Martian or Mauritanian? The It is impossible to fully evaluate the Lesser-Known Human Security Crises security issues in Mauritania without first understanding the country’s complicated in the Sahel history and deep security issues. In 1904,

France established Mauritania as one of its Amanda Morrison colonial territories. Mauritania was completely Sophomore, Global Studies/Strategic dependent on French rule for political, Communication economic, and social support during this time. With reforms to the French colonial system While humanitarian crises have plagued after the Second World War, Mauritania gained the continent of Africa for years, some of the its independence in 1960. Mauritania’s first world’s most severe and dire human security president, Moktar Ould Daddah, ushered in an issues exist within the Sahel region. This era of government corruption and authoritarian geographic and geopolitical region in the rule until he was overthrown by a coup in 1978. middle of Africa is located between the Sahara After the coup, Mauritanians were under and Savanna. The Sahel struggles with military rule until 2007, when the nation held damaging security issues as well as economic its first democratic election since its and cultural problems. This region is independence (Stewart 2008). Furthermore, its representative of a security complex because sub-Saharan and Sahelian location in the desert Sahelian states’ security is so interlinked that presents infrastructure challenges that national security problems will never be solved complicate travel and development; not to apart from other Sahelian nations. While mention the long-standing problems with African nations such as Mali, Nigeria, and human slavery. The French practiced slavery Chad are included in the Sahel region, a under their colonial rule, and even though the lesser-known and rarely discussed country is practice was banned in 1981, its use in Mauritania. For a time being, Mauritania was independent Mauritania is still widespread so publically unrecognizable that autocorrect (Stewart 2008). on smart phones would change “Mauritania” to Mauritania faces humanitarian and “Martian” (Nashashibi 2012). Mauritania is domestic crises including, but not limited to, unique because although it is situated near the human slavery, environmental degradation, an violent nation Mali, it holds a mainly influx of refugees, food insecurity, and cooperative relationship with Western allies development challenges. Since all of these against Islamist insurgencies. This position concerns affect people in different ways, there highlights the country’s importance and the are many potential ways to classify this need for stabilization. While numerous security security crisis. Although there are problems problems pose a significant threat to with labeling crises as “human security” issues, Mauritanian stability, a concerted international this is the best term to use for these overlapping effort to provide food, environmental, and crises. Human security allows all of the issues political resources to the country can resolve facing Mauritania to be grouped under one these crises. umbrella. Thus, human security is not merely a player in this crisis but it is the entire game. 1

The response to these crises, however, needs to of the most crucial human security concerns, be carefully calculated to ensure aid and with around ten to twenty percent of its 4.46 resources are allocated towards individual million citizens enslaved (Nossiter 2013). Not security efforts to best address the wide array only are they still striving to abolish slavery in of security concerns. their society, but they are also wrestling with Although the international community environmental security problems. Mauritania should discuss the needed responses for these joins the ranks of dozens of developing problems, it is first important to understand that countries that emit little to no carbon dioxide or there are unchangeable geographic factors that other harmful emissions, but are still define the Sahel region, such as its desert experiencing drastic effects from the Earth’s landscape and hot climate. Countries in the warming. One such consequence is the Sahel will always have hardships because of flooding of its capital city, Nouakchott. So their location, but Mauritania is distinct much rain fell in August and September of because of its numerous interconnected security 2013 that 2,000 people were left homeless. issues. Furthermore, the end of French Water was even up to seventy centimeters—or colonization in 1960 left Mauritania with little 2.3 feet—in some homes (Smith 2016). Other infrastructure to grow their government and deep-seated issues such as urbanization and establish a stable state, as ninety percent of urban sprawl further this proximate cause of their population was still nomadic at the time of environmental insecurity. Urbanization is a independence. While it is twice as big in deep cause of instability because the country’s geographic size as the country of France, to this growing population increasingly flocked to city day it still only has around 500 miles of paved centers since the state’s independence in the roads (Mauritania 2006). This is significant 1960s (Smith 2016). A recent census noted that ​ because Mauritania is “a territory of 398,000 the urban population grew from just four square miles” and lacks critical infrastructure percent in 1962 to forty-eight percent—over because of its desert setting (Sterling 1974). one million people—in 2013 (Mauritania ​ While the pervasive security issues in 2016). This drastic urban population increase Mauritania span multiple problem areas, means already scarce resources are now even examining these problems individually is key scarcer in the city centers. to understanding the needed policy and Unfortunately, human slavery and humanitarian responses. More recent issues environmental insecurity are not the only such as the influx of Malian refugees have security issues plaguing this West African brought proximate causes of instability to the nation. The proliferation of refugee crises surface, but one deep cause of insecurity is across the globe also found its way to Mauritania’s long history of human slavery. Mauritania. Since Mauritania shares a border Government corruption allowed the existence with Mali, it is locked in a human security of slavery even after it was “banned” in the late complex with them. Mali is one of the world’s twentieth century. Only one slave owner has least developed countries, and colonialism and successfully been tried and convicted to date. government corruption are deep causes of Mauritania has the highest percentage of an instability that stem from its similar enslaved population in the world, and thus one independence from France in 1960. These 2

continued problems caused instability to run increase in water sanitation projects to combat rampant in Mali since its independence flooding in Mauritania’s capital city. This (Guterres 2012). The issues of food insecurity measure was introduced by the Mauritanian and an Islamic insurgency in Mali caused people themselves and is set to “be operational 42,000 people to recently pour across the within three and a half years” as they put water border and establish new lives in the Mbera pumps in place with double the capacity than refugee camp in Mauritania (Smith 2016). before (Smith 2016). This Mauritanian-based Thus, not only are Mauritanians dealing with environmental solution sets the example for their own human security crises, but they are how other countries should react to also trying to deal with their problems environmental security concerns in developing alongside the crises of tens of thousands of African nations. They turned to their own others. This poses a significant challenge of citizens to help create a sustainable solution to how to address all of these different security the flooding and this solution is already solving issues, not to mention the lack of food stability the problem. Another strong in-country in the region. An estimated 239 million people response to insecurity comes from are suffering from hunger in sub-Saharan non-governmental organizations working at the Africa (Sasson 2012). One important Mbera refugee camp. Here, organizations spend component of food insecurity is that while ample time working with refugees in the many people go hungry in countries such as 11,327 shelters in the camp to promote stability Mauritania, the larger problem is malnutrition. and discourage adherence to Islamic extremism Malnutrition threatens the human security of in the region (Smith 2016). This political twelve percent of children in Mauritania assistance could greatly improve security from because citizens are often not able to access the terrorism in the region, and only time will tell nutrients they need (Kristof 2011). For how successful this refugee education becomes. example, "when people die of hunger-related Western aid also played a key role in ​ causes, the problem is often not so much a lack stabilizing one aspect of food insecurity in of calories as a lack of micronutrients like iron Mauritania. A flour mill in the country began and zinc” (Kristof 2011). The food insecurity adding essential vitamins and minerals to their ​ and malnutrition problem is furthered by a lack food production in order to combat of development; the lack of critical malnutrition. The New York Times writer ​ ​ infrastructure makes it hard to get food to the Kristof noted, "American foreign aid money ​ people who need it most (Mauritania 2006). helped pay the startup cost of fortification, and The deep problem of urbanization, coupled the mill will pay all continuing costs. We with the desert atmosphere in the Sahel and watched the machines add tiny quantities of the food security concerns, makes it hard for the nutrients to sacks of flour — and realized that international community to resolve these this mill might end up saving more lives than a problems. hospital” (Kristof 2011). Many efforts, however, are already This aid project has the potential to underway from a variety of actors to better the create a sustainable, lasting impact on lives of Mauritanian citizens as well as refugees communities in Mauritania. Labor unions in the within the country. One such measure is the United States also encouraged the President to 3

cut off duty-free trade with Mauritania just two References months ago due to its failure to combat the Guterres, Antonio. "Why Mali Matters." The human slavery crisis. Since Mauritania ​ New York Times. Sep. 4, 2012. received a poor ranking on human rights from ​ http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/opinion/w the United Nations earlier this year, the U.S. hy-mali-matters.html (accessed Oct. 4, 2017). labor unions suggested the government take a hardline policy approach to affect the Sahelian Kristof, Nicholas. "An African Adventure, and a Revelation." The New York Times. July 1, nation economically (Ratcliffe 2017). Time ​ ​ will determine whether or not the U.S. is able 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/03/opinion/s to influence this Sahelian nation’s policy with unday/03kristof.html (accessed Oct. 4, 2017). economic threats. The diverse security concerns in "Mauritania." African Economic Outlook. 2016. ​ ​ Mauritania culminate under the umbrella of human security. The deep causes of insecurity file:///Users/bookwormbeth417/Downloads/M AURITANIA%20GB%202016%20 in this Sahelian nation stem from French WEB.theme.pdf (accessed Oct. 29, 2017). colonialism, government corruption, its geographic location in the Sahel, urbanization, "Mauritania at a Glance." The Washington ​ Post. Aug. 13, 2006. and human slavery. Proximate causes include ​ environmental degradation, an influx of Malian https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politi cs/2006/08/13/mauritania-at-a- refugees, food insecurity and malnutrition, and glance/cee7230f-e998-4039-b0ae-3983afaf9afc development challenges. Thankfully, /?utm_term=.e01975c38274 (accessed Oct. 4, Mauritanian citizens, non-governmental 2017). organizations, and Western nations have all stepped up to bring resources and needed Nashashibi, Sharif. "Mauritania's 'Overlooked' Arab Spring." The Guardian. May 26, change to this country. These entities must ​ ​ 2012. remember, however, that simply giving aid https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2 money is not a sufficient response to fix all of 012/may/26/mauritania- the individual problems. From humanitarian aid overlooked-arab-spring (accessed Oct. 4, to economic policies, concerted responses in 2017). the areas of food, environmental, and political Nossiter, Adam. "Mauritania Confronts Long resources not only better the lives of Legacy of Slavery." The New York Times. ​ Mauritanians, but also place the Sahelian Nov. 11, 2013. country on a firmer foundation. It is imperative http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/12/world/afri that the international community supports ca/mauritania-confronts-long- individualized development efforts to stabilize legacy-of-slavery.html (accessed Oct. 4, 2017). Mauritania because these efforts will benefit Pitman, Todd. "Mauritania Junta's Promise of the security interests of the world as a whole. Democracy in Doubt." The Washington ​ Post. Aug. 9, 2008. ​ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-

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