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Voluntary participation, state involvement: Indonesian propaganda in the struggle for maintaining independence, 1945-1949

Zara, M.Y.

Publication date 2016 Document Version Final published version

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Citation for published version (APA): Zara, M. Y. (2016). Voluntary participation, state involvement: Indonesian propaganda in the struggle for maintaining independence, 1945-1949.

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Voluntary Participation, State Involvement: INDONESIAN PROPAGANDA IN THE STRUGGLE FOR MAINTAINING INDEPENDENCE, 1945-1949 This research was funded by the NIOD Instituut voor Oorlogs-, Holocaust- en Genocidestudies. The NIOD Instituut voor Oorlogs-, Holocaust- en Genocidestudies is an institution of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen (KNAW).

Cover design : Dian Qamajaya Layout : Ridwan

© 2016 Muhammad Yuanda Zara. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means including but not limited to, electronic or mechanical transmission or storage, photocopying, or recording, without prior permission in writing from the copyright owner. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION, STATE INVOLVEMENT: INDONESIAN PROPAGANDA IN THE STRUGGLE FOR MAINTAINING INDEPENDENCE, 1945-1949

ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. ir. K.I.J. Maex ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel op woensdag, 19 oktober 2016, te 10.00 uur

door Muhammad Yuanda Zara geboren te Padang, Indonesië Promotiecomissie: Promotor(es) : prof. dr. P. Romijn Universiteit van Amsterdam

Copromotor(es) : dr. P.J. Keppy NIOD-KNAW

Overige leden : prof. dr. O.D. van den Muijzenberg Universiteit van Amsterdam prof. dr. E.A. Buettner Universiteit van Amsterdam prof. dr. R. Raben Universiteit van Amsterdam prof. dr. H.G.C. Schulte Nordholt Universiteit Leiden prof. dr. B. Purwanto Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta

Faculteit der Maatschappij- en Gedragswetenschappen

ivv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ¤

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

‘Setapak pantang mundur!’ (Never retreat even one inch!). Formulated by Indonesian propagandists during the Indonesian war of independence, as seen on one of propaganda posters created by Indonesian propagandists (see p. 221), this slogan reflects calls on its Indonesian audience to participate with enthusiasm in the struggle to maintain the declared independence despite the hard road ahead. This slogan, ironically, is also apropos to my struggle over the last few years to finish this dissertation. I faced many challenges and in the end, it was only with the motivation engendered by ‘setapak pantang mundur’ that I could hold fast and complete this work. More importantly, this dissertation could not have been finished without the active support of many people. I had the privilege of collaborating with numerous skilled and kind people. I am very grateful to my promoter, Prof. Dr. Peter Romijn, a prolific historian with outstanding communication skills who encourages anyone he talks with to speak confidently and demonstrate his or her full potential. He helped me develop the conceptual and theoretical issues throughout this dissertation. I must express my appreciation of his expertise in history, his international network, and his tireless encouragement during the process. My co-promoter, Dr. Peter Keppy, supervised the dissertation closely and thoroughly. Very knowledgeable regarding Indonesian history, his sharp eyes are critical with facts and attentive to details. The hours I spent talking with him have been extremely helpful in shaping this dissertation. At times I found it difficult to address his multiple meticulous criticisms, but now, looking back, I am grateful for his comments which so greatly improved my work. I wish to

viivi thank both of these men for their invaluable advice, valuable support, energetic assistance, and endless inspiration. Prof. Dr. Bambang Purwato from Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM) in Yogyakarta has helped me enormously right from the initial stage of this dissertation. As an experienced scholar, an enthusiastic lecturer, and a good motivator in one, he helped me to bring form to my thoughts about Indonesian historiography and related problems. My eagerness to pursue a PhD is rooted in my early student- bachelor life and my later experiences as a Masters student at Leiden University via the ENCOMPASS program. I therefore also express my deep gratitude to my ENCOMPASS lecturers: Prof. Dr. Leonard Blusse, Dr. Alicia Schrikker, Prof. Dr. K.J.P.F.M. Charles Jeurgens, Dr. Thomas Lindblad, Rene Wezel and Yolande Spaans. Being a PhD researcher at NIOD is an enjoyable post and a pleasant experience. At NIOD, I was welcomed by numerous good people, who, behind their imposing miens as researchers, have a good sense of humor and many interesting stories to share. In the midst of all the pressure, talking with Dr. Erik Somers, Dr. Eveline Buccheim, Dr. Peter Post, Jaap Cohen, Sergio Leatomu, William Thomson, Marinus van der Valk, Elderd Harder, Yassin, and Katrina Cooper always reinvigorated me. I also appreciate the assistance provided by Dr. Nanci Adler, Dineke de Visser, and Dr. Ismee Tames. I also want to thank those who helped me with various administrative matters: the late Ibu Joke de Bart Supusepa, Amber Vosveld, William Arink and William Thomson. Katrina Cooper has significantly improved the English in this dissertation, so that readers can enjoy it. Needless to say, I appreciate the innumerable instances of help provided by all NIOD employees. My research was also fully funded by the NIOD, and I am very grateful. At the Universiteit van Amsterdam (UvA), I joined the ‘Moving Matters: People, Goods, Power and Ideas’ program group at the Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR). I would

viiivii like to express my gratitude to the coordinators of the program, the late Prof. Dr. Mario Rutten and Prof. Dr. Willem van Schendel, as well as other lecturers at the Faculteit der Maatschappij- en Gedragswetenschappen (FMG) of the UvA for the program activities they organized. A number of Moving Matters members shared their experience and motivation with me during my studies, especially Dr. Alpha Amirrachman, Dr. Wenty Marina Minza, Athi Sivan, Amalinda Savirani, Muhammad Shohibuddin, Retna Hanani, Sita Hidayah, Dr. Sanneke Kloppenburg, Willy Sier and a number of new PhD candidates. The AISSR housing department helped me during my stay in Amsterdam. In developing my early knowledge about communications, which then helped me to incorporate communication-related aspects into my historical research, I joined the TransAsia PhD club, from which I gleaned totally different but equally useful insights from experts outside my field as historian. They include, among others, Prof. Dr. Jeroen de Kloet, Reza Kartosen and Dr. Leonie Schmidt. Historical research could never be completed without sources, and there are dedicated people who preserve these sources in libraries and archives and make them accessible to researchers, and ensure that their reading rooms are perfect places to contemplate and write. I therefore also express my appreciation to archivists, librarians and the staff members of archives, libraries and institutions I visited during my research. Among them are those in the Netherlands; Amsterdam: NIOD, UvA (in particular, the FMG libraries and Universiteit Bibliotheek), International Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (IISG), Koninklijk Tropen Instituut (KIT, unfortunately closed since 2013), Openbare Bibliotheek Amsterdam (OBA) (both the main library and the OBA Indische Buurt); Leiden: Konlinklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (KITLV); Den Haag: National Archief (NA); and Bronbeek: Museum Bronbeek. In Indonesia, I thank the lecturers and staff of libraries and universities in Padang, in

viiiix particular the Regional Library of West Sumatra and the library at the Balai Kajian Sejarah dan Nilai-nilai Tradisional (Center for Research of History and Traditional Values of West Sumatra). In addition, Dedi Asmara from Dewan Harian Daerah (DHD) ’45 of West Sumatra guided me through the exploration of precious materials concerning the war of independence in West Sumatra, and he gave me the contact information for several war veterans. Staff members at the Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (ANRI) and the Perpustakaan Nasional (National Library of the Republic of Indonesia) in Jakarta, as well as the Perpustakaan Keraton Yogyakarta (Library of Yogyakarta Sultanate), also deserve my gratitude. My deep appreciation also goes to Prof. Dr. Mestika Zed from the State University of Padang and Prof. Dr. Gusti Asnan from Andalas University. They both opened up new horizons for me regarding the local view of the war of independence and enriched my knowledge about related historical sources. I extend my gratitude to several interviewees in Padang who, in their dotage, remain enthusiastic about sharing their bitter, yet heroic, experiences during the war seven decades ago. Some parts of this dissertation have been publicly presented and commented upon, and I benefitted from these diverse angles and discourses. The initial proposal was presented to the ENCOMPASS students at the Department of History, Leiden University. I thank Dr. Alicia Schrikker for giving me the opportunity. An earlier version of the introduction, entitled ‘Indonesia’s Political Propaganda and the Struggle for Independence, 1945-1949’, was presented at the EUCOWAS conference at the Centre for Historical Research and Documentation on War and Contemporary Society (CEGESOMA) in Brussels, Belgium, on 16 December, 2011. I thank Dr. Nico Wouters for the invitation. I presented another paper, ‘Looking for Indonesia’s Spin Doctors: The Mastermind(s) behind Indonesia’s Political Propaganda during the Independence War, 1945-1949’, at the 22nd Conference of

ixx the International Association of Historians of Asia (IAHA) seminar in Solo, Central Java, held from 2 to 6 July, 2012. More recently, the subchapter about Indonesian newspapers in Chapter I formed the main part of an article published recently as a chapter in a book. The article, ‘”Trust me, This News is Indeed True”: Representations of Violence in Indonesian Newspapers During the Indonesian Revolution, 1945-1948’, has just been published in Dirk Moses’ and Bart Luttikhuis’ (eds.), Colonial Counterinsurgency and Mass Violence: Dutch Empire in Indonesia (London: Routledge, 2014). I express my appreciation to both editors for the opportunity to publish part of my current project and for their assistance. Two anonymous peer-reviewers made me work very hard to meet their rigorous expectations, but this was in the end a rewarding process. UGM is an institution without which I could never have reached my current position as a PhD. So many lecturers and colleagues helped me in so many ways! The late Pak Ahmad Adaby Darban motivated me to pursue further education. Kang Dr. Abdul Wahid helped me to comprehend the academic worlds in Indonesia and the Netherlands. My friends at the history department also support me. Most of them studied in the Netherlands as well, and they are very intelligent and extremely funny people: Dr. Farabi Fakih, Dr. Agus Suwignyo, Bagus Aries S, Uji Nugroho, Widaratih Kamiso, Prima Nurahmi M, Widya, Wildan, Ravando Lie and Jajang. My thanks also go to Dharwis WU Jacob and Anes Nasrullah in Jakarta and the family of Dila-Sigit in Yogyakarta. Over the past six years I have lived in two different Dutch cities with two different ways of life, Leiden and Amsterdam. They have both shaped my life. The community in Leiden where I found myself proved to be a good one which helped me enjoy Leiden and gave me sufficient strength to soldier on before I left for Amsterdam. Discussions with the late Pak Mintardjo and Uda Dr. Suryadi Sunuri further motivated me to become a good researcher. FX Widiyarso,

xxi Xu Xiaodong, and I are part of ENCOMPASS group 2008, and are now at the end of our pursuits of PhD’s. My encounters with them in various parts of the world—Leiden, Amsterdam, Jakarta, Solo—have always been inspiring. Whereas Leiden is a student city, Amsterdam is for me a family city. I lived there, with my family, for almost four years. Despite living in Amsterdam, I became ‘Indonesiacized’ because of the presence of numerous Indonesians around me. I thank the many Indonesian and Indonesian-Dutch families who invited me to wonderful events they organized where Indonesian foods—bakso, soto ayam, sate ayam, and of course rendang, to name the most delicious ones— were served, where Indonesia-related gossip was shared, and where various assistance concerning life in the Netherlands were provided. Among them are the families of Uda Anis Minang-Mbak Dian Handayani, Mas Wibisono-Mbak Dian Ekashanti, Meneer Jose- Mbak Irma, Meneer Ko-Mbak Wati, Mas Andri-Mbak Evi, Mas Alpha Amirrachman-Mbak Peni, Mas Shohibuddin-Mbak Faiz, Mas Bambang Ponco-Mevrouw Dorine Tomissen, Pak Muhammad Martak & Ibu, Mbak Sunu and family, Syafri-Dinar (Utrecht) and Ibu Puri-Pak Willem (Leeuwarden). In addition, I am also glad to have talked with Indonesian intellectuals in Amsterdam, such as Joss Wibisiono and Dr. Tular Sudarmadi, as well as Mas Siswa Santosa. In spite of this Indonesian aspect, numerous friends -- Dutch, Moroccan, and from other nationalities in Amsterdam -- helped me to integrate as an Amsterdammer (a resident of Amsterdam). My oldest son, Azriel Azhar, was enrolled at the J.P. Coenschool in Amsterdam. Looking back now, this was paradoxical: in Amsterdam, the heart of the Netherlands, my son went to a school named after the notorious Governor-General of the VOC in Batavia, J.P. Coen—and when my son returned to Yogyakarta, the cultural centre of Java, he was enrolled at a kindergarten named after the Javanese king who attacked J.P. Coen in 1628-1629, Sultan Agung!

xiixi I thank his teachers who taught him various lessons. These include jufrouw Nina de Hoog, jufrouw Joyce, jufrouw Iris, jufrouw Helena, jufrouw Anki, and jufmeester Mustofa. Also his Dutch teacher who taught him intensively, Bea Singer. In Indonesia, my family in Padang, West Sumatra, deserves great appreciation. It was my mother, Azizah, S.Pd, a social sciences teacher at a junior high school in Padang, who introduced me to the fascinating world of history and geography. It is these two things that defines myself now: a historian and a perantau (those who travel outside the Minangkabau homeland to seek higher education or good fortune). She helped me establish my historical and geographical consciousness. As a child in elementary school I was surrounded by books about, for example, the history of postal communication and the Arab-Israeli conflict. She regularly brought home voluminous encyclopedias in which I saw beautiful pictures of European cities, snow at the North Pole, and African gemsbok. When I found myself in difficulty while writing this dissertation, I would call her, and her magic words, ‘Indak usah dipikiakan bana, jalani sajo’ (“do not make things too complicated, just do it”), restored my optimism and my trust in myself. My father, Zainal Abidin Roza, S.H., a graduate of a law school, taught me to pursue the highest levels of education possible. When the Indonesian government required its population to achieve a minimum 12-year education, I have so far in my 31 years on this earth doubled that with almost 24 years of nearly continuous study. It was my father who helped me through it. I must express my deep gratitude to my parents for all the good they brought to my upbringing. In addition, my sister, Dwi Oktarini Zara, has for many years worked to convince me that I am bright enough to be a great scholar. Moreover, my mamak (uncle from mother side), Syafwandi, a doctoral candidate at the State University of Padang, has been my role model for higher education since I was young. My big family

xiiixii in Padang, Payakumbuh, Lubuk Alung, and Jakarta has always encouraged me to attain higher academic achievement. In Yogyakarta and Cilegon, my wife’s family deserves mention. I was fortunate that my parents-in-law were able to visit my family and me in Amsterdam from December 2013-March 2014. This meant an opportunity to speed up my dissertation, and brought with it further encouragement. Unfortunately, on 9 September, 2014, my mother- in-law passed away, followed by my father-in-law on 5 July, 2016. I appreciated the immense support they gave to me in my effort to pursue higher education. My wife and my children have accompanied me throughout nearly the entire process of writing my dissertation. My wife, Amanda Setiowati, has sacrificed a great deal. During my studies to obtain my BA and MA in Leiden (2008-2010), I had to leave her alone, returning only twice. She was pregnant when I left and it must have been very difficult for her to go through this. Her love and patience helped me greatly in finishing my BA and MA, and now my PhD. She supported me in innumerable ways and kept me balanced during the tough process of researching and writing which often led to confusion and tension. My deepest appreciation is for her, now and always. I accompanied my eldest son, Azriel Azhar, when he rode his bicycle in Oosterpark in the picturesque spring, played football with him in Flevopark in the beautiful summer, bought him olliebollen on Javastraat in the gloomy fall, and held his hand when he learned ice skating on Leidseplein in the freezing winter. Such experiences gave me the energy to carry on. My youngest son, Haris Rasyid, was born in Amsterdam on 2 October, 2013. It was another struggle for me to accompany my wife to deliver the baby in a foreign country, and to raise the baby without the presence of our big family and with Dutch-style baby-related customs. Nonetheless, reading sources or typing the dissertation while holding him while he tried to sleep made me more relaxed.

xivxiii I therefore thank the three of them because they believed in my enthusiastic ‘propaganda’, as I proclaimed that living with me in Amsterdam during my PhD years would be one of the best and most unforgettable experiences, a once-in-a-lifetime moment in our family history. There are many other people who have provided assistance in a variety of ways, too many to mention individually. I apologize to those I unintentionally overlooked. I would like to let them know that from the depth of my heart I really appreciate their help.

Padang-Yogyakarta-Leiden-Amsterdam

Muhammad Yuanda Zara

xivxv TABLE OF CONTENTS ¤ TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ...... vi Table of Contents...... xvi List of Illustrations...... xx Glossary and Abbreviation...... xxv Introduction...... 1 Propaganda in Indonesian Historiography...... 3 Theoretical Considerations...... 10 Media and Conflict in the Age of Politics...... 15 Propaganda in an Emerging State: Empirical Studies...... 20 Sources...... 26 Structure of the Dissertation...... 29

Chapter 1 State and Revolutionaries: Institutionalizing Propaganda...... 32 Indonesia’s Political Landscape Prior to 1945...... 33 The Badan Penerangan of KNIP...... 37 Ministry of Information...... 44 Structure of the Kempen...... 51 Challenges...... 56 The Kempen on Duty...... 60 State Radio...... 62 Non-state Actors...... 68 Radio at Work...... 71 Problems with Radio...... 77 Controlling the Air...... 82 Newspapers: the Re-emergence of the Nationalist Press..... 84 Cooperation and an Attempt at Control...... 89 Antara and IPPHOS...... 94 Between Government Control and Press Freedom...... 102 Conclusion...... 108

xviixvi Chapter 2 Promoting State Legitimacy and Calling Popular Mobilization...... 111 Legitimacy as a Newly Independent State...... 113 Legitimating the Self-appointed Revolutionary Government...... 121 The Republic and Japanese Collaborators...... 123 Indonesian Independence and Political Unity...... 132 Indonesianness amid a Segregated Society...... 140 Federal State and Nation-State Building...... 149 Mobilizing Popular Participation...... 160 Public Participation in Security...... 167 Conclusion...... 171

Chapter 3 ‘Let Us Kill the Killer, The Devilish Dutch!!’: Propaganda and Violence, 1945-1948...... 175 Peace as the Ultimate Aim of Independence...... 178 Demonizing the Dutch...... 183 Propaganda War against the British...... 191 The Second Amritsar: Republican Press and the Battle of Surabaya...... 199 ‘Barbaric Brutalities’: On Dutch Brutality in South Sulawesi, 1946-1947...... 203 A State-sponsored Call for War...... 213 Individuals and Violence...... 222 Dealing with Defeat...... 226 Justifying Internal Indonesian Violence...... 229 Pro-government View in the Press...... 238 Conclusion...... 242

xviiixvii Chapter 4 The Voices of Independence beyond National Boundaries: Indonesian Propaganda Abroad..... 246 The Perkoempoelan Kemerdekaan Indonesia in the Arab World...... 249 Islamic Bond and Anti-British Sentiment...... 255 Approaching the Pilgrims...... 261 Indonesian Propaganda in Australia and the CENKIM...... 272 The CENKIM’s International Propaganda...... 285 The CENKIM and the Indonesian Authorities...... 288 In Enemy Land: Perhimpoenan Indonesia’ Campaign in the Netherlands...... 290 Propaganda of Vereniging Nederland-Indonesië...... 292 Pro-Republic Dutch Figures: The Case of Frans Goedhart...... 303 Dutch Violence and Indonesian Students’ Propaganda...... 311 Conclusion...... 314 Conclusion...... 319 Bibliography...... 334 Summary...... 352 Nederlandse Samenvatting...... 355

xviiixix LIST OF ILLUSTRATION ¤ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

President Soekarno at the commemoration of Army Day in October, 1946 in Yogyakarta 98 ~ General Soedirman being welcomed by the crowd on his arrival in Jakarta 99 ~ Minister of Defense Amir Sjarifoedin, the representative of the Netherlands in the Linggardjati Agreement and former Dutch Prime Minister Willem Schermerhorn, President Soekarno, and the secretary of British mediator Lord Killearn, Michael Wright ~99 A sea of high-spirited Indonesian people assembled around their leaders ~102 Wall painting with a pro-independence slogan drawn by the pemuda 115 ~ Wall painting with a pro-independence slogan, including a picture of a kris 116 ~ A pamphlet aimed to appeal to Javanese priyayi 137 ~ A pamphlet depicting a small Dutch armored vehicle being unable to destroy a huge Indonesian armored vehicle ~ 138 A poster about Van Mook, ‘The man on the right please’, being transported by his native allies on a litter 151 ~ A pamphlet calling upon older leaders to act as guides 164 ~ Copy of two handwritten pamphlets depicting the Dutch crimes against the ‘Indonesian nation’ 187 ~ An English-language pamphlet by the Kempen of Bojonegoro (East Java) 194 ~

xxixx A page of the booklet entitled ‘Massacre in Macasser’ by the Kempen 206 ~ A poster drawn by the PTPI, depicting the suffering of the people of South Sulawesi ~ 212 A poster calling upon the Madurese not to help the Dutch fight the Indonesians ~ 216 A pamphlet calling on people to conduct guerilla warfare and acts of sabotage 218 ~ A pamphlet calling upon all pemuda and people to defend the state and nation by destroying the Dutch 219 ~ A pamphlet depicting the Dutch as a beastial Nazi hand and Indonesia as a defensive young lady ~ 221 A poster calling on the common people to unite and be ready to destroy the Dutch 223 ~ A pamphlet persuading ‘All Indonesian people! Let’s rise together. Let us kill the killer. The devilish Dutch!!’ 224 ~ A call to the people not to accept or use Dutch money 225 ~ A pamphlet instructing people not to be deceived by the Dutch 225 ~ A post card commemorating both Eid al-Fitr and 2nd the anniversary of the proclamation of independence 229 ~ A pamphlet depicting the main PKI and FDR leaders as ‘foreign agents’ and ‘sellers of the nation’ 234 ~ The fight between the bear, the bull and the lion 242 ~ The first page of the letter from the PKI to the King of Gowa, Andi Idjo 267 ~ A booklet entitled Kenang-kenangan untuk Djema’ah Hadji Indonesia, aimed at Indonesian pilgrims in Mecca 270 ~ Page 55 of the Kenang-kenangan untuk Djema’ah Hadji Indonesia booklet 271 ~

xxiixxi Page 61 of the Kenang-kenangan untuk Djema’ah Hadji Indonesia booklet 271 ~ A booklet, published by the CENKIM to commemorate the first anniversary of the Republic in Australia 278 ~ First edition of De Brug-Djambatan, the monthly magazine of VNI 300 ~ Cover of Terug uit Djokja, by Frans Goedhart 310 ~

xxiiixxii GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS ¤ GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS

AMACAB Allied Military Authority, Civil Affairs Branch ANRI Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia, National Archive of the Republic of Indonesia API Ambon Angkatan Pemuda Indonesia Ambon, Ambon Indonesian Youth Forces Barisan Pelopor Youth wing of the Jawa Hokokai BEGO Bond Ex-geïnterneerden en Gerepatrieerden van Overzee, Association for Former Internees and Repatriated Persons from Overseas Belanda The Netherlands/the Dutch BKR Badan Keamanan Rakyat, People’s Security Corps BP KNIP Badan Penerangan Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat, Information Agency of the Central Indonesian National Committee CENKIM Central Committee for Indonesian Independence CHTH Chung Hua Tsung Hui, the Federation of Chinese Associations CHU Christelijk-Historische Unie, Christian Historical Union CPN Communistische Partij van Nederland, Communist Party of the Netherlands Daerah Region FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation FDR Front Demokrasi Rakjat, People’s Democratic Front FNL Front de Libération Nationale, National Forces of Liberation Gotong rojong Mutual assistance GPPI Gaboengan Perkoempoelan-Perkoempoelan Indonesia, Association of Indonesian Organizations Hadji/Hajj Pilgrim to Islamic holy sites in Saudi Arabia

xxvxxv Heiho Japanese-sponsored auxiliary forces ILP Independent Labour Party IPPHOS Indonesian Press Photo Service Jawa Hokokai Japanese organization tasked with mobilizing the population in Java during the occupation Jugun ianfu Forced sexual slavery/’comfort women’ Kamishibai Japanese paper picture shows Kampung Village/small urban community Kedaulatan Rakjat People’s sovereignty Keibodan Japanese-sponsored auxiliary police Kempen Kementerian Penerangan, Ministry of Information KIT Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Royal Tropical Institue KITLV Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies KNID Komite Nasional Indonesia Daerah, Regional Indonesian National Committee KNIP Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat, Central Indonesian National Committee Kolot Old-fashioned MCP Malayan Communist Party Merdeka To be free NA Nationaal Archief, National Archive of the Netherlands NEFIS Netherlands East Indies Forces Intelligence Service Negara State NICA Netherlands Indies Civil Administration NIOD NIOD Instituut voor Oorlogs-, Holocaust- en Genocidestudies, Netherlands Institute for War Documentation NIROM Nederlandsch-Indische Radio Omroep Maatschappij, Dutch Indies Radio Broadcasting Corporation Pangréh pradja Civil servant

xxvi Partindo Partai Indonesia, Indonesia Party Pemuda Youth Penerangan Information Pendjahat perang War criminals Peranakan Locally-born foreign people Permi Persatuan Muslim Indonesia, Association of Indonesian Muslims PI Perhimpunan Indonesia, Indonesian Union PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia, Indonesian Communist Party PKI Perkoempoelan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, Association of Indonesian Independence PNI Partai Nasional Indonesia, Indonesian National Party PPKI Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, Preparatory Committee of Indonesian Independence Priyayi Javanese aristocrats PTT Post, Telegraaf en Telefoondienst; Post, Telegraph and Telephone Service PvdA Partij van de Arbeid, Labour Party PvdV Partij van de Vrijheid, Freedom Party Rakjat People Romusha Forced laborers RTC Round Table Conference RVD Regeringsvoorlichtingsdienst, Government’s Information Service SOBSI Sentral Organisasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia, All Indonesia Center of Labour Organizations SRV Solose Radiovereniging, Radio Association of Solo RRI Radio Republik Indonesia, Radio Service of the Republic of Indonesia RUSI Republic of United States of Indonesia Tadjoeg Local name for a small mosque TKR Tentara Keamanan Rakyat, People’s Security Army TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia, Indonesian National

xxviixxvii Army Totok Foreign-born people UNO United Nations Organizations USI United States of Indonesia VNI Vereniging Nederland-Indonesië, Association of Netherlands-Indonesia VOC Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, United East India Company Wajang koelit A Javanese puppet show

xxviiixxviii