state of the visual arts nobody can w predict what its future extensions are Computer Sculpture likely to be. Many sculptors have used and are New Horizons using computers as design, manipula- tion, visualization and production tools David J. Keskeys, Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education with the intent and expectation that their creations will eventually be realized as physical pieces of sculpture. Robert ~ his essay focuses on the skepticism and prejudice from within the Fisher and Michael O'Rourke fall into opportunities for a new mainstream art world. Even the use of this category having used computers approach to COlnputer gent> the word "'sculpture" to clescribe their extensively in the development stages of ated sculpture through the three-dimensional works which exist their work. Fisher's complex spatial use of the interactive, user only as data within the memory of the forms and environmental sculptures, participatory attributes associated with computer or as images on a screen has from Northern Lights in 1981 and virtual reality technology. The text been difficult to establish. A broadening including SL3'ha~p (1986) and Fandango briefly reviews the progress of sculp- of the definition of sculpture, once (1990), have benefited from computer ture from a static, physical art form, thonght of as limited to work carved in visualization and the ability of the artist through the use of computers as sculp- wood or stone or modeled in clay and to study form and structure, randomness ture visualization tools, towards true cast in metal, to include works which are and chaos theory using the computer to "virtual sculpture" as a metaphysical generated using computer technology emulate the processes of nature 3. three-dimensional experience. The has been essential. We can compare the Michael O'Rourke has written in author discusses two of his own recent following definitions from the O.xford Leonardo 4 of the development of a prototype virtual reality pieces to English Dictimlary (1971) and the CAD/CAM system at New York demonstrate his projection of possible E, cyclopaedia Britamzica ( 1980): Institute of Technology and its use to future trends in the viewers' immersion Sculpture facilitate the design and fabrication of in sculpture as an activity and an art In modern use, that branch of Fine Art his abstract sculptures. The use of such form, not merely as an observer of a set which is concerned with the produc- systems to aid the production of "real" of objects. tion of figures in the round or in relief, sculptures is, perhaps, easier to come to either by carving, by fashioning some terms with for the technophobes and Computer technology plastic substance or by making a skeptics than what O'Rourke has called and artists mould for casting in metal. 1 "virtual sculpture. ''5 O'Rourke used the The use of computer technology by (ttl(] term to describe three-dimensional artists during the last three decades has Scull)lure, Art of work which does not have and is not precipitated a debate within the art estab- Sculpture is not a fixed term that intended to have any physical form. He lishment over the artistic worth anti legit- applies to a permanently circumscrib- acknowledges that: imacy of the products and practices of ed category of objects or set of activi- "It is perfectly possible to make such the techno-arts community. Discussions ties. It is, rather, the name of an art that virtual sculpture one's goal and to find an surrounding digital art have tended to grows and changes and is continually appropriate medium for displaying it." 6 concentrate on the technology itself and extending the range of its activities and The creation and display of screen the imprint of the technology on the evolving new kinds of objects. 2 based three-dimensional art works has work rather than focus upon the aes- Although these definitions in them- been the goal of British sculptor William thetic and philosophical issues addressed selves shoukl not be taken as representa- katham 7 while working as research fel- within the art work. Designers have, to a tive opinion of their (lab', they can be said low at the IBM UK Scientific Centre large degree, been able to justify and to represent the shift in the perception of since 1987. The use of the term "virtual elicit acceptance of their computer gen- the art form that has been necessary to sculpture" to describe such work has erated works on purely commercial come to terms with the wider range of been overtaken by the rapid develop- grounds--speed and versatility equate to objects, methodologies and technologies merit of virtual reality systems and their cost savings and thus legitimacy of associated with that one word "sculp- adoption as a creative arts medium by a process and product--but the fight for ture." Indeed, the E~Tcyclopaedia growing ,number of fine artists. recognition by those visual and expres- Britannica description goes on; Latham's work, evolutionary organic sive artists working with computers has The scope of the term is much forms, viewed as animated sequences or not been so easy. wider in the second half of the 20tb cibachrome prints, would seem to Computer sculptors in particular century than it was only two or three bridge the gap between the computer have had to overcome a great deal of decades ago, and in the present fluid visualizations of Fisher and O'Rourke and what I believe to be the future direc- Editor's" note: This essa), was accepted to the SIGGRAPH '94 Art and Design Show, We're printing it in Computer Graphics. as it was inadvertently omitted from the SIGGRAPH '94 CD-ROM. tion of tree virtual sculpture. Virtual sculpture- manipulate elements of the work itself. Not only can the senses of the partic- The future I~eckons The sculptor, possibly through the pro- ipant be stimulated through the pro- With the growing sophistication and vision of a toolbox facility, may gramming of attributes to the digital accessibility of virtual reality systems, empower the user to change the struc- forms within the virtual space but the more artists are likely to follow the tures' colors, textures, scale and materi- viewer can be immersed within the example of Nicole Natalie Stenger and als or even to assemble a complete sculpture itself. We have the example of introduce the extra dimensions of inter- structure of their own design. The par- Legible City (1990) and Virtual action and user participation into their ticipant will become an element in the Museum (1991) both conceived by creations. Her pioneering virtual reality creative process. Jeffrey Shaw 9 and generated in collabo- experience Les Recontres Angdliques or The first of the two avenues ration with Dirk Gmenveld. Angels, based on her film of the same described is, perhaps, the least con- Legible Cio' places the participant name, points the way and could inspire tentious in terms of its acceptance as an within a network of streets to embark many other artists to begin working extension to the range of traditional on a simulated bicycle ride through a with advanced computer technology. sculptural concepts. It is quite reason- city of words and sentences. Large, Stenger's piece was produced in collab- able to visualize a movement towards three-dimensional letter forms make up oration with hardware and software the production of immersive computer the architecture and ground plan of developers including Wavefront environments, similar to the physical Manhattan and the "cyclist" controls Technologies and Silicon Graphics environmental art of the 1960's but the speed and direction of his journey with modeling carried out at the with a potentially even greater sense of through the streets. The virtual reality Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 8 physicality than those spaces. Parallels artist is able to scale his environment While these facilities are not currently can be drawn between the desire of and the objects within it to suit his available to all who would wish to pro- artists such as James Seawright with needs, permitting the viewer to travel duce virtual reality art work, it is likely Walk-in Infinity Chamber in 1968 and over, under, through or around his that accessibility will increase as the Nicole Stenger with Angels in 1991 to metaphysical creations. Different aes- technology becomes more widely avail- create participatory art using the tech- thetic, emotional and intellectual able and subsequently cheaper. Angels nologies of their day. Both works are responses to the piece can be stimu- is probably the first sculptural environ- clearly attempts by the artists to stimu- lated by means of these changes in the ment to utilize the virtual reality tech- late reactive responses through scale relationship between the viewer nology of goggles and data glove and human/technology and technology/ and the work. The actions and reactions allows the user to explore a "Garden of human interplay. of both the viewer and the art objects, Eden" environment. Artists have traditionally been will- images and sounds within the artificial More exciting and inspiring than any ing and often eager to experiment and space can be designed to generate an individual piece of work is the fact that exploit new developments in materials, organic, evolutionary relationship the element of interactivity has been techniques and technologies as a means between the artist, viewer and artwork. introduced into what had previously to express ideas and explore new con- Many of the early manifestations of been a largely passive spectator art cepts in their work. It is inconceivable virtual reality environments are con- form. What new horizons do virtual that a new generation of electronic cerned as much with the process of reality and interactivity open up to the artist/sculptors will not emerge as the interaction and the interface between computer sculptor? At the present time, opportunities for the stimulation of the user and the enviromnent as they I see two distinct avenues of explo- mind and senses through the use of are with the visual qualities of the ration opening up. advanced computers and peripherais work. Virtual reality art works can be The first involves the creation of becomes apparent to more art college seen to function on many different lev- immersive, ttu'ee-dimensional environ- graduates and practicing artists. els: a passive journey through a space, ments where the viewer can travel As the sensory equipment associated an aesthetic but largely passive experi- through areas of computer space such with virtual reality becomes more ence, a two way responsive experience as sculpture parks of the type produced refined, so the possibilities for the use of or a voyage of discovery which invites by Nicole Stenger. These might entail tactile stimuli as well as visual and aural the viewer to become involved in the the creation of, movement through or stimuli will emulate and then surpass creative process itself rather than be a around and interaction with individual what "real world" environments can spectator to it. pieces or groups of sculpture of a size offer to the sculptor. By this, I mean that It is precisely this concern with the or complexity not possible with con- sensitive data gloves and body suits will creative process which I believe is at ventional physical works. be able to deliver changing tactile per- the center of the second strand of The second scenario is that some ception of an object's material composi- exploration and exploitation emerging sculptors will become orchestrators or tion. We will be able to alter the "feel" in parallel with the development of designers of sculptural "experiences" or of an object from soft to sharp, rough, interactive technologies. There now "events" which enable the viewer, hard or smooth and back to soft again, exists the opportunity for artists to through the interactive capabilities of as the user explores the surface of the become orchestrators of artistic events the technology, to originate, change and sculpture or environment. or activities which fully immerse the viewer and draws them into the act of virtual reality technology as I see them. and type of options available at any creating or controlling the evolution of FormSpace is comprised of a number particular time oi' for a particular event the work. A number of artists and sci- of geometric sculptural forms linked or user. entists have been exploring these ideas together by a grid structure which At the present time, h~teractive as they have worked towards the defines the space and provides a means Sculpture Galle~3, comprises a choice advancement of the technology needed of orientation for the viewer. The par- of four animnated sculptural works with to stage their productions. ticipants are able to navigate through which the user can experiment and One of the pioneers of virtual reality, the space towards each of the sculp- interact. Each of the sculpture "rooms" Myron Krueger, has been at the fore- tures and as they approach them each contains the means for the viewer to front of the development of interactive sculpture goes through a predetermined alter aspects of the work through a creative and performance processes. He animated routine. Because of the non- mouse click or the movement of a conceived Video Place l° as early as physicality of the objects, it is possible pointer over a symbol or representation 1969 and it has evolved into a multi- to merge shapes and pass one object of the options available. By clicking oll faceted environmental play space through another as part of the anima- tile moving pictures of the sculpture, where visitors interface with video tions, producing an illusory quality the user can activate a change in the images of themselves, other users and enhanced by the unearthly character of shapes of the constituent parts of the graphical objects, sounds etc. The artist the space within which they are found. object while the movement of the provides the environment, the types and In the full virtual reality version of whole continues. The movement of the ranges of effects and responses to the FormSpace, the animated sequences forms can be speeded up or slowed users actions and movements within the would be set oft" by the approach and down by the user and the colors of space. Thus the artist, through the pro- proximity of the viewer and could be groups of elements can be altered by a gramming of reactive options, retains made to repeat by the withdrawal and click or a pointer movement. control over the experience while still advancement of the viewer, thus insti- One of the "rooms" contains a single providing a wide range of interactive gating a cause and effect story line. An spinning object, the shape of which can scenarios and participatory expmiences. approach from another direction or be changed by interaction, and a second Video Place is essentially a two-dimen- some other movement of a body part, and a third object can be added to the sional video and painterly space but action, reaction or sound from the space, each object spinning indepen- Michel Bret's Anyflo 11 is a three- viewer could be made to instigate a dif- dently and existing in its own space. dimensional production system provid- ferent animated sequence or event, This area has been designed as a proto- ing the tools for the manufacture and drawing the viewer into a exploratory type for a kinetic assemblage space in animation of sculptural objects. journey of experimentation and learned which the user is able to select from a It is a preoccupation with the concept experiences. It is the promotion of a wide range of object shapes and colors of user participation and control over more positive form of interaction, rather to put together a collection of linked, the nature of the structures and their than a passive participation in the expe- articulated or independent mobile attributes which has driven the develop- rience, that I wish to encourage through sculpture elements within the space. ment of my own computer sculpture the work. The objects, as they move around the over the last two years. From the pro- Interactive Sculpture Galleo, is a space, could be made to avoid each duction of physical, geometric, abstract screen based interactive environment in other, collide and bounce away, or pass sculpture, my work moved towards which the viewer can determine the through each other when they come computer generated and animated nature of the sculptural works he/she into contact. Individual shapes or col- pieces in the late 1980's and is now pri- wishes to produce through the selection lections of shapes could also be scaled marily concerned with the potentiality of attributes including shapes, number to alter the relationship between the of user participation and involvement in of elements, colors, materials and user, his/her creation and any other the production, manipulation and evo- movements within the composition. I users who might enter the space. lution of the sculptures themselves. My see this piece as the prototype for a Currently, each animated sequence aim has been the construction of a wide ranging, multi-layered toolbox of associated with the variables and number of virtual sculpture environ- options for the creation of sculptures by options available are stored and ments as prototypes or simulations of one or more participants in a virtual retrieved, when selected, from the hard fully immersive user experiences. studio space. The role of the artist disc. Alterations to the colors of the These environments are designed to be becomes that of a provider of the sculptural elements are initiated by experienced as screen based interactive opportunity to participate in the cre- palette changes within the system and media or simulated as video pieces to ative process, to conmmnicate through are almost instantaneous, but other demonstrate the projected participatory actions and deeds and to explore the act changes which rely on hard disk elements within the work. The two of art making rather than the work of retrieval give a delayed feedback to the most recent pieces, FormSpace (1992) art. The artist is able to control and user. The problems inherent in using a and Interactive Sculpture Gallery manipulate this process to a greater or system not designed for the production (1993) 12, can be used to illustrate some lesser extent, depending on the desired of virtual reality environments are evi- of the potential areas of exploitation of outcomes, by determining the range dent. However, the system is suffi- ciently sophisticated to enable the pro- accelerated during the 20th century. We Footnotes duction of a convincing working proto- have seen work of a non-representa- Compact Ed O.~Jbrd El~glish Dictiona~T (1971), type. The speed with which virtual real- tional and abstract nature accepted into Vol. II. p. 2687, Oxford University Press ity equipment and software has what had previously been thought of as 2 Encyclopaedia Br#annica (1980), 15th edition. progressed over the last few years sug- a representational art form; work which Vol. 16. p. 421, Chicago: Helen Hemingway gests that a system capable of the full moved, used light and sound established Benton three-dimensional interactive manipula- into what had been a essentially a static, 3 An account of the role of the cornputer in the tion that would be required to generate silent form of expressive art. The con- development of Northern Lights, ( 1981) can a sculpture gallery of the type I envis- stant review and redefinition of the term be found in: Robert N. Fisher and Raymon J. Masters, Lemlardo, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 133- age is either already a reality or will be can not be appropriate when the 143, "Computer-Aided Sculpture: Visual and available soon. progress of computer art and associated Technical Considerations:' A system which will allow the technologies continues at such a devas- 4 M. O'Rourke, 1988, "Sculpting with Computer reshaping of illusory computer "mater- tating pace. Sculpture is surely now a Graphics: An Approach to the Design and ial" by carving into it, adding "mater- medium without restriction of material Fabrication of Abstract Sculpture," Leonardo, ial" to it or modeling it at the will of the or physical presence, a term for the Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 343-350. user would open new and exciting cre- many forms of art which are not purely 5 M. O'Rourke, 1985, "Computers, Sculpture and ative opportunities, breaking down the two-dimensional; work which occupies Three Dimensionality," SIGGRAPH 7~¢torial Notes, ACM 21, pp. 237-249. distinction between artist and non- or uses a space either physical or meta- 6 M. O'Rourke, 1988, ibid. p. 347. artist. Realtime generation and transfor- physical. The mere perception of an mation of complex three-dimensional object's being or a discernible presence 7 katham has worked with Mike King, author of Sculptor and programmers Peter Quarendon forms complete with programmable whether of light, sound, movement, and Stephen Todd of the IBM Graphics and changeable material shaders, tex- color or shape may justify its existence Applications Group using their ESME and turing and lighting effects and inherent and acceptance as a piece of "sculp- WINSOM solid modeling software. Further properties such as gravitational pull and ture." information can be found in: William Latham, inertia, will facilitate the synthesis of a Virtual reality systems with their 1988, "The Computer Evolution of hnaginary Sculpture," The Conquest of Form, Bristol, sculpture making medium of a type to capacity for in~nersion and interaction Arnolfini revolutionize the art form. have propelled the sculpture viewer 8 Further technical intbnnation can be found in: The shift in the perception of the art fi'om a passive spectator role into a key Anne Barclay Morgan, 1991, "Interactivity in form that has taken place dm'ing the player in the art work itself. Sculpture the Electronic Age," Sculpture - Art and second half of the 20th century with the can now be a performance of genera- Technology, May-June pp. 36-43. acceptance of computer sculpting, its tion, elaboration and manipulation of 9Information from: Frank Popper, 1993, Art of products and methodologies, is nothing insubstantial objects in an immaterial the Electronic Age, pp. 110-111, London. compared to the leap of imagination world. The viewer is a part of that per- Thames and Hudson that is needed to comprehend the direc- formance and consequently an integral mFurther information can be tbund in: Myron W. Krueger, 1991, Artificial Reality 11, Addison tions and distance that virtual reality element in the origination of the sculp- Wesley technology is capable of taking the ture and the sculptures' existence as a 11 Information fi'om: Frank Popper, 1993, ibid. visual and performance arts, and sculp- work of art. p. 100. ture in particular. As the technology P-"Form Space," 1992, and "Interactive comes on stream, the artists will be David J. Keskeys, senior lecturer and Sculpture Gallery," 1993, were both produced there to push back the boundaries of field chair media. Cheltenham and using Swivel 3-D Pro and RenderMan and ani- each and every art form as far as that Gloucester College of Higher Edu- mated and interactive sequences have been technology will allow. cation, Department of Art and Design, compiled in Macro-Media Director on Apple Macintosh equipment. After thousands of years of slow evo- Pittville Campus, Albert Road, lution, the rate of development and Cheltenham GL52 3JG, England; change of sculpture as an art form has (0242) 532296; FAX: (0242) 532207.