Dependable work force: Plantation owners were disturbed by the demands of small farmers as shown in Bacon’s Rebellion. They thought slaves would be completely under their control. ○ Cheap labor: To grow the now profitable rice and indigo, planters needed a lot of land and a lot of cheap, unskilled field hands. Slave laws As slavery grew in the mid the 17th century, white colonists adopted laws to ensure that blacks would be slaves for life and that their children would also be slaves. It was customary for whites to regard blacks as inferior. Racism and slavery became an important part of society. Triangular Trade Ships full of rum left New England and arrived in West Africa, where the rum was traded for hundreds of Africans. The ship would take the Middle Passage back to the West Indies, where Africans were traded as slaves for sugarcane. The ship then returned to New England with the sugar, where it was sold for the making of rum.

9 COLONIAL SOCIETY AND CULTURE (chapter 3) POPULATION GROWTH Background In English colonies during the 1700s, the population increased tenfold. This happened among whites and slaves alike. Immigration and a fertile land that encouraged the raising of large families led to the growth. European Immigrants Newcomers to the British came from Central and Western Europe in addition to Great Britain. Religious persecution, wars, and economic opportunity were common motives for leaving Europe. ○ English: With fewer domestic issues, the amount of English immigrants was relatively small. ○ Germans: Germans settled mostly in western Philadelphia. They maintained their culture for the most part. ○ Scotch­Irish: Emigrating from northern Ireland, this group settled along the western parts of Pennsylvania and other parts of the frontier. ○ Other Europeans: French Protestants (Huguenots), Dutch, and Swedes migrated too. Africans An overwhelming concentration of Africans come to America­ against their free will. Regardless, they generally lived in the southern colonies as slaves. Farther north, African Americans had more freedom in their labor, but they were still subject to discrimination.

SOCIETY General Characteristics ○ Dominance of English culture: Most colonists were English in origin, language, and tradition. Still, Africans and other Europeans created their own diverse culture. ○ Self­government: Most colonies had a representative assembly that voters elected. ○ Religious toleration: Colonies granted different degrees of religious toleration. Massachusetts was the least tolerant; Rhode Island and Pennsylvania were the most liberal. ○ No hereditary aristocracy: A narrow class system of wealthy landowners, craftspeople, and small farmers developed in the colonies. ○ Social mobility: Besides slaves, most had an opportunity to improve their standard of living through hard work. Families The family was the center of colonial life. Men did work, and women bore children, cooked, cleaned, and taught their children.

ECONOMY New England Rock soil and long winters prompted subsistence farming. The industrious descendants of the Puritans prospered from logging, shipbuilding, and fishing. Middle colonies Rich soil let European farmers grow an abundance of wheat and corn for export. Trading led to the development of cities like New York and Philly. 10 Southern colonies Southern farms ranged from small subsistence to large plantations. Cash crops included tobacco, rice, and indigo. Monetary system Colonies used hard currency to purchase imports from England. They sometimes issued paper money for domestic trade. Transportation Trading centers were located on harbors and rivers to ease transportation. Overland travel by horse became more common in the 1700s. Taverns boarded and lodged travelers.

RELIGION Protestant Dominance ○ Background: Churches that taxed the people to support a Protest denomination were known as established churches. The two established churches were the Church of England in Virginia and the Congregational Church in Massachusetts and Connecticut. As increased immigration grew the religious diversity in New England, the church exempted some members of other churches from the tax burden. ○ Anglicans: Members of the Church of England were usually wealthy farmers and merchants. Since the church was headed by the king, it became a symbol of English control in the colonies. ○ Congregationalists: Members of the Congregationalist Church succeeded the Puritans in New England. The Great Awakening ○ Background: In the early 18th century, Protestants portrayed God as a benign creator of a perfect universe. There was less focus on the Puritan emphasis ideas of human sinfulness and the fear of damnation. The Great Awakening cought to change this. ○ Jonathan Edwards: Edwards argued that God was angry with human sinfulness. God would only save those who repented. He expressed these ideas most notably in “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”. His influence was centered around New England. ○ George Whitefield: In the entire colonial America, Whitefield ignited the movements with sermons on the hellish torments of the damned. He preached in every imaginable setting to large crowds, stressing that God would only save those who openly believed in Jesus. ○ Religious impact: Emotionalism became a common part of Protestantism. Ministers lost some authority as some now studied the Bible alone at home. The Awakening also divided churches like the Congregational and Presbyterian. It divided “New Lights” that supported the Awakening’s messages from those that condemned them, “Old Lights”. Evangelical sects like Baptists and Methodists gained popularity. This led to a call for separation of church and state. ○ Political impact: The Awakening had a democratizing effect by changes the way Americans viewed authority. They thought that religious responsibility should give them political responsibility too.

CULTURE Achievements in the Arts and Sciences ○ Architecture: People adopted architectural style from England. ○ Painting: Colonial artists looked for people who wanted their portraits painted. ○ Literature: Literature mostly concerned religion and politics. In the years before the 11 Revolution, political essays were popular. ○ Science: Ben Franklin worked with electricity. Education ○ New England: Puritan schools emphasized the Bible. These were tax­supported schools. ○ Middle colonies: Schools were either church­sponsored or private. ○ Southern colonies: Parents educated their kids to the best of their ability. Plantation kids had tutors. ○ Higher education: Harvard was founded in 1636 to develop ministers. William and Mary and Yale followed. Professions ○ Physicians: Medicine was very primal, and bleeding and purging were accepted practices. ○ Lawyers: Lawyers came about in the 1700s as trade expanded and legal problems became more complicated. During the 1760s and 1770s, lawyers gained more respect when they argued for colonial rights. The Press ○ Newspapers: By 1776, newspapers were far more popular than they had been just fifty years prior. ○ Zenger case: If any article offended politicians, printers could be jailed for libel. In 1735, John Peter Zenger was charged for libelously criticizing New York’s governor. Zenger was acquitted on the grounds that he had printed truthful information. The case encouraged newspaper to take greater risks in criticizing the government. Rural Folkways Farmers didn’t read; they worked every hour of the day. Although food was usually plentiful, homes weren’t comfortable. Emergence of a National Character Colonists exercised rights of free speech, free press, and religious toleration. They grew accustomed to electing representatives to assemblies.

POLITICS Structure of Government In each colony, the legislature had to houses. The lower house, or assembly, voted on taxes. Thus, colonists grew accustomed to only paying taxes that their representatives had approved. The upper house members were elected by the king or by the colony’s proprietor. ■ Local government: In New England, colonists established towns and villages. Here, town meetings were the dominant form of local government. People would go to the church and vote on issues. Towns were less common in the South because the farms and plantations were spread far apart. Sheriffs and other officials formed a local government as part of a county. Voting Colonies had limited democracy; white women, poor white men, slaves, and free blacks couldn’t vote. During the 1700s, some voting restrictions (religion) were lifted. Still, all voters had to own property. In Virginia, the House of Burgesses was filed with wealthy landowners. In Massachusetts, the legislature was more open to small farmers. The general trend was that the common people in each colony depended on the privileged few to make the decisions.

12 BEGINNINGS OF REBELLION (chapter 4) COLONIAL WARS First Three Wars In King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War, England tried to capture Quebec but failed. Native Americans worked together with the French, and they were able to burned English frontier settlements. Lastly in, King George’s war,The English faced the French and Spanish. Even though England won, they lost an important fort in New England during the peace treaty. French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War) The first three wars had been mostly fought in Europe. Since the French and Indian war was fought in the colonies, France and England recognized the importance of the colonies. ○ Beginning of the war: The British thought the French started the war by building forts in the Ohio River Valley. Virginia sent a militia under George Washington to stop France from building Fort Duquesne, which would give them control of the Valley. Washington surrendered after an initial victory.The war was going badly for Britain at first. French and Native American troops were strong, and they deseroyested much of the western frontier ○ Albany Plan of Union: In 1754, delegates adopted Ben Franklin’s Albany Plan of Union that provided for an intercolonial government, a recruiting system, and tax collections from each colonies. None of the colonies wanted to abandon their own taxation powers, so they rejected the plan. ○ British victory: William Pitt, the British prime minister, concentrated the military on conquering Canada. After victories in Louisbourg and Quebec, the two sides signed the Peace of Paris in 1763. Great Britain won French Canada and Spanish Florida France gave Louisiana to Spain. ○ Immediate effects of the war: For Britain, the war removed the threat of French, Spanish, and Native Americans. It could become the dominant naval power in the world. ■ British view: The British left the war with a low opinion of the colonial military effort. They decided that the colonies were unable and unwilling to defended the new frontiers of the British Empire. ■ Colonial view: The colonists were proud of their effort, and they were confident that they could defend themselves. Reorganization of the British Empire Britain had previously exercised little control over the colonies. They didn’t enforce the Navigation Acts. They decided to leave this policy of salutary neglect for more forceful tactics to control the colonies. Britain felt the need to keep a military force to guard the American frontiers. British landowners were pressured into reducing the heavy taxes that the wars had placed upon them. King George III decided to make the colonies bear some of the cost of maintaining the British empire. ○ Pontiac’s rebellion: In 1763, Chief Pontiac raided colonial settlements on the Western Frontier. To retaliate, the British sent their own troops instead of relying on colonial support. ○ Proclamation of 1763: The British government prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. They thought this would end hostilities with the Natives.The colonists resent the proclamation; they expected benefits from the war victory. Many moved past the proclamation line to spite the government.

13 BRITISH ACTIONS AND COLONIAL REACTIONS New Revenues and Regulations The following were passed under George III and prime minister George Grenville. ○ Sugar Act (1764): This act places duties on foreign sugar. It was meant to raise money for the crown and provide for stricter enforcement of the Navigation Acts ○ Quartering Act (1765): This required colonists to provide food and living quarter for British soldiers in the colonies. ○ Stamp Act (1765): This required that revenue stamps be placed on printed paper. This was the first direct tax; it was collected from people who used goods. In cases prior, the taxes were on imported goods paid by merchants. ■ Protests: Colonists all over reacted angrily to the Act. To protest, they formed the Sons and Daughters of Liberty, a secret society that terrorized tax agents. Many boycotted British imports, which pressed parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. ○ Declaratory Act: In 1766, Parliament voted to repeal the Stamp Acted. While colonists rejoiced, they didn’t realize that an act had been passed that asserted that Parliament could tax and make laws for the colonies whenever they wanted to. Second Phase of the Crisis, 1767­1773 ○ Townshend Acts: In 1767, Parliament enacted new duties to be collected on imports of tea, glass, and paper. The revenues would pay crown officials. ■ Colonial reaction: At first, colonists didn’t protest the taxes under the Acts because they were indirect taxes paid by merchants, not direct taxes on consumer goods. Samuel Adams and James Otis led the movement to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. Colonists began boycotts of British goods. ■ Repeal: In London, Lord North urged Parliament to repeal the Acts because they were damaging trade. The Acts were repealed in 1770, ending the colonial boycotts and prompting a relatively peaceful and prosperous three years. ○ Boston Massacre: The one exception to this period of peace was the Boston Massacre. In March 1770, colonists harassed the troops who were protecting customs officials. The guards fired into the crowd and killed five people. The soldiers were acquitted, and Sam Adams denounced the shooting as a “massacre.” Renewal of the Conflict Sam Adams’s 1772 Committees of Correspondence projected the colonial grievances and exchanged letters about suspicious British activities. ○ The Gaspee: This was a British customs ships that had caught many smugglers. In 1772, when the ship docked in Rhode Island, colonists dressed as Native Americans burned the ship. ○ Boston Tea Party: Colonists refused to buy British tea because it was still taxed. In 1773, the Tea Act made the price of the British East India Company’s tea cheaper than that of smuggled Dutch tea. Colonists continued to boycott the British product because they wouldn’t recognize Parliament’s ability to tax them. Bostonians dressed as Native Americans, boarded British ships, and dumped the tea into the harbor. While some colonists applauded the incident, others thought it was too radical. Intolerable Acts ○ Coercive Acts (1774) ■ The port of Boston was closed. ■ The Massachusetts legislature lost power to the royal governor. ■ Royal officials could be tried in England instead of in the colonies. 14 ■ The Quartering Act was expanded. Now British troops could be quartered in private homes in all colonies. ○ Quebec Act (1774): The following acts angered colonists because they feared the British would enact similar laws in America. ■ Established Roman Catholicism as the official religion of Quebec. ■ Set up a government without a representative assembly. ■ Extended Quebec’s boundary to the Ohio River. Philosophical Basis for Revolution ○ Enlightenment: John Locke’s ideas of “natural laws” appealed to many educated Americans. They agreed with the notion that people had an obligation to revolt against the government if it violated their rights. Other Enlightenment thinkers valued rationalism and reason in the face of problems.

15 REVOLUTIONARY WAR (chapter 5) PRE­REVOLUTION POLITICS At first, people thought they’d fight for reform, not independence. Divisions within Second Continental Congress (1775) Complete independence (supported by John and Samuel Adams) vs Reformed imperialist relationship (supported by John Dickinson) Olive Branch Petition Compromise between the two factions­ attempt to avoid further conflict Rejected by Britain. Pushed people towards fighting for independence rather than redress of grievances. Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms adopted soon after; said that America had no choice but to succumb to tyranny or fight Common Sense (1776) Pamphlet written by Thomas Paine, a recent British immigrant, which attributed America’s problems with Britain to the fundamentally flawed British constitution. It was only logical for America to break away from such tyranny. Public support for independence grew as a result. Prohibitory Act Barred the colonies from foreign trade and implemented a blockade of colonial ports. Support for independence grew. Loss of Loyalty After fighting against the British, it was hard to retain any affections toward them. They recruited Indians, Hessians, and African slaves against the Americans. An ultimate goal of independence was the only thing that would justify the high cost of war. However, there was a substantial minority of Loyalists. Declaration of Independence (1776) Compiled the colonists’ grievances, the crimes of the king, and Locke’s ideas. Led to increased foreign aid to the Patriots. Influenced French Revolution and other revolutions Articles of Confederation (1781) Weak national government, which would be a problem because Congress couldn’t levy taxes. Mobilization ○ Shortages of supplies and manpower ○ Aid from Europe, mainly France ○ Too much money­printing caused inflation ○ Continental Army headed by George Washington, who became an important figure in holding the country together.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION American Advantages ○ Fighting on home turf ○ Patriots were deeply committed to the cause ○ Foreign aid from Britain’s industrial competitors ○ British gaffes British Advantages ○ Superior army and navy ○ Better equipped for traditional fighting 16 ○ Vast resources ○ Good command structure First Phase: New England ○ Battle of Bunker Hill (1775):Patriots attacked General Thomas Gage’s army in Boston. Heavy casualties on both sides; victory for British. ○ British evacuation of Boston (1776): Boston was not a strategic location for British troops because it could easily be surrounded­­which was what the Patriots did to drive them out, as well as a lot of Loyalist refugees. Britain realized that this war was legit. ○ Loyalists: Since they were suppressed by the Patriots, Britain felt they couldn’t count on them for support and decided against a plan to invade the southern states. ○ Invasion of Canada: Patriots tried to win support of northern colonists, but failed. Second Phase: Mid­Atlantic Region (1776­ early 1778) ○ New York: British navy presence in NYC’s waters; Commander Howe drove Patriot forces out of NY to PA. ○ Christmas attack on Trenton: Washington captured but couldn’t hold Princeton or Trenton. ○ Commander Howe: Hoped Americans would be awed or intimidated into surrendering; expected the war to be a quick victory. Offered surrender with pardon as an alternative to battle, but Patriots didn’t accept. Attacked Philadelphia, the rebel capital, to rally Loyalists, discourage Patriots, and win the war quickly. ○ British strategy/Howe’s idea: Divide the colonies with forces coming from north and south. General John Burgoyne captured Fort Ticonderoga, which had lots of supplies.Because Howe abandoned this strategy Mohawk Valley and Saratoga. ○ British surrender at Saratoga: Turning point. Legitimized the colonies and led France to recognize them as a sovereign nation. Became allies. Ben Franklin’s popularity in France also helped with this. ○ British mistakes: Howe’s abandonment of strategy and failure to pursue Continental Army in Philly; Washington’s weak troops left alone at Valley Forge during the winter. Final Phase: The South British wanted support of Loyalists because not all Brits supported the war. Southern resources were also more valuable. ○ Civilians became involved; support for independence grew. ○ North: stalemate. Benedict Arnold lost confidence in Patriot cause and became a traitor. ○ British difficulties: Overestimated support of Loyalists; offended all white southerners by promising escaped slaves freedom; couldn’t tell friend from foe (Loyalist from Patriot); Patriot General Nathaniel Greene used guerilla warfare to confuse Cornwallis. ○ Attrition: Patriot strategy of tiring out the British forces. ○ Yorktown: French navy and Patriot army surrounded Cornwallis. British surrender on 10/17/1781. Treaty of Paris (1783) ○ America wanted to stand by France, who wanted to stand by Spain. Spain wanted Gibraltar back from England, so France wouldn’t agree to anything till it was returned. ○ America and Britain engaged in preliminary negotiations because they didn’t want to stay at war. ○ End of hostilities with England, France, Spain, and America. America was free!

SOCIETY 17 Loyalists 1/5­1/3 of whites. Many fled to Canada or England, the rich leaving behind estates and important jobs. Christianity Anglican church was disestablished by revolutionary regimes. Catholic Americans were Patriots, and the French troops were Catholic, so the Catholic Church was strengthened. Slavery Many slaves escaped during the war. The desire for freedom became stronger. Antislavery sentiment grew in the North because of revolutionary feelings and evangelism. Slavery survived in the South; the argument was that enslaving blacks was the only way to preserve white liberty. Also, whites were seen as superior. Native Americans Some supported the British because they had tried to stop the colonists from encroaching on native lands in the past. Iroquois Confederacy was weakened because half its tribes supported the British. Most stayed neutral, as encouraged by Patriots and British. Native Americans suffered from white resentment and encroachment on lands as well as disunity. Women Many women were left in charge of homes and farms when their husbands went to war. Women in the army were resented by men but valuable as cooks, nurses, and launderers; some even in combat. The Revolution sparked a demand for women’s rights; important figures were Abigail Adams and Judith Sargent Murray. Ultimately, the patriarchal structure was strengthened, but wives and mothers were viewed with increased respect and were responsible for raising good republican citizens.

ECONOMY Trade The colonies lost Britain as a trading partner; exports declined. However, they were no longer subject to the monarchy’s restrictions on trade with other countries. Imports increased. Domestic Manufacturing American could no longer rely on other countries for finished goods. Homespun fabric became patriotic and fashionable. A true economic revolution didn’t happen till the 1800s, though. Financing the War Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress could not levy taxes to raise money for the Continental Army. War bonds were sold. Postwar Depression (1784­1787)

STATE GOVERNMENTS Republicanism Power comes from the people. Civic virtue, equality, success must be earned. However inequality persisted: women were subordinate, natives subjugated, and equality of opportunity never fully existed. State Constitutions To avoid making the same mistakes as England, the new states wrote their constitutions and limited executive power. However, they were revised after proving ineffective due to too much democracy. Governors would have a fixed salary and could veto legislation. 18 Religious Toleration Statute of Religious Liberty, written in 1786 by Thomas Jefferson, was enacted in VA and called for secularism. Slavery Abolished in PA and New England; importation banned everywhere except SC and GA. The South was highly dependent on slaves, and no one could think of an alternative or envision blacks and whites coexisting equally. Taxes and Debt ○ States taxed population for war debt ○ Poor farmers thought it was unfair and wanted an increase in money supply ○ Shays’ Rebellion: demanded paper money, tax relief, delay on debt payment, relocation of state capital from Boston to interior of MA, abolition of imprisonment for debt. Showed that a stronger national constitution was needed.

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT Articles of Confederation (1781­1789) Congress, the only central authority, had power over wars, foreign relations, and money; however, it couldn’t levy taxes, regulate trade or draft troops. Ratification was difficult because it required approval of all the states. Small states wanted equal representation; large states wanted representation by population. Diplomacy Foreign nations thought the Articles were lame. Britain was hostile and violated the peace treaty by keeping troops in the Great Lakes region and failing to repay slaveowners whose slaves had been taken during the war. Border disputes with Spain; South didn’t want to give up access to the Mississippi. Land Ordinances ○ Didn’t want to treat westerners as second­class citizens, the way the British had treated the colonists. More attention was paid to land north of Ohio River though, so more chaos south of it in the process of development. ○ Native Americans: lots of violence on the western frontier in 1790s. Congress was selling native land! ○ 1784: population of a western territory had to be at least that of the smallest state to become a state. ○ 1785: favored landowning companies over individual settlers. Land would be auctioned off and divided into townships; some profit would go to public schools. ○ Northwest Ordinance of 1787: response to criticism about selling most of the land to companies. Created a single Northwest Territory that could be further divided. Minimum population, no slavery, religious freedom, and right to trial by jury. Debt Congress didn’t receive enough money from states to pay off war debt. “Continental impost” would have been a 5% tax on imports to generate revenue, but it wasn’t passed because Americans didn’t want too much power in the federal government.

19 NEW REPUBLIC (chapter 6) ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION Foreign Problems The weak government couldn’t stop Britain from placing restrictions on trade and keep their military posts on the western frontier. Economic Weakness and Interstate Quarrels Reduced trade and limited credit led to widespread economic depression. There was also no way to levy national taxes. States created financial rivalries and competed for economic advantage. Annapolis Convention Washington organized this meeting in 1765 and 1786 to discuss the country’s problems. Only a few delegates went to the convention, and they decided to go to Philly to revise the Articles of Confederation.

CONSTITUTION Delegates Delegates met in the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia. Most were wealthy, college­educated, and young. They were all white males. George Washington was voted chairperson. Issues ○ Background: Many disagreed on whether the Articles should be amended or completely eradicated. Delegates feared the power of government officials, so they mostly supported the idea of checks and balances. ○ Representation: The following measures tried to solve the issue of whether representation in Congress should be proportional to a state's size. ■ Madison’s Virginia Plan: This favored large states. ■ New Jersey Plan: This favored small states. ■ Connecticut Plan/Great Compromise: This provided a two house Congress. Each state would have equal representation in the Senate but proportional representation based on population in the House of Representatives ○ Slavery: The north and south resolved the issue of slavery through the following measures. ■ Three­Fifths Compromise: This counted each slave as three­fifths of a person for the purposes of determining a state’s population. ■ There was a guarantee that slaves would be imported for at least twenty more years (1808) before congress could vote to abolish the practice. ○ Trade: The north wanted regulated interstate commerce and foreign trade. The south thought that its products like tobacco and rice would get an export tax ■ The Commercial Compromise: This allowed congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including placing tariffs on foreign imports, but it prohibited taxing exports. ○ Powers and election of the president: The president was given power, like that to veto acts of Congress. The delegates also limited the president’s term to four years, but they didn’t limited how many times a president could be reelected. They created the electoral system, a number of electors for each state based on the number of Congressional representatives, to prevent democracy from growing too large. ○ Ratification: The Philadelphia convention approved a draft of the Constitution i September 20 1787. This document would need support from nine out of the thirteen states to be ratified.

POLITICS Background Those who supported the Constitution were known as Federalists.Those opposed were Anti­Federalists. Federalists ○ Leaders: Washington, Franklin, Madison, Hamilton ○ Arguments: The union needed a strong central government ○ Strategy: Emphasized the weakness of the Articles ○ Advantages: Strong leaders; strong organization ○ Disadvantages: Constitutions lacked a bill of rights Anti­Federalists ○ Leaders: Patrick Henry, George Mason, John Hancock ○ Arguments: Strong central government destroys democracy and states’ rights ○ Strategy: Argued that the Constitution didn’t protect individual rights ○ Advantages: Appealed to distrust of government based on the colonial experience ○ Disadvantages: Poor organization Federalist Papers Madison, Hamilton, and John Jay wrote The Federalist Paper, which showed the practicality of every provision of the Constitution. Outcome After the Federalists promised to add a bill of rights, they gained more support. ○ Virginia: The Federalists won a close vote here after promising the bill of rights. ○ Other states: Virginia’s vote influenced other states, and in 1790 Rhode Island was the last state to ratify the Constitution. Bill of Rights ○ Arguments For: Anti­Federalists argued that a bill of rights was the only way to protect Americans from the strong central government. ○ Arguments Against: Federalists thought the people didn’t need to be protected since they elected members of Congress. Federalists backed off their argument and promised to add a bill of rights.

WASHINGTON PRESIDENCY Organizing the Federal Government ○ Executive: Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury, Henry Knox as secretary of war, and Edmund Randolph as attorney general. These appointments set the precedent for a presidential cabinet. ○ Judiciary: The Judiciary Act of 1789, an early Congressional law, establish a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate justices. This court could rule on the constitutionality of state court decisions. Hamilton’s Financial Program Hamilton proposed the following measures in order to resolve the government’s financial plight. While Hamilton found supported among northern merchants, Thomas Jefferson and a group of southern Anti­Federalists opposed the plan. Congress eventually adopted a slightly amended version of the plan. 21 ■ Pay off the national debt and have the federal government assume states’ war debts. ■ Impose high tariffs on imported goods to protect “infant” industries ■ Create a national bank for depositing government funds and for stabilizing currency ○ Debt: Jefferson supported Hamilton in that the U.S. government should pay off the national debt at face value and assume the states’ debt. In exchange, Hamilton agreed to establish the nation’s capital in the South. ○ Tariffs and excise taxes: Hamilton convinced Congress to pass excise taxes on the sale of whiskey to pay for the government’s debts that resulted from a relatively low tariff rate. ○ National Bank: Jefferson’s narrow view of the Constitution led him to believe that Congress couldn’t create a bank. Hamilton took a broader view, and he cited that the bank was “necessary and proper.” The bank was voted into law after Washington expressed his support for Hamilton on the issue. Foreign Affairs ○ French Revolution: Americans were split on the French people’s hope to establish a republic. Jefferson and his supporters sympathized with the revolutionaries and thought the U.S. should join France in its war against Britain. ○ Proclamation of Neutrality (1793): Washington thought the young country wasn’t strong enough to engage in war. After Washington proclaimed neutrality in 1793, Jefferson resigned from the cabinet. ○ “Citizen” Genet: Edmond Genet, the French minister, disobeyed Washington’s policy and appealing to Americans to support the French cause. Washington requested his removal as a diplomat. ○ Jay Treaty (1794): John Jay, Chief Justice, arranged a treaty with Britain in which it would evacuate its posts on the U.S. western frontier. The treaty didn’t address British seizure of American merchant ships, so it was unpopular and barely ratified. ○ Pinckney Treaty (1795): Spain viewed the Jay Treaty as reconciliation between the U.S. and Great Britain, which frightened it. Spain consolidated its North American holdings. Thomas Pinckney, minister to Spain, negotiated a treaty in which Spain would open the Mississippi River and New Orleans to American trade. Domestic Concerns ○ Native Americans: As settlers moved westward, they encroached on the Native American land. Natives resented this, and tensions grew when Americans heard that the British were giving the Natives weapons. Various battles in 1794, such as the Battle of Fallen Timbers, led to an agreement in which Natives surrender claims to the Ohio Territory. ○ Whiskey Rebellion (1794): In western Pennsylvania, farmers refused to pay the excise tax on whiskey attacked revenue collectors. Washing sent in 15,000 state militiamen, who suppressed the rebellion without any bloodshed. ○ Western lands: Congress encouraged rapid settlement of new lands, and it passed the 1796 Public Land Act, which regulated the division and sale of federal lands. New states were admitted into the union in these years: Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee.

PARTIES Origins The 1790s marked the beginning of the Federalist era, a time characterized by Federalist policies. In the era, Hamilton and Jefferson led two opposing groups: the federalist party and the Democratic­Republican party. Do not confuse these groups with those of the 22 Constitutional era. Federalists ○ Leaders: John Adams and Alexander Hamilton ○ View of the Constitution: Loose constructionist, strong central government ○ Foreign policy: Pro­British ○ Military policy: Large peacetime army and navy ○ Domestic policy: National bank, tariffs, favored business ○ Chief supporters: Northern businessmen and large landowners Democratic­Republicans ○ Leaders: Thomas Jefferson and James Madison ○ Views of the Constitution: Strict constructionist, weak central government ○ Foreign policy: Pro­French ○ Military policy: Small peacetime army and navy ○ Domestic policy: No national bank, no tariffs, favored agriculture ○ Chief supporters: Skilled workers, small farmers, plantation owners Washington’s Farewell Address In 1796, Washington projected the following message to Americans: ○ Don’t get involved in European affairs ○ Don’t make “permanent alliances” in foreign affairs ○ Don’t form political parties ○ Avoid sectionalism

ADAMS PRESIDENCY Background Adams, Washington’s vice president, beat Jefferson in the 1796 election by a very close margin. Jefferson became vice president. XYZ Affair Adams sent a delegation to Paris to negotiate a treaty with the French regarding about French seizure of U.S. merchant ships. French ministers X,Y, and Z requested bribes as the basis for reaching negotiation. The Americans refused, and reports of the demands angered Americans. Sentiment for war grew quickly, but Adams resisted the urge on the groups that the military wasn’t strong enough. Alien and Sedition Acts Federalists adopted the following laws to restrict the Democratic­Republicans: ○ Naturalization Act: Increased the number of years needed for immigrants to qualify for U.S. citizenship because they usually voted Democratic­Republican ○ Alien Acts: authorized the president to deport any aliens considered dangerous and to detain enemy aliens during wartime ○ Sedition Act: Made it illegal for newspaper editors to criticize the president or Congress Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Republicans thought the Alien and Sedition Acts violated First Amendment rights. The 1799 Kentucky Resolution (Jefferson) and 1799 Virginia Resolution (Madison) declared that states could nullify federal law if the federal government broke the “compact” that had formed. Election of 1800 ■ Results: The election removed Federalists from power in the executive and legislative branches. After Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, two Republicans, 23 received the same number of electoral votes, the House of Representatives had to break the tie. The Federalists in the House decided that Jefferson was the better candidate, and he was elected. Peaceful Revolution The 1801 passing of political power from one party to the other was non­violent. This was very rare, and has became known as the Revolution of 1800.

24 JEFFERSONIAN ERA (chapter 7) JEFFERSON PRESIDENCY Louisiana Purchase ○ Background: Louisiana, roughly the central third of the continental U.S. today, had been owned by Spain and then by France under Napoleon. Napoleon planned to restore a French empire in the Americas. He abandoned this idea due to the war with England and Toussaint l’Ouverture’s rebellion in Santo Domingo. ○ Mississippi River: As the western frontier expanded, settlers grew dependent on trade that flowed into the Mississippi River to the port at New Orleans. After the Spanish closed the port to Americans, people wanted government action. Jefferson was also worried that a foreign power had control over the river at New Orleans. ○ Negotiations: Jeffersons sent ministers to FRance to buy New Orleans and a small piece of land. Napoleon offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million. The ministers accepted. ○ Constitutional predicament: Jefferson was a strict constructionist, and the Constitution didn’t address that purchase of foreign land. He decided to abandon his ideals for the sake of the country, and he submitted the purchase to the Senate. He argued that lands could be added as part of the president’s power to make treaties. ○ Consequences: The purchase doubled the size of the country, removed a foreign presence, and guaranteed the extension of the western frontier. It also strengthened Jefferson’s hopes for an agricultural nation. ○ Lewis and Clark expedition: Before the purchase, in 1804, Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark to travel from St. Louis to the Oregon coast. The expedition increased knowledge of a new territory, strengthened U.S. claims to the Oregon Territory, improved relations with Natives, and developed maps for fur trappers. John Marshall and the Supreme Court ○ Background: After the 1800 election, Federalists still had control of the courts. ○ John Marshall: Marshall was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court for 34 years, beginning at the end of John Adams’ presidency. His decisions usually strengthened the central government at the expense of states’ rights. ○ Marbury v. Madison (1803): When Jefferson was taking office, he tried to block Adams’ “midnight appointments.” He told Madison not to deliver commissions to the Federalist judges that Adams had appointment. William Marbury, an appointment, sued for his commision. In the 1803 case, Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his commission according to the 1789 Judiciary Act. Marshall also ruled that this Judiciary Act was unconstitutional, and therefore Marbury couldn’t get his commission. This establish judicial review. ○ Judicial impeachments: Jefferson began a campaign of impeachment in an attempt to removed Federalist judges. The House impeach a Supreme Court justice, Samuel Chase, but the Senate acquitted him. The impeachment campaign was a failure since there were hardly any Federalist judges left in office. Election of 1804 Jefferson won the 1804 election against Aaron Burr by a large margin. Aaron Burr ○ Federalist conspiracy: Burr planned to become New York governor, united with New England states, and lead the group of states to secede from the union. Hamilton won the 25 New York election, and Burr’s plan was dissolved. ○ Duel with Hamilton: Burr fatally shot Hamilton in their 1804 duel. ○ Trial for treason: By 1806, Burr had plans to take Mexico from Spain and united it with Louisiana under his rule. Jefferson order his arrest and trial. Burr was acquitted by Marshall, who usually opposed Jefferson. Foreign Difficulties ○ Barbary pirates: Previously, presidents had paid tributes to Barbary governments to protect U.S. merchant ships from being seized by pirates. When the Pasha of Tripoli demanded a higher sum, Jefferson sent a small fleet to the Mediterranean that fought the pirates for four years. The navy achieved some respect, but no decisive victory. ○ Challenges to U.S. neutrality: France and Britain attempted to block each others’ ports in the midst of the Napoleonic wars. The British, in particular, captured U.S. sailors and impressed them to serve in the British navy. ○ Chesapeake­Leopard affair: In 1807, the British Leopard fired on the U.S. Chesapeake. A few Americans were killed. Anti­British sentiment grew, and many demanded war. Jefferson responded with economic and diplomatic measures. ○ Embargo Act (1807): The act prohibited American merchants ships from sailing to any foreign port. Jefferson hoped that British would stop violating the U.S.’s rights, but the embargo backfired. The British had no trouble without U.S goods, but New England merchants and shipbuilders were devastated without British trade. Jefferson repealed the act in 1809.

MADISON PRESIDENCY Election of 1808 Madison was the Virginian who wrote the constitution. He beat Federalist Charles Pinckney in the election. Commercial Warfare ○ Non­Intercourse Act of 1809: Lifted the embargo on all nations except Britain and France. It was an attempt to end economic hardship that resulted from Jefferson’s Embargo Act. ○ Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810): Economic hardship persisted, and Nathaniel Macon (not Bacon) proposed this bill that restored trade with Britain and France. If either of the countries agreed to respect U.S. neutral rights at sea the U.S. would prohibit trade with that nation’s enemy. ○ Napoleon’s deception: Napoleon announced that he would revoke the decrees that had violated the U.S. neutral rights. Madison therefore embargoed trade with Britain in 1811. Napoleon kept seizing merchant ships anyway.

WAR OF 1812 Causes ○ Free seas and trade: Neither of the two Euro­powers had respected U.S. neutral rights at sea, but Jefferson was biased towards France, and therefore so was his republican America. The British violations also seemed to be more blatant, especially in impressment. ○ Frontier pressures: Americans on the frontier wanted British Canada and Spanish Florida. ○ Native American conflict: The Shawnee warrior, Tecumseh, and his brother, the Prophet, a religious leader, tried to unite the tribes to defend their lands. General William Henry Harrison destroyed the Shawnee camps in the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. Although the British had only given limited help to Tecumseh, Americans blamed the British for starting 26 the fight. ○ War hawks: War hawks were the new group of congressional Republicans from frontier states like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. They wanted war to defend American honor. ○ Declaration of war: Madison was finally convinced by all of the fervor to declare war, which he did in June of 1812. Election of 1812 Madison defeated De Witt Clinton of New York, the candidate for Federalists and anti­war Republicans. War Opposition New England merchants and Federalist politicians opposed the ar. Merchants were opposed because impressment was only a minor inconvenience when compared to their sizable profits after the repeal of the Embargo Act. Federalists thought the war was a Republican scheme to win new land. Military Defeats and Naval Victories ○ Invasion of Canada: British defenders easily repulsed early American launches into Canada from Detroit and upstate New York. ○ Naval battles: American naval victories were more notable. American privateers captured British merchant ships. The most important naval battle was that fought in 1813 on Lake Erie by Oliver Perry. British eventually retreated, abandoning their plan to invade New York and New England. ○ Chesapeake campaign: In the summer of 1814, British armies marched through D.C. and burned a lot of government buildings. When they failed in their attempt to take Baltimore, Francis Scott Key wrote “The Star­Spangled Banner.” Treaty of Ghent The following agreements were made in 1814 and ratified in 1815. Britain made no concessions about impressment. ■ Halt to the fighting ■ Return of all conquered territory to prewar settings ■ Recognition of the prewar boundary between Canada and the U.S. Hartford Convention Before the war ended, New England states came close to seceding. A special convention at Hartford was held to vote upon secession. New of Andrew Jackson’s victory at the Battle of New Orleans and the treaty came shortly after the meeting. The events rendered the convention irrelevant and severely weakened the Federalists. Legacy The war didn’t achieve any of its aims. ○ U.S. gained respect of other nations ○ U.S. accepted Canada as a neighbor and part of the British Empire ○ Federalist party died ○ Seeds of nullification/secession were planted ○ Native Americans were forced to surrender large amounts of land to white settlers ○ As British goods became unavailable due to the naval blockade, American factories and industry grew ○ War heroes Like Jackson and William Harrison were born ○ Nationalism­ future of America lies in the West, not Europe

27 ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS (chapter 8) MONROE PRESIDENCY Background James Monroe was elected president in 1816. Since the Federalist party had faded, his years in office marked a time with only one political party, the Republicans, who dominated the North, South, and West. James Monroe Monroe was the third and final president in the Virginia dynasty. He won the 1816 by a large margin, and he won reelection easily in 1820. Since there was no organized political opposition, Monroe supported the growing nationalism of the American people. Cultural Nationalism America’s youth was excited for years of westward expansion, with little interest in European politics. Patriotic themes manifested themselves everywhere from paintings to schoolbooks. Economic Nationalism ○ Tariff of 1816: This was the first protective tariff in U.S. history. It raised tariff rates to protect manufacturers. It was generally popular, even among southern and western farmers. ○ Henry Clay’s American System: Clay, a Kentucky Congressman, proposed the following plan for advancing economic growth. Although Monroe supported the first two measures, he frequently vetoed Congressional acts providing funds for roads and canals because the Constitution didn’t specify on federal spending in this area. ■ Protective tariffs to promote manufacturing and raise revenue for building national transportation ■ National bank to provide a national currency. ■ Internal improvements to promote growth in the West and the South. ○ Panic of 1819: This crisis was the fault of the Second Bank of the United States (est. 1816), which had tightened credit to control inflation. State banks closed, and the value of money deflated. The West was most severely hurt by the panic, and land speculation placed many people in debt. Political Changes The Republican Party had some strains during this time. Even though some clung to the old ideals of the party, most Republicans adopted the Federalist program after the War of 1812 (Bank and large military). The feud between two Republicans, Daniel Webster (pro­tariff) and John C. Calhoun (anti­tariff), was born in the later years of Monroe’s term.

MARSHALL COURT Background Marshall, a Federalist, consistently favored the central government and property rights against states’ rights in his rulings. Cases ○ Fletcher v. Peck (1810): In a case involving George land fraud, Marshall ruled that a state couldn’t pass legislation that violated a contract. ○ Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee (1816): The Supreme Court established that it had jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitutional rights. ○ Dartmouth v. Maryland (1819): The Marshall Court struck down a New Hampshire law that changed Dartmouth from a privately chartered college into a public institution. The court 28 asserted that a contract for a private corporation couldn’t be altered by the state. ○ McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Marshall ruled the federal government had the implied power to create the Second Bank. A state couldn’t tax a federal institution because federal laws are supreme to state laws. ○ Cohens v. Virginia (1821): The case established that the Supreme Court could review a state court’s decision involving the powers of the federal government. ○ Gibbons v. Ogden (1821): Marshall established the federal government’s broad control of interstate commerce.

WESTERN SETTLEMENT Reasons ○ Acquisition of Native Americans’ lands: Native Americans were driven from their lands by various military victories. ○ Economic pressures: Struggling northeasterners sought a future across the Appalachians. Southern tobacco planters needed new land to replace the exhausted soil. ○ Improved transportation: Roads, canals, steamboats, and railroads made reaching the frontier more feasible than it previously had been. ○ Immigrants: Cheap land in the West attracted Europeans. New Questions and Issues Since the western states had small populations, representatives bargained with politicians from other regions to obtain their objectives becuase they had limited influence in Congress. They wanted “cheap money” (easy credit) from state banks, cheap land, and improved transportation. Missouri Compromise Missouri’s bid for statehood in 1819 upset the balance of 11 free and 11 slave states. ○ Tallmadge Amendment: Defeated in the Senate and never enacted. Proposed: ■ Prohibiting further introduction of slaves in Missouri ■ Children to be emancipated at the age of 25. ○ Clay’s proposals: Clay won congressional support for the the following measures. ■ Missouri would be admitted as a slave state. ■ Maine would be admitted as a free state. ■ In the rest of Louisiana Territory north of latitude 36 30’, slavery was prohibited. ○ Aftermath: The compromise preserved sectional balance for over 30 years.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS Canada The following provisions were between the U.S. and Britain. ○ Rush­Bagot Agreement (1817): This called for the mutual naval disarmament on the Great Lakes. ○ Treaty of 1818: This provided for shared fishing rights of Newfoundland, joint occupation for Oregon Territory for ten years, and the U.S.­Canada boundary line at the 49th parallel. Florida ○ Jackson’s military campaign: In 1818, Jackson led a militia into Florida and destroyed Seminole villages. Even as Jackson grew more aggressive, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams convinced Monroe to continue support for Jackson. ○ Adams­Onis Treaty (1819): Spain gave the rest of western Florida and, the east, and its claims in Oregon Territory the the U.S. The U.S. gave the $5 million and territorial claims in 29 Spanish Texas. Monroe Doctrine ○ Background: Britain and America decided they have a shared interest in protecting North and South America from European aggression. ○ British initiative: The British suggested to the idea of a joint Anglo­American warning to the European powers not to intervene in South America. ○ American response: Secretary of State John Quincy Adams argued against this idea for the following reasons. They convinced Monroe to issue a statement alone. ■ If the U.S. acted alone, Britain could be trusted to stand behind the U.S. policy. ■ No European power would risk war in South America. If it did, the British navy would defeat the aggressor. ○ Doctrine: In December, 1823 in a message to Congress, Monroe inserted a declaration of U.S. policy toward Europe and Latin America. It asserted that the American continents were not an area for future colonization by European countries. The U.S. would oppose attempts by a European power to interfere in the affairs of a republic in the Western Hemisphere. ○ Impact: Most citizens soon forgot the doctrine as they were more concerned with domestic issues. The doctrine held less significance at the time than in later times.

ECONOMY Population Growth Population was important for industrial development. The birth rate and immigrants from northwestern Europe contributed to the huge population growth of the early 19th century. Transportation ○ Roads: Pennsylvania’s Lancaster turnpike stimulated the construction of other privately built and relatively short toll. Besides the that on the Cumberland Road, states’ righters blocked the spending of federal funds on internal improvements. ○ Canals: The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal in New York led to the linkage between economies of westerns farms and eastern cities. Other states followed, and the two regions grew increasingly interdependent. ○ Steamboats: Robert Fulton’s mechanized steamboat had its first success in 1807. Commercial boats followed. ○ Railroads: In the late 1820s, railroads began to be built. They were improved in the 30s, and helped small, western towns like Chicago grow into big cities. Growth of Industry ○ Mechanical inventions: Patent laws now protected inventors, so many sought to reap the rewards of creating some cool shit. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793 and interchangeable parts for rifle­manufacturing during the War of 1812. ○ Corporations for raising capital: New York led the way in passing laws that facilitated businesses to incorporate and raise capital by selling stock. ○ Factory system: Samuel Slater brought British secrets for building cotton­spinning machines, which helped establish the first factory in 1791. New England emerged as the manufacturing center in the 1820s due to waterpower and seaports. New York and Philly followed suit. ○ Labor: At first, it was hard to find industrial workers. Textile mills in Lowell, Mass recruited young farm women and housed them in company dormitories. The Lowell System spread throughout the 30s. Child labor was used extensively. Immigrants did not work in 30 manufacturing until later. ○ Unions: Trade (craft) unions grew in major cities. Skilled workers had to work in factories because they couldn’t compete with the cheap, mass­produced goods. There were low wages, long hours, and bad working conditions. Unions saw obstacles in immigrant replacement workers, state laws outlawing union, and frequent economic depression and unemployment. Commercial Agriculture ○ Cheap land and easy credit: Western land was made available at low prices by the federal government. State banks gave farmers loans with low interest. ○ Markets: Canals and railroads opened new markets in the East. Cotton and the South The main cash crop in the 19th century South was cotton. Whitney’s 1793 cotton gin allowed for more extreme growth in the industry. Southern planters invested in slaves and new land in Alabama and Mississippi (Black belt). Effects of the Market Revolution ○ Women: Women didn’t work on their family farms as much, and either performed domestic service or taught. They rarely got factory jobs. Most working women were single. ○ Economic and social mobility: Although wages increased for urban workers in the early 1800s, so did the gap between the rich and poor. Social mobility was better than Europe, but true self­made men were rare. ○ Slavery: At the beginning of the 1800s, some thought slavery would end naturally. The rapid growth of the cotton industry ended this fantasy.

31 JACKSONIAN ERA (chapter 9) POLITICS Common Man Reforms: ■ universal male suffrage ■ party conventions ■ spoils system Parties Whigs: anti­Jackson Democrats: pro­Jackson; formerly Democratic­Republicans during Era of Good Feelings Anti­Masons: third party; attacked Masons, who represented undemocratic elite Know­Nothings: third party; anti­immigration

QUINCY ADAMS PRESIDENCY Election of 1824 John Quincy Adams, Whig, against Jackson, Democrat. Jackson won the electoral count, but the House of Representatives chose Adams instead in the Corrupt Bargain, after which then­Speaker of the House Henry Clay was appointed Adam’s Secretary of State. Tariff of Abominations 1828 tariff on industrial goods in order to protect American manufacturing. Hurt Southerners and pissed them off because they were having to pay more for good their region didn’t produce. Led to Nullification Crisis.

JACKSON PRESIDENCY Election of 1828 Democrats nominated Jackson on a platform of continued subjugation of women and American Indians, continued slavery, and expansion of democracy to all white male citizens. Bank Wars ○ Election of 1832: Jackson renominated by national party convention, won against National Republican Henry Clay. The renewal of the Bank of the U.S. was a major issue, with Jackson against its renewal and Clay in favor of its renewal. ○ Jackson versus Biddle: Jackson saw the Bank of the U.S. as a corrupt institution. Sought to prevent the bank’s rechartering in 1836. Nicholas Biddle was president of the bank, used allies Daniel Webster and Henry Clay to try and gain support for the bank. After Clay’s defeat in 1832, Jackson tried to remove funds from the bank in order to weaken it, and put them in “pet banks”. Biddle contracted credit and called in loans to create a recession. This was not enough of a statement, and eventually things got bad enough that he had to stop, and the bank was destroyed, hurting the American economy for over a century. ○ Pet Banks: Smaller state banks used to hold portions of the money in the U.S. treasury after the defeat of the Bank of the United States. Specie Circular Executive order by Jackson in 1836 saying that all land purchases involving the government had to be made with specie (gold). Caused the Panic of 1837. 32 Nullification Crisis After a tariff passed that did nothing to change the 1828 Tariff of Abominations, South Carolinians got real pissed. Led by John C. Calhoun, the state held a convention, deciding to nullify both tariffs within South Carolina based on the idea that power lay in the states as opposed to the federal govt. Jackson was real pissed, and had a force bill passed that allowed the president to use the military to enforce acts of Congress. Henry Clay averted the crisis with a compromise that would gradually lower the tariff. Indian Removal Indian Removal Act, 1830, appropriated money to finance negotiations with southern tribes to move them west. Cherokee resisted. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia in 1831 and Worcester v. Georgia in 1832 partially supported the tribe, but Jackson ignored the rulings, signing a treaty with a minority faction of the Cherokee. The Cherokee again refused to leave, so Jackson sent 7000 soldiers to force them west, beginning the Trail of Tears. ○ Seminole War, 1835­42, saw the Seminoles win a war and resist removal. ○ Five Civilized Tribes included Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. Vetoes Vetoed OD shit, but most importantly the National Bank recharter and the Maysville Road.

VAN BUREN, HARRISON, AND TYLER PRESIDENCIES Election of 1836 Whigs vs. Democrats; Whigs led by Clay, Webster, and Calhoun, Democrats led by Van Buren, who won the election. Panic of 1837 Due to overexpansion in real estate, hundreds of banks and businesses failed, various other panicky things happened. Blamed on Democrats and Van Buren, despite its being caused by Jackson and the Specie Circular. Election of 1840 Called the Log Cabin Campaign, saw William Henry Harrison run as the Whig and Van Buren as the Democrat. Penny press makes news of candidates more available. Harrison wins, but dies a month after taking office. His vice president John Tyler took the presidency. John Tyler Blocked several Whig bills, frustrated Congressional Whigs to the point that they read him out of the party, and all of his cabinet resigned. Foreign Affairs ○ Caroline Affair: Canadian rebellion against British colonial govt begins in 1837. American ship sent supplies to the rebels, but the British seize the ship and burn it, killing an American. The British did not apologize. ○ Aroostook War: Boundary between Maine and Canada had been in dispute since 1783. In 1838, Americans and Canadians moved into the disputed region and started a violent brawl. It probably looked really fucking stupid. Nobody died, I don’t even know if they had guns or anything. Silly shit if you ask me. ○ Webster­Ashburton Treaty: Established the current Maine boundary, promised that the British would stop fuckin with our shit. ○ Treaty of Wang Hya: 1844. First diplomatic relations with China established. Gave Americans same trading rights as the British.

33 EARLY INDUSTRIALISM / MARKET REVOLUTION (chapter 10) ECONOMY Population and Immigration ○ Nativism: The belief that immigrants are inherently inferior to those already living in a country. Grew out of fear of losing jobs in an increasingly competitive market, and racism. ○ Know­Nothings: Political party established 1845 on the tenets of nativism, anti­Catholicism, and temperance. Dissolved in 1860. Transportation ○ Roads: “Turnpike era” 1790­1820, not sufficient for the country’s shipping needs but still important. ○ Canals: Grew in importance after the invention of steamboats. Erie Canal began construction in 1817, opened in 1825, Connected NY to the Great Lakes and Chicago. ○ Steamboats: Robert Fulton created the first commercially successful steamboat in the early 1800s. By the 1820s, allowed the quick transport of goods from New Orleans to Eastern ports. ○ Railroads: Supplanted canals as the dominant mode of transportation in 1840s. The most comprehensive rail system existed in the North East. Transcontinental railroad begun in 1863 and completed in 1869. Inventions Steam engine 1812, lawn mower 1830, sewing machine 1830, rubber band 1845, safety pin 1849, dishwasher 1850, telephone 1876, lightbulb 1879. Labor ○ Lowell System: Labor management system used by textile industrialists to hire young women and create a paternal management figure. Unions Although the National Trades Union was created in 1834, unions were looked down upon and largely unsuccessful. Artisan unions were more effective, but only marginally so. Agriculture Farmers were upset at the lowering cost of transportation due to canals etc. Many moved to cities and contributed to urban growth. New farming technology allowed for greater production.

SOCIETY Women Cult of Domesticity arises. Women working were seen as lower class and looked down upon. Women were instead encouraged to cultivate their own sphere, which included home making, raising kids, etc. Economic Mobility Americans became obsessed with the idea of the self­made man. As living standards got better and working standards worsened, they continued to chase the dream of making their way in the world. Slavery It was still shitty but no one cared.

34 OLD SOUTH (chapter 11) ECONOMY King Cotton Short­staple cotton allowed for cotton to take over Southern economy by the 1850s. Up until this point, tobacco and rice had dominated the economy. Manufacturing Never as developed as the North due to planters not having much capital and lacking incentive to turn from planting. Transportation Disconnected from national railroad system, crops shipped along rivers or by sea. Northern Dependency Southern economy relied on Northern economy for markets and shipping centers to Europe.

SOCIETY Planter Class Held most of the power in the South. Mostly first generation settlers. Extremely competitive. Less than a quarter of all white people owned slaves. Aristocratic Values Code of chivalry adopted by planter class that emphasized honor, chivalry, and public appearance. Duels were commonplace. Women More subordinate than those in the North, unengaged in public activities. Less access to education. Smaller farms had women involved in economics of the family. Birth rate and infant mortality highest in the country. Male slave owners often raped their female slaves. Plain Folk ○ Hill People: Opposed hierarchy of the South, slavery. Resisted secession. Huge number of illiterates. ○ Dependency on Aristocracy: Needed aristocracy for access to cotton gins, markets for their crops/livestock, and credit. Many also had family ties.

INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY Legal Basis and Conditions Teaching slaves was illegal, slaves couldn’t testify in court. Having any black ancestry meant you were black. Enforcing of slave laws was spotty. Slave Life Slaves received food/shelter etc from their master. Women had to work the field in addition to child rearing and cooking. Death rate was high. Urban Slaves Generally slightly more free. Urban slavery gradually died out. Freedmen 250,000 free blacks at start of Civil War, mostly in Maryland and Virginia. Mostly urban slaves who had developed trades. Generally lived in poverty. Slave Trade Slaves taken from South to the Southwest by boat, foot, or train. Slaves purchased at 35 auction, where families were often separated. Traders were held in low esteem in society. Importation of slaves prohibited from 1808 on, but smuggling continued until the 1850s. Slave Resistance ● Prosser Rebellion: Gabriel Prosser gathered 1,000 slaves outside Richmond in 1800, but they were given away (goddamn snitches) and 36 were executed, including Prosser. ● Turner Rebellion: Nat Turner, slave preacher, led armed uprising that killed 60 white men, women, and children while they slept in 1831. More than a hundred of the participants were executed.

SLAVE CULTURE Language and Music Spoke in pidgin early on. Music became extremely important to slave culture. Religion Mostly Christian, either through choice or coercion. Incorporated voodoo and other polytheistic religious traditions. More emotional than white religion, emphasized dream of freedom. Family Slaves did not condemn premarital pregnancy. Marriages lacked legal recognition but were recognized within communities. Families were often, through accident or purpose, separated during the slave trading process.

36 ANTEBELLUM SOCIETY (chapter 12) ARTS Painting Painters depicted the beauty of divine nature (e.g. Hudson River School). Literature James Fenimore Cooper, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman wrote novels and poems that were distinctly American and enhanced uniquely American culture.In the South, writers played up the best parts of traditional Southern life, including slavery. Philosophy ○ Transcendentalism: Led by Emerson and Thoreau, believed that man is divine and must be liberated from the physical world in order to achieve divinity. ○ Defense of Nature: People began to worry for the first time that capitalist exploitation and industrialism could hurt the environment ­ which in turn would hurt humans’ spiritual relationship with nature.

SOCIETY AND RELIGION Utopian Communities ○ Brook Farm: Created by George Ripley to create an organization in which a communal system would promote individual freedom; fell apart when it became too close to socialism. ○ New Harmony: Founded by Robert Owen to form a society in which everyone was completely equal; died when it could not make enough money to keep running. ○ Oneida: Community in which everyone was considered married to each other, sex was rarely allowed, and children were raised by the entire community. Second Great Awakening ○ Revivalism: Like transcendentalists, Protestants came to the conclusion that man could achieve salvation. The revitalization of Protestant faith led to a desire to reform American society for the better. ○ Burned­Over District: Area of upstate NY that went through many religious revivals. ○ Mormons: Created by Joseph Smith in upstate NY when he wrote the Book of Mormon in 1830. Persecuted for polygamy; forced to travel across the country to find a new home. After Smith was killed in 1844, Brigham Young led 12,000 Mormons to Salt Lake City. ○ Shakers: Founded by Mother Ann Lee to challenge traditional gender roles: men and women rarely had contact, and women had control over the community. Focused on social discipline rather than personal freedom.

REFORM MOVEMENTS Abolition ○ Moderates: In the early stage of the movement, abolitionists were concerned about where to move the emancipated slaves. The American Colonization Society (1816) suggested that the U.S. move them to a free state in Liberia. ○ Radicals: By 1840, people began to feel more strongly about abolition. They split into gradualists and immediatists. Most famous immediatist was William Lloyd Garrison, creator of The Liberator; unpopular because he felt women should be allowed to participate in the movement. Other figures: Frederick Douglass, Sojourner Truth, Nat Turner. Education 37 Focused on secular education. Led by Horace Mann in Massachusetts, who standardized teaching and improved the quality of education; Emma Willard, who trained female teachers; and Mary Lyons, who established the first all­women college. By 1860, all states offered free education to all whites. Feminism ○ Cult of Domesticity: Women were constrained by a social system in which they could not vote, own property, or initiate divorces or lawsuits, and were treated with the status of minors. They were supposed to be the moral leaders of the home and children only. ○ Beginnings: The Grimke sisters and Lucy Stone were the first to start promoting women’s rights by making themselves active in other movements like temperance and abolition. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton became national figures when they were denied entrance to the World Anti­Slavery Convention. Women were still seen as intellectually and emotionally unsuited for professional careers or political activity. ○ Seneca Falls Convention (1848): Produced the Declaration of Sentiments, which was modeled on the Declaration of Independence and began the campaign for legal and political rights. Penitentiary/Insane Asylums Led by Dorothea Dix, who felt inmates/insane should be treated with dignity, not brutally. Prostitution Led by the Female Moral Reform Society, which targeted the issues of men, not women. Temperance Alcohol was the most common beverage because clean drinking water was hard to find. American Temperance Society formed in 1826; Women’s Christian Temperance Union (most powerful temperance lobby) formed in 1874. Eventually led to Prohibition in 1919.

38 WESTERN EXPANSION (chapter 13) STATES Texas ○ Revolution: Many American immigrants in Texas in the early 1800s; Americans under Stephen Austin tried to become independent; fought Mexicans and lost at the Alamo, but pulled off a major upset at San Jacinto. ○ Manifest Destiny: The belief that America had the god­given right to control the land from the Atlantic to the Pacific. ○ Arguments For/Against Texas Annexation ■ For: gaining more land and ocean ports; spreading liberty and self­government (white man’s burden, racism); preventing foreign conflicts (Texas getting support from Britain/France) ■ Against: spreading slavery; US being seen by Latin America as bully; unconstitutional; Mexicans capable of self­government and having their own rights; unnecessary (no prior Mexican attacks); racism (not wanting to associate with Mexicans. ○ Mexican War (1846­1848) / Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ■ US gained half of Mexico’s territory; paid Mexico $15 million ■ 13,000 Americans dead ■ slavery issue was aroused, partially led to Civil War: abolitionists believed expansion was a conspiracy by Southern slaveholders, South resented North’s attempt to limit slavery in Texas ■ sentiment for Manifest Destiny increased, while Latin America saw US as a bully ■ Southern soldiers were now experienced in combat ­ vitally important during the Civil War Oregon & California ○ Expansion into Territory/Oregon Trail: Thousands of people moved into Oregon in the 1820s­30s, mostly missionaries and farmers; people traveled in covered wagons along dangerous routes that killed thousands of migrants. ○ Oregon Compromise: In 1818, England and the US had agreed to a policy of “joint occupation”; American settlers demanded the US take all land below the 54’40 parallel, but in order to avoid war, the two sides agreed to make the boundary at the 49th parallel in 1846. ○ Gold Rush: Hundreds of thousands of people (forty­niners) moved to California in 1849 to find gold; most people found nothing; the territory grew so much that it applied to become a state, raising the question of slavery (many Californians had Indian “slaves”). ○ Gadsden Purchase: North and South had conflict over which would carry a transcontinental railroad; Southerners’ case was helped by purchasing a small strip of land in Arizona/New Mexico, fueling sectional tension. Kansas & Nebraska ○ Kansas­Nebraska Act: Stephen Douglas wanted a new state in the Midwest to make a northern transcontinental railroad viable; he proposed making two states, Kansas & Nebraska, and addressed the issue of slavery by repealing the Missouri Compromise and opening the question to popular sovereignty. ○ “Bleeding Kansas”: Missourians came into Kansas and voted for opening slavery, which made abolitionists (led by John Brown in the Pottawatomie Massacre) angry and caused 39 widespread physical violence; each side felt the other was in the wrong; first sign of physical violence over slavery

SLAVERY Wilmot Proviso failed proposal to eliminate slavery in all territory acquired from Mexico Compromise of 1850 ○ influx of potential new states led to a new compromise by Clay and Douglas ○ California admitted as a free state ○ abolition of slave trade in Washington, D.C. ○ slavery legal in the rest of territory acquired from Mexico ○ created a stronger fugitive slave law ○ compromise was split into sections so people could support or reject parts Fugitive Slave Act allowed Southerners to take free slaves back from the north; Northerners rebelled and started mobs, infuriating the South because it ruined the Compromise of 1850 Uncle Tom’s Cabin 1852 book by Harriet Beecher Stowe that made people (North and South) passionate about slavery, by portraying slaves as human and slaveowners as cruel Ostend Manifesto a message from advisors to Franklin Pierce saying he should take Cuba by force; Northerners felt he was conspiring to add a slave state Dred Scott v. Sanford Supreme Court case in which slave Dred Scott said he was free because his owner had died while they were in free territory; Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen and could not sue in the first place, and that the federal government had no right to take away “property” (slaves) in any federal territory; Northerners were outraged while Southerners were elated.

PEOPLE & POLITICS John Tyler Vice president to William Henry Harrison, elected in 1840, who died four weeks into his term from pneumonia, making Tyler president. Tyler was a Whig by name, but once in office completely changed sides. Blocked the second Bank of the U.S., opposed Clay’s American System. ■ Caroline Incident (1837): Canadian rebels took an American steamship; the British burned it and killed an American and refused to apologize; the US held a Canadian hostage and threatened war. ■ Maine Boundary Dispute/ Aroostook War (1838): Dispute over Maine Boundary with Canada led to violence by lumberjacks in Maine; led to Webster­Ashburton Treaty (1842), which fixed boundary at the 49th parallel, creating the most peaceful border in world history. ■ Creole Incident (1841): Slaves rebelled on an American ship sailing to New Orleans and escaped to the Bahamas, where the British declared them free, enraging Southerners. James Polk 40 Elected president in 1844; needed only one term to accomplish his agenda; Napoleon of the Stump ■ C ­ California ■ O ­ Oregon ■ I ­ Independent Treasury ■ L ­ Lower Tariffs Zachary Taylor Elected president in 1848; supported Cali as a free state; died after a year; replaced by Millard Fillmore. Franklin Pierce Elected president in 1852; signed Kansas­Nebraska Act; pretty lame guy. James Buchanan Elected president in 1856; pushed Kansas to be admitted as a slave state, which failed and made everyone hate him, even to this day. Free­Soil Party Many abolitionists felt the problem with slavery was not the moral issue, but the fact that it made an entrenched aristocracy in the South, which made it impossible for farmers to be “free” and have equal economic opportunity; that ideology led to the formation of the Republican Party and its own party. Republican Party Formed in 1854 mainly by Whigs (whose party was destroyed), Northern Democrats, and Know­Nothings who were all against Kansas­Nebraska. Sumner­Brooks Charles Sumner, fervently anti­slavery, gave a speech denouncing Preston Brooks’s uncle; Brooks attacked Sumner with a cane, rendering him injured for four years; Northerners saw it as an example of Southern brutality, while Southerners saw it as protecting Southern ideals of chivalry and honor. John Brown Led the Pottawatomie Massacre in Kansas, one of the most glaring examples of Bleeding Kansas; also attacked Harper’s Ferry trying to start a slave rebellion, making the South feel unsafe as part of the Union, although he failed and was executed. Stephen Douglas ○ led the Compromise of 1850 ○ pushed for a Northern transcontinental railroad, leading to his creation of the Kansas­Nebraska Act ○ ran against Lincoln in an 1858 Senate election; in the Lincoln­Douglas debates, Lincoln articulated the problems with slavery, while Douglas looked like he didn’t have a moral position and looked silly, despite winning ○ ran against Lincoln in the 1860 presidential election as a Northern Democrat; Southern Democrats ran John Breckinridge, and John Bell ran under the Constitutional Union Party; the Democratic vote was split, allowing Lincoln to win a majority

41 CIVIL WAR (chapter 14) BATTLES Fort Sumter (1861) First conflict of the war. Southerners demanded that the Union surrender since it was inside Confederate territory, but it was a federal institution, so the Union refused. Lincoln sent supplies to the fort, and the South began a siege that ended with the fort’s surrender, without casualties. Began the Civil War. Bull Run (1861) Expected to showcase the North’s ability to quickly and decisively win the war, instead showed the inevitable bloodshed that would ensue. Resulted in a Southern victory and a loss of confidence for Lincoln in his officers. Took place in Virginia. Antietam (1862) McClellan defeated Lee, but McClellan didn’t press the attack, and was removed from Union command. Additionally, this Union victory garnered enough support for Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, effectively changing the focus of the war from preservation of the Union to the ending of slavery. This change in focus provided the Union troops with a more tangible goal and prevented European powers from supporting the South. New Orleans (1862) First major Union victory, choking the Southern economy, which relied on being able to use the Mississippi River. Gettysburg (1863) Lee tried to win a battle on Union turf to gain European support, but sustained massive casualties instead. Gettysburg Address saw Lincoln refer to the United States not as a union of states, but as a nation. This was the bloodiest battle of the war; Pickett’s Charge saw 6.5 thousand Confederate deaths. Vicksburg (1863) Grant took Vicksburg in 1863, which gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River, cutting the Confederacy in half and severely crippling their ability to move troops. Atlanta / Sherman’s March to the Sea (1864­65) William Tecumseh Sherman, a general under Grant, began a policy of total war, in which he marched from Atlanta across the Confederacy to the Atlantic, burning and destroying everything along the way. This destruction of Confederate farms and such further crippled the South’s ability to fight.

PEOPLE Abraham Lincoln American president for the duration of the war. Elected for the first time in 1860, prompting the secession of several slave states. Republican. Issues Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, making all slaves in the Confederacy free. Pushes 15th Amendment through Congress in 1865, abolishing slavery completely. Was a moderate reconstructionist, but was assassinated in 1865 before he could take action. George McClellan First Union general. A great organizer and trainer of troops, but reluctant to take chances and not a great strategizer. Fails in his role and is replaced by Ulysses Grant. Runs for president in 1864, loses to Lincoln. 42 Ulysses Grant General after McClellan. Characterized by his use of overwhelming numbers and relentless attacks. Takes Vicksburg and sieges Richmond. Signs peace treaty at Appomatox to end the war. Runs for president in 1868 and wins. William Sherman General under Grant, begins the use of total war in modern warfare with his March to the Sea. Robert E. Lee Confederate general, brilliant tactician. Signs treaty at Appomatox to end the war. Becomes a symbol for those Southerners that refused to accept defeat. Jefferson Davis President of Confederacy. Overall, rather ineffective.

LAWS Crittenden Compromise Last ditch attempt by Senator John Crittenden to avoid war. Called for amendment to make slavery permanent in slave states, strengthen the fugitive slave law, and extend the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific and make it permanent. Republicans rejected the compromise. Income Tax First levied in 1861 under Lincoln as part of the Revenue Act. It was repealed and replaced in 1862, then repealed in 1871. Homestead Act Created in 1862, any citizen could claim 160 acres of public land and buy it for a small fee after living there for five years. Morrill Land Grant Act Transferred public land to state govts to sell, with profits going towards public education. Passed in 1862 Morrill Tariff Act High protective tariff passed in 1861 that helps protect industry and finance the war. National Bank Acts 1863­1864. Banks could join the national banking system if they invested one third of their capital in govt securities. This allowed them to issue U.S. currency. Pacific Railway Act Union Pacific Railroad Company and Central Pacific chartered to create a transcontinental railroad.

POLITICS Peace Democrats/Copperheads Lincoln was forced to start a draft to serve three­year terms; Northern Democrats (called Peace Democrats or Copperheads) were opposed and started riots; led to Lincoln overusing war powers to suppress Northern anti­war and pro­slavery sentiment Emancipation Proclamation first announced after Antietam in 1862 but enacted in 1863 (giving some leeway time to allow states to return to the Union if they wanted); freed all slaves in all Confederate territories, but not in border states to ensure they wouldn’t also secede; finally made the war about ending slavery instead of just preserving the union 43 Relationships with Europe England and France were sympathetic to the Confederate cause, but supported the Union after the Emancipation Proclamation; Confederacy argued Europe needed their cotton, but Europe never sent tangible support to the South Interactions in the West guerrilla warfare in Kansas and Missouri continued after Bleeding Kansas; Western Indians were split over who to support Appomattox Lee surrendered to Grant in 1865 at the Appomattox courthouse in Virginia. Nine days later Johnston, the other major Confederate general, surrendered to Sherman near Durham, North Carolina. Ended the Civil War.

SOCIETY African Americans Initially, free blacks were not allowed to serve in the Union side. After the Emancipation Proclamation, African American troops began to enlist en masse and became crucial to Union success. Despite their importance to Union victory, they were mistreated in the war, and their regiments were led by white men. Women During the war, women took up roles that men had left to fight, such as teaching, office work, and factory work. Additionally, the female nurse began to take hold thanks to efforts by Dorothea Dix. Male nurses and doctors resisted this change. Reforms led by women allowed for greater sanitation in battlefield medical treatment.

SOUTH Secession Confederate States (in order of secession): South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas (all seceded after Lincoln won in 1860); Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee (seceded after Fort Sumter). Government Led by Jefferson Davis, the Confederate government was ineffective because it could not raise money or build a large enough army; states rebelled against Davis’s attempt to centralize Southern government, but eventually the “national” government controlled most of the Southern economy. Economy Government had no way to raise money, so it implemented a failed income tax and printed currency that was different from state and local currencies, leading to extreme inflation; almost all Southern men were at war, severely decreasing production; the North destroyed what little transportation and infrastructure the South had.

44 RECONSTRUCTION (chapter 15) LINCOLN AND JOHNSON PRESIDENCIES Reconstruction versus Restoration Reconstruction is to keep the framework but rebuild something new inside. Restoration is to return things to the way they were. Questions to be answered during the process: ■ How should the South be brought back into the Union? ■ How should the South be rebuilt post­destruction? ■ How should newly­emancipated black freedmen be integrated? ■ What branch of government should control the process? Conservative versus Radical Republicans Conservatives believed Reconstruction should end once slavery was abolished. Radicals wanted to punish Southerners, guarantee black protection, and secure Republican domination in the South. Lincoln’s 10% Plan Created a system in which if 10% of white men in a southern state took an oath of loyalty to the Union, the state could form a new government. Lincoln Governments State governments created in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Tennessee under Lincoln’s 10% Plan in 1864. Known as “loyal assemblies.” Depended on Republicans and the Union army to keep power. Wade­Davis Bill and other theories Radical Republicans believed Lincoln’s plan didn’t go far enough. Their proposal made a system in which if a majority of white men in a southern state took the Ironclad Oath, the state could hold a convention. The convention would draw up a constitution that banned slavery and met other conditions to punish the South. Lincoln pocket vetoed the bill. Other theories: ■ State Suicide Theory: Charles Sumner said the Southern states had committed suicide and could only be readmitted under all Northern conditions. ■ Conquered Provinces: Thaddeus Stevens argued that the Southern states were nothing more than territories owned by the Northern Union. Johnson’s Plan Andrew Johnson was a slaveowning white supremacist; a Jacksonian Democrat; and the first president to use the term “Restoration.” ○ Gave amnesty to Southerners except officers; those who earned $20,000 or more had to ask him personally for amnesty ○ Appointed provisional Republican governors ○ Forced state constitutions to repudiate slavery, secession, and debts ○ Allowed planter aristocrats to return to power, infuriating Republicans Constitutional Amendments ○ 13th Amendment: Abolished slavery. ○ 14th Amendment: Defined a citizen as one who is born in America and guaranteed the rights and privileges of all citizens. Guaranteed the Civil Rights Act of 1866. Radical Republicans agreed to readmit states that ratified the amendment, but only Tennessee did. ○ 15th Amendment: Prohibited the denial of the right to vote to blacks. Freedman’s Bureau 45 Created in 1865 to help prop up newly­freed African Americans. Originally lasted for one year, but was extended in response to the Black Codes. Black Codes New Southern state governments began to create legal systems that disenfranchised blacks and essentially gave them no rights. Civil Rights Act Passed by Congress in 1866 in response to the Black Codes. Declared that blacks are citizens and that the federal government could intervene in state affairs to protect citizens’ rights. Guaranteed by the 14th Amendment. Johnson vetoed this bill and the one extending the Freedman’s Bureau, but for the first time, Congress overturned the vetoes. Radical Reconstruction In the 1866 midterm elections (considered a referendum on Reconstruction), Johnson campaigned for Conservative Republicans and fought against the 14th Amendment. But Radical Republicans won supermajorities in Congress, allowing them to pass whatever bills they wanted. They blocked Southern states from the Union because their constitutions were insufficient at ending slavery. ○ Voter Enrollment Act: Authorized the military to forcibly enroll black voters in the South. ○ Military Reconstruction Act: Created five military districts in the ten unreconstructed states. Made the South dependent on the Northern army and allowed the army to enforce black suffrage. ○ Command of the Army Act: Forced the president to send military orders through the army commander. ○ Tenure of Office Act: Forced the president to receive Senate approval before firing Cabinet members. Impeachment of Johnson Johnson tried to removed Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, a Lincoln man who staunchly disagreed with Johnson, from office, even though the Senate did not approve under the Tenure of Office Act. Radical Republicans used this excuse to start an impeachment trial against Johnson in 1868. The impeachment passed the House before charges were even drawn up, but it failed by one vote in the Senate.

THE SOUTH DURING RECONSTRUCTION State Governments Governments were controlled by “scalawags,” aka Southern white Republicans, and “carpetbaggers,” Northern Republicans who had settled in the South. There was rampant corruption in these governments. African Americans gained a lot of political control, leading whites to complain about “Negro rule” and attempt to stop them using the Black Codes. This was because freedmen made up majorities of most southern states; however, they never made up majorities in government. Education A large network of schools was established by the Freedmen’s Bureau, Northern philanthropic organizations, and Northern women who traveled south to teach. By 1876 50% of whites were in school, along with 40% of blacks. Schools were segregated through choice, not legislation. Landownership Freedmen’s Bureau tried to distribute land, but failed thanks to Johnson supporting plantation owners’ claims to their land. 46 ○ Sharecropping: Farmers (usually black) would take loans from plantation owners to buy farming tools and farm on their land, then pay back debt over time with harvest; caused virtually inescapable debt. ○ Crop­Lien System: Sharecroppers purchased most of their goods from local merchants, and often had to do so on credit. These merchants were often owned by the plantation owners they were already in debt to. Interest was really high . Freedmen and Families Upon gaining freedom, many blacks rushed to reunite families that had been broken up and build domestic lives. They idolized the concept of Southern family life; thus women were kept in the domestic sphere while men worked, which made it difficult to maintain a middle class standard of living.

ABANDONMENT OF RECONSTRUCTION Ulysses Grant Won election of 1868 by narrow margin on Republican ticket. Led a corrupt administration, was an ineffectual political operator. Alienated some Northerners who were growing disillusioned with Radical Reconstructionism by continuing to support it. Won re­election in 1872. Corruption ○ Credit Mobilier: French­owned construction company that helped with Union Pacific Railroad building. Heads of the company used their positions within Union Pacific to receive large, fake contracts, effectively stealing millions and stopping investigation by selling Credit Mobilier stock to key members of Congress. Discovered in 1872. ○ Whiskey Ring: Grant administration officials were discovered dodging taxes. ○ Indian Ring: Secretary of War William Belknap accepted bribes to keep an Indian post trader in office. Panic of 1873 and Greenbacks Panic: Caused by leading investment banking firm Jay Cooke and Company, which invested too heavily in postwar railroad building. Greenbacks: Debtors pushed for paper currency that was not backed by specie, which would increase the amount of money in circulation but cause inflation. Specie Resumption Act, 1875, eliminated all greenbacks still in circulation. Ku Klux Klan and Civil Rights Act Whites in the South began using intimidation and violence to repress blacks. KKK formed in 1866 to continue this. Enforcement Acts, 1870 and 1871, prohibited discriminating against voters on basis of race and gave fed gov power to supersede state courts. Grant used these acts to send federal troops to South Carolina and effectively wage war against the KKK. The KKK began to decline by 1872. Slaughterhouse Cases Supreme Court ruled that under the 14th Amendment, the federal government could not discriminate by race, but the states were allowed to discriminate. Essentially legalized state segregation and allowed for the future birth of Jim Crow laws. Election of 1876 and Compromise of 1877 Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes against Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. Controversy over vote counting caused Compromise of 1877, in which Hayes agreed to withdraw troops from the South in exchange for the presidency.

47 FAR WEST (chapter 16) SOCIETY Hispanics ○ New Mexico: U.S. claimed it after the Mexican War and set up a new government that had no Indian representation; led to the Taos Indian Rebellion (1847) which eventually failed. Still, Indians and Hispanics continued to protect their cultures despite growing American settlement and assimilation. ○ California and Texas: Mexicans settled the regions in the early 1800s by sending missionaries to convert Indians. By the 1830s, the new secular Mexican aristocracy was being defeated by and losing land to Anglo settlers. Mexicans ended up forming a poor working class under the Americans. Chinese ○ Racism: Hundreds of thousands of Chinese settled in the West, doing temporary unskilled labor that made Americans see them as threats. They worked on the Transcontinental Railroad and in mines under brutal conditions. When they lost work, they moved into cities like San Francisco and were forced into ethnic communities called Chinatowns. ○ Politics: As Chinatowns grew, so did racism; whites began to form anti­coolie clubs. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed to ban immigration in China, to the chagrin of Chinese Americans, who campaigned against it to no avail. Migrants from the East ○ Rapid Expansion: So many thousands of whites and European immigrants moved west that new states were formed quickly (ten states in the last 35 years of the century). ○ Government Aid: The government aided this migration by passing the Homestead Act of 1862 to give 160 acres to settlers; this also led to overproduction. Congress continued to pass legislation to aid needy westerners over the next two decades. Culture ○ Rocky Mountain School: Painters depicted the West as being a beautiful frontier. ○ Cowboys: Romanticized as heroes, but actually had tedious and dangerous jobs. ○ Frontier: Romanticized through Mark Twain’s novels and Frederic Remington’s paintings. Frederick Jackson Turner asserted in his Turner thesis that the frontier was the largest contribution towards preserving democracy and forming a truly American character. The end of the last frontier in the west led to a loss of the myth that the West was a utopia.

ECONOMY Labor Working conditions were terrible; there was limited social mobility, mainly because there was a racial class system in the workforce. Men had no job security, so they were constantly moving and often single. Mining Mining booms, like Comstock Lode (silver), followed cycles: a discovery would lead to prospectors quickly running in and depleting the resources, at which point most left and the rest formed permanent towns. These towns had extremely imbalanced gender ratios; lawlessness led to the rise of vigilantes, who took law enforcement into their own hands (rightly or wrongly). Cattle 48 ○ Cattle drives: “Cattle Kingdom” began with cattle drives along the Chisholm Trail (1867­1871), in which cowboys herded cattle thousands of miles to railroads to be shipped to the East. Other trails led to the creation of major cities across the Midwest. ○ Decline of “Cattle Kingdom”: Cattlemen expanded so much that they began to block off their land with barbed wire (part of the “range wars”), making it impossible to move cattle. Many cattle died as a result of disease and severe weather (1885­1887). Farming ○ Commercial Agriculture: Replaced subsistence farming. Farmers specialized in cash crops, which opened them to new markets but also made them dependent on middlemen, railroads, and banks. ○ Problems and Grievances: ■ Overproduction: Farmers believed the more they produced, the more they’d sell, and the more money they’d make. But they produced so much that the price of their goods dropped too low. Government encouraged farmers to produce more so that surpluses could be stored and eventually used in rapidly­growing cities. ■ Railroads: Charged higher rates for farmers because corporations like Standard Oil used their influence to have their own rates lowered (rebates), and railroads needed some way to make a profit. ■ Banks: Believed that loans to farmers were risky, so they charged extremely high interest rates that farmers often could not pay. This led to the populist demand for free silver, to devalue the dollar so that farmers could pay loans with less money. ■ Isolation: Families were miles away for each other and had no social connections. ■ Weather: Made da farmers dum tight.

NATIVE AMERICANS White Tribal Policies ○ Treaties: Americans routinely violated treaties signed with Native Americans. ○ Concentration: In the 1850s, the government created Indian territories away from the desirable spots where whites wanted to settle. The reservations that were created were poorly administered by the dishonest Bureau of Indian Affairs. ○ Economic Warfare: Indians in the Midwest relied on the buffalo for everything, but whites would kill them to sell as buffalo hides and even for fun. ○ Assimilation: Dawes Act (1887) broke up Indian land to try to assimilate them. Indian Wars ○ Sand Creek Massacre (1864): 400 Arapaho & Cheyenne Indians who had been assured they would be protected were slaughtered. ○ Indian Hunting: Civilians and vigilantes killed thousands of Indians across the West. ○ The Sioux: The most able and skilled Indian tribe, with great military power. ■ Little Bighorn (1876): Sioux army under Crazy Horse wiped out George Custer’s forces. But the whites won most other battles and eventually drove Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull, and the Sioux onto reservations. ■ Wounded Knee (1890): The Army was sent in to end the Sioux’s “ghost dance,” which depicted a revival of Indian dominance over whites. 200 Indians were slaughtered. Last major conflict between Indians and U.S. troops. ○ Apache: Fought a nine­year guerrilla war to keep their land (the last formal war between Indians and the U.S.), but in 1886 Geronimo was forced to surrender ○ Nez Percé: Chief Joseph fought back against whites who wanted the tribe to concede 49 more land despite having given much in earlier decades. Nez Percé won several battles before making a long retreat into Canada, where they were captured and forced to constantly move through many terrible reservations.

50 INDUSTRIALISM (chapter 17) FACTORS Government: Laissez­faire capitalism allowed industrializing businesses to do whatever they wanted. The federal government passed pro­business legislation, including higher tariffs, land grants, and patent protection laws to spur domestic industry. Railroads: Trains linked the East and West, permanently making the regional economies interdependent. Railroads caused heavy Western development and took away land from Native Americans. Inventions: telegraph, telephone, light bulb, combine harvester, Bessemer process, oil, electric current Natural Resources: timber, oil, gas, iron, coal, water Capital: The growth of businesses gave them surplus dollars to re­invest into the economy. Human Talent: We had it.

CAPITALISM Corporations and Trusts Growing businesses began to sell stock with limited liability (investors only risked whatever they invested and were not responsible for the company’s debt), allowing them to raise a ton of money. Trusts were formed when consolidation techniques like pools (everyone working together to make things fair) failed. In a trust, investors sold stock in the corporation in exchange for stock in the trust, run by trustees who had control of all the companies in the corporation. J.P. Morgan’s U.S. Steel was an example of a trust. Consolidation Consolidation came in the form of either horizontal or vertical integration. John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil was an example of horizontal integration: he bought 90% of America’s oil refiners. Andrew Carnegie’s steel company was an example of vertical integration: he controlled the entire steel process from beginning to end, including mining, refining, transporting, and selling. Self­Made Man The ideal that people could work their way up from the bottom of society and become rich was still popular, but extremely unrealistic. Most people were not able to break free from the tyranny of monopolies, and those who tried to become industrialists generally failed. Social Darwinism The theory that only the fittest survived in the marketplace. It justified capitalism by defending the idea that certain people could be magnificently rich while many were stuck with nothing. Corporations tried to monopolize in order to assert that they were the fittest and deserved to get rid of unfit competition.

WORKERS Immigrants Early immigrants came from western and northern Europe, but later ones came from more varied ethnic groups in southern and eastern Europe. These later immigrants, lured by the ideal of a new life that America offered, were willing to work very cheaply; they replaced more skilled workers (the old immigrants) in industrialized jobs, causing ethnic tensions. Women 51 As companies required more unskilled labor, women were able to find jobs and began to make up substantial parts of the workforce. However, it was generally accepted that only single women, not married women, could look for jobs. They were very young, received far lower salaries than men, and faced bad working conditions. Children Because they were small and energetic, children were good industrial workers. Reformers tried to create better working conditions, but state child labor laws were ineffective. Working Conditions Incomes were less than what was needed to live comfortably. There was no job security for factory workers, who could be replaced at any time by immigrants. Workers had to do monotonous tasks for 12+ hours a day; it was demeaning and it gave them no control over the economic process.

UNIONS Early Unions For decades, there had been organizations for certain crafts and industries, but the first general labor organization was the National Labor Union. It quickly disintegrated under hostility from people who were scared by the idea that workers were radicals and anarchists, particularly members of the Molly Maguires, a violent labor activist group. Knights of Labor The Knights were an extremely open group, even to women and immigrants. Terence Powderly made it a mainstream group, expanding it greatly and organizing some strikes against railroads. But because the strikes failed, and because there were too many competing factions in the organization, the Knights had dissolved by the 1890s. American Federation of Labor Unlike the Knights, the AFL was only for male skilled workers. It believed government should not play a role in improving working conditions, but that collective bargaining and strikes were the only solutions. It was more successful than the AFL at achieving progress, but it was hampered by the persistent idea that it was a symbol of radicalism and terrorism. Strikes ○ Great Railroad Strike (1877): When eastern railroads announced a 10% wage cut, workers began a strike that stopped trains across the entire East Coast. Hayes used federal troops to break the strike; 100 people died and the strike failed. ○ Haymarket Riot (1886): The AFL called for a general strike across the US if they did not get an eight­hour workday. A protest that began in Chicago was broken up by the police after a bomb was thrown. The organizers of the protest, who were anarchists, were arrested because their statements had incited violence and were sentenced to death. This protest reinforced the idea that unionists were violent terrorists. ○ Homestead Strike (1892): Carnegie and Henry Clay Frick wanted to kill the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, so it announced several wage cuts. The Amalgamated started a strike; Frick responded by calling in the strikebreaking Pinkertons, setting off essentially a battle. The union was winning until the National Guard was sent in and public opinion evaporated as a result of an assassination attempt on Frick. The Amalgamated lost the strike and died off quickly ­ a major blow for the AFL and unions. ○ Pullman Strike (1894): Workers for the Pullman Car Company lived in a “company town” where the company owned everything. Pullman announced a massive wage cut without reducing the town’s high rents, causing Eugene Debs and his union to strike and paralyze 52 western railroads. Cleveland sent federal troops to break the strike and the courts forced the strike to end. ○ Bread & Rose Strike (1912): In Lawrence, MA, the heart of the textile industry, immigrants and women started a strike in response to a wage cut. Despite objections from most unions like the AFL that such people were not capable of organizing themselves, they were victorious and managed to achieve huge gains (although they dissipated within a year). Labor Weakness and Corporate Strength Unions made some gains during the late 19th century, but the laws that were passed were ineffective. This was because unions like the AFL fought on behalf of a tiny part of the workforce, meaning most laborers were divided and unorganized. Also, they tried to challenge extremely powerful corporations, supported by the government, that used every tactic, legal or illegal, to defeat the workers.

53 GROWTH OF CITIES (chapter 18) IMMIGRATION Migration 1840­1860: 93% of immigrants were from northern and western Europe 1880­1900: 31% of immigrants were from southern and eastern Europe. Invention of the steamship allowed more people to sail to America from farther away. Assimilation The many different immigrants formed their own ethnic communities within cities. Some immigrants tried to become “Americanized,” throwing out home culture (most notably traditional family roles) in hopes of assimilating into American society. Exclusion Native­born Americans were scared by the great influx of immigrants (nativism ­ economic concerns as well as racism) and began trying to keep them out. The Immigrants Restriction League was formed, but there were few restrictions passed during this time.

POLITICS Boss Rule Political machines were formed by people who managed to mobilize ethnic communities into voting for them year after year. This was done by improving city infrastructure and giving favors to voters, as well as through corruption and graft. Tammany Hall in New York is the most famous example of a corrupt political machine, run for many years by Boss Tweed. Poverty and Service The rapid growth of cities strained infrastructure and led to many problems: lack of firefighters and policemen, poor sewage systems, lack of food & water, extremely high crime and poverty, and pollution and environmental degradation. These issues led to the creation of public services like professional fire departments, the federal Public Health Service, and the Salvation Army.

SOCIETY Women By 1890, 30% of 20­24 year olds worked, 15% of 24­40 year olds worked. Women’s Education The discrepancy in working womens’ ages was directly due to the spread of women’s education at places like Smith, Barnard, Radcliffe, and Mt. Holyoke (#shoutoutscudz). Distinctive female communities were formed at these new all­women institutions. Housing The well­off lived in growing suburbs, thanks to public transportation. The poor, however, were forced to live in tenements in slums, completely miserable and packed together. The terrible, inhumane conditions were exposed by photographer Jacob Riis. Jane Addams helped by opening the Hull House, a settlement house for immigrants where they could live somewhat comfortably and learn American values.

CULTURE Education ○ Universal Schooling: In an effort to make education more widespread, schools created a 54 factory model (splitting different aged kids into different grades with different textbooks) to teach all kids of all backgrounds the same way. This attempt at assimilation and unity often caused conflict. Schools also tried to teach social values that were no longer being taught in the home, including citizenship, proper behavior, and necessary living skills. ○ Land­Grant Institutions: The Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 donated Midwestern land to be used for A&M colleges (agriculture and manufacturing). Also, rich philanthropists like Rockefeller, Carnegie, and Vanderbilt built and funded new and traditional universities. Entertainment ○ dime novels (mass­produced literature) ○ penny press (cheap magazines and newspapers) ○ yellow journalism (sensationalized reporting) ○ department stores ○ vaudeville & nickelodeon (NOT the channel) ○ sports Technology ○ dumbbell apartments ○ steel bridges ○ elevator ○ trolley car ­ public transportation led to the rise of suburbs as middle­ and upper­class people could commute farther distances to and from work

55 POST­RECONSTRUCTION POLITICS (chapter 19) HAYES, GARFIELD, ARTHUR, CLEVELAND AND HARRISON PRESIDENCIES Stability of the Party System Republican and Democratic Party even distributed throughout govt and population, politics became very stable. Voter turnout was high along with party loyalty based on region, religion, and ethnicity. Patronage The awarding of positions within the govt as a form of compensation, bribery, etc. Essentially, the spoils system (or rotation of office if you’re one of those people) ○ Stalwarts and Half­Breeds: Factions formed in Republican party during Hayes’ presidency that claimed to favor machine politics and reform, respectively. Both, in fact, desired patronage. James Garfield Half­Breed Republican who won 1880 election but was shot in 1881. Chester Arthur Garfield’s Vice President, a Stalwart Republican. Assumed presidency in 1881. Passed Pendleton Act which required applicants for federal jobs to take a civil service exam. Grover Cleveland Democrat who won in 1884 after a religious scandal hurt his opponent. Won re­election in 1892. ○ Wilson­Gorman Tariff (1894): Lowered tariffs slightly. ○ Interstate Commerce Act (1887): Banned rate discrimination between long and short hauls on rails, required railroads to publish reasonable rate schedules. Interstate Commerce Commission created to enforce the law, basically failed. Benjamin Harrison Republican who won 1888 election after corruption. ○ Sherman Antitrust Act (1890): Supposed to help damage monopolies, becomes symbolic but not actually helpful. ○ McKinley Tariff (1890): Raises tariffs, causes backlash against Republicans. ○ Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890): Government begins buying silver. Repealed in 1893 by Cleveland.

POPULISM The Grange Farm organization created in 1860s. Originally created to teach farmers new techniques and combat frontier loneliness. Became a unit for political change against monopolies, esp RRs and warehouses. Lost power in 1870s when agricultural prosperity rose again. Farmers’ Alliances Created in 1875. Encouraged cooperation, helped out economically. Women were allowed to vote w/in Alliances. Supported suffrage for women. Prompted creation of People’s Party. ○ Mary Lease: Female orator w/in Alliances. People’s Party (Populist Party) ○ Constituency: Farmers. Labor never really became an important part because free silver would have lowered their buying power: their wages would stay the same while the money 56 lost value. ○ Omaha Platform: Supported re­monetization of silver at 16 to 1 rate; sub­treasuries to strengthen cooperatives like Farmers Alliances; abolition of national bank; direct election of senators; restricted immigration; 8 hour workday for public workers; abolition of Pinkerton Agency; and single terms for the president.

ECONOMY Panic of 1893 Philadelphia and Reading Railroad declared bankruptcy in 1893 alongside National Cordage Company, causing stock market crash, bank failures, credit contraction, and new business failures. Also caused by lower purchasing power of farmers, shrinking of European markets for American goods, withdrawal of foreign investments in U.S., and too rapid expansion of RRs. Coxey’s Army Group of unemployed people led by Jacob Coxey which marched on Washington in 1894. 500 of them make it to the capital, they are arrested and ignored. Free Silver The idea of re­inserting silver into the currency, which would cause inflation. Favored by farmers because it would allow them to pay back their loans, hated by industrialists and bankers because it would lessen the value of the loans they had given.

POLITICS Election of 1896 ○ William Jennings Bryan: Democratic nominee in 1896, supported by Populists. ■ “Cross of Gold” Speech: Speech Bryan delivered at 1896 Democratic National Convention in support of free silver. ■ Platform: Tariff reductions, income tax, stricter control of trusts, free silver ■ Heavy Campaigning: Bryan had very little campaigning money. He traveled around the country by train giving speeches and campaigning actively. ○ William McKinley: Republican nominee. ■ Front­Porch Campaign: McKinley had way too much campaigning money, thanks to campaign strategist Mark Hanna.. He was able to campaign literally from his house, inviting reporters over for dinner. ■ Triumph of Gold over Silver: McKinley just barely won, thus ensuring the defeat of the silver platform. Gold Standard Act (1900) confirmed gold standard. Death of the Populist Party After aligning themselves with the Democrats and their loss, the Populist Party began to dissolve as the economy experienced rapid change, small producers and farmers faded away, race continued to divide the party esp in the South, the party failed to break existing party loyalties, and most of their agenda is co­opted by Dems.

57 IMPERIALISM (chapter 20) BEGINNINGS OF IMPERIALISM Justification John Fiske took social Darwinism and applied it to an international scale. He said only fit nations would survive, and only by continuing to evolve. Alfred Thayer Mahan also supported imperialism; he said a nation’s power came from its naval abilities, both in trade and military. Imperialism would help Oriental trade and revitalize the country post­war. Opposition Anti­Imperialist League formed in 1898, including Carnegie, Mark Twain, Samuel Gompers, and other prominent members of society. Popular in the North East and opposed the Treaty of Paris and imperialism. They were motivated by racism, the belief that imperialism was immoral, fear of cheap labor, and fear of competition for growers. Alaska We got it from Russia in 1867. That’s been pretty much it for the last century and a half. Latin America Pan­American Union created in 1889 by Pan­Am Congress/secretary of state James G. Blaine. Served as a clearinghouse for distribution info. Land dispute took place in 1895 b/w Venezuela and Great Britain. U.S. said Britain was violating Monroe Doctrine, Britain agreed to arbitration. Hawaii and Samoa Hawaii’s economy was based on sugar trade w/ U.S., U.S. used that influence to start a revolt in 1893 and then annexed the country in 1898. Samoan Islands included in a dispute amongst U.S., Germany, and GB. Ended in 1899 w/ U.S. and Germany splitting the islands.

SPANISH­AMERICAN WAR Cuba Cuban revolt began in 1895, Spanish general Valeriano Weyler responds w/ brutality. Cleveland declares neutrality, then McKinley says he opposes the Spanish. The American battleship Maine was blown up and war is declared in 1898. War lasted four months, and exposed African American troops to the racially integrated military of the Cubans. Teddy Roosevelt gains fame in his cavalry unit the Rough Riders and is elected president in 1900. Treaty of Paris, 1898, ends the war. Philippines George Dewey took Manila Bay in 1898, becoming a national hero and winning control of the Philippines for the U.S. Puerto Rico Slavery was abolished in PR in 1873, U.S. took over in 1898. Foraker Act ended military rule and established American governor w/ 2 chamber legislature made up of American filled upper house and a lower house. Jones Act in 1917 makes Puerto Ricans American citizens.

POLITICS Platt Amendment Cuba made a constitution that didn’t mention the U.S., U.S. responded by barring Cuba 58 from making treaties with other nations, giving the U.S. the right to intervene to preserve Cuban independence, and allow the construction of American naval bases in Cuba. Several revolts took place. Economic Dominance America was extremely protective of its new lands, and almost everything in each was absentee­owned by Americans. Philippine War Emilio Aguinaldo led Filipino resistance. American response is extremely brutal. Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, beginning the end of the conflict, which was over completely in 1906. Open Door Policy Open Door notes in 1899 sought to make all nations with spheres of influence in China respect other nations in their sphere, have Chinese officials continue to collect tariffs in all spheres, and have nations not discriminate against other nations in levying taxes. Initially disliked, until Boxer Rebellion in 1900, after which the policy was accepted. Military Reforms Between 1900 and 1903, the American army was enlarged, the National Guard was standardized, officer training was created, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff was created.

59 PROGRESSIVISM (chapter 21) BEGINNINGS OF PROGRESSIVISM Muckrakers Journalists and photographers etc that tried to expose the horrors of industrial working conditions. Ida Tarbell, journalist, exposed Standard Oil Trust. Lincoln Steffens, reporter, exposed many political machines. Social Gospel Movement including the Salvation Army that strove to reform cities. Religion powered the social movement, especially Catholicism. Settlement Houses and Female Labor Settlement Houses were houses created to reduce stress on tenement buildings, most famous was the Hull House in Chicago in 1889, opened by Jane Addams. Helped immigrants acclimate to American life. Many college women worked in the houses. Women also worked as physicians, lawyers, engineers, scientists, and corporate managers, though still in small numbers. Most became teachers. Advanced Organizations American Medical Association, 1901, called for strict, scientific standards for admission to the practice of medicine. State and local laws generally began to support this call. National Association of Manufacturers, 1895, and Chamber of Commerce, 1912, for businessmen.

SOURCES Women ○ Marriage: Rising number of unmarried women. Many single women lived together in “Boston Marriages”, sometimes romantically. Divorce rates rose. ○ Clubs: Organized by General Federation of Women’s Clubs, initially created for cultural activities, became centers for social betterment. Some clubs accepted blacks, but most didn’t prompting the creation of the National Association of Colored Women, which was modeled on its white counterpart with special emphasis on race specific issues like lynching etc. ○ Suffrage ■ Arguments For: Women deserve same rights as men. Women are mothers second and part of society first. National American Woman Suffrage Association supported suffrage. Alternative argument: because women were in a different sphere, they had special input that was valuable to electorate, and could help temperance. ■ Arguments Against: Women belonged in the domestic sphere. ■ 19th Amendment: Ratified in 1920, gave women suffrage. ■ Equal Rights Amendment: Proposed after 19th Amendment to further protect the rights of women, supported only by the more radical feminists. Failed to pass. African Americans W.E.B. Du Bois, educated at Harvard, advocated that talented blacks aspire to the professions and fight for the immediate restoration of their civil rights. NAACP founded in 1909, used lawsuits to win battles for African Americans. Labor Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, 1911, NY, ignited the fire under labor reform through legislation, contrary to the traditional avenue for labor reform through unions in NY. 60 Westerners Western Progressives targeted the federal government because states could not enact real reform.

GOVERNMENT Cities ○ Commission Plan: Mayors and city councils are replaced by nonpartisan commissions. ○ City­Manager Plan: Elected officials hire outside experts to take control of city affairs. States ○ Initiative: Citizens can directly propose legislation and have general elections on them. ○ Referendum: Legislative actions can be put to general elections. ○ Recall: Citizens can remove officials from office. ○ Direct Primary: Citizens can directly elect senators (17th Amendment). ○ Robert La Follette: Famous statewide reformer as Governor of Wisconsin. Parties Greenbackism and Populism both begin to undermine the traditional party dichotomy b/w Dems and Reps by introducing 3rd party. Secret ballot began to help as it grew in popularity. Voter turnout decreased dramatically. Interest groups developed.

MOVEMENTS Temperance Experienced a resurgence in the 1870s. Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 1873, led after 1879 by Frances Willard. Publicized evils of alcohol. Anti­Saloon League helps press for legislation in 1893. Eighteenth Amendment, ratified 1919, outlaws alcohol. Immigration Most all reformers saw unchecked immigration as a bad thing, through a combination of nativism and eugenics (the science of altering the reproductive processes of plants and animals to produce new hybrids or breeds). Socialism Eugene Debs led the party, which reached peak membership of about 1 million, especially among Germans, Jews, and Protestant farmers in the midwest. Never achieved mainstream support. Decentralization and Regulation Centralization had eroded the ability of the individual to control its own destiny and encouraged abuses of power. Some progressives, however, believed that government should distinguish between good and bad trusts, regulating only the bad.

PEOPLE Jane Addams: Creator of the first settlement house, Hull House; relatively successful in giving poor immigrants a place to live. Jacob Coxey: Led unemployed workers on a march on Washington. Basically failed. Eugene Debs: Socialist, leader of the Industrial Workers of the World and the Pullman Strike. W.E.B. Du Bois: Founded the NAACP in 1909. Encouraged blacks to enter the professions and demand immediate restoration of civil rights. Emma Goldman: Anarchist, involved in attempted murder of Henry Clay Frick. Supported unions. Helen Hunt Jackson: American Indian activist, wrote A Century of Dishonor detailing government 61 transgressions against American Indians. Mother Jones: Supported unions and opposed child labor. Robert La Follette: Governor of Wisconsin and 1912 presidential candidate; became national leader of progressivism but was never elected president. Mary Lease: Women’s suffragist, wrote The Problem of Civilization Solved. Contributed to 19th Amendment. John Mitchell: President of the United Mine Workers; head of the AFL. John Muir: Conservationist; national parks; successful in protecting natural lands. Thomas Nast: Muckraker/political cartoonist against machine politics; successfully destroyed Tammany Hall. Carrie Nation: Leader in temperance movement. Used an axe or something. Led to Prohibition. Alice Paul: Women’s suffragist, helped pass the 19th Amendment. Gifford Pinchot: Conservationist, head of the Division of Forestry. Jacob Riis: Muckraker/photographer in New York. Exposed the harsh conditions of tenements in which impoverished immigrants usually lived. Margaret Sanger: Women’s suffragist, mainly for birth control; largely failed as abortion and most birth control options remained illegal. Upton Sinclair: Muckraker against food production; successfully exposed lack of hygiene in manufacturing of foods. Initiated Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act. First priority was promoting socialist ideals, not exposing meatpacking industry flaws. Lincoln Steffens: Muckraker against urban politics and corruption; successfully exposed flaws in major cities. Ida Tarbell: Muckraker/author of The History of the Standard Oil Company. Exposed oil corruption. Booker T. Washington: Black civil rights activist who advocated a more gradual earning of civil rights.

62 REFORM (chapter 22) ROOSEVELT PRESIDENCY Federal Power and Trustbusting Roosevelt believed government should protect the public good through regulation and occasional trustbusting. Broke up the Northern Securities Company in 1902, but did not attack any of the major trusts. He also helped unions occasionally, but did not see particularly favor either workers or employers. Square Deal After winning reelection in 1904, pushed for regulation and arbitration to provide a “square deal” to everyone. Passed the Hepburn Act for mild regulation of railroads and the Pure Food and Drug Act. Also pushed for, but did not receive, more advanced reform. Conservation and Preservation First supporter of conversation, giving federal aid to preserve land and creating many parks. Biggest controversy was over the Hetch Hetchy dam; naturalists lost but made the conservationist movement mainstream. Panic of 1907 Conservatives blamed Roosevelt for the latest economic downturn. Instead of trying to fix it, he allowed business leaders like J.P. Morgan to solve the crisis by merging more companies to get rid of bad competition.

TAFT PRESIDENCY Troubles with Progressives ○ Payne­Aldrich Tariff: Taft tried to appease progressives by lowering tariffs, but he was not willing to challenge Congressional conservatives. The new tariff did not satisfy progressives. ○ Ballinger­Pinchot Dispute: Gifford Pinchot (conservationist, head of Forest Service) made public a scandal involving Richard Ballinger (non­conservationist, Interior Secretary); Pinchot was fired, making progressives very angry at Taft. Election of 1912 ○ William Taft: Quietly won the Republican nomination when party leaders voted for him and Roosevelt decided to walk out of the convention and form his own party. ○ Theodore Roosevelt: Announced a “New Nationalism” in 1910 that was extremely progressive. Decided to run for president after La Follette dropped out. Walked out of the Republican convention when Taft was about to win and formed the Progressive Party. Failed to gain enough support because many progressives felt the need to stay in the Republican Party. ○ Robert La Follette: A popular candidate because he was the epic symbol of progressivism, but suffered a nervous breakdown and dropped out. ○ Woodrow Wilson: An unknown, progressive New Jersey governor who managed to win as a Democrat because the Republicans were split between Taft and Roosevelt.

WILSON PRESIDENCY New Freedom ○ 16th Amendment: Allowed for the creation of an income tax. Wilson passed a small income tax in 1913 to make up for a newly­lowered tariff. ○ Federal Reserve Act: Passed in 1913 to reform the banking system. Created twelve 63 regional banks and a national board that would support banks and control the economy by setting interest rates and shifting funds between banks to save them quickly. ○ Federal Trade Commission Act and Clayton Antitrust Act: Supervised and regulated businesses to protect against unfair trade practices and investigate unlawful companies. ○ Child Labor Laws: First national legislation protecting children. Wilson supported these laws to show that there was more reform than what was passed early in his term.

EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY FOREIGN AFFAIRS Roosevelt ○ “Civilization” Policy: Believed white and/or economically developed nations were superior to “uncivilized” nations and that “civilized” nations should intervene and take advantage. ○ Asia: Helped end the Russo­Japanese War. Feared Japanese military expansion hurting the U.S., so he created a Great White Fleet to tour the world and intimidate Japan. ○ Latin America: ■ Roosevelt Corollary: Added to the Monroe Doctrine by affirming that the U.S. could intervene in Latin American affairs if nations could not maintain order themselves. First used to essentially take control of the Dominican Republic to ensure it paid down massive debts to Europe. ■ Panama Canal: Roosevelt’s biggest accomplishment. Tried to secure perpetual rights to control a “canal zone” in Colombia. When Colombia objected, he funded a revolution in Panama (where the canal would be) and secured perpetual rights from the new Panamanian government. Taft Protected American economic interests, known by critics as “dollar diplomacy.” Intervened in Nicaragua to protect American interests and give the U.S. economic and military control. Wilson ○ Latin America: Vigorously protected America by occupying/sending troops to the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Nicaragua, and the Virgin Islands. ○ Mexico: Several regimes tried to take power in the 1910s, but America refused to recognize them, either because they didn’t protect American businesses or because they failed to align with Wilson’s “moral diplomacy.” Wilson used a small incident to intervene against the Huerta regime and killed 126 Mexicans at Veracruz. After that, he spent two years debating whether to recognize the new Carranza government, during which time he tried to kill Pancho Villa and instead killed dozens of citizens that nearly led to war.

64 WORLD WAR I (chapter 23) NEUTRALITY Submarine Warfare ○ Lusitania: On May 7, 1915, German torpedoes sunk the British passenger liner, the Lusitania. Many passengers, including 128 Americans, drowned. This was the first incident that challenged U.S. neutrality. Public sentiment immediately shifted against Germany. ○ Sussex Pledge: After a German torpedo struck the Sussex, Wilson threatened to cut diplomacy with Germany. In response, Germany made the Sussex pledge, which promised that Germany wouldn’t sink merchant/passenger ships without warning. America’s side of the bargain was that it had to persuade Britain to end its blockade of German ports. Economic Links with Britain and France Despite the U.S.’s neutrality, its economy was close with that of Great Britain and France. Between 1914 and 1917, trade with the Allies quadrupled. It was virtually nonexistent with Germany. U.S. government allowed bankers like J.P. Morgan to extend credit to Britain and France to aid their purchasing of supplies. Public Opinion ○ Ethnic influences: By 1914, immigrants made up over 30% of the U.S. population. Naturally, they were sympathetic to their homelands. Although German and Irish Americans had good reason to resent to British, the majority of native­born Americans supported the allies. ○ British war propaganda: Great Britain controlled the Trans­Atlantic cable, which virtually allowed them to cherry­pick the information that the U.S. received from Europe. The War Debate ○ Preparedness: Soon after the war broke out, Eastern Republicans behind Roosevelt realized that the U.S. wasn’t ready for a big war. Wilson initially opposed the measures proposed by the National Security League, an organization to promote preparedness and extend aid to Allies if needed. In late 1915 he changed his policy and urged ambitious expansion of armed forces. ○ Opposition to War: Americans in the Midwest and West especially opposed the military preparation because they thought it would lead to U.S. entry. Groups like Populists, Progressives, and Socialists campaigned against the war. ○ Election of 1916: Wilson won, campaigning on a no­war platform. Charles Hughes ran for the Republican Party. ○ Peace Efforts: Wilson tried to maintain his party’s promise to stay neutral. In 1917, Wilson declared U.S. commitment to the idea of “peace without victory.”

WORLD WAR I Decisions for War ○ Zimmermann Telegram: British intelligence intercepted a telegram from Germany to Mexico that proposed Mexico ally with Germany in return for German aid in recovering lost Mexican territories like Texas and Arizona. The telegram aroused nationalist anger and convinced Wilson that Germany expected war. ○ Russian Revolution: It bothered Wilson that Russia, one of the Allies, was governed by an autocratic czar. The March 1917 revolution marked the end of the czarist government and proclaimed a republic. Another barrier to U.S. participation was removed. ○ Renewed submarine attacks: Germans resumed this practice in 1917. They reasoned 65 that Germany would win the war by cutting off U.S. supplies to the Allies before Americans could respond. Also, Germany felt America had broken the Sussex Pledge by failing to persuade Britain to end its blockade. Days after Germany notified the U.S., Wilson broke off diplomatic relations. ○ Declaration of War: On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war; supported by a big majority. Mobilization ○ Industry and Labor: While the U.S. trained troops, all it could do for the Allies was send supplies and weapons. Wilson created a bunch of agencies to achieve this. ■ Bernard Baruch’s War Industries Board set production priorities and centralized control over raw materials and their prices. ■ Herbert Hoover, at the time an engineer, led the Food Administration, which tried to conserve as much food (meat and bread) as possible and then ship it to French and British troops. ■ Harry Garfield’s Fuel Administration tried to save coal. ■ Former president Taft arbitrated disputes between workers and employers as head of the National War Labor Board. ○ Finance: To finance the war, efforts were taken that ranged from increased income taxes to Liberty Bonds. ○ Public Opinion and Civil Liberties: The U.S. government used patriotic persuasion and legal intimidation to create public support for the war. George Creel, progressive journalist, took charge of a war propaganda agency that spanned different arenas of the media. ■ Espionage and Sedition Acts: The Espionage Act of 1917 provided for imprisonment for people who tried to incite rebellion in the military or obstruct the draft. The Sedition Act prohibited anyone from making “disloyal” or “abusive” remarks about the government. Many were prosecuted and jailed under these provisions, Eugene Debs among them. ■ Schenck v. United States (1919): The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act. Apparently, free speech could be limited when it” threatened” public safety. ○ Armed Forces ■ Selective Service Act (1917): This was a “democratic method” for ensuring that all groups of the population would be called into service. These draftees provided over half the total American troops. ○ Effects on American Society ■ Women: filled into the workforce as men were drafted into the army. ■ Mexicans: crossed the border to take the job opportunities as well. ■ African Americans: Many served in the war in segregated units. Activists like W.E.B. Du Bois thought the contribution would earn blacks equal rights when they returned home. He was wrong. Fighting the War ○ Naval Operations: U.S. responded to German sub warfare through an advanced ship construction program and a convoy system of armed escorts for groups of merchants ships. ○ American Expeditionary Force: U.S. troops held the line against the last German attack at Chateau­Thierry. An allied offensive through the Argonne Forest drove the German army back onto its own territory. Germany signed an armistice on 11/11/1918. Even though there had only been a few months of fighting, almost 49,000 U.S. troops died in combat; 110,000 66 died total, partially due to disease. Peace ○ Fourteen Points: Wilson’s peace plan that he presented to Congress. ■ Recognition of freedom of the seas ■ An end to secret treaties ■ Reduction of national armaments ■ An “impartial adjustment of all colonial claims” ■ Self­determination for the different nationalities within Austria­Hungary ■ “A general association of nations... for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” ○ Treaty of Versailles: Wilson went to Paris to defend his Points. Other nations wanted revenge against compensation against Germany and compensation. After a while, Wilson conceded most of his Fourteen Points. He demanded the acceptance of the League of Nations. ■ Peace terms: 1. Germany would be disarmed and stripped of its colonies. It would admit guilt for the war, give France the Rhineland, and pay Britain and France. 2. Allies took the territories once held by the Central Powers. Most were granted independence. 3. Signers of the treaty would join the League of Nations. ○ Battle for Ratification: Wilson needed to win two­thirds of Senate approval for all parts of the treaty. Most Republicans opposed the League of Nations provision. ■ Increased partisanship: In the 1918 election, Republicans won a majority in the House and Senate. Their support was important for ratification. ■ Irreconcilables and reservationists: Senators opposed to the treaty fell into two groups. Irreconcilables would reject U.S. membership in the League no matter what. Reservationists, headed by Henry Cabot Lodge, would accept the League if certain reservations were added. ■ Wilson’s western tour: To rally public support, Wilson went on a speaking tour in the war in the West. After one speech he collapsed and had a stroke days later. The Senate rejected the treaty twice (11/1919 and 11/1920). U.S. officially ended the war in 1921 without ratifying the treaty or joining the League. Postwar Problems ○ Demobilization: Millions of American troops had trouble finding jobs when they got home. The wartime business boom faded and farmers began to struggle from the falling prices. ○ The Red Scare: Widespread fear of socialism fueled by Russian communism. ■ Palmer raids: After a series of unexplained bombings, Attorney General Palmer gathered information on radicals and ordered mass arrests of anarchists, Socialists, and labor agitators. Many were arrested based on little evidence. Palmer warned of riots on May Day, 1920, but it was a hoax and he lost credibility. ○ Labor Conflict: Although labor unions had made gains during the war, a series of strikes in 1919 turned public opinion against them. ■ Strikes of 1919: The first strike was a peaceful one in Seattle. Next, a Boston strike provoked Coolidge to deploy the National Guard to dissolve the strike. There was a little bit of violence. ○ Race Riots: Migration of blacks to northern cities increased tensions. Various riots broke out, the worst in Chicago in 1919. 40 died and 500 were injured. South was bad too.

67 ROARING TWENTIES (chapter 24) POLITICS Election of 1820 ○ James Cox/Franklin Roosevelt: Democratic ticket; last campaign for FDR before polio. ○ Warren Harding/Calvin Coolidge: Republican ticket. Harding was ambiguous on the League of Nations vote and coined the phrase “return to normalcy”; his front­porch campaign won in a landslide. Warren Harding Having not expected to become president, he did very little of importance and relied on the Republican Congress and his cabinet appointees to get things done, mainly a decrease in the income tax. Administration plagued by scandal, notably Teapot Dome (a cabinet member had accepted bribes for oil leases). Died in 1923. Calvin Coolidge Extremely fiscally conservative and believed in limited government ­ “the business of America is business.” Defeated Robert La Follette, progressive champion, in the 1924 election. Election of 1828 ○ Al Smith: Democratic candidate and governor of New York. First Catholic to run for president. ○ Herbert Hoover: Republican candidate, former Secretary of Commerce and head of the Food Administration during WWI. Promoted associationalism (businesses organizing into national trade groups to make production efficient) and a continuation of the prosperity of the 1920s. Won in a landslide.

ECONOMY Businesses Frederick Taylor’s management techniques reformed business models; improvement of mass production (assembly line) and the formation of trade associations promoted efficiency. New energies like oil and electricity greatly increased factory speed. Also, the laidback government gave corporations tax breaks and did not engage in trust­busting. Labor Unions saw declines in membership, mainly due to the open shop policy (employees were not required to join unions) that many businesses adopted. Worker unrest was quieted by welfare capitalism, in which workers were given higher wages and benefits, although workers still struggled to stay afloat. Women worked in greater numbers, but only in “pink­collar” jobs ­ low­skill jobs reserved for that gender only. Farmers Enhancement of farm machinery allowed farmers to produce much more, but this led to a sharp decline in crop prices. During WWI, farm prices were fixed at minimum levels to keep the farmers afloat, but that ended after the war; farmers demanded a new policy called parity to set price minimums. Coolidge vetoed a parity bill. Government ○ Taxes: Republican presidents passed major tax cuts for the wealthy (trickle­down economics). The burden for tax revenue fell on the poor and middle­class. ○ Tariffs: Fordney­McCumber Tariff (1922) sharply increased tariffs to protect American businesses. 68 ○ Trusts: Antitrust legislation was not enforced. ○ Welfare: All welfare and aid programs were rejected. ■ Muscle Shoals: A project to provide electricity to the Midwest; eventually became the Tennessee Valley Authority in the New Deal. ■ Mississippi Flood Relief: Coolidge refused to help Mississippi farmers in need. ■ Adkins v. Children’s Hospital (1923): Reversed Muller v. Oregon (1908), which had allowed restrictions on working hours for women, by arguing that the 19th Amendment made women equal to men and therefore did not deserve special privileges like fair working hours.

CULTURE Consumerism Industrialization (mass production of goods) allowed the average American to buy luxuries for pleasure, rather than just basic items. The automobile was the most popular purchase of the ‘20s. Cars allowed people to venture into the world, escape congested cities, and take vacations. The radio was extremely popular and made the nation more interconnected while also turning certain people into heroes (e.g. Babe Ruth, Charles Lindbergh). Women ○ Social: Challenged social boundaries by becoming more morally open and promiscuous. “Flappers” wore flashy clothes, went to nightclubs, and were generally independent. Their new moral openness created the idea of the “emancipated woman.” However, when they married they fell into the same traditional gender roles. ○ Economic: Worked in low­skill jobs that paid far less than men. ○ Political: League of Women Voters created to rally political support on both sides of the aisle from women, but it turned out women voted almost exactly the same way men did (usually Republican in the 1920s). Religion ○ Fundamentalism: Every word in the Bible is law and cannot be questioned. The world was formed through creationism. ○ Modernism: Took a liberal (open) view of the Bible and believed God could still exist, even with evolution instead of creationism. ○ Scopes Trial: In 1925, the nation was captivated by a trial in which John Scopes was arrested for teaching evolution in a Tennessee public school, which was illegal. Clarence Darrow, arguing for modernism, defeated William Jennings Bryan, a fundamentalist, even though Scopes technically lost the trial. The question of life’s origin was thrust centerstage. Literature Many authors were disenchanted with what they saw as a loss of morality and called themselves part of a “lost generation.” Ernest Hemingway, T.S. Eliot, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and others said the war was a pro­business plot and hated the rise of consumerism. Prohibition The 18th Amendment of 1919 failed dramatically to stop alcohol consumption. Liquor was smuggled across the country into speakeasies (secret nightclubs). Gangs had violent fights over bootlegging; organized crime became institutionalized. Republicans continued to support Prohibition, but by 1933 crime had become so rampant that it had to be repealed. Nativism ○ Immigration: The public once again called for restrictions on immigration against eastern and southern Europeans, who were taking jobs and spreading “radical, undemocratic 69 ideals.” Congress passed quotas in 1921 and 1924 that sharply limited immigration. ■ Sacco and Vanzetti: Two Italian immigrants were convicted of murder and sentenced to death; many believed they were innocent and were wrongly persecuted because they were foreigners and anarchists. ○ Ku Klux Klan: The KKK became extremely powerful against blacks, Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and Communists ­ anyone considered “un­American.” Its membership increase was partially due to the hateful movie Birth of a Nation. Many people were terrorized, hung, and killed. The KKK lost power in the late 1920s, when Indiana Klan chief David Stephenson was convicted of murder, giving it a bad reputation.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS Disarmament Rather than return to isolationism, Republican presidents decided to promote American interests and world peace. ○ Washington Conference: A 1921 naval disarmament meeting resulting in: ■ Five­Power Pact: Established limits for navy size among the world’s five biggest navies and reduced American and British presence in the Pacific. ■ Four­Power Pact: U.S., France, Britain, and Japan promised to respect each other’s Pacific territories. ■ Nine­Power Pact: Agreed to continue the Open Door Policy in China. ○ Kellogg­Briand Pact: The world peace movement concluded with a treaty, initiated by the U.S. and France but signed by everyone, that promised not to use aggressive war as a means of attaining national goals. But defensive war was still allowed, and there was no system to prevent nations from breaking the treaty. Business Interests ○ Latin America: American businesses invested heavily in small nations like Mexico, Nicaragua, and Haiti. Although American military presence was reduced, those nations still owed huge debts to America, forcing them to stay dependent on U.S. business. ○ Tariffs: The Fordney­McCumber Tariff of 1922 greatly raised foreign tariffs. European nations became unable to pay for their debts because they could not produce or import the goods they needed, so they raised their own tariffs on America. International trade ground to a halt, eventually helping cause the worldwide Great Depression. War Debts Harding and Coolidge demanded that Britain and France pay back all of the wartime loans America had made to them, even though high tariffs made that unrealistic and the other nations argued the loans had been spent to buy American supplies. ○ Dawes Plan: In 1924, an agreement was negotiated in which U.S. banks lent Germany a lot of money to pay back reparations to Britain and France, who would then pay back war debts to America. This easy flow of money (“circular loans”) improved the economies of all nations, but Europe became too dependent on this reckless money, causing it to crash when the U.S. stopped making loans in 1929. After this ordeal, Europeans felt America was too greedy, and America felt its involvement in Europe had ruined the nation and was a good reason to support isolation.

70 GREAT DEPRESSION (chapter 25) CAUSES Automation: Made many industrial workers irrelevant and hurt the poor’s ability to get jobs. Banks: Completely unregulated; free to make loans to any Americans, even though most loans were extremely risky and put both the banks and depositors at risk. Credit: The free­wheeling lending of banks allowed consumers to spend wildly on stocks and products using credit (or margin), taking loans and paying only 10% of the actual price. But if an investment was not successful, there was no way for the average person to ever pay back their debts. Europe: European economies, still hurting post­WWI, relied heavily on American investment, which put the U.S. at risk. Also, France and Britain failed to pay back its huge loans to U.S. banks, a result of Germany’s inability to pay war reparations. Maldistribution of income: The top 1% of the population had 75% of the wealth. Such a small number of people could not purchase enough goods to absorb what the economy produced. Overproduction: Farmers continued to produce massive surpluses that decreased prices and made it hard to stay afloat. Industries were also creating too many products for the top­heavy economy to buy. Stock Market: The market crashed on Black Tuesday in October 1929, wiping out millions of investors. Tariffs: The Fordney­McCumber Tariff of 1922 raised tariffs to 38.5%, forcing other nations to set retaliatory tariffs that hurt trade and had an adverse impact on the American economy.

HOOVER PRESIDENCY Theories ○ Economic: Believed America would quickly recover from the crash, and that the government should not try to affect the hand of the free market. ○ Rugged Individualism: Failed to give any direct aid to citizens because he felt it would ruin their self­reliance and work ethic, and called for “rugged individualism” ­ personal sacrifice now for greater rewards later. ○ Volunteerism: Relied on business to voluntarily take actions that would benefit the community as a whole, such as not cutting jobs or wages. Policies ○ Federal Farm Board (1929): Created a revolving fund to prop up farmers, in which the government bought and stored surplus crops at fair prices; however, farmers continued to overproduce. ○ Hawley­Smoot Tariff (1930): Again raised tariffs drastically; hurt the economy further. ○ Public Works (1930): Spent $750 million on public works and infrastructure projects (e.g. Hoover Dam) specifically to create jobs. ○ Debt Moratorium (1931): Rescinded the Dawes Plan and allowed Britain and Germany (France declined) to stop repaying war debts because banks were hemorrhaging money to investors and could not repay loans. ○ Reconstruction Finance Corporation (1932): Appropriated $500 million (eventually $1.5 billion) for direct loans to banks, railroads, and insurance companies. Election of 1932 ○ Herbert Hoover: Looked depressed and unable to lead an economy that was spiralling out of control. 71 ○ Franklin Roosevelt: Vigorous, exciting candidate who said he could provide an alternative path out of the Depression. Originally a conservative, he realized the only way to end the crisis was to have the government provide direct aid. Won in a landslide. Lame­Duck Period Hoover tried to work with Roosevelt during the four months between the election and inauguration, but also demanded that Roosevelt promise to follow his policies of economic conservatism, which Roosevelt declined. The Depression continued to worsen, particularly for banks, which were falling apart rapidly.

CULTURE African Americans ○ Problems: Blacks suffered from the impact of the Depression worse than most whites; they were excluded from relief programs and were the first to be fired by companies. ○ Scottsboro Boys: Nine black men in Alabama were arrested and convicted of rape, even though they were clearly innocent, and were sent to death. None of the defendants died, but none of them were acquitted by the racist white juries. ○ NAACP: Took a more active role in promoting blacks’ political rights. Women Women were discouraged from working because they were seen as taking jobs away from the men who need them. But 20% more women began working during the Depression, mainly in the same pink­collar jobs in which they had previously been employed. Mexican Americans When unemployed white males became migrant workers in the West and Midwest, Hispanics were forced out of their jobs and faced severe discrimination in almost every aspect of life. Thousands of Mexicans moved to Los Angeles or returned to Mexico. Asian Americans Faced persistent racism and discrimination as white workers began searching for their jobs. Asian Americans attempted to fight back through groups like the Japanese American Citizens League, but were largely unsuccessful. Entertainment ○ Radio: Continued to be one of the most important advancements in American culture. Promoted stars and major programs by broadcasting live. Served as a means of escape for people from the troubles of the Depression. ○ Movies: Became cheaper and more expensive. Producers like Walt Disney were extremely popular (partially because the movie industry refused to allow controversial productions). ○ Literature: Intellectuals like John Steinbeck and John Dos Passos wrote about rural poverty and the ills of capitalism. Popular writings included Life Magazine and Gone With the Wind by Margaret Mitchell. Radicalism ○ Popular Front: A group of “antifascist” organizations like the Communist Party; became extremely popular because of a general antipathy for capitalism and the decline of American society. ○ Communist Party: Often aligned with the Soviet Unions and became involved in political affairs. Peaked at 100,000 members but declined when the USSR asked the party to separate from the Popular Front. ○ Socialist Party: Also became a political force, mainly through the Southern Tenant Farmers Union, which demanded reform for farmers but failed to make an impact. 72 NEW DEAL (chapter 26) FIRST NEW DEAL Financial Recovery ○ Emergency Banking Relief Act: 5,000 banks had failed early in 1933. Two days after his inauguration, Roosevelt announced a four­day bank holiday to allow Congress to pass a bill that permitted only the securest banks to reopen, ending the panic of withdrawals. ○ Glass­Steagall Banking Reform Act: Separated commercial banking from investment banking to protect regular banks from making reckless investments. Also created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which guaranteed deposits of up to $5,000. Federal Relief ○ Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): Gave money to state and local governments to fund relief programs for the jobless and homeless. ○ Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): Created jobs by having unemployed urban men move to the wilderness and worked on environmental projects. ○ Civil Works Administration (CWA): Funded temporary construction projects that created 4 million jobs. ○ Public Works Administration (PWA): Funded state and local infrastructure projects to create jobs. ○ Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): Developed and improved the entire impoverished Tennessee Valley region, particularly by providing electric power and stopping massive flooding. Controversial because it was considered an overreach of “regional planning.” Industrial Recovery ○ National Industrial Recovery Act: Businesses called for relaxed antitrust laws in order to let them raise prices and stay afloat. In order to help wages rise with the inflated prices, the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was created to set certain codes: minimum wage, maximum workweek, and abolition of child labor. The codes were ineffective, as was the NRA’s attempt to allow collective bargaining, but the program was relatively successful. ■ Schechter v. U.S. (1936): After two years in existence, the NRA was ruled unconstitutional because it was involved in affairs not classified as “interstate commerce.” Agricultural Recovery ○ Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA): Farmers habitually overproduced, so in order to keep the farmers from shooting themselves in the foot, the AAA set limits on how much could be produced and paid farmers not to go over that limit. This raised prices and helped prop up farmers, who had been crushed by the Depression. The AAA was struck down by the Supreme Court in 1936.

SECOND NEW DEAL Federal Relief ○ Works Progress Administration (WPA): The largest agency of the entire New Deal. Millions were employed to tackle infrastructure projects and work in the arts. The WPA included the National Youth Administration (NYA), which helped high school and college graduates find jobs. Reforms ○ National Labor Relations Board (NLRB): The Wagner Act of 1935 wrote into law Section 73 7(a) of the National Industrial Recovery Act, which guaranteed workers the right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining; the NLRB was formed to protect workers’ rights. ○ Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): Created to regulate business practices and police the stock market. ○ Social Security: The first federal health insurance program. Employers and employees would jointly pay taxes into personal accounts throughout workers’ careers. Those taxes would then be used to give monthly benefits to the elderly after retirement at age 65. The Social Security Act of 1935 also included unemployment insurance and benefits for people with disabilities. Unions Workers, angry with their loss of power in the 1920s and vitalized by the Wagner Act, became increasingly militant and demanded more rights. ○ Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO): Formed out of the AFL. The AFL supported craft unions of skilled white males; a small minority believed in industrial unionism, in which unions would be organized by industry, not by job type. John Lewis, head of the United Mine Workers, rallied the supporters of industrial unionism into the CIO, working within the AFL. A conflict at an AFL national convention, however, led Lewis to make the CIO independent. It worked towards forming unions in un­organized industries like textiles. ○ Strikes ■ Automobiles: General Motors refused to recognize the United Auto Workers union, so workers devised the sit­down strike ­ sitting at the assembly line and not working. Neither the state nor federal governments intervened for the workers, but GM eventually gave in. The sit­down strike soon fell away; it was considered illegal. ■ Steel: Although U.S. Steel chose to recognize the CIO’s steel union, other companies did not, prompting major protests. In the “Memorial Day Massacre” of 1937, police fired into a protest at a steel plant and killed ten people. That strike failed, but the steel companies ­ like many across all industries ­ soon gave in. ○ Fair Labor Standards Act (1938): Established a minimum wage, a maximum workweek, and child labor restrictions. The last part, which had been ruled unconstitutional in Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918), was upheld in U.S. v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941). Election of 1936 ○ Alf Landon: Republican candidate. Supported most of the New Deal but felt Roosevelt spent too much federal money. ○ Franklin Roosevelt: Won in a massive landslide. What was notable was the shift in electoral realignment that came as a result of the New Deal. The Democrats now had the support of both Southern farmers and Northern urban workers and minorities.

LAST NEW DEAL Opposition ○ Liberals: Extremists like socialists felt Roosevelt aided businesses too much and the unemployed and poor too little. ○ Conservatives: Many believed the New Deal was an overexpansion of federal power and a shift towards socialism. Businesses disliked the increase in regulations and union power, as well as the government’s increased deficit spending (using loans to pay for programs despite having significant debt). ■ American Liberty League: Formed by vigorous Roosevelt opponents to denounce the New Deal and stop it from “subverting” the nation’s recovery. 74 ○ Demagogues: Several people gained national followings by promoting easy solutions and inspiring new movements. ■ Charles Coughlin: A priest who used radio to accuse the New Deal of being a conspiracy made by Jews and fascists. ■ Francis Townsend: A doctor who proposed a system that called for workers to pay taxes that would be used for benefits for the elderly, who would immediately spend the money and lift the economy from recession. The Townsend Plan eventually became the ideological basis for Social Security. ■ Huey Long: Proposed the Share­Our­Wealth Plan, which called for extremely high taxes on the wealthy to be used to give every American a $5,000 “homestead” and an annual $2,500 wage. His idea was popular with the poor, making him a viable threat to Roosevelt’s reelection in 1936 until he was assassinated. ○ Supreme Court: Roosevelt became frustrated when the Court struck down the AAA and NRA and, after the election of 1936, believed it was necessary to get the Court of the way. ■ Court­Packing: Roosevelt proposed a new system in which the president would be allowed to appoint up to six new justices because many of the current ones were old, giving him a liberal majority. Both Republicans and Democrats in Congress saw this as an attack on the checks­and­balances system, and the court­packing legislation was rejected ­ the first major Congressional opposition to an FDR bill. Beginning in 1937, however, the Court began siding with the New Deal. End of the New Deal ○ Recession: In 1937, the economy took a major dip. Roosevelt cut back spending in an attempt to balance the budget, while the new Social Security tax gave people less money to spend. ○ Keynesian Economics: John Maynard Keynes devised a new theory that became the basis of economics for decades to come. He argued that instead of balancing the budget, Roosevelt should continue his previous deficit spending to continue investing money into the economy. Implementing his theory, the administration saw positive benefits. ○ Lack of Support: After the court­packing fiasco, Roosevelt lost support from the public, which elected more Republicans in the 1938 midterm elections. Any further major legislation was blocked by the Republicans and conservative Democrats.

75 PRE­WWII FOREIGN AFFAIRS (chapter 27) ECONOMIC INTERESTS Purpose of Diplomacy The main concern was to protect American foreign trade. Circular Loans U.S. had been lending money to Germany so that it could pay reparations to the Allies. The Allies could then, with loans from American banks and corporations, pay back debt to U.S. European banks were therefore accumulating huge debts. Economic Expansion in Europe American subsidiaries started popping up in Europe since European industry had yet to recover. The high Fordney­McCumber Tariff also didn’t help Euro industries. Dawes Plan Appropriated $2.5 billion to lend to Germany to pay back its reparations; the Allies would reduce the cost of reparations. Young Plan Reduction in U.S. loans to Germany, cost of reparations, and debt owed to U.S. by Allies. Debt Moratorium (1931) Temporary suspension of WWI debts. FDR’s Depression Diplomacy Gold value of the dollar was allowed to drop so that American goods could compete in the world market. Little interest in currency stabilization. Loans to nations that had defaulted on debts were forbidden. This stopped the circular loan system and war debt payments. Reciprocal Trade Agreement increased exports. Latin America ■ Hoover: Relaxed policies. U.S. would recognize any regime no matter how it got there. Troops were removed from Haiti. U.S. would not intervene if any Latin American country defaulted on loans. ■ FDR’s Good Neighbor Policy: Emphasized the importance of cooperation among countries of the Western Hemisphere in case of foreign aggression. Policy of non­intervention. FDR Recognizes the Soviet Union In hopes of bolstering the U.S. against Japan and having a new trading partner, the U.S. recognized the Soviet Union in late 1933. They entered into an uneasy alliance. The Soviet Union was denied loans from the U.S. due to bad credit risk.

PEACE INTERESTS Isolationism The Wilsonian vision of a new world order had been rejected. People didn’t want to deal with international problems. This was a main reason for the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles, which would have made the U.S. a member of the League of Nations. However, the U.S. played a pretty active role in world affairs during the 1920s. Washington Conference (1921) ○ Secretary of State Charles Hughes wanted some sort of guarantee of world peace and stability. ○ Five Power Pact: America, Britain, Japan, France and Italy agreed to limits on naval 76 battleships. Japan agreed to maintain a smaller navy than the U.S. and Britain; in return, those countries would stop fortifying their territories in the Far East. Loophole: no restriction on small cruisers. ○ Nine Power Pact: Continued Open Door Policy in China ○ Four Power Pact: U.S, Britain, Japan, and France would respect each other’s Pacific territories and cooperate to prevent aggression. ○ Kellogg­Briand Pact: 62 nations agreed to renounce war as an instrument of foreign policy. Problem: no way to enforce! Locarno Pact (1925) Guaranteed the borders of Belgium, France, and Germany as specified by Treaty of Versailles. Germany agreed to change boundaries with Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia only by arbitration.

NEUTRALITY Nye Committee Hearings The purpose was to expose the true selfish motives of bankers and manufacturers in entering WWI. In addition, Wilson was blamed for provoking the Germans by sending merchant ships into belligerent nations’ waters. Anti­conflict; led to Neutrality Acts. Neutrality Acts: limited President’s options in time of crisis! ○ prohibition of arms sale, loans, and credit to belligerents ○ Americans couldn’t travel on vessels of belligerents ○ Cash and Carry: non­military goods only ○ no involvement in Spanish Civil War allowed ○ 1939 Neutrality Act: allowed belligerents to purchase arms on a Cash and Carry basis. The U.S. was moving from isolationism to internationalism. The economy improved as a result.

JAPANESE AGGRESSION Japanese Invasion of Manchuria (1931) Japan, ruled by a military dictatorship, was on a mission to expand its territorial boundaries. Manchuria, a coal­rich region of China, would be a valuable asset. Hoover­Stimson Doctrine The U.S. would not recognize forceful territorial gains. Therefore, it didn’t recognize Japan’s acquisition of Manchuria. Japan was pissed because the U.S. had done that in the past (ex: Philippines). Japan left the League. “Quarantine Speech” After Japan attacked China again, Roosevelt gave a speech condemning the aggression and encouraging an international “quarantine” of aggressors to prevent the spread of war. Public response was hostile; FDR drew back. Panay Incident (1937) Japan tested its boundaries by bombing U.S. vessels on the Yangtze River in China. The U.S. accepted Japan’s apology in an effort to avoid conflict. Japan became more confident.

FASCIST AGGRESSION ○ 1935: Hitler denounced the League and the Treaty of Versailles. Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, leading isolationist sentiment to increase. 77 ○ 1936: German troops invaded the Rhineland. Fascist forces aided Franco in Spain. ○ Rome­Berlin­Tokyo Pact (1938): Axis Powers created. ○ Munich Conference (1938): Hitler demanded a part of Czechoslovakia. Britain, France, and the U.S. followed a policy of appeasement and gave in; Hitler promised to expand no further. Failed. ○ Nazi­Soviet Nonaggression Pact: Germans wouldn’t have to worry about a two­front war. ○ Invasion of Poland (1939): Beginning of WWII. Britain and France declared war on Germany in response, and the U.S. passed the third Neutrality Act in an attempt to help the Allies.

EMBRACING INTERVENTIONISM Fall of France (1940) Hitler and Mussolini took over France, dispelling the idea of a “phony war.” They established a new regime in Vichy. Led most Americans to believe that Germany posed a direct threat to the U.S. Roosevelt began extending more aid to Britain. Isolationist Opposition American First Committee (isolationist) became a powerful new lobby opposing the Committee to Defend America and the Fight for Freedom Committee (both interventionist). Became an issue of 1940 campaign. Election of 1940 Roosevelt became the first president to win three terms. The Republican candidate, Wendell Willkie, hardly differed from Roosevelt in his positions. Lend­Lease Act (1940) Britain was bankrupt by December 1940. The U.S. could now basically send weapons to England in return for promises of repayment after the war. Roosevelt decided to use “hemispheric defense” to protect American merchant ships delivering supplies to England: U.S. navy escorted them in the Western Atlantic, and radioed the locations of German submarines to Britain. Atlantic Charter (1941) A vaguely disguised statement of war aims issued by Churchill and Roosevelt that called for a “destruction of the Nazi tyranny.” Roosevelt made no military commitments, but he felt certain that the public would support a declaration of war in the instance of an enemy attack. Tripartite Pact (1940) Added Japan to the Axis Powers. FDR cuts Japan off Japan had been continuing to attack China and in 1941 captured Vietnam. Its next target was most likely the Dutch East Indies. FDR froze Japanese assets and issued a trade embargo when Tokyo didn’t respond to warnings. Public opinion of Japan was very low. Japan decided to go to war instead of repairing relations with the U.S. Pearl Harbor: December 7, 1941 The Japanese surprised the U.S. with an attack on the naval base in Honolulu. The U.S. lost a lot of equipment and 2,000 soldiers. The American people became unified in their commitment to war. The U.S. declared war on Japan; Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.; the U.S. reciprocated.

78 WORLD WAR II (chapter 28) EUROPE Marshall Plan Was to launch a major invasion of France in 1943. Soviets wanted this because it would draw German attention away from the Eastern Front, where Russia was losing many soldiers. Britain wanted to deal with North African and southern Europe first. Tough decision for FDR, but he agreed with Britain. North Africa Nazi General Rommel was threatening the Suez Canal. ○ Operation Torch: Americans were inexperienced, but combined British and American forces launched a successful counteroffensive and drove the Germans out by May 1943. Allied resources were tied up during this, delaying the invasion of France, to Russia’s dismay. Russia Although the Soviets held off the Germans at Stalingrad in the winter of 1942­43, they suffered major losses. However, their success reassured FDR that the invasion of France could be postponed so that the Allies could invade Sicily. Sicily Churchill argued for an invasion of Sicily first because it might knock Italy out of the war and tie up German resources that might otherwise be in France. The capture of Italy took a whole year, embittering the Soviet Union, which was absorbing most of the war casualties. The Holocaust America heard about the atrocities in 1942. Public pressure to help, but the government resisted. Some officials were anti­Semitic. The U.S. turned away the St. Louis, a ship full of German Jews, and refused to bomb the crematoria or the RRs used by the Nazis. They argued that the best thing would be to focus on winning. Liberation of France June 6, 1944: D­Day invasion. V­E Day was May 7, 1945.

PACIFIC 1942 Japanese Victories Pearl Harbor; capture of Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, Singapore, Dutch East Indies, Burma, and the Philippines. General MacArthur ○ Led forces north from Australia. ○ Battle of Coral Sea (1942): First important Allied victory ○ Battle of Guadalcanal (1942­43): Lasted six months and cost many lives; U.S. victory. Important because Japan would no longer be able to launch an offensive to the south. ○ Battle of Leyte Gulf (1944): Allied forces severely damaged Japan’s naval capacities in the largest naval engagement in history. Admiral Nimitz ○ Led forces west from Hawaii. ○ Battle of Midway (1942): Three­day battle in which the U.S. regained control of the Pacific. The tide had now turned against the Japanese as the U.S., with help from Australians and New Zealanders, advanced towards Japan and the Philippines. ○ Battle of Okinawa (1945): Heavy casualties, kamikaze inflicted lots of damage. Allies 79 finally captured the island. Japan had barely any planes or ships with which to fight, so an invasion of Japan didn’t seem necessary. Manhattan Project After the discovery of radioactivity in 1939 made atomic bombs feasible, Britain and the U.S. raced to develop one before the Germans did. The army controlled research and the government gave $2 million; progress was made quickly. The plutonium­fueled Trinity Bomb was tested in New Mexico in July 1945. The Decision to Drop the Bombs Truman issued an ultimatum to Japan: surrender or face massive destruction. Japan’s military leaders refused to give up, even though the premier (appointed by Emperor Hirohito) wanted to. The Fat Man was dropped on Hiroshima on 8/6/1945. Two days later, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. The next day, a bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Japan surrendered a few days later.

ECONOMY Workforce Demand for workers increased because 15 million people left to join the armed forces.The workforce increased by 20%. Propaganda encouraged women to join workforce. Unions Membership of unions increased. Unions voluntarily agreed not to strike or make big demands during the war; in return, new workers would automatically be enrolled in unions.The government wanted to ensure continuous production and prevent inflation. Strikes Despite the concessions unions made, many workers struck during the war in wildcat strikes (strikes unauthorized by union leaders). After the United Mine Workers’ strike in 1943, Congress passed the Smith­Connally Act which required unions to wait thirty days before striking and gave the president the power to seize a struck war plant. Public animosity towards the labor movement increased. Prosperity The Depression ended by mid­1941 because of increased production and gov’t spending; as a result, it borrowed money, sold war bonds, and passed the Revenue Act of 1942, increasing income taxes. Due to a shortage of consumer goods, people saved money rather than spending it. Preventing inflation Prices rose 25%. The government feared inflation, so the Anti­Inflation Act was passed, giving the gov’t the authority to freeze prices, wages, and rents through the Office of Price Administration, which also rationed consumer goods. Successful; cost of living increased way less than it did during WWI. West The West, being the launching point for the war against Japan, received a disproportionate amount of gov’t funds for its war industries such as aircraft manufacturing and shipbuilding. Gov’t also invested in transportation.

GOVERNMENT Mobilization ○ War Production Board: not as good as its WWI counterpart, the War Industries Board. Was intended to have broad powers over the economy. 80 ○ Office of War Mobilization: WPB’s somewhat more successful successor ○ Production still increased dramatically, despite administrative problems. ○ Selective Service Act: after Pearl Harbor Research ○ Under the National Defense Research Committee, the U.S. brought the Allies to the same level of technological advancement as the Axis Powers. ○ Radar and Sonar: led to decimation of U­boats in 1943. Put Allies ahead of Axis in terms of technology ○ Aircraft Technology: Improved a lot, but not enough to stop bombing raids on Britain by the Luftwaffe. New bombers developed by the Allies could fly higher and carry more. ○ Intelligence: Britain ran the Ultra Project, which used the Colossus II computer to decode messages. The U.S. ran the Magic Operation which succeeded in breaking the Japanese code system. U.S. could’ve predicted the attack on Pearl Harbor, but no one could fathom it. Retreat from Reform Roosevelt thought that victory was more important than reform and did not do much to stop conservatives, many of whom came from Wall Street and joined the government because of the war, from dismantling the New Deal. There was little need for the relief agencies anymore since the Depression was over. Election of 1944 Main topics were domestic issues and Roosevelt’s poor health. Roosevelt ran with Truman; they won. Democrats won majorities in both houses.

SOCIETY Japanese American Internment Unlike WWI, WWII brought little censorship or civil liberties violations. The exception was the animosity towards Japanese Americans. The existing prejudice against them only worsened with the attack on Pearl Harbor. Living in their own close­knit communities, they seemed hostile. Officials like Secretary of Navy Knox and General DeWitt were also anti­Japanese. In 1942, Japanese Americans were forced to live in camps located in harsh deserts to be “Americanized.” Some were hired out to work. There was little public opposition. In 1945, they were allowed back to the West Coast, but many had lost their property and businesses and face persecution. African Americans ○ A. Philip Randolph was a prominent figure in leading black demands for integration of the workforces of companies receiving defense contracts. He organized a march in D.C. ○ FDR created the Fair Employment Practices Commission, which ended up having more symbolic value than anything. ○ Many blacks migrated from the South to cities, causing tension. ○ Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): est. in 1942 and organized popular resistance (such as sit­ins and demonstrations) against discrimination, unlike older organizations. ○ Military reforms: in response to public and political pressure, and out of convenience, more blacks were admitted and some units were integrated. Native Americans The wartime emphasis on national unity led to efforts at assimilation. Many left reservations to work in war plants; some served in the military in combat or as “code talkers.” Mexican Americans 81 U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement where braceros, or contract laborers, would come to work for a limited period of time. Many Mexican Americans migrated to cities and worked in factories, causing tensions especially because of gangs called “zoot suits” that were formed. Chinese Americans Since China was an ally of the U.S., Chinese Americans’ legal and social status was elevated. The Chinese Exclusion Acts were repealed in 1943. Women Female employment increased, although mostly in stereotypical “female work”­­many worked for the government or in service jobs. Wages increased. Influx of working young women in urban communities. Many joined unions. Rosie the Riveter encouraged women to enlist­­played active role. Prejudice persisted. Children Child care was limited. Juvenile crime increased. Number of working teens increased. More families were separated. Many young marriages because the country was more prosperous, but also a higher divorce rate. Beginning of baby boom. Culture Entertainment industries prospered­­books, magazines, theater, movies, radio­­because people had money now. Centered on heroic war topics or war coverage. Swing became popular. For soldiers, they were “fighting for prosperity.” The military had dance brigades of women for the soldiers’ entertainment­­emphasizing “healthy heterosexuality.”

82 COLD WAR (chapter 29) ORIGINS Visions of the Postwar World ○ U.S.: democracy, self­determination, no more spheres of influence or military alliances, arbitrary international organization. This view was outlined in the Atlantic Charter. ○ Soviet Union: great powers would control areas of strategic interest to them Delayed Opening of Western Front Britain and the U.S. delayed the invasion of France during the war to deal with North Africa and Italy. This left the embittered Soviets fighting on the Eastern Front for a while, losing many soldiers. Yalta Conference (1945) ○ Solid Agreements: Formation of United Nations. Soviets would join Pacific war in return for land they’d lost during the Russo­Japanese War. ○ Poland: At the Tehran Conference in 1943, the issue of whether Poland would be governed by a communist gov’t was left unresolved. Soviet Union was now occupying Poland and had installed the pro­communist gov’t. Stalin agreed to allow some pro­Westerns from the Polish gov’t­in­exile into the gov’t and to hold free elections, but he didn’t follow through. ○ Germany: Soviets wanted to break it up and make it pay reparations; Britain and U.S. wanted it reconstructed and reunited. No decision on reparations. Germany was divided into zones, one for each of the four (Britain, France, Soviet Union, and U.S.). Berlin divided into four as well. Agreed that at some point Germany would be reunited. Eastern Bloc After Yalta, which had avoided many important issues, the Soviet Union began installing one communist regime after another in Eastern European countries. Potsdam Conference Truman, tight about violations of Yalta, met with Foreign Minister Molotov. Truman went in with a “tough” policy, but had little leverage. U.S. recognized Warsaw gov’t after Stalin made a few concessions. Stalin could not demand reparations from the parts of Germany he didn’t have control over. The western­controlled zones of Germany were united; Stalin established a communist gov’t in the east. China China had been vital to America’s vision of an open, peaceful world, but Chiang Kai­Shek’s nationalist government was corrupt and unpopular. However, since Chiang was fighting Mao’s communist forces, Truman continued supporting him even though the cause was lost. Led U.S. to look for a new pro­Western force in Asia: Japan! Japan America abandoned strict occupation policies and encouraged Japanese growth. A new view of the world order had been accepted: a divided world with a strong, pro­American sphere of influence.

CONTAINMENT Truman Doctrine “Support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.” Greece and Turkey, facing communist threats in 1946, were given $400 million in aid. Marshall Plan 83 Rebuilding Europe was strategic because strong Euro governments would be less likely to fall to communism. Also, more foreign trade. Economic Cooperation Administration appropriated over $12 billion in aid over three years. European economy revived, communist strength declined. Mobilization Military power maintained almost at a wartime level. Atomic Energy Commission continued nuclear research. National Security Act of 1947 gave the president more power regarding international goals. Dept of Defense overseeing all branches of military. CIA collecting info. Berlin Airlift (1948­1949) Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, but the western powers airlifted supplies­­they wouldn’t give up the city. Alliances ○ NATO (1949): western alliance. An armed attack against one would be seen as an attack against them all. ○ Warsaw Pact (1955): response to NATO. Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. NSC­68 Review of American foreign policy that concluded that the U.S. couldn’t rely on other countries to resist communism. So, it should stop communism anywhere in the world and build up the military.

ECONOMY GI Bill of Rights (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act) Provided economic and educational assistance to veterans. Helped prevent economic collapse. Veterans returning to work pushed women and minorities aside, though. Inflation (reached 25%) Caused by demand for consumer goods, which had been scarce during the war. Luckily, there was no economic collapse because consumers had money to spend and because of the $6 billion tax cut. Labor Unrest Partly due to inflation. United Mine Workers made gains after striking in 1946. RR almost shut down because of a strike; Truman threatened military force so workers would return. Growth during Korean War Government spending had declined after WWII, but increased again during Korean War.

POLITICS Fair Deal Truman’s plans for liberal reform, which were met with opposition from a Repub Congress in his first term: expansion of Social Security, raise of min wage, permanent Fair Employment Practices Act, public housing and slum clearance, environmental and public works planning, gov’t promotion of sci research, fed aid to St. Lawrence seaway, nationalization of atomic energy, and national health insurance. Taft­Hartley Act (1947) Assault on 1935 Wagner Act. Banned closed shop and allowed states to ban “union shop” (where workers had to join union after being hired). Passed over Truman’s veto. Damaged weaker unions and made organization of women and minorities more difficult. Election of 1948 Truman versus Dewey. Truman would not give up liberal reform. He face unpopularity and a 84 divided Democratic Party (Southern conservatives balked at civil rights platform). Left wing formed Progressive Party led by Henry Wallace. Surprisingly, Truman won and Democrats won majorities. Fair Deal Successes Min wage, expansion of SS, and National Housing Act. Civil Rights ○ Employment: banned discrimination ○ Military: desegregated via executive order ○ Shelley v. Kraemer (1948): courts can’t be used to enforce private “covenants” meant to keep blacks out of residential neighborhoods. Election 1952 Repub revival: Eisenhower and Nixon won, promising to be strong against communism and to end the Korean War. Nixon accused Democrats of weakness, treason, cowardice, corruption, etc. Marked the end of the worst turbulence of the postwar era.

KOREAN WAR North Korean Invasion of South (1950) Soviets had left the North with a communist government in 1949; U.S. had left South with weak Rhee gov’t. UN intervened after invasion with Gen. MacArthur in charge. Truman wanted to contain but also to liberate Korea and unify it. China Joined war on communist side in 1950. Truman didn’t want to fight China, but MacArthur did­­or at least bomb them. “Martin Letter” from MacArthur to Congress, outlining his views on China, caused Truman to fire him. Public was angry. Limited Mobilization Truman was cautious at first with economic regs. Office of Defense Mobilization to avoid inflation and discourage union wage demands was not very successful. Stalemate Many casualties. Discouraged the public; contributed to fears of domestic communism.

DOMESTIC ANTICOMMUNISM Sources Communism was tangible (Soviet Union and China). Korean stalemate. Soviet development of atomic bomb in 1949. HUAC (House Un­American Activities Committee) Conducted publicized investigations of Democrats in government and Hollywood people. Alger Hiss Trial Hiss, a former member of the State Dept., was accused of leaking info to Soviets. He sued for slander, but Chambers (his accuser) produced the “pumpkin papers” (proof). Hiss was protected by the statute of limitations since the alleged crime had been over a decade earlier. However, Nixon made sure he was convicted of perjury and his reputation was destroyed. Increased public suspicion of liberal Dems and contributed to anticommunist hysteria. Federal Loyalty Program Truman administration initiated a review of federal employee loyalty. 2000 resigned, 212 were dismissed. McCarran Act 85 Required communist organizations to register with the gov’t and publish records. Rosenbergs Ethel Rosenberg’s brother confessed to leaking secret Manhattan Project info to the Soviet Union. He said that the Rosenbergs, members of the Communist Party, had done so as well. They were sentenced to death in 1951 and died in the electric chair in 1953, claiming innocence. McCarthyism Hysteria had built up so much that Senator McCarthy was actually taken seriously in his bold and ruthless stance against communism. He conducted investigations based on no real proof. He had a Republican Congress and public support.

86 POST­WWII SOCIETY (chapter 30) ECONOMY Sources of Growth ○ West: Government spending on western industries during the war caused a lot of economic growth. The government also invested in public works. The petroleum industry did well with the rise of the automobile. State governments invested in universities since science became very important. ○ Gov’t Spending: public works (highways!), veterans’ benefits (GI Bill!), welfare, military spending (Korean War) ○ Suburbia: Fueled auto, petroleum, housing, and road construction industries ○ Baby Boom: Higher consumer demand. Keynesian Economics The theory was that the government could regulate and stabilize the economy without intruding directly into the private sector. Fiscal (spending and taxes) policy and monetary (supply of currency) policy could stimulate the economy. In 1953, the government eased credit to cure a minor recession. However, when Eisenhower reduced spending in the recession of 1957, the recovery was slow. People had confidence in permanent prosperity and curing poverty with increased production. Consolidation ○ Agriculture: Increased mechanization decreased the number of agricultural jobs and family farms. ○ Corporate: Many corporations expanded to cover many industries, especially industries benefiting from government defense spending. A few firms controlled most of the U.S.’s economic activity. Labor ○ “Postwar Contract”: Since unions were strong and entrenched, workers in large unionized industries were granted wage increases and benefits; in return, they tacitly agreed not to bring up issues like control over the workplace. ○ AFL­CIO: American Federation of Labor merged with Congress of Industrial Organizations in 1955. CIO’s radical past sometimes became an issue. Some workers remained unorganized, especially in the South.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Medicine Antibiotics became widely available after WWII; vaccines were more difficult to develop but by 1954 there was one for yellow fever, influenza, and polio. Infant mortality and the death rate decreased; life expectancy increased. Pesticides Used to protect crops from insects. During WWII, DDT had been used to protect soldier from tropical diseases. Only later would its negative effects be discovered. Nuclear Weapons U.S. developed H­bomb by 1952; the U.S.S.R. a year later. Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) were needed to launch the H­bomb. The Polaris could fire it from underwater. Solid fuel instead of liquid by 1958. Space 87 ○ Satellites: Soviet Sputnik was launched first, and it was a shock to America. America’s Explorer I was launched in 1958. ○ NASA established in 1958. ○ First People in space: Russia’s Yuri Gagarin; then Alan Shepard. ○ Apollo Program: landed Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the moon. Astronauts were viewed as heroes by the public and public enthusiasm remained high until the mid­1970s, when funding also waned. Computers In the 1950s, computers began to serve commercial functions. The UNIVAC was the first computer able to handle numerical and alphabetical info. It was developed for the U.S. Bureau of Census and predicted the election results of 1952, which was a big deal to the public. IBM began successfully marketing its first major data­processing computers. Television Almost every household had a TV in 1957. Color TV became widely available in the 1960s. It was the main source of news, entertainment, and televised sports. TV shows sent a homogenizing message. SOCIETY Consumerism Consumer goods became more affordable and varied. Demand increased. Consumer credit (credit cards, revolving charge accounts, easy­payment plans) became popular. Advertising played a large role in consumer crazes/fads. Suburbia ○ Levittowns: Mass­produced, affordable suburbs. Many veterans started families and moved into these towns. Eventually, distinctions between lower­middle class suburbs and affluent ones arose. ○ Homogeneity: By self­selection and sometimes formal barriers, the suburbs consisted of whites only. They fostered a sense of community among people who were all similar. ○ Gender roles: Feminism was weakened as women were meant to stay in the home and raise the children while the men worked in cities. Dr. Benjamin Spock’s theories on child­rearing encouraged women to stay home and focus on the needs of the children. Automobile Cars made it easier to live in suburbs and escape the chaos of crowded environments. Highways ○ Federal Highway Act (1956): $25 million for interstate highway construction. Cars and buses began replacing trains. ○ Travel: It was easier to travel and workers were more affluent, so they could afford it. They also had paid vacations. ○ Retail: Strip malls, motels, fast food. ○ Manufacturing: moved out of cities to cheaper land. Highways provided easier access to markets. Energy Issues America’s oil reserves were being depleted; it was heavily reliant on the Middle East. Smog became a thing. Pollution­control devices were introduced in the 1970s during the energy crisis. Environmentalism Environmentalism was revived in the Sierra Club’s fight to preserve Echo Park.

88 NEW LIBERALISM (chapter 31) KENNEDY PRESIDENCY Election of 1960

New Frontier

Foreign Policy ○ Alliance for Progress: ○ Bay of Pigs: ○ Cuban Missile Crisis:

Assassination

JOHNSON PRESIDENCY Great Society ○ Healthcare: ○ Community Action: ○ Housing: ○ Immigration: ○ Legacies:

Foreign Policy

Election of 1968 ○ Martin Luther King: ○ Robert Kennedy: ○ Hubert Humphrey: ○ Democratic National Convention: ○ George Wallace: ○ Richard Nixon:

CIVIL RIGHTS Protests ○ Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee: ○ Freedom Rides: ○ Birmingham: ○ March on Washington: ○ Freedom Summer: ○ Watts Riot:

Voting Rights Act

Division ○ De jure/de facto Segregation: ○ Violent Organizations: 89 ○ Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam:

VIETNAM WAR Indochina ○ Vietminh: ○ Geneva Conference:

Beginning of American Involvement ○ Aid: (Ngo Dinh Diem, NLF/Viet Cong) ○ Intervention: ■ Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: ■ Early Struggles: ■ Attrition: ■ Pacification: ■ Tet Offensive: ○ Public Opposition:

90 NIXONIAN ERA (chapter 32) MOVEMENTS Youth ○ New Left ■ Political Causes: Fought against social injustice (notably against blacks). ■ SDS/Port Huron Statement: The Students for a Democratic Society was the central organization for student radicalism. Their constitution was the Port Huron Statement, which noted their disillusionment with society. ■ UC­Berkeley Conflicts: The Free Speech Movement sparked unrest at colleges against discriminatory and unfair policies. The People’s Park conflict involved most of Berkeley’s 15,000 students, who wanted to protect a park from becoming a parking garage. ■ Anti­Vietnam Sentiment: Many major rallies across the nation were held to campaign against the war. Only a few were radical, notably the Weathermen. Many also objected to the draft; people began to accept jail terms or flee to Canada. ○ Counterculture: ■ Philosophy: trying to look rebellious from homogeneous societal norms, and trying to discover personal freedom and independence (e.g. hippies) ■ Results: lots of drugs, lots of sex, lots of rock and roll Native Americans ○ Termination: The government stopped treating Indian territories as separate entities and tried to force them to assimilate into American society. ○ Declaration of Indian Purpose and AIM: Indians sought to attain the right to choose their own way of life and created the American Indian Movement to fight for it. ○ Occupation of Wounded Knee: Hoping to gain national attention, AIM members occupied the Wounded Knee reservation in 1973, but their efforts failed to spark action. ○ Results of the Indian Civil Rights Movement: Indians eventually secured more protection and awareness than ever before, and also saw a surge in pride for Indian culture. Latinos ○ Growing Immigration: Millions of Latinos emigrated to the U.S. after WWI, forming substantial communities in many citizens. ○ Chicano Activism and Cesar Chavez: Most Hispanics worked in low­paying service jobs. Mexicans who campaigned for better jobs called themselves Chicanos; the most notable was Cesar Chavez, head of the United Farm Workers. He called for a boycott of grapes and lettuce, and was victorious in securing much better jobs for Western migrant workers. ○ Cultural Pluralism / Multiculturalism: Minorities began to feel that they were not being assimilated into a “melting pot,” but should be accepted as their own ethnic groups. Homosexuals ○ Stonewall Riot: Marked the first movement for homosexual freedom; occurred in response to a raid of a gay bar in NYC. ○ Results of the Gay Liberation Movement: Increased societal acceptance of gays, who became more popularly accepted; also suffered defeats, such as failure to repeal Don’t Ask Don’t Tell military policy and proposal of a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage. Women ○ The Feminine Mystique (1963): Written by Betty Friedan, sparked the feminist movement by recognizing women’s unhappiness with the cult of domesticity. 91 ○ Equal Pay Act (1963): Banned companies from paying women less for equal work. ○ National Organization of Women: Founded to improve economic conditions for women and called for full economic and social equality. ○ Radical Liberation: Some women took more extreme views on women’s unhappiness and began to create their own exclusively female cultures. ○ Results: Women became forces in politics, particularly those like Sandra Day O’Connor and Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Supreme Court justices). They began working in all professions and started to see better economic equality. Strength of feminist movement helped influence Roe v. Wade (1973), allowing abortions in the first trimester. ■ Equal Rights Amendment: Congress passed it in 1972, but ten years later it had not passed the required 3/4ths of states because some felt it would upset traditional societal values. Environmentalism ○ Ecology: A new science that promoted the idea that humans’ actions are connected with nature. Most important ecologist was Rachel Carson, who published Silent Spring (1962) to raise awareness about the harmful effects of the pesticide DDT; it helped ecology become a more accepted science and many people began researching our interactions with the world. ○ Activism: Organizations like the Sierra Club start wielding more power because they were backed up by more data and research. ○ Environmental Issues: air and water pollution; acid rain; depletion of the ozone layer; global warming ○ Results of the Environmental Movement ■ Earth Day: Established in 1970; popularized environmentalism in a non­threatening manner and inserted it into mainstream culture. ■ Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Created to enforce new anti­pollution laws like the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act, which significantly improved bodies of water and cut down on emissions of pollutants.

VIETNAM WAR Richard Nixon Campaigned on the promise of bringing “peace with honor” to the Vietnam conflict, but it turned out he didn’t actually have a plan. Henry Kissinger Nixon’s top foreign policy advisor who essentially guided Vietnam policy. Vietnamization Trained and equipped South Vietnamese troops to allow some U.S. troops to return; helped limit the draft, but did not have a positive effect on the war. Escalation ○ Kent State and Public Outrage: Massive demonstrations erupted over the U.S.’s invasion of Cambodia, most notably at Kent State, where four students were killed. ○ Pentagon Papers: The resurgence of outrage led to investigations of the war, most notably the Pentagon Papers, collected by Daniel Ellsberg and published in the New York Times. It showed that the only reason the U.S. was still at war was to preserve its prestige. ○ My Lai Massacre: With all this crap going on, troops started to lose morale. A devastating incident occurred in My Lai, Vietnam, where 300 innocent citizens were brutally killed. ○ Easter Offensive: The North Vietnamese saw the U.S.’s weaknesses and launched a massive attack in March 1972; it would have succeeded in taking over South Vietnam had 92 American troops not been there to aid. Peace ○ Christmas Bombing: Kissinger began negotiating with North Vietnam in April 1972, but although he said “peace is at hand”, talks broke down by December because the North refused to remove all troops from the south. Soon after, Nixon launched a massive bombing on major North Vietnamese cities. ○ Paris Peace Accords: The Christmas Bombing and American pressure on the Thieu regime in South Vietnam to accept a ceasefire led to a final agreement in January 1973. ○ Post­Withdrawal Defeat: ■ Vietnam: The Paris accords said North Vietnamese forces could remain in the South peacefully, but as soon as U.S. troops left they launched a big attack on Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) and took over South Vietnam. ■ Cambodia: The friendly Lon Nol regime fell to Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge, which began genocide that killed a third of the country. ■ America: The nation was embarrassed by the defeat and was crushed by the massive debt it had racked up. 55,000 Americans died in Vietnam.

NIXON PRESIDENCY Foreign Policy ○ Nixon Doctrine: Said that the U.S. would help protect and develop allied nations, but would not take direct responsibility for them; greater support for authoritarian regimes. ○ China: Nixon wanted to become more friendly with China in order to have a regional ally against the Soviet Union. Nixon became the first president to visit China and eventually opened low­level diplomatic relations with them ­ although not officially recognizing the Communists. ○ Soviet Union: Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet premier, negotiated the SALT I treaty, which froze the number of nuclear missiles (ICBMs) each nation could have. ○ Middle East: ■ Six­Day War (1967): Israel fought back against Egyptian and Jordanian forces and claimed all of Jerusalem and other key areas. ■ Yom Kippur War (1973): Egypt launched an attack on the Gaza Strip, but Israel managed to fight back; the U.S. intervened in order to protect its oil interests. ■ Arab Oil Embargo: Middle East nations angry with Israel enacted a short oil embargo that momentarily crippled the American economy. Nixon realized he could not just support Israel blindly anymore; he had to take into account the interests of the Middle East nations that controlled the oil reserves. Domestic Policy Nixon felt he had to appease the “silent majority” ­ conservative, middle­class whites. He began to dismantle some of the major Great Society programs. However, he did show a liberal side, particularly by replacing the old welfare system with the Family Assistance Plan, giving all Americans a guaranteed income; it was defeated in the Senate by conservatives and liberals who felt the benefits were too minimal. Supreme Court ○ Liberalism of the Warren Court: The Warren Court continually aided the poor and supported liberal causes. (See Appendix A for cases) ○ Lack of Conservatism of the Nixon Court: When Warren retired, Nixon tried to appoint conservative justices. His first two appointments were rejected. The Nixon Court ended up 93 being relatively liberal and continued the Warren Court’s social reform. Economy ○ Inflation: Became the most critical economic issue of the 1970s. Caused by overspending on the Great Society and Vietnam, and by other nations’ protection of raw materials by raising prices. ○ Energy: The U.S. depended on fossil fuels more than any other country; it was crippled when OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ­ controlled oil of third world nations) announced its embargo during the Yom Kippur War. ○ Deindustrialization: Manufacturing companies faced growing competition from other countries; they moved their jobs overseas or just shut down entirely. More jobs were being created in the technology industry, but most Americans were unequipped and faced unemployment. ○ Stagflation: Nixon first contracted the money supply to prevent inflation, but prices still increased and the economy continued to stagnate (hence “staglation”). He then froze prices and wages for 90 days in the summer of 1971 to stop inflation, but a recession ensued. Worried that he would look bad ahead of the next election, he started spending heavily to revive the economy, resulting in renewed inflation. The dollar lost a lot of value. Election of 1972 ○ George McGovern: Democratic candidate; solidly liberal, but represented the turbulent ideals of the 1960s that American society was willing to put aside. Hurt by the decision to make Tom Eagleton his running mate; Eagleton was discovered to have undergone mental and emotional treatment and embarrassingly withdrew from the ticket. ○ George Wallace: Racist governor of Alabama. Nixon feared he would run as a third­party candidate and take away his southern voters, but he was shot and ended his campaign. ○ Richard Nixon: Won in the biggest landslide in American history. Watergate ○ Nixon’s View of the Presidency: Nixon did not like dealing with the Democratic Congress and felt he had the right to exercise greater executive power. ○ Break­in: Several agents who were found to be former employees of the Committee for the Re­Election of the President broke into Democratic National Committee headquarters. ○ Cover­up: An investigation began to expose some ties between the break­in and the White House. The administration tried to micromanage the investigation and withhold information, leading people to believe they were covering something up about the whole affair. ○ Saturday Night Massacre: Nixon was the target of investigators’ interest, and continued to plead innocence. It was discovered that he had recorded every Oval Office conversation, but he tried to stop the tapes from being released. He was taken to court by special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who was fired by Nixon; his attorney general resigned in protest, completely embarrassing the president. ○ U.S. v. Richard Nixon (1974): Nixon continued trying to protect the tapes, but the Supreme Court ruled that he had to give up the tapes to a special prosecutor. This decision led to the House recommending impeachment for his cover up. The tapes gave damaging evidence that the president had tried to stop the break­in from being investigated by the FBI. He eventually resigned in August 1974, replaced by Gerald Ford.

94 REAGAN ERA (chapter 33) FORD AND CARTER PRESIDENCIES Gerald Ford Pardoned Nixon. Passed a precursor to SALT II. Lost to Carter in 1976. Jimmy Carter ○ Economy: The economy continued to struggle as inflation grew exponentially. The Federal Reserve set insanely high interest rates, which made credit hard to attain. Also, another OPEC price increase and fuel shortage severely hurt the economy. His “malaise” speech made it sound like he was blaming the U.S.’s issues on the people rather than himself. ○ Foreign Policy: Generally only intervened against human rights violations. ■ Middle East: Carter negotiated a treaty between Egypt and Israel in 1979 known as the Camp David Accords. ■ Far East: Opened formal diplomatic relations with China. Was prepared to pass SALT II, which limited almost all types of nuclear weapons, but objected to the USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan, causing anxiety among many Americans. ■ Iran Hostage Crisis: The Iranian Revolution of 1979 caused the leader, the Shah, to flee the country and seek refuge in America. 53 Americans in the U.S.’s Tehran embassy were taken hostage for over a year. Released on Reagan’s inauguration day.

POLITICS Sunbelt The Southeast, Southwest, and California. Anti­government and anti­regulation. Southerners still felt the government forcing racial equality was like the tyranny of Reconstruction (Sagebrush Rebellion); Westerners still promoted the idea of rugged individualism. Revivalism Evangelical (born­again) Christianity spread rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s. Organizations like the Moral Majority and the Christian Coalition fought against federal power, abortion, feminism, homosexuality, and the teaching of evolution. New Right Better Republican fundraising and organizing after the embarrassment of Barry Goldwater in 1964 helped build a new conservative movement. Led by Ronald Reagan, who was an unapologetic conservative and criticized Ford’s moderate, conciliatory foreign policies. Tax Revolt After the New Deal, conservatives tried to limit the government’s size, but found it impossible to dismantle social programs. They decided to target taxes instead, which was more politically palatable. First successful tax revolt was Prop 13 in California in 1978.

REAGAN PRESIDENCY Election of 1980 ○ Jimmy Carter: Hurt by the Iran hostage crisis and faced primary challenges. ○ Ronald Reagan: Already had popular support when he almost beat Ford in the 1976 primary; latched onto the anti­tax movement. Won solidly; GOP won Senate. Reagan Coalition Made up of corporate elites (anti­tax, anti­regulation), neo­conservatives (intellectual, anti­communism, wanted to reassert American cultural values), and populist conservatives 95 (non­elites who were concerned about too much centralized power). Reaganomics ○ Supply­side Economics: Cut taxes to stimulate investment from the top that would benefit the entire economy; less revenue would mean spending cuts. Reagan passed both major tax cuts and major spending cuts in his first year of office ○ Deregulation: Reagan deregulated almost every area of society to promote econ growth. ○ Recession and Recovery: The big spending cuts hurt the economy in the short­term, but by 1983, high investment and low interest rates helped the economy grow rapidly. ○ Debt: There continued to be massive budget deficits, mainly due to quickly­rising costs for entitlement programs (Social Security and Medicare) and less federal revenue. Funding for social and welfare programs had to be cut severely to try to balance the budget. Foreign Policy ○ Reagan Doctrine: Support all anti­communist forces around the world, regardless of ties to the Soviet Union. Led to rhetorical and material support to some Latin American nations. ○ Arms Race: Although Reagan followed the SALT II treaty, relations with the USSR deteriorated as he criticized their policies. Proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which the USSR believed would merely proliferate the arms race. ○ Political Turmoil: Began to deteriorate under Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s; fell apart for good in 1991. Also, China had Tiananmen Square and South Africa ended apartheid. Election of 1984 Reagan defeated Walter Mondale solidly, but Democrats retained the House. Election showed public confidence in conservative economics. End of the Reagan Revolution ○ Savings and Loan Crisis: The banking industry was on the verge of the collapse because of reckless and illegal spending; cost over $500 billion of taxpayer dollars to resolve. ○ Iran­Contra Scandal: It was discovered that America had sold weapons to Iranian revolutionaries and used some of the money to aid Nicaraguan rebels (contras). Exposed that the Reagan administration was often secret about its foreign policy actions. Election of 1988 VP George H.W. Bush began far behind Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis, but ran a negative campaign that chastised him for being liberal and won by a lot.

BUSH PRESIDENCY Domestic Policy Conflicted with the Democratic Congress and could not much done; pledges of reducing deficit and “no new taxes” gave him little leeway. Accumulation of debt in the 1980s caused a recession in 1990. Gulf War Saddam Hussein, leader of Iraq, decided to invade and annex Kuwait. Bush announced economic sanctions and the UN began placing troops in Kuwait. Military force was authorized after a couple months of warning. The UN bombed Iraqi forces for six weeks and then launched a ground assault, killing 141 Americans and 100,000 Iraqis. Showed the U.S.’s dependence on oil and willingness to fight to protect its oil interests. Election of 1992 Bush and Bill Clinton had tough primary challenges. Texas billionaire Ross Perot jumped in the race as a third­party candidate and scored significant support before withdrawing in the summer. He returned in October and won 19% of the popular vote; Clinton beat Bush. 96 GLOBALIZATION (chapter 34) CLINTON AND SECOND BUSH PRESIDENCIES Clinton’s First Term Signed NAFTA and GATT, both free trade agreements. Passed a budget that included a tax increase on the wealthy and spending cuts. Passed welfare reform. Ended the Bosnian civil war by sending peacekeeping troops and a negotiator. Did not pass health care reform. Republican Resurgence Under the leadership of Newt Gingrich, the GOP won both houses of Congress and proposed a new conservative agenda in the Contract with America. Election of 1996 Republicans were damaged by a conflict with Clinton that led to a government shutdown and which Clinton eventually looked better from. He became more centrist and defeated Bob Dole relatively easily. Impeachment It was discovered that Clinton had lied about an affair with Monica Lewinsky. He was impeached in the House but acquitted by a big majority in the Senate. Clinton’s Second Term Improved the economy greatly and balanced the budget so that it was producing surpluses. Helped end the Kosovo civil war. Election of 2000 George Bush and Vice­President Al Gore had an unexciting race but was so close that neither had 270 EVs on election night because Florida was undecided. Gore demanded a recount, but Katherine Harris tried to deny it. The state supreme court allowed a full recount, but the conservative majority of the Supreme Court, in Bush v. Gore, decided the recount had to be completed by December 12 ­ the day the decision was ended. Bush was named the winner. Bush’s First Term Used the surplus to pass the largest tax cut in U.S. history. Election of 2004 Bush moved to the right and campaigned as a conservative on social issues. Defeated John Kerry in a very close race. Bush then tried to reform Social Security, but failed.

97 APPENDIX A: SUPREME COURT CASES MARSHALL COURT Marbury v. Madison (1803) Established judicial review. Marbury asked for a writ of mandamus to force President Madison to fulfill Marbury’s position as one of Adams’s “midnight appointments,” but the Court decided the law authorizing the writ of mandamus was unconstitutional. Fletcher v. Peck (1810) Affirmed the sanctity of contracts. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Upheld the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States and also enforced federal power over the states. The Court ruled that Maryland could not tax the Bank because states could not regulate the federal government. Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) Affirmed the sanctity of contracts. New Hampshire tried to make Dartmouth a public college, but the Court decided the original charter that made Dartmouth private was sacrosanct. Johnson v. McIntosh (1823) Established that Indian claims to tribal lands superseded all laws except those by the federal government. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) Asserted that only the federal government, and not states, could regulate interstate commerce. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) Established that Indian tribes were semi­independent entities under the protection of the government, like “a ward to his guardian.” Worcester v. Georgia (1832) Established that Indian tribes had autonomy within their territories that states and people could not infringe upon.

TANEY COURT Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837) Determined that the interests of society take precedence over the interests of business. Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842) Affirmed the legality of unions and strikes. Scott v. Sanford (1857) Declared the Missouri Compromise of 1820 illegal. Taney determined Congress could not prohibit slavery in a state or territory because the 5th Amendment guaranteed that property would not be seized by the government. Dred Scott was ruled not free.

POST­RECONSTRUCTION CASES Slaughterhouse Cases (1883) Legalized segregation on private property. Munn v. Illinois (1877) Allowed states to pass laws that regulated railroads. Major victory for the Grangers. Wabash v. Illinois (1886) 98 Determined state laws regulating railroads to be unconstitutional because railroads were classified as interstate commerce. Major defeat for the Grangers. Reversed Munn. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) Legalized segregation on public property under the “separate but equal” policy. Insular Cases (1901) Determined that annexation of territory does not guarantee that residents of that territory receive citizenship ­ “the Constitution does not follow the flag.”

PROGRESSIVE CASES U.S. v. E.C. Knight (1895) Limited the federal government’s ability to break up monopolies. Made the Sherman Anti­Trust Act ineffective by deciding that it did not apply to manufacturing companies. In re Debs (1895) Declared that the federal government was allowed to write injunctions to break up strikes. This was a direct result of the Pullman Strike of 1894, which had been broken by Grover Cleveland because it was disrupting the US Postal Service. Major victory for corporations; major defeat for unions. Northern Securities v. U.S. (1904) Re­empowered the federal government to break up monopolies under the Sherman Anti­Trust Act. Reversed E.C. Knight. Lochner v. New York (1905) Determined limits on maximum working hours for bakers was unconstitutional. Muller v. Oregon (1908) Allowed a law setting a 10­hour maximum workday for women. Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918) Determined the Keating­Owen Act making child labor illegal was unconstitutional. Schenck v. U.S. (1919) Declared that the 1st Amendment right to free speech can be limited if someone’s words presents a “clear and present danger.” Upheld the Espionage Act of 1917, which made it illegal to criticize the U.S.’s WWI effort. Similar to Debs v. United States (1919). Adkins v. Children’s Hospital (1923) Determined that a maximum workday for women was unconstitutional. After the 19th Amendment was passed, the Court decided that women were now considered equal to men, and therefore did not merit special treatment. Reversed the decision in Muller.

GREAT DEPRESSION AND WORLD WAR I CASES Schechter v. U.S. (1936) Declared the National Recovery Administration unconstitutional. The NRA used its power to intervene in affairs not considered “interstate commerce.” U.S. v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941) Ruled child labor restrictions constitutional. Overruled Hammer v. Dagenhart; upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act. Korematsu v. U.S. (1941) Upheld the U.S.’s decision to place Japanese Americans in internment camps in WWII. Ex parte Endo (1944) Determined it was unconstitutional for the U.S. to place American­born Japanese (Nisei) in internment camps. 99 WARREN COURT Brown v. Board of Education (1954) Declared segregation unconstitutional. Decided the “separate but equal” policy was unconstitutional in public schools, and required schools to integrate “with all deliberate speed.” Baker v. Carr 1962) Required state legislatures to create electoral districts that would make all votes equal, instead of giving more voting power to rural areas (thus devaluing the votes of city people). Engel v. Vitale (1962) Ruled that public school prayer is unconstitutional. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) Determined suspects of felonies had to receive lawyers, whether or not they can afford one. Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) Determined all defendants had to receive lawyers before being questioned by police. Miranda v. Arizona (1966) Determined the police has to tell criminal suspects what their rights are.

MODERN CASES Roe v. Wade (1973) Declared abortion could not be criminalized by states within a woman’s first trimester. Major victory for abortion/feminist advocates. U.S. v. Richard Nixon (1974) Determined that Nixon could not claim executive privilege to inhibit the judicial process. Nixon was trying to stop the incriminating Watergate tapes from being made public. Bakke v. Regents of the University of California (1978) Upheld the policy of affirmative action, but only barely (4 for, 4 against, 1 dissent). Boy Scouts v. Dale (2000) Ruled that businesses’ freedom of association supersedes anti­discriminatory laws. The Boy Scouts were allowed to fire a troop leader because he came out as homosexual. Bush v. Gore (2000) Gave George W. Bush the presidency in 2000.

100 APPENDIX B: CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 1st Amendment Guarantees the five basic freedoms. 2nd Amendment Protects the right to bear arms. 13th Amendment Abolishes slavery. 14th Amendment Defines citizenship and enforces the Civil Rights Act. 15th Amendment Gives blacks the right to vote. 16th Amendment Authorizes the creation of an income tax. 17th Amendment Allows for direct election of senators. 18th Amendment Establishes Prohibition. 19th Amendment Gives women the right to vote.

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