The Beginnings of Computer Art in the United States: a Memoir ABSTRACT Three Decades Ago, Such Terms As Computer Art, Virtual Re- A

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ARTIST'S ARTICLE The Beginnings of Computer Art in the United States: A Memoir ABSTRACT Three decades ago, such terms as computer art, virtual re- A. Michael Noll ality and computer animation had not yet entered our vocabulary. This was a time for the experimentation and innovation that produced today's industry of computer art and animation, along with new media for creative experiences with computers. The author has used digital computers THE BEGINNINGS: to each other, and from these I in a variety of the visual arts, in- How IT ALL CAME TOGETHER chose which line density and as- cluding still images, stereoscopic images, computer holography, In the summer of 1961, I was hired fresh from Newark Col- pect ratio was most pleasing to me. In other experiments, I used three-dimensional animation, four- lege of Engineering to work at Bell Laboratories in Murray different random distributions to dimensional animation, interactive Hill, New jersey, on the subjective aspects of telephone ser- stereoscopic displays and input determine their artistic effects. I vice. As part of an employee educational and training pro- devices and, ultimately, three-di- described the results of these ex- mensional force-feedback—the gram conducted by Bell Labs, I was given an internship at its latter becoming a major compo- research division during the summer of 1962. The prime periments in a Bell Labs technical memorandum entitled "Patterns nent of today's virtual reality. This project on which I worked during that summer was the inven- research and experimentation in by 7090," dated 28 August 1962. tion and exploration of a new method for determining the computer art was performed dur- fundamental frequency of speech. This project involved the One pattern, Gaussian-Quadratic ing the 1960s. In this article the author reminisces and describes plotting of many graphs of various kinds of speech data. The (Fig. I), was particularly pleasing to me. Later, I discovered that it his early work. relatively new Stromberg Carlson SC-4020 microfilm plotter was a major tool in generating these graphs of speech data, reminded me of the Picasso paint- and this hardware became the basis for my investigations of ing Ma Jobe. For fun, I would use computer art. colored-ink markers to trace over the pattern to produce cus- As a child, I had always had an interest in drawing and cre- tomized art for my colleagues at work. ated elaborate pictures of the interiors of ships and space ve- At the end of the summer, I returned to my regular depart- hicles. As I became older, my interest in drawing extended to ment and my work in subjective assessments of telephone art in general, and I was a frequent visitor to New York's Mu- transmission quality, but my interests in computer art contin- seum of Modern Art, although I had no formal or academic ued. Much was happening at Bell Labs in the early 1960s in- artistic training or knowledge. I also had a couple of stereo- volving art, music and animation. Bela julesz was using the scopes and was fascinated by their three-dimensional (3D) computer and plotter to produce random-dot stereograms imagery. for investigations of human visual perception. Kenneth In the 1960s Bell Labs was a great research facility that en- Knowlton was working with the famed animator Stanley Van couraged considerable freedom to take chances and explore Der Beek to generate computer-animated movies. Max V. uncharted avenues of discovery. John R. Pierce, the director Mathews was using the computer to generate musical sounds. of the research division where I spent the summer of 1962, Frank W. Sinden and Edward E. Zajec were creating com- was at that time investigating the use of computers in music. puter-animated movies to help visualize scientific and technical kinetics. William O. Baker, the vice president of research, had created an atmosphere of intellectual freedom that was clearly sup- There was just too much happening for me to forget my ported by my immediate supervisors in the research division, interests in art and computers, and so I continued my investi- namely, Manfred R. Schroeder and Edward E. David, Jr., and gations on an informal basis. My research into computer art also by my colleagues, in particular Peter B. Denes. and computer graphics continued to attract the attention of So, all the ingredients for my pioneering discoveries in managers in Bell's research department and in 1964, I was computer art were present: a childhood interest in art and transferred into the research division, even though I did not stereoscopy, the freedom to explore new avenues, and the have the usual prerequisite doctoral degree. I had, however, very best technology of the day. I still can remember the day started doctoral study on a part-time basis at the Polytechnic when a fellow summer intern with whom I shared an office, Institute of Brooklyn. This study culminated in my doctoral Elwyn Berlekamp, came down the hallway with a computer- dissertation, which investigated the use of a three-dimen- generated plot of data that had gone astray because of some sional force-feedback device to enable the user to feel shapes programming error. Lines went every which way all over his and objects simulated by software in the computer. plots. We joked about the abstract computer art that he had In mid-1971, after receiving my doctorate from Brooklyn inadvertently generated. It then occurred to me to use the Poly, I left Bell Labs to work on the staff of then-President computer, an IBM 7090, and the Stromberg Carlson plotter Nixon's Science Advisor, Edward E. David, Jr., who had left Bell to create computer art deliberately. Thus my experiments in Labs to accept this post a year or so before. This change in the computer art began in the summer of 1962 at Bell Labs. The first images that I created used straight lines, combin- A. Michael Roll (educator), Annenberg School for Communication. University of ing elements of order with the disorder of randomness. In one Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0281, U.S.A. series of investigations, randomly placed lines were plotted 90' Received 25 June 1993. Solicited by Roger F. Malina.

1994 ISAST LEONARDO, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 39-44,1994 39 ences. From a book, I was familiar with a Piet Mondrian painting consisting of only short horizontal and vertical bars. Such a pattern lent itself to producing a computer version, and I wrote a program to generate a computer Mondrian (Fig. 2). I then showed copies of the two works to people at Bell Labs to determine which pattern they preferred and also whether they could identify the actual Mondrian work. The results of the study were published in The Psychological Record in 1966 [1]. The computer Mondrian was used as the cover art for a textbook by a friend and colleague [2] and also for Fig. 3. Ninety Parallel Sinusoids With Linearly Increasing Period, computer graphics, early a textbook on probability [3]. 1960s. This work was strongly influenced by Later, I modified the algorithm so that Bridget Riley's Current and is an example of a series of patterns varying in the range the application of computers to op-art. of randomness could be created to even more closely approximate the Mondrian painting. I then designed an experiment using these patterns to determine instructed the microfilm plotter to create © MAN 1965 whether people with formal artistic train- two plots: one for each eye. I used one of Fig. 1. Gaussian Quadratic, computer graph- ing had different preferences than those my stereoscopes from childhood to view ics, 1962. ((DAMN 1965) This was the without any such training. I was unable the images. The technique is described in author's first serious piece of computer art, to find any meaningful differences be- a Bell Labs technical memorandum I which he found suggestive of Picasso's cub- tween the two groups of subjects. The wrote entitled "Stereographic Projections ism. Since there was no physical reality to details and results of the study were pub- by Digital Computer," dated 27 March motivate the work, it can perhaps be con- sidered a combination of abstraction and lished in Psychological Record in 1972 [4]. 1964. In the early 1960s digital computers cubism. Op-art was quite popular during the were still somewhat new, and the adjec- 1960s. In response to this movement, I tive "digital" was usually used to distin- used the computer to create a math- guish them from their analog parents. ematical version of Bridget Riley's scin- Again, the imagery was mostly artistic, tillating painting Current. I called my although I also plotted some 3D speech direction of my career took me away for- computer version Ninety Parallel Sinuso- spectrograms as part of my research in ever from computer art and new forms of ids With Linearly Increasing Period (Fig. 3). speech analysis and synthesis. I pro- man-machine communication. Washing- duced a series of stereoscopic images, ton opened my vision; I realized that STEREOSCOPIC used them as stimuli for some explor- technology alone did not shape the fu- atory investigations of perceptions of ture and that such other factors as policy, PROJECTIONS AND MOVIES aesthetic value and found that stereo- finance and consumer needs were per- I wrote software for the IBM 7090 so that scopic versions of the patterns were pre- haps even more important. The study of ferred over flat two-dimensional (2D) 3D data could be displayed stereoscopi- these nontechnology-related factors thus versions. cally. The computer generated the stereo- strongly attracted my attention, and in scopic projections of the data and then 1973, when I returned to Bell Labs, my THE HOWARD WISE research focused on the social aspects of communication technology. After a few Fig. 2. Computer Composition With Lines, GALLERY EXHIBIT years at Bell Labs, I transferred to AT&T computer graphics, 1964. ((DAMN 1965) The Howard Wise Gallery on New York's and pursued a career there in the mar- This work closely mimics a painting by Piet Mondrian. West 57th Street had acquired a reputa- keting of new telecommunication prod- tion for innovation and for introducing ucts and services. About 9 years ago, I left new artists and new artistic forms to the AT&T and initiated an academic career public. In 1964, Wise approached one of teaching the fundamentals of modern my colleagues at Bell Labs, Bela Julesz, telecommunications technology to who was using the computer and plotter tomorrow's managers. to produce random-dot stereograms for investigations of human visual percep- AESTHETICS: tion. Bela introduced me to Wise, who THE MONDRIAN EXPERIMENT wanted to exhibit Bela's and my computer-generated images at his gallery. I always had an interest in the human Bela was always very careful not to call and perceptual aspects of technology. his images "art," since the images were Thus, it was natural that I would want to stimuli for psychological investigations use my computer-generated patterns as of visual perception. I, however, had stimuli to investigate aesthetic prefer- IOJAMM 1•65 generated many of my images solely for

40 Noll, The Beginnings of Computer Art their aesthetic or artistic effects and was registered piece of copyrighted art pro- much more willing to call them art. In duced with a digital computer. the end, we compromised and called The Howard Wise Gallery exhibit was the exhibit "Computer-Generated Pic- a first for me and was followed by exhib- tures." The announcement for the ex- its of my computer art in a number of hibit was a small deck of IBM punched countries: England, Yugoslavia, Czecho- cards. The exhibit ran from 6-24 April slovakia, Brazil, Germany, India and 1965 and was the first major exhibit of Spain. computer art in the United States. I An important conference on the use later found out that Frieder Nake and of computers in design and art was held George Nees had a public exhibit in at the University of Waterloo in Ontario Germany of their digital computer art in June 1966. The conference, named only a few months earlier in 1965. the Third International Design Seminar, The Howard Wise Gallery exhibit in- was organized by Maurice Constant and cluded photographic enlargements of a Martin Krampen and was unique in number of our computer-generated im- bringing together artists, designers and ages. The stereoscopic images were re- technologists. Much computer-generated produced using polarized technology imagery and animation was shown at the and then mounted between clear plastic conference. It was an opportunity for me sheets. Special polarized spectacles were to learn about the work of such other used by those attending the exhibit. The pioneering institutions as Lawrence response by the public and media was Livermore Laboratory, where George disappointing. I remember spirited dis- Michael was responsible for stimulating cussions with Wise about how we would the early exploration of computer anima- split the revenues from sales, but in the tion and graphics using the Stromberg end not a single work was sold! The Carlson microfilm plotter. short review of the opening in the New York Times by Stuart Preston [5] was posi- THREE-DIMENSIONAL tive and opened with "The wave of the ANIMATION: 3D MOVIES future crashes significantly at the Howard Wise Gallery...." A number of my colleagues at Bell Labs Although the research management were exploring computer animation. staff at Bell Labs was very supportive of This led me to produce a series of ste- the Howard Wise Gallery exhibit, the le- reoscopic projections that could be gal and public relations folks at AT&T viewed as a 3D movie. I wrote the soft- became worried that the Bell Telephone ware and described it in a Bell Labs companies that supported Bell Labs technical memorandum [6]. The 3D would not view computer art as serious animation included a random object scientific research. Hence an effort was that changed its shape in a random fash- made by AT&T to halt the exhibit, but it ion and a rotating four-dimensional was too late, since financial commit- (4D) hypercube (Fig. 4) projected per- ments had already been made by Wise. spectively into three dimensions. Accordingly, Bela and I were told to re- The idea for investigating the four-di- strict publicity, and, in an attempt to fos- mensional hypercube was suggested to ter such restriction, Bell Labs gave Bela me by Doug Eastwood, a colleague at and me permission to copyright all the Bell Labs. The stereoscopic pairs were pictures in our own names. plotted head-to-head in a single frame I decided to register the copyright for and then projected through a special Gaussian-Quadratic with the Copyright prism adapter (called Prism-Stereo) Office at the Library of Congress. At first that required the use of polarized they refused since a machine had gener- glasses to obtain a 3D effect. I also pro- ated the work. I explained that a human duced versions of the 3D movies with being had written the program that in- the stereo pairs plotted adjacent to each corporated randomness and order. They other, but this required the viewer to again refused to register the work, stat- look cross-eyed at the screen to fuse the ing that randomness was not acceptable. stereo pairs. I finally explained that although the numbers generated by the program ap- COMPUTER HOLOGRAPHY Fig. 4. This series of stereographic images peared "random" to humans, the algo- is from a computer-generated movie show- rithm generating them was perfectly The stereoscopic animation program ing the perspective projections of a rotating four-dimensional hypercube (1965). The mathematical and not random at all. could generate a series of perspective stereo pairs will fuse if they are observed The copyright was finally accepted, views of a 3D object seen from positions cross-eyed. The author later used the tech- thereby giving Gaussian-Quadratic the rotating around the object. A colleague nique to generate main title sequences for distinction of being perhaps the first at Bell Labs, Michael C. King, got the a movie (see Fig. 5) and a television special.

Noll, The Beginnings of Computer Art 41 Fig. 5. This montage of stills is from the main title sequence of the movie entitled Incredible Machine, produced by Owen- Murphy Productions for AT&T (1968). The title sequence was computer ani-

A1,1 mated by the author using words rotating in a four-dimensional hyperspace. INcoN

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idea to combine all these views in a strip a background visit to Bell Labs for an En- hologram that could be viewed with a cyclopedia Brilannica television special simple point source of white light, such that he was producing for NBC (Na- as a flashlight. I used one of' my random tional Broadcasting Company). He 3D objects to generate the perspective asked me to create the main title se- views, then King combined them in a quence using the 4D animation tech- hologram created with the help of his nique, and I agreed to do so. The assistant, Daniel H. Berry. This ap- special, written by Arthur C. Clarke, was proach to computer-generated hologra- called "The Unexplained" and was about phy resulted in a new form of computer various unexplained phenomena; it was sculpture. colorcast on 3 April 1970. I remember the wonder that De Faria had at the FOUR-DIMENSIONAL speed with which different animations ANIMATION could be done on the computer. These two title sequences are examples of per- The stereoscopic projections of the rotat- haps some of the earliest use of com- ing 4D hypercube had a smooth anima- puter animation to do title sequences. tion that was pleasing and fascinating to look at. This gave me the idea of using COMPUTER CHOREOGRAPHY the technique to animate letters and words. I placed letters and words in 4D Because 1 lived at my parents' home in space and then had the computer rotate Newark, New Jersey, and attended the configuration in four dimensions and Brooklyn Poly at nights, I was able to at- create a movie of the two-dimensional tend many concerts, operas and ballets perspective projections of the projections in New York City. The idea of using com- from four-space. The resulting animation puters in ballet occurred to me while at- Fig. 6. The author used the computer to looked great. The technique was used to tending a performance of Ballanchine's generate a simulated ballet, showing simple create the main title sequence for an Apollo at the New York City Ballet with a stick figures moving about on a stage award-winning movie short on computer friend who was a dance student. The in- (1965). research at Bell Labs entitled Incredible terrelationships between the dancers in Machine, produced by Owen-Murphy Pro- the work fascinated me, and I envi- ductions in 1968 (Fig. 5). sioned a computer version of the work The 4D animation was seen by Walter De using computer-animated stick figures. Faria of Lee Mendelson Productions on My dance-student friend quickly edu-

42 No11, The Beginnings of Computer Art cated me about the various forms of Labs to abandon the case. AT&T was patent, which expired last year, was quite dance notation that were available, and I concerned that the Court might become broad and covered the overall concept went to work developing programs to overburdened since the Court was ex- of a force-feedback device and a display create and animate simple stick figures. pected to hear cases involving competi- coupled to a digital computer. This tac- I incorporated random motion around tion in telecommunications that might tile man-machine communication sys- a stage employing six stick figures: three determine the fate of the Bell System. tem, designed and implemented in the large "male" figures and three small "fe- late 1960s and early 1970s, was the gen- male" figures. "FEELIES" esis of much of today's virtual reality. I The original computer-generated bal- envisioned the use of a head-mounted let, which I completed in 1965 (Fig. 6), During a visit to Bell Labs in the 1960s, display (invented years before by Hugh was a computer-generated stereoscopic Canadian animator Maurice Constant Upton of Bell Helicopter) with half-sil- movie. I later produced a 2D perspective described his ideas about some form of vered mirrors so that a computer-simu- version that was easier to show since spe- human-machine environment in which lated image could be superimposed over cial polarized glasses were not needed. At designers could use their hands to mold the real world while a user simulta- the time, I envisioned a creative choreo- shapes that were stored in a computer. It neously grasped and felt a computer- graphic situation in which the choreogra- occurred to me that such a "feelie" de- simulated object. pher would interact in real time with a vice could be constructed by motorizing computer to compose a ballet while ma- one of my 3D input devices for the DDP- PUBLICATIONS nipulating and seeing computer-gener- 224 computer. I proposed this project to ated stick figures. The final work could management at Bell Labs and also to my There was much emphasis at Bell Labs then be transposed through the com- dissertation committee at Brooklyn Poly, during the 1960s on educating artists puter to dance notation to give to the and they both approved. During the last and musicians about the potential for human dancers. The computer-gener- few years of the 1960s and extending using computers, and many artists and ated ballet became a concrete example into the first few years of the 1970s, I de- musicians visited the Labs to observe of what potentially could be done with signed and constructed this tactile de- first-hand what was being accomplished. computers in dance, and I showed the vice and connected it to the DDP-224 Korean-American television artist Nam movie to various dance notation organi- computer. With it, a user could feel June Paik visited with me during that zations in New York and also to a number around some computer-simulated object time to learn about the potential for us- of choreographers, including Rebekah or shape within the space of a cubic ing computers to create the type of vi- Harkness and Merce Cunningham. Al- foot. At the same time, the user could sual imagery that he was then obtaining though there was much interest, the look at a stereoscopic display. The tactile by manipulating television images. This technology was not then available. The device was a motorized joy-stick. The emphasis on education led me to pub- required "friendly" interfaces are still user grasped a ball at its top, and as it lish much of my work as a means of edu- topics for research. was moved, position data was generated cating and affecting others. and sent to the computer. The com- The bibliography at the end of this ar- INTERACTIVE STEREOSCOPY puter then created signals to control the ticle lists 17 published papers describing motors, thereby producing a force re- my research in the use of digital comput- In the mid-1960s at Bell Labs, Peter B. sponse (Fig. 7). ers in the visual arts and in new forms of Denes installed one of the earliest com- I filed a patent for the tactile man-ma- interaction with computers. The intent puter systems dedicated solely to the use chine communication on 26 May 1971, of these papers was to document my re- of researchers in an interactive real-time and it was issued on 1 November 1975 search and to open the doors to new ar- laboratory environment. I designed 3D (U.S. Patent Number 3,919,691). The eas of future work and discovery. input devices and displays for use with his Honeywell DDP-224 computer system and described them in a Bell Labs Fig. 7. This drawing is from the front page of the author's patent (No. 3,919,691), issued technical memorandum entitled "Soft- 11 November 1975, of a tactile human-machine communication system. Position data is ware Package for Real-Time Interactive generated as a user moves a stick-like mechanism within the space of a cubic foot. The computer, in response to a stored description of some shape or object, generates signals to Computer Graphics on the Honeywell energize the tactile device so that it appears as if the user has bumped into the shape or DDP-224 Computer," dated 6 June 1968. object. A stereoscopic display simultaneously depicts the object and the movement of the Users could draw in three dimensions tactile terminal. The breadth of this patent encompasses much of today's "virtual reality." while looking at a true stereoscopic display of the results. TACTILE TERMINAL UNIT A few years later, Denes and I implemented a scanned display for use with X,Y, Z 13? the DDP-224 computer. The scan-con- DATA version from rectangular coordinates to I I -7- GENERATORPOSITION Hi the scanned image was done by soft- COMPUTER ware. A patent for the idea was filed 5 FORCE Fx, Fy Fz February 1970, but great controversy en- I2-C RESPONSIVE sued with the Patent Office since part of UNIT it involved software that in general could not be patented at the time. The 10 14 STEREOSCOPIC case ultimately made its way to the Su- DISPLAY preme Court, but AT&T ordered Bell

Noll, The Beginnings of Computer Art 43 Some of the papers expressed my ture of computers in the arts continues Design and Planning 2: Computers in Design and Cmn- munication (New York: Hastings House, 1967) pp. views about the future of computer art. to excite me, and I look forward to see- 65-79. In "The Digital Computer as a Creative ing the maturing of this still new artistic tool and medium. Noll, A. Michael, "Computer Graphics in Acoustics Medium," I explored the idea that artists Research," IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electron- had a new creative partner or medium coustics AU-16, No. 2,213-220 (1968). in computers as assistants in the creative References Noll, A. Michael, "Computer Animation and the process. In "Art Ex Machina," I foresaw Fourth Dimension," American Federation of Informa- 1. A. Michael Noll, "Human or Machine: A Subjec- the day when a new breed of computer tion Processing Societies (AEIPS) Conference Proceedings tive Comparison of Piet Mondrian's 'Composition 33, Fall Joint Computer Conference (1968) pp. artist would emerge, trained in both art with Lines' and a Computer-Generated Picture," 1279-1283. and computers. The Psychological Record 16, No. 1,1-10 (1966). King, KC., A.M. Noll and D.H. Berry, "A New Ap- 2. David G. Luenberger, Introduction to Linear and proach to Computer-Generated Holography," Ap- Nonlinear Programming (Addison-Wesley, 1973). SOME LAST THOUGHTS plied optics 9, No. 2,471-475 (1970). 3. Peter Whittle, Probability (Penguin Books, 1970). Noll, A. Michael, "Art Ex Machina," IEEE Student journal 8, No. 4,10-14 (1970). At the time of my research into com- 4. A. Michael Noll, "The Effects of Artistic Thinking on Aesthetic Preferences for Pseudo-Random Com- puter art at Bell Labs, I was simply hav- Noll, A. Michael, "Scanned-Display Computer ing much fun and enjoying the puter-Generated Patterns," The Psychological Record Graphics," Communications of the ACM 14, No. 3, 22, No. 4,449-462 (1972). 145-150 (1971). challenge of exploring new territory. I had little idea then that the use of com- 5. Stuart Preston, The New York Times (18 April Noll, A. Michael, "Man-Machine Tactile Communi- 1965) p. X23. cation," Society for Information Display (Slid) Journal I, puters in the visual arts would progress No. 2,5-11 (1972). as rapidly as it has. This rapid progress is 6. A. Michael Noll, "Computer-Generated Three- Dimensional Movies and Pictures," Bell Labs Tech- Noll, A. Michael, "The Effects of Artistic Training the result of technological innovation nical Memorandum (20 January 1966). on Aesthetic Preferences for Pseudo-Random Com- that has lowered the cost and increased puter-Generated Patterns," The Psychological Record the capabilities of the technology, 22, No. 4,449-462 (1972). Author's Bibliography thereby making it much more available. Noll, A. Michael, "Real-Time Interactive Ste- Noll, A. Michael, "Stereographic Projections by The commercial use of computer graph- reoscopy," ,SID Journal!, No. 3,14-22 (1972). Digital Computer," Computers and Automation 14, ics still leads the artistic applications, No. 5,32-34 (1965). Noll, A. Michael, "Teleportation Through Commu- and I have not noticed any major munication," IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cy- Noll, A. Michael, "Computer-Generated Three-Di- bernetics SMC-6, No. 11,753-756 (1976). seum of modern art giving much atten- mensional Movies," Computers and Automation 14, tion to computer art. However, the No. 11,20-23 (1965). Noll, A. Michael, "Computers and the Visual Arts: A Retrospective View, ,SIGGRAPH '82 Art Show Catalog computer is only a medium, and the Noll, A. Michael, "Human or Machine: A Subjective (July 1982). medium should not be emphasized over Comparison of a Piet Mondrian's 'Composition with Lines' and a Computer-Generated Picture," the artistic result. If there is any failing The Psychological Record 16, No. I, 1-10 (1966). General Bibliography in computer art it is that the medium is Noll, A. Michael, "Choreography and Computers," still an excuse for poor art. I hope that Franke, Herbert, Computer Graphics—Computer Art Dance Magazine 41, No. I, 43-45 (1967). (London: Phaidon Press, 1971). this will soon change as computers be- Noll, A. Michael, "A Computer Technique for Dis- come much more prevalent in our art Goodman, Cynthia, Digital Visions (New York: Harry playing N-Dimensional Hyperobjects," Communica- N. Abrams, 1987). schools. Computers might actually be tions of the ACM10, No. 8,469-473 (1967). the single common tool that will lead to Reichardt, Jasia, Cybernetic Serendipity: The Computer Noll, A. Michael, "The Digital Computer as a Cre- and the Arts (London: Studio International, 1968). an integration of various arts, such as ative Medium," IEEE Spectrum 4, No. 10, 89-95 (1967). music, animation, sculpture, drama, ar- Reichardt, Jasia, Cybernetics, Art and Ideas (London: Studio Vista, 1971). chitecture, design and dance. The fu- Noll, A. Michael, "Computers and the Visual Arts,"

44 Noll, The Beginnings of Computer Art