Apollon Musagète: a Classical Theme in Tee [Sic] Twentieth Century

Home , Fred Fehl, Lew Christensen, Martha Swope, Octet (Stravinsky), Strasbourg Opera House

AFOILDN MUSAGh”I’z

A CLASSICAL THEME IN TEE T;rlENTIETH CENTURP

A Thesis Presenbd h Part- Fulfrtlnt of the Requirements for the Degree Kaster of Arts

The Ohio State University 1975

Approved by

Adviser Mvision of the History of Art For confidential use only Not for circulation, distribution, or publication All rights in this work are the property of

Susan 8. G. Au 5ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Illustrations, iv, - Introduction, 1, I. Stravinsky'9 Conception and Creation of the Ballet, 11, II, Significant Productions of Apollon Musa+ts, 37. IIf, The Iconopaphy of Apollon Musadte, 108 . IV. APoUon Musagate and the Tk-ntieth Century, 157. . Selected Bibliography, 163. Appendix: Published Photographs and Designs of ApoUon Musahete, 1928-1951., 166, Illustrations. UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Adolph Bolm in Apsllon Musa&te, 1928. (Maurice Goldberg) 3. Martin, The Dance, New York, 1946, 100. -- 2, Andre/Bauchant, Champs-Eldes. Oil on canvas, 39-1/8 x 4).1/2 (sight), Signed, lower right in oil: A, Bauchant/ 1927. Hartford, Vadsworth Atheneum 1933.395. Bo Taper, Balanchine, revised and updated ed, , Collier edition, New * York, 19'74, 102. Data from Hartford, Wadsworth Atheneum, The Serm Lifar Collection of Set and Costume Des.ims, comp. M,C, Palmer and S.J. Wagstaff, Hartford, 1965, 18, * 3. And& Bauchant, ApoUon Apparaissant aux Bermrs, 195. G, DetdUe and G. MLLys, Les Ballets de Monte Carlo, 1911- 19% Paris, 19% 135. 4, Andd Bauchant, Apo'llon Apparaissant aux Bergers, 1928. M, Lederman,,(ed, ) , Stravinsks in the Theatre , New York, 194.9, 157. 5. Andre) Bauchant, Le Char d'AwUon. Oil on canvas, 23-5/8 x 27-3/4, Signed. lower left in oil: A, Bauchant/l928. Hart- ford, Wadsworth' Atheneum 1933.396, Strasbourg, hcienne Douane, Les Ballets Russes de Serm de Diaghilev. 1909-1924, Strasbourg, ' 1969, 237, pl, IlO, Data from iiartford, Wadsuorth Atheneum. The S9re Lifar Collection, 18.

6, Apotheosis scene, ApoUon Musadte, Ballets Russes, 1928, The Illustrated Locdon News) The Illustrated London News, . &AX.XII,- July 7, 1928, 13 (middle). 7. AnclrQ Bauchant, Souttepir d'Awllon Phsaate. Oil on canvas, 32-1/8 x 39-1/8. Signed, lower right: A. Bauchant/l939. The fibright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffdo. G. Arnberg, Art in Modern Ballet, New York, 1946, pl. 77. Data from The New York Public Library, Strav3nsk.v and the Theatre, Mew York, 1963, 28. 8, A Muse, Apollon Musagate, Ballets Russes, 1928. (Lipdtzki) Captioned as Felia ljoubrovska (Calliope), but the gesture is that of Polyhymnia. A, Levinson, La 3anse d'aujowd'hui, Paris, 1929, 89. 9. Pas $'action, Apouon Musa&t;e, Ballets Russes, 1928. H, =arb, Ballet Music, 2nd rev. ed., New York, 1973, facing pas 103. 10. Apollo and four Muses, Apollon Ihsadte, Ballets Husses, 1928. A.L. Haskell, Diaahileff, New York, 1935, facing pap 305. U, "Sdnmimg lesson," pas de deux, Adlon Xusazbte,, Ballets Russes, 1928, Ni!!itina as Terpsichore. (The Illustrated London News) The Illustrated London News, CUKUI, July 7, 1928, 13 (below, V

Ballets Husses, 1928, Danilova as Bo Kochno, Diaddlev and the Ballets Russes, New York, 1970, 267. - 13. ltSleeping" pose, coda , Apollon Nusadte , Ballets Russes, 1928, Abut tho House, 11, Christmas 1966, 17. 14. Four poses, ApoUon Musaqb, Ballets Husses, 1928, The "many- legged creature" pose at lower right, (The Times, London) Theatre Arts, xjlxu:, November 1947, 36. 15. Stewart Chaney, set design for second scene, Apollon Nusae;$';e, The American Ballet, 1937. (Columbia Concerts Corporation) Lo Kirstein, ttHomage to Stravinsky,I' Arts and Decoration, XLVI, &Y 1937, 14 (above), 16, Stewart Chaney, costme designs for Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, and Calliope (left to right), Apollon Musagate, The Anerican Ballet, i 1937. (Columbia Concerts Corporation) LbstBin, "Homage to Stravinsky," 14 (blow) , 17. Stewart Chaey, costum design for Apollo, Apoll~nMusaate, The American Ballet, 1937. Theatre Arts Monthly, AX..il,1937, 4U (top left). figs, 16-17. Four designs for costumes, 1937. Gouache on gas' paper, 9-3/4 x 12-3/4, The Museum of Modern Art, Hew York. Data from The New York Public Library, Stravinsky and the Theatre, 28,

18, Stewart Chaney, set design, Apollon lhsadlte, The Amrican Ballet, 1937. Theatre Arts Monthly, dI, 1937, 4U- (below) , 19. Apotheosis scene, AmDon 1-hsadte, The Amerban Ballet, 1937. (The Times, London) CON. Eeaumont, aallet Desim Fast 233 Present, London, 1946, 115 (blow).

20. Apotheosis scene, ADollon Ibfusa&b, The American Ballet, 1937. J. Martin, Ths Dance, New York, 1946, 72 (left). 2'1. "Creation of Adam" pose, pas de deux, Apollon I.Iusa*b, The AInerican Ballet, 1937. Dance Index, vf, 1947, 29 (left).

22, "l)lany-legged creature" pose, _I_coda, ADolJon 1+usa&te, The American Ballet, 1937. The New York Fubfic Library, Stravinskg and the Dance, New York, 1962, 29, pl. 5.

23, Three Muses, Apollon bInsa&te, The American Ballet, 1937. Dance -Index, VI, 1947, 29 (right), Four poses, Apollon Musagzte, American Ballet Caravan, 1941. (Schulmann) Dance Index, IV, February-March 1945, 25 (middle right and left, blow right. and left). Pawl Tchelitchew, set design for opening of Apollon Xusagbte, 1942. Dance Index, 111, January-February 1944, 31 (above),

Pawl Tchelitchew, set design for apotheosis, Apollon Musa~h, 1942. Dance Indez, 111, January-February lw,31 (below). figs 25-26, Two designs for decor, 1942. Gouache, 13-7/8 x 24-5/8 (sight). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Data from The New York Public Library, Stravinsks and the Theatre, 28. Pave1 Tchelitchew, page from a sketchbook, costumes for the Muses at lower left, Signed and dated 1942, Dance Irdex, III, January-February 1W, 2. Pas d’action, APollon Musa.&s, 1942, Dance Index, I, July 1942, 102 (below).

Igor Youskevitch as ApoUo, A OUO,BaUet Theatre, 1946-47 season or later, (Fred FehlP- R. Lawrence, The Victor Book of Ballets and Ballet Music, New York, 1950, 36. Apollo three Muses, Anollo, Bdlet Theatre, lw3. (Dwight Godwin) G, Anberg, Ballet in Americq, New York, 1949, following page 108. Pas d‘action, Apollo, Ballet Theatxe, 194.60 (Roer Wood) F. Hall, Modern Endish Ballst;, London, 1950, facing pap 64

“hy-legged creature” pose, coda_, Awllo, Ballet Theatre, 1946- 47 season, Youskevitch as Apollo. (Fred Feu) Theatre .rirts, m, May 1947, 33 (blow). Andd Delfau, set design for ADoXon Musaate, Paris O&a Ballet, 194.7, Watercolor, l+l/L~ x 18. The ijew York Public Library. The New York Public Library, Stravinskv 2nd the Dmce, 28, pl, 4. Data from The New York Public Library, Stravinsky and the Theatre, 28.

Pas d’action, Apollo, Leader of the hiasas, The New York City Ballet, 1951. {Fred Feu) B.H, Baggin, Ballet Chronicle, New York, 1970, 135 (above). 36, Andr6 Eaevsky as Apollo, Auollo, Leader of the Muses, The New York City Ballet, 192. R, Krokover, Tho New Borzoi Book of wlets, New York, 1956, pl, la, 37. Coda, ApoUo. Leader of the ~USQS,The New York City Ballet, 1951. (Fred Fehl) t Haggin, gallet Chronicle, 135 (below).

38, Coda, Apollo, Leader of the Muses, The New York City Ballet, 1951, (Fred Fehl) A, Chujoy, The New York City Ballet, New York, 1.953, following page 48. 39. Pas d'action, ARO~O,The New York City Ballet, 1957. (Fred Fehl) Taper, i3alanchine, 107 (blow),

40. "Swimming lesson," as de ciewc, Apollo, The New York City Ballet, 1957. (F'dmper, i3alanchim, 106 (below), 41. !!.Many-legged creatare" pose, coda, _Apollo, The New York City Ballet, c. 1957. (Martha Swope) L, Kirstein, Movement and Metaphor, New York, 1970, pl, 436. 42, -Coda, Apollo, The-Mew York City Ballet, C. 1957. (Martha Swpe) Kirstein, mvement and mtaphor. PL 435. 43,, Pas d'action, ApoUo, The New York City Bdllet, 1965. (Martha Suope) liirstein, Hovement and Metaphor, pl. 434. 44, Apotheosis scene, Apollo, The New York City Ballet, 1962. (Fritz Peyer) E, doegler, Balanchine and das moderne Baett, BanOq3P. 1964, 69. 45. "Sleephg" pose, a,&ollo, The New York City Ballet, 1962, (Fritz Pep?) Loegler, Balanching, 68 (left). 46, rrTroika,rrcoda, Awllo, The New York City Ballet, 1962. (bit2 Peysr) Eoeaer, ~alanchir~,68 (right), 47, Prologue, Apo?, Cuba, Jorge Esquivel as ApoUo. (Osvaldo Salas) Dance hagazine, AUV, March 1970, 40 (detail),

48, Pas d'action, ADO~~O,?ais Op6ra Ballet, 1974. Guest stars Rudolf Nureyev (Apllo) and &rle Park, (Lido) Dance ad Dancers, UV, July 1974, 36 (above left).

4% "w-legpd crezture" pose, coda, ADO~~O,Pmrican Bdet Theatre, 1974. Dance and Dancers, UV, July 1974, 39 (zbove), ,53. Let0 Givine: Birth to Acollo (?), relief-decorabd amphora from Thebs, post 700 3.C. Athens, National Huseum j898. B 1.20 m, K, &bfold, S-yth ad Legend in Early Greek kt, trans A. Hicks, New York, 1966, pl. 12. 51. Awllo. Attributed to Agostino di Duccio or Ihtteo de' Pasti, Chapel of tho Liberal Arts, Tempio Malabstiano, IbliniD Mid shteenth century. E. iiinbrnitz, Musical Instruments anct their S_ymboUsm in Vestern Art, London, 1967, PlD 4b. ._.

52. Apollo and the Ihses. Attributed t0 Giulio Romano. Paaszo Pitti, Florence. First half of the sixteenth century. A, Blunt, Nicolas Poussin, Washington, &c,, 1967, 1, pl. 123,

53. Hellos in his Chariot. Attic red-figure hater, c. 440 B,C, London, British ih.weum E446. R.P. Hinks, Myth and X!.lep,wy in Ancisnt Art, London, 1939, p1, la. 9. Andr-odda. Decor for prologue, 1650, S.Y. Deierkanf-Holsboer, L'Histoire de la mise en scbe dans le the2tre francais- 3 Paris de 1600 B 1673, paris, 1960, pi. ALnI. 55, Costume for Apollo (Louis XLV), Watercolor sketch by Torelli (?>, 169. Paris, BibliothBque de l'Institut, M.-F. Christout, Le-Ballet de-cow de Lo&s XIV, 1.643-1672, Paris, 1967, PlD 33. Data from Xirstein, Movem9nt and ihtaphos, 261, pl. 139.

. 3

Since the klm of the anoient Greeks, the god Apollo has symbolized a number of m's highest ideals and aspirations, As the god of science, philosophy, poetry, and medicine, he presided over a realm. of light and knowledge. So pervasive has been his association with rationality, truth, d intellect that twentieth-century scientists, certainly no adherents to the pagan faith, deemed It no incongruity to gim h3.s naw to ~i major program in space exploration.

But the god *ius 6 patron of bhe arts as well as the scienues, and

US love of harmmy manifested itsell mough music as we^ as ~lrough the sterner disciplines of mathematics and astronomg. It was Apollo as musician and dancer, in conjunction with the kses, who represent tlae fine arts, who Lgor Stravinsky chose to celebrate i.n a score for ballet oomposed in 198. Titled Apallon &sa&te, the French version of the Greek epithet Apollo bagetes, or Apollo, Leader of the Wes, the bsllet was given two separats stae praduciiom in the first par of its existence. Since then it has received a number of new fastmsnts, principally involving changes in its some and costuare design. It survlws today in the repertories of several major ballet compsnies. This paper was mtivatsd by the questba, What is a twentieth- century ApoUo?" It will probe into the reasons behind Stravinsky's choice of this them, and the interpretations of the artists who shaped the ballet's material form. The ultimate results - the twentieth- century vision or evocation of Apollo, a deity of the classical world - will be exPrrded both es sn outgrwth of tradition i512d an attempt to reshsp that tradition. 2 As much as possible, the ballet Awllon M-ah wsu be lrllscussed

8s a uniiied entity, a synthesis of music, dance, 4 the dsud arts. All of these elements play an aotive part In the depickon of the theme, The them itself will be iconographically analysed according to a method with which an art historian adght describe a painting, ht expanded here to include tb temporal dimnsion. Unlike a painting, V which USU- depicts a fixed moment in time and space, a ballet exists sequentia in time and space, and the mbr of images which may be examined is correspondingly multiplied. Furthermore, Awnon MusafiBte has a production history which spans the pes 1928 la the present day, 1975, although it was not performed in every gear of this period, During this ti= it has been altered choreographically and musically, buf the most salient changes have been visual, i.e., in the ballet's set ;and costume designs, In effect, the ballet consists of two fairly constant elements, Stravfnsky's scenario and music, ard a number of variable elements, among which ar~chorea - grew, scene and costuma design, and the in-rpretations of idividual performers, These va?isliles enable the historian to estaUsh a sequence of concrete images illustrating the changes in concept5on and tsste of the makers of the ballet and, by extension, of the atdieaces for whom the ballet was intended. In analysing the ballet, I will. adapt Ervin Panofsky's guidelines for the iconographical analysis of paintings, as diagrammed in the inbodaction to his book Studies in Iconolopg (Toschhook edition, New Xork, le). 3 First, a "pre-iconographical description" will be made, focussing prbarily on forms and the style that governs their depiction in any given instance, In ballet, this analysis nust cover not only vlsual forms such as sets, costws, and static poses, ht the scendo, msical score, and mbvement through time as mu1 as space.

The second level of discussion, which Panofsky terms nicono- graphi-cal arud.ysis in the narrower sense,'8 involv~sthe association of forms with themes, concepts, stories, and allegories, Panofsky's third level of analysis, "iconographical interpretation or iconographical synthesis," searches for waning in the forms and spbols that have been described ard identifbd. An must be made to place the art object back into the cultural milieu from which it sprang, and to view it through the eyes of its contemporaries

w~U. wfth the hl,ndsi&t Of historicd. knowled~. Because Stravlnsky's scenglr3.o and score were cmated before the rest of the ballet, this paper will begin by exambhg the comserts verbal statements of its conception, composition, and intentions, as descrfbed in his various autotdapaphical 8TIcz. awed.pt~cations. For lgusical analyses of the ballet, the reader is referred to the

Mbliographies in Stravinsky in the Theatre, edited by Minna Lederman

(Hew York, 194.9). ani Stravhsky: A, New Appraisal of His Work, edited by Paul Henry Lang (New York, 1963). - A selected mber of productions, covering the gears 198 to 1957, rill then be &scussed in chronological order. Each ulll be described

as much as possible in the words of its makers ad contemporary cAticsI

ad Visual records such as designs and photographs will be eay9d d 4 analysed. In order to minbrize repetition, elements that remain constant fram one production to another Wiu be discussed in less detail than the changes Sntroduced. This Nill constitute the “pm-iconographical de scription, The “iconographical analysis In the narrow sense“ will trace the protagonists and episodes in the ballet (e.g.@ Apollo and the bses, the MAS. of Apono) to their ori@ns in ancient Greek mythology and art, then survey a selection of their subsequent mnnifestations mtll the par 198, As befits 8 thesis in the history of art, thls paper will concentrate on visual re;lrresantations of the various tbeaes and epidodes. Since most productions of Awnon Musadte adhere to Stravinsky’s scenario, which contains little specffyc detd3, this level of analysis place less eqhasis on .the differences between the productions. However, the iconographical associations of specific costumes, settings, d properties wfu. be noted and discussed wbre eppropriate. The thfrd level of a~&%iswiu. return to the idea of Change within the work of art and in reactions k, the work. IApoU-on Musah Will be evaluated here as part of a movement which mag be labelkd “twentieth-century classicism,” and its form and content dll be related to more general characteristics of this momment. In almost ang attempt to study a ba??et of the past, the great ImpedimDent of the dance bistorfan becomes h&iately apparent: since .ballet is an ephemral at, no performance of the past can be reproduced and experienced as a totality, Ewn the most pdnstakiag revivals of banous ballets of the past have been doolaed to fallnre 5.n this sense9 for a number of reasons. 5 Om of these reasons Is the unrellabillty of memory, which Is still the chisf mans of preserving and transmitting choreography,

Although the fylm technique slyj. various systems of dance notation,

such a8 Labanotation gTd Benesh notation, have become increasin& mre efficient and Widespread as mthods of recording dance, these methods am often disdained by danaers and choreographers. Among them Is Gecrge Bbchine, who choreographed nost of the productions of Rusaabte. He has stated in an interview that he never uses choreographic notation to record his ballets, expWning, "I don't want my ballsts preserved as museulu pieces for people to go and laugh at uhat used to be. Absalub1.v nota"' (However, the Dance Collection of the New Pork Public Library does possess a movement score of Balanchba's AmUa, recorded .b &mesh notaaon by the choreologist Jurg Lanzrein ut the New York City Ballet, 1973,') The act.reproduction of ballets of the past is further hindered by the fa& that dance tecWque aad trw have altered over the years, and qualities such as emrgy, effort, and flow may vary dthough steps 811d movements remain the same. F'urthermre, the ineffable influences of temperament d personality are impossible to redreate. Even a renowned dancer such as Margot Fonteyn can only perform Fonteyn's interpretatton of Swan Lake; even if rill the facts and -fiwes were

available for a "rePivaf," she would never be able to dupucate th8 performance of Pierha Led, who creeted the role of the Swan Queen

b the petipa-Ivan0V production Of 1895, In this Study Of ApoUon Musdte, there was no way to view the performances of 1928, 1937, or

193. In mre recent years, 8 feu films have been made,, but are 6 ultimately less satisfying than 3ive performances, BIbd in many cases sre not availnbln for benerd dewfng, In this respect the art historian has a slight edge over the dance historian, for although pabtings and sculptures czu3 d do alter over the pars, chances are that more of the original remains of these objects than of a ballet, which to a great extent is re-created each %Ins it is performed.

Of COUIPSB. the dance historian may have at his disposal the materid subsf;ance of a balllet of the past3 its scenery and costums, or their designs, XowevBr, even these ham all too hrief an existence. Una Serge X.ag€&bv organized the Ballets jlusses, scenic designers uere usudly specialists who enJoyed little esteem in the artistic

world, and thRjr creations were treated accard3.ng3.y. It was DisgWlev

who pp&riz;ed the practice of employing easel painters as scenic designers, fbst his Russian colbaguss, such as don Bakst ard &-e BePois, thsn palnters of the School of Paris, such as Pa& Picasso, Eed Natisse, 8f?d Georges Braque. Hmmver, emn Pfcasso's th8abScd. works were mt psemas

careWy a5 Mseasel p.ainting3, as was discovered in 1973 when the City Center Joffrez Ballet of New York City atteqbd to revive the 1917 ballet Pa-rade, Practfcal3y nothing of PIcasso's ori&&d sets costuxms had survid, ard these had to be resuscitated thraugh sketches d photographs. In paany Cases colors had to be repraduced from memory. Costmlng pmsented a further problent even when photographs d sketches of tibe costumes were av&bb, no om could recall how they looked from the backO3 7 Other Visual records of a bntlnt sre photographs, sketches, 81d painungs of the dancers in aation. These con be of great value ia recapturbg poses, gestures, facial expressions, d 8-11 movement qadities, as well as providing docunentation of the sets and costames or artist can enhance the movemsnt quality and expressiveness of a

w dater, as Arnold Genthe did for Isadora hcan 8rkd Valentins Gross fer Vaslav Nijinsky. Although no performance sketches nor paintings ef' Apollon Musaate could be located, a age numbsr of phobgaphs of various points in the Wetdo eldst, scattered among var3-0~~ pkikations. Orre of the aims of this paper has been to collect as of these as possible, in order to compare one pmductLon dong- side another. Verbal reports d::o aid in recapturing the ambience of a ballet. Tbese inclucie advance notices, ppogrammbs, revieus, interviews, p~mirs,biographies, aatObiograpMes, and histories ad anal~~esof the period. Usbd below are so= of the books axl articles that have prt.oW most helpnil, direow or indhectly, to the writing of this 0 Urstein, whose Mopemsnt and Plstohar (New York, 1970) surveys fif'ty

ballets in terms their historical cultud, of precedents and - milieu. Straw, the originator of tb ballet, has written a mbar of books of reminiscences, opinions, and artistic theories. Of these, the most extensive information on A~ollonMusa&te may be found in far Stravinsky, An AutaMomaPhy (Norton edtion, New York, 1962) aril Malomes ard a Marx (London, 1968), the latter written in collabo- ration With Robert Craft, Among other authors' books on Stravinsky, Eric Walter white's Stravinsks: The Comser and His Works (Berkeley, 1966) has provled one of the most helpntl, since it contains rat only a deteiled analysis Of &XUon Mqg&&, but the composer^^ biography,

a list of his works, an excellent bibliography, d a trove of corre~p~ence.&&re speoiaUzed infordAon on Stravinsky' s ballets,

operas, and theatre Heces may be fdiS Stradnsky fn the Theatre (New York, 1*9), edibd by Wrma Ledem, Among the essays 3.n this

bok Is Balanchfne's "The Dance Element fn the Mwic," which offers a look at Stravinsky*s music fkom a chol.eographer's point of view.

Shce the Ballets Russes version of 4-21 hsadte, first performed in 1928, is generally considered the single most important production of the Uet, mch of this paper will be devoted to its description and EUliJSSIs. As om of the best-known and most influen-

tial ballet coqanies in ,dl history, the Eaa-lets Russes has bpired a vast anuunt of commentary since its Parisian debut of 1909. useful

Firsthand accounts of the Wetcompang in general and ,-, in pgrticular may be derived from bobooks by Diamev's ebse associates: The DiaFdLbv Sallet 1909-1929 (Pen,- edttion, d 9 London, 1953) by Serge (Mgoriev, his dgisseur, and Diadxllev and the Ballets Russea (New York, 1970) by Boris Kocho, his secretary.

Serge Idfar, the creator of the role of ApoYO in the Ballets RUSSOS produceion, has unfortpnately left no substantial description of the ballet's cmation amng his copious autobiographical and historical writings. BowBvBr, Ids biopaphg Serm Maahilev: His Life. His Work. HIS Lewd (New York, 1940) offers Usem if occasionally Mased infOx7llatiOr4

George Bbcb,who choreographed the Bdlets Russes production ad mst subsequent ~aductions,has published severd. books of wet synopses, written w3.a Fhnc3.s Mason, The synopsis of Apollaq a,approved by ths choreographer, is included in rsJ, threes Complete Stortes of the Great Ballet,q (Garden City, New York, lg*), BaZanchine*s Hew Cond.e.te Stories of' the Great Ballets (Garden City, New York, 19681, azxl 101 Stories of the Great Ballets (Dolphin edition, Gden City, EJew Pork, 195). Further informatLon is contaimd in the

Mograpby Bdanchine by Bernard Taper (revised yd updated edition, Collier edition, New York, 194), anf Lincoln Eirstein*s article "Balanchine &5ag?!te," Theatre Arts, XZI, November 1%7, 36f., reprinted in Thatre Arts Anthala= (New York, 1950) edited by Rosamnd Wer et al. =stein, Balanchir~'s longthe friend and associate, also offers provocgtive wights hto Awnon bfusadte b Movement axbd &taphor (New York, 1970) The New York City Bat(New York, 1973). To date there has been no shgfle source of information on all of the productions of Amllon Ibadte, and the data in this paper has been culled from a #Id0 assortment of books, reviews, mmofis, articles, 10 and the like. Neither fs there any booblength study of the iconography of the Apollo Masagetes them in the visual. arts, Again, ths information in this paper has been compiled from a variety of sources.

Notes: 1. G, Balendhfne, 'Work in Progress," in Dance as a Theatre ,irk; Source F&#.nF! s inDance History froa 1581 to the Present, ed, Selma Jeanne Cohsn, New York, 1w4, 192.

2, The Meu %rk Public Library, Dance Collectton, Di&iomry Cataloe; of ths Dance Collection, Boston, 1974, I, 186, 3. D. Cooper, "Parade," Dance and Dancers, ZIV, June 1973, 20f. Stravinsky’s Conception and Creation of the Ballet I. -.-

A ballet nay come into being in a number of ways. A well-known approach is that of MarAw Petipa, chief ballet-master of the Imperial Theatre in St. Petersburg during the late nineteenth century, who commissioned t%n.uicby the yard’” from Peter Tchaikovsky, indicating . through written memorarda the mood, meter, and number of bars desired for each section of the scorn. A more integrated relationship between oomposer, choreographer, and stage designer was employed during the emly pars of the Ballets RUSSBS. The Mrebird and Petroucfikq were thrashed out bit by bit by a working “ChmMIttd’ consisting of

Stravinskg, th0 charsographer Michel Fob, the designers Bakst and BBmis, and Mawlev. So close was their inbraction that in later , years the participants tbmselvprs had tpouble recl’lling who had

contributed a given idea.

AmUon Musaghe, on the contrary, was a ballet that beg=- SO~U

With the composer. There ai?8 two different accounts af the ballet’s genesis, one by Stravinskg and the other by Serge War, prerder danseur of the Ballets Russes during the late ‘twenties and creator of the role of Aplla, Both apee that the idea for the ballet

originated Kith Stravinsky, but; have different opinions about the motivation for that idea. Strawinsky wrote in his autobiography, which was pb-hed fJ,rst in 1936: Abut this time 092fl I was askod by the Congressional Library in Washington to compose a ballet for a festival of ,

contemporary music which was to include +he production of senrd works specidly written for the occasion, The generow American patron; bs, EUzabath Sprague Coolidge, had under- taken to defray tho expense of these artistic productions. I had a free hand as to the subject and was limited onLy as to length, which was not to exceed half a hour..,.This ?row posal suited ms admirably, for, as I was mom or less free jwt then it, enabled me to carry out an idea which hed long tempted me, to compose a ballat founded on momsnts or episodes in Greek whology plastic- interpreted by dancing of the so-called classical school.1 Acco-g to Wm, however, the ballet was first intended for the Ballets Russes, and in particular for War. He quotes Dia&U.ev

Let ms congratulab you, Serioiha. Stravhsky has been saying the mc.s*tastonishing things about you, He's so pleased with you that he's going to cornpase a bdbt especially for you, even thoush he's working overt3.m on a comnrission for Azaericat2 Lif~ges on to quote a letter written to him by Dia9hi'l.P_.rt, which he daks to September 30, 1927:

After lunch he played 11~8 the first half of the new ba77st. It is, of course, an amaztng work, extraordinarfiy calm, and with a greater clarity than anything he has so far done; a fillgee counterpoint rodtranspent, clear-cut theas, all in the major key; somehow musfc not of this world, but from somwhere above. It seems strange that, though the tempo of all this part is slow, yat at the same time it is perfectly adapted to dancing. There is a short, fast movement in your first variation - there are to bo two for pu, and the opening is danced to an umcc0n.k pded violin solo. Very remarkabfel On the whole, one feels it is part Gunkla and part sbcteenth-century Italian, though without any intentional. ftussianizing. He played it over to ma three *S rurlnin g - so that I have the cleerest idea of it now. The Adado Pas d'Act5on has a broad theme Wry gel"mane b Us today; 5% runs concurrently in four different tempos, 81?d yet, generally speddng, the harmony is most satisfactory. I edwaced him and he did: "It's for you to produce it properly for me: I want . War to haw all sorts of flourishes..." When the train was already moving out, he shouted to zm: ''Ekd a good title!" But all the same, there is really no sub= ject. And very soon this nbdlatitle was fd: Am,?lon Masadk.3 13 The descriptton of the music is certainly that of AwLlon

-$us&. In a footnote to Diaghilev's letter Lif~tries to dis- credit Stravinskg's account, observing somewhat acidly, "The dis- crepancy between Dfa&ilev*s contemporary and absolutely trust- wortby account & Strainsky's memoirs, which ware not written till. so- yeas Later, rewals hox fragile mmry " is human and how uttle it is to be reued on24 The solution of this problem would be mnch aided if the exact

date of the Coolidge codssfon were knom Stravinsky's autoMography is sOmewhat vague, designating it am by the phrase "abut tW th," following a discussion of his activities in June 1927.5 Frederick Jscobi, the reviewer for Modern Husic, sets the date sU.&tly earlfer, 3.n the spring of 197.6 Kowever, bllister Noble, the reviewer for Music& Am ericq, states that the commission was awarded in Sepbmbr 197.7 If the last date were correct, the codssian wovld have been received after Strawy started work on the ballst, which he clnims b did fn JUlge8 Eomper, a xnmbr of points sugipst that the September d&e is becurate. Hrst of all, U.f,?r's quota.tLion of DSa-vts words ae"tsr

-LaChat- includes the clause ''even though he's working overthe on $9

cornd.ssi~nfor bericat'' The prerrdere of La Chatte, 2olb-a which the words were supposedly spoken, took phC3 on Apfi 30, 1927. If Ufarfs quotation is correct - ard he is certainlg mghls om argwmnt if it is - the Sacobi date seems to be mre accwab than Stravinsky's omr L;ifar also dates Diaghibv's letter, descrLbbg the bslf-fldshed ballet, to September 1927. This seems to cormberate 14 Stravbsky's statement that the work was beg^ in JuLg, ' Forty years rrftier the premiere, Strafisky ballet's - revealed in DiaLogpes and a Diary , I'Diaghilev was very annoymi when he learned that 1 had composed a ballet for somone else, and although he acquired it gratis after the Washingtan prembre, he never forgave qy (as he thought Lt) ~slOy~ty.~~g his statement is mre amb~guousthan it seems at mst glanoe, for it is unclear whether Diagwlev knew from the first that ArnUo~was intended for the Library of Congress or if he believed, as Lifar cbshs, that it was mant for the Bidb'ts Ruses. ft i.8 even possible to suspct the composer of duplicity: did he first offer AmUoq to the Ballets Russes, then change his Ddnrl and bshw it upon the Lihrary of Congress instead? But *re is an argument in favor of Strarlmky's mrsion of the story, and this is conta,bed in the scenario tvLd music tbsmselms: their confodty to the specmcations of %he CooUdge cnnmdssfon, Xts terms required that the score be Wted to a half-hour's duration: that instruments appropriate to a small atditoritmb Stravinshy hinself was gimn a free hand as to the subject of the ballet, and the decision to Uait the instrumentatLon to a strina; ensemble was also his. It is true tibat the scenario called for cewn rather than sfx dancers (ApoUo, ths three hes, hto, & two attendants), but this is a ndnor point of difference,

stul, Lifrrr's CkiKa cannat be didssed out of w. It is entirely possible that StravznSky begen work with the intantion of 15 giving the finished ballet to the Ballets Russes, and that he altered

it to conform to .t;be Codudgs commission while the work was still in progress* His description of the ballet as "an idea that had long tempted men sugpsts that he mag have been tWngof it long before either the Cad@ comadssion or the impulse to areate a balZst for tiiaY.. Certainly his long association with the Ballets Rmses makes the ballet cowa more predictable recipient than the Library of

I Congress. 33 is also possible that there we- at om tb two ballets on Stradnskyrs agenda, om for Aznsrica and one for War, and that

tha two becapre gesrOQ8d. But At is W.sputable that the ballet in its f'inal form was intc&d for America, atxi it certainly received its first pradr;rctSion there, In D&J,arzues and a Diarp the ccarposer quotes a comrsation (possibly apmhal) beken libself and MaghXbv, which mggests that he accepted comsission parely for tb sake of money.^ as tongue-mheek tom beconres evident *with as revrjlation that the cunmdssion earned him only one thousand dollars, The prestige of being asked to contribu* to the festival was probably a far greater incentive. Elizabeth Spzlap Coozidge was well-known as a patroness

of mUsic, A menber of the wedthy Sprague fanrilg of Chlcago, sb sponsored in 19s the first public festivd of chamber in America, on her estate in Massachusetts. Una 1924 tbis was the site of the Berksbire festivals, whhh was thgn moved to Washfngton, D.C., where her patronage helped build the charnbsr music haU. adj0-g the

Library of Congress. At the .t_imR of ~t.raVinsky's Codssion, the

chamber music festival. was administered by the CoaXLdp Fodation 16 rather than Mrs. Cooudge herself, and &llorj was commissioned by the Foundati~n,~It was Stra~insky'a first Wrlaan coarmissionr13 As noted above, he began work in July1927, and became so absorbed that he pastponed most of his concert plans for that autumn. The composition was oomplelxd in the beginning of 1928, and since only the final. orahestration remained, ho resumed his burs and ~0nccrts.l~ The score is divided into two pats. The first, which is designated as tho prologue, is entitled "ApoUo's Birth." It begins with an intrductlon (Lam) leading to a music& theme somtbs denoted as the "Olymprian" theme. This is followed by a dance (Albtzgg) for the two goddesses in atbrmctame upon Leto, Apollo's mother.@ Then ApoUo himseU appears and is led to Olympus by the two ,poddesses as the llOlgmpian" thaw fs repeated, The second part of the score, I1Apol.h 81x1 ttbs hses," opns with &Nationfor Apcllo, written as a cadenza for unaccompavlied solo doUsr, This was IllenUoned in DiagMleP's letter to Lifa, as was the asd'actAon, (u)which follows. The music for this dance, which is perford by the three hses and ApoUo, consists of a nub theme played in canon, ~Jhichappears siimltaneously in augnentation and ditpirmtion,

The Wes then dance separatelj., each demonstrating to ApUo her own particular art. Of these dances the fbst, the variation of

Calliope, has attracted the most attentiaz from msic critics, shce its rhythmic strncture was inspired by a verse form, the alexens. The sowcs of this fnspiration wlll be fnrther discussed below. Polyhymnia's &riation is marked P13eerr0, Terpsichwe's memetto. Apollo8s se~odvariatioQ (knto) then precedes a pas de deux @&&) for ApoUo an3 Terpsichore. A lively cod4 (Vivo) for ApOUo and the three Muses follows, The ballet is &ought to ~n end by a solsmn apotheosis (LWEO) which reiterates th 'lOlympian*ltheme of the prologp as Apollo lsads the bses to Parnas~.'~ Several years after the composition of the score, Strzvinsky verbalized hfs ideas on the Wetin his autobiogrnphy: I chose as the theme ApUo Ihsastes - that is Apollo as the master of the Muses, insphing each of them with her own art, I reduced their number to three, selecthg from mmg them CaUiape, Polyhgmtl.La, ard Terpsichore as being the most characteristic mpresentativss of chorecgraphic art. CaTliop, receiving the stylus w13 tablets from ApUo, personifies poetry and its rhythm; Polyhynmia, finger on lips, represents minm. As Cassiodorus tells US: "Those speaking fYngera, that ehquent silence, those wratives 5.n gesture, are said to have been jnvmted by the t&ss Polghgmoia, wishing to prom that man could express his Faill u5.thout recourse to Finallg, Terpsichore, co&inhg in herself both the rhykhm of poetry 8136 the eloquence of gesture, reve8lS dancing to the world, and thus among the Muses takes the place of honor besides the b&sal;ebs. After a series of d,legoricd dances, which were be treated in the traditional classical style of ballet (Pas-d'action, Pas de deux, Veiztions, Coda), Apauo, in an apotheosis, leads tb~lb~es, vith 'ferpsichom at theh head, to ParnasSUs, where they wera to live ever Bftemards. I prefaced the allegory with a pologm representing the birth of Apollo. According to ths b-d, '%et0 was kith child, and, fesli-ng tho mmnt of blrth at had, threw her arms about a palm tree and knelt on the terrder green turi", and the earth smiled beneath her, and the child spang Torth to .t;hs light,. .,Goddesses washed him with limpid water, gam hin for swaddlfng clothes a wM veil of fino ttsstte, SXI bodit with 2 golden gi~xi~e.12

8fd mf'lect the composer's early schooling, which fncluded studies 3.n Greek and 3.1atin.'~ The first quotation is from Fladus &ms Ayelius Cassiodom (ca. A.0. 490 - ca. 585)* a Rorran historian, poli.i;fcian, 813d spank, A calledor of nmuscripts, he encouraed the copying of pagan as well as Cfiristian authors, and thus helped presem the works of the ancients.18 The second quotation derives from the Homerio hymn -- To DeUan AwUo, which will be dedt with mom thoroughly In the iconographlcd section of tUs paper (see chaptm =I). HwvDr, the Wetis mre conrplex in its sources and associations than either the synopsis of its action or the descripuon of its w themss would lead one to belleve. The tltradit;Tonal classical style of b&t*’ wUch Stravinsky rmenUons above wrtalnlg does not derive from ancbnt; Greece, and neither does the division of the score Into usd’action, pas de deq, variations, and coda.

Before defining these terms, it m~ybe helpful to survey a few wpresentatim definitions of the phrase “classical ballet,” According to The Dance Enwd.odiq, the term classic as applied to bat3,s arbitrary. It denotes a style %ndame rather than a period, The term academic wOu2ii be more accurate but has newp gained general ac~8ptance. In a hroad sense a classic ballet is a ballet based on the classic tradition developed through the centuries of the dstence of the ballet,. ,W This “c’lassic tradition11 is gimn more specific definition by

Clzssical. Bedlet (the )diet d’6COb3), ballet in which the movement is based on the *aditio& bchnj1q- evdd from the French Court ball& of the seventeenth eighteenth century, ths Italian schools of the nineteenth century, zrd the Imperial Academy of Dancing, St, Petersburg and Noscow, and brouzht t0 ultimate perfection by such great teachers as Carlo Blasis, C.P. Johansson, N. hgat arad Znrico Cecchetti, urd in which dramatic or emtional content is subordinate to form or line - as displayed in the choreography of Petipa and Ivano~.~* Both sources also define classic or classical ballet in terms of a c0rtaj.n dance technique, whose typical elements are the turnout arad free positions of the feet, steps of efevation (Leaps zntz juraps), beats 19

(e.g., entrechh), turns, point work (the dance on toe), and so 0%

Other def'hitions ttclassical balletn Include steps of not- only and mvpaents, but the way in which these steps anrl movements are delivered, In the essay "What Ballet is All Abaut," first published

3t is easier to speak of classic style or even of "classicism1' than of Class5.c Ballet. A classic style mag be recognized sooner than it can be defined. It is by no means, Ue classical. sculpture or plaster-casts, frigid, chas'te, pure, serene or hard. It can also be warm, bright, soft and shnrp, even gay, A true classic dancer is one whose instrument iriludes the mastery of traditional academic lessons to the degree that a pianist of mettle imposes his own ideas on a keyboard or a fzRe mice plays with coloratura, In addition to lllechanical mastery, the classic dancer embodies 8 controlled energy towards a perfect delivery of the dance vocabulary, so concentrated, balanced and directed that new ciimnsions in the realfeation of steps d combinations of mvement ZCQ manifest, Presupposing the fistrvment, an educated body, the distUl.& energy of the dancer's temperament colors his or her qdty as piS-nt stains clear water, Control, concentration and balance in the self, both physical d psychic (control of the ego) combins into that fznal element which serws both as definition of prsodty a~~3 signature of an ep0ch.W In an article on t*Classicismand George Balancbine" (19531,

Denby set down a series of reflections on ths daSSiCdl ballet, spurred by an intembw dth Balanchfne, Classic dancinz cerrtars movement in a way professionaUy called "placement"; it centers it for the advantap of aswance in spring, balance, a& VisibS5ity. The dancer learns to mom with a natural continuity in hptus, ad a natmal qssion of his fu3l physical strengbh fn the thighs - tM& and waist, where the greatest strength to move outw&* into spa- mturally ues.

The ;final consistency that classical style gims to a performance cws from its discipline of bhador, Ilardsome behavior on stage gims to an entertaimnt a radiance that Broadway dancing bms little of, What Balanchine tries for as classic acting is not an en- phattc emotional stress placed on a particular gesture for expression's sake. Me tries instead to hava expression present 20

as a color t;hrou@lont a dance or role, somath8s pawing a trifle stronger, somstims less. It is as if a esture were mado in its simplest folm by the whole body as it dances, - Class5.u ballet is a definite kid of entertainmnt, based on an ideal conception of expression professions3ly oalled ft~tyle.JtIt does not try to be the same sort of fun as sow other Mnd of entertainment, It tries to be as wonderful. as possible jill its own beautiful and voluntarily Umited wag; just as does any other art. What correct style exists for, what it hopes for, is a sbpular, unforeseen, an out-of-this-world beauty of expression. 22 rpZpUcitly or explicitly, bth Kirstein and Denby stress formal perfection, discipline, purity, balance, and control. Emotional

0 expression, though present, is subordinatcrEs to these qUUes, Emever, it should be noted that the terms "classicit bdht'* azd ''&mantic ballet" cannot be used as antonyms as the terms "classic" and "romirntia=" are often used in the visual arts. As illrstein points at, Romsntic bat'let is a period designation referring usually to works in a c1.4mnte established under tho influence of the pets bine, Gautior and E.T.A. Hoffman in the middle of the last oentwy. It is loosely used to sigrd.fr ballets in which dramatic pant~mbor chaxacbr-dancing pdomdnated over the school- exercise acadepdc o~cabulzry, Ramantic Ballet today is a cab- wrywhich does not, like the developed classic danm, renew 5tself.23 Returning to the terms pas d'action, pas de deux, and so on, it

lay be noted that these terms tvBre often used in the nimhenth-centwy classical ballet, an 5,xpoStan.t; hranch of which was the rCmperial Russian

Ballet, led by the choreographers kius PelApa and Lev Ivanov. Many of their buts, such as The Sleeoinx Beaut+ and The Phtcracker, utdlized the musical and chmeograpbic structure of the Grand Pas de -Deux, which consisted of the following div5sions: the entde of the ballerina ani the danseur, the adado, which they dancsd together, 21 and the coda, in which both johd to conclude the pas de deux. h contrast to the Grand Pas de Deux, which i3e compared- to an operatic aria in the sense that it usually stops the action in order to focus on dance for the sake of dancing, the pas d’action, Uh the operatic recitative, is usually intencled to express a theme or further the plot, The second part of APollon &&sa& opens with a pas d’action, in which the Pbes greet and dance with Apollo. At the end of this dance, he presents each with a symbol of her art, wuch leads into t2m three trariaf5o% for the Muses. The male variation, which usuaUy precedes the female, here fo3lms the mmds dances for a themt&c reason: Apollo is ‘‘setting an ample to the bes and m-g US that he himself has acqhd .Ehe skill he dedsof thana The Ad& sectron of the tradif3,onal stmcturs is &so transposed, hsre to tb secsni-to-last phcot Terpsichore is chosen for the honor of Wsas de detq -At& ApoUo because of the perfection of her dancing, All four dancers soin in the concluding SEh. StravinSky had had firsthand experience with one of the most famous classical ballets when MaghUev asked tJm to arrange and orcheatrat8 TchaLkovskfs score for The Slee~beBeau”t_v, a ballet first presented, with choreography by Petipa, in St. Pebrsburg b 18%. Re~ivdby the Ballets Russes in 1921 in Lordon, the bdlet retained mch of the original choreography* In his antubfagraphy, Stravinsky professed himself much i.mpresssdt It was a real joy to me to take part in this creation, not om for love of Tchaikovsky but also because of my profod 22

admiration for classical ballet, which j_n its very essence, by the beauty of Its ordonnmce anri the aristocratic austerity of its forms, so closely correspords with my conception of art, For here, in classical dancing, I see the tsiumph of studied conception over vagueness, of the rule ovor the arbitrary, of order over the haphazd. I an thus broupbt face to face with the eternal conflict in art between the Apollonian and the Dionysian prfnc'ples, The latter asms ecstasy to be the final goal - that is to say, the loshe of oneself - whereas art demands abovr, all the fuU consciousness of the artist, There can, therefore, be no doubt as to my choice betweon the two. And if I appreciate so hi- the Val- of classical ballet, it is not simply a matter of taste on my part, but baoause I see exactu in it the perfect expression of the Apollonian principl~~5 Ahost as if to carry a step further The Sleeping Beauty's quality of "arisbcratio austerity,n Apollon Bfusa33 was scored enWre3.y for strings, Stravinskg's reduction of the orchestra was of coarse required in part by the terms of the 'cdssion. Howewr, tho decis%onmay also have had an inrpstus from the visual arts. Stravinsky is said to have been 'lfortlfiodn in his choice of string ensem& by "the recollection that one day 1-3 Der& had nsntioned ! to kim the difficulty a phter found in depicting rocks, since their resemkbnce to each other d lack of individuality made impossible any effect of contrast.1t26 According to And& Schaeffnerts book Strawinskz, pablnshed in 3.931, "Strawinsky songedt une oeuvre oh manqdk 6gale- raent tout conbaste, Q; aucune intrigue ne &t du coplflit &me des instnrments, d'o& n*&a&t nul attrait particulier Men que le ton d$t y rester 6g$L 'a celui d'oemes plus dramaUq~es.~~7 Stravinsky himself does not recount this anecdote in any of his aremoirs, an3 his autofiiogaphydescrlbes the reasons for his limitation of orchestral color in somawhat different terms: '&en, in my admiration for the beauty of llne in classical dancing, I drea-i-i of a ballet of this ldnd, I had specially in rq~thoughts what is lnm as the "white bnft," in which to mg ndni the very essence of this art reveels itself in all its pity.* The key phrase hem is "white ballet" or baet blanc, which is psu8jly defined as "a ballet perforwd in white tutus, such as & s_vlphjides, Lake (Acts IS and IV), Giselle (Act 11), et~."~9 Stravhsky's conception of Awllon f.Itxsadte apes Kith this descrip tion3.n a visual sense for, as he writes h his atttobiography, I had pictured it to myself as danced tn short white ballet skirts in a severely conventionalized theatrical landscape devoid af dl fantastic embellishment such as would ha- been out of keeping with my primary conception.30 hwr, there is a thematic and expressional difference between the ballets CAW ab- and &onon Ibs3&&, although a33 me based on, tbs classical dance technique. Les S~l~h%dos,Swan Lakg, ad Giselb allhve *ems fnfluenced by ths itomantie period of the nineteenth century, when om of the most popular themes for ballet dealt with

'~~~Mman'sqwst for the unattainable, personified by a fairy spirit such as a sylphide, wili or peri.231 Mystery, moonuight, and fantasy uere characterbtic of this tjp of ballet, In La SyIphi.de popzt2arized the long, white, bell-shaped ballet skirt which was to give t& "white ballet" its name.

&a Syl&l.de ins- in turn las SylphSdes, which was choreographed in 199 by Fokbe for tb first Be3lets hsses season in Paris. Maphtv cnmmissio~edStrahZry to orchestrate two pieces by Chopin for this bdht; the -se~ states that #is was the start of his close relationship with Diaghilev and "8 date of importance for t;lre 24 Despib this experience Kith the "white ballet," Stra~nsky.8 differs from the traditional mould in its characbrs, theme, and mod, UWthe ballets lis$d above, it d8rh~its dramatis personae from the myt;holo~cslworld rather than the literary or folkloric. Since everyone in Awllon is an bmortal., there is no concern with the dichotoqy between the mortal and supernatural worlds, Neither is there a sense of emotional coWct on the order of Giselle or Swan Lake, Even the twsntioth-century a Sylphides exudes an awa of enigma, melancholy, adundefined ywrning wMch is lacking in Wllon l$sa&te. Thus the tom %Mte ballet" is fn so= ways misleading uhen applied to ,.!bollon.' €bmver, the adJectiVe "white" is not inapt when applied to the antsical score: Stravinsky states in his autobiographg, I fowld that the absence of many-colored effects and of all superfluLties produced a wonderful freshness. This h@red me to write music of an analogous characbr. It seemed to me that diatonic composition was the most appropriate for thfs purpose, and the austerity of its style cietemined what my inshental ensemble must be. I at once set aside the ordinary orchestra because of its heterogeneity, with its groups of string, wood, brass, sad percussion instrments. I also disculded ensembles of wood and brass, the effects of which have really 'wen too mch exploited of late, ad I chose strings.33

Perhaps the most detalled equcation of the rod, expression&

stylistic intentions of Awnon NJ-IS~?~~occurs not in the composer's

autobiography, but In Wozues %and a Diary, This book was, hawever, published forty gears after the composition of the scow, and the ideas and opinions contained in it may not necessarily be an acmab reflection of Stravinsky's thoughts in 1928, or mag ham been colored by the experiences of the intervening pars, Using tb [email protected] title A.wll~,Msst adopted for the ballet in lN3, Stravinskg states: In AVOWI tried to discover a mlOdj^~mfree of folk-lore. The choice of another Classical subject was natural after Bediuus Rex, but ApoXLo and the 1aes suggested to m not so much a plot as a lEignatUre, or what I have drsudy called a manner. The Nuses do not fnstruct ApoUo - as a god he is already a master begxi instruction - but show him their arts for his approval.

ballet t The real subject of ApaJlp, howewr, is versification, which implies s0mthil)g arutrary an3 artificial to most people, thoac& to ma art is arbitrary and must be artificial, The basic rhythmic patterns are i=lmMc, and the individual dances nay be thought of as variations the reversible idea, ' of dotted-rbythx ianb ..I cannot saywhether the idea of the N~xandrines,that supremely arWtrary set of prwodic rules, was pre-conpositkonal or not - uho can say where camposikion begins? - but the rhytha of the cello solo (at NO, 41 in the Ca3ope variation) with tfbe piszicato accompanimnt is a Russian Almanikirre suggeshd to ms by a ccvaplet SromPushlan- , and it was one or" my fYrst Esical ideas. Ths roxndder of the Cslulope variation is a musical exposition of the BoUeau text that I took as ny motto, But em3 the vfolin cadenza is related to IbversiFication idea. 1 &thought of it as +-'Lall. sob speech, the ffrst essay in mrse of Apuo the *Ygod. Although Strawdoes not specify the couplet frcm Pushkin, the mrse fkon Bollsm is quoted in Dialowes mcl a Diarg, It is taken from L'&t &time (1674) by the French writer Nicolas Boiba~~,The section of the work in which the couplet zppars, #'Chant I," is

Straaky selected the lines Que toujours dans ms vars, le sens coupant L3s mots Spspeuie ~*hemisticb,en -que le repos.37 26 This couplst falls under a passage of vorse devoted to the qualities of styb; more specifically, harmony of verse. "Chant I" also - recommsnds variety, dignity, sinrplicity, and clarity; it advocates "naturahess," get considers rhyme an essential part of ver~ification.3~ The appeal of this advice to an artist in search of disc3.pline is obvious. J2Art dtiaue contains other links with Aw&n &sa&te. Although it never presents the theme of ApoXlo zrd the Muses as the -et does, its allusions to Apollo, the Muses, and Parnassua are prof'use throughout the text. It also eulogizes Louis XIV, whom, as we sbsflt see, StravinSQ also evokes in reference to the ballet. The ssventeenth-century context of Bofieau's poem is revealed as a s5gdficmt factor in Strzvinsky's choice with the statement Apol3.0 is a tribute to the F'rench seven+denth century. I thuught that Frenchmsn might have tdcen the hirrt for this, if not from rq musical Alexardrims, at bast from the decors: the chariot, the three horses and the sun disc (the Coda) were the emblem of le roi so1efl.39 Although a footnote makes it char that StraPinsky was referring to &adre Baucbant's decor in the 3.928 Ballets Isusses'production, it logical reconstnzction of ancient Greece. However, the connection with the classical baroque style of Louis "V is probahly easier to grasp throu& this wrbal cqUcation rather than the music or scenario alone, alexandrines notwithstanding, Thematically there is an Jma7lied association of Phoebus Apollo and the Sun Ung (cf. ckapbr III), but Usis not made ex_alicit in either the scenario or the score, whose neoclassical. style raises yet more questions of sources and associationso 27

There is a range of opinion concerning the origin, de3inition, id developnt of the ttclassical" or %ooc1assicaln strain- in Stravinsky's music, Arthur Berger believes that StravZnsky's ballets rtshow from the start a classical leaning in their control, economy, clarification of bstmental and harmonic texture, and in their rhythmic defhite- m~8,~~mHe also postulabs that Stravlnsky's experiences with the ballet fostered this classical le~i~~bg,"for Stra~sbyseems always . t0 have understood that the effort needed to perceive action, decor ad msic simltaneously can bo greaWy lightened by reducing density fn the Therefore Amllon ksa&b, was not an innovation but a Ncrystallizationt14zof a tendency iriherent in Stratrinskg's work. Chssicism for Bergor thus consists of a set of primiples goversing formal structure, rather than specmc *lclassical"forms themselves. "The quotation or paraphrase of 03d music remains as %midentalto the basic treatmsnt as the folk music in earUer works.lt43 In relation to the dance, Berger says, "The classical conventions of ballet are not fdentical with those of music, but their general principles are the smt Emphasis is on Ilne and the organic interrelation of p. As, *! 44.

Other critics ham &fined SbaV;insb's neoclassicism -in terms of concrete forms. Ronan Vlad ard Eric Sdpnain concur in denoting

Pulcfnellq (3.90) as Stravinsky's first neoclassicel work, and in

belieping that the use of ackdrmrsical forms from the past is one of the limpartat characteristics of ths style.45 Rtlcinena was composed when Diaghilsv asked Stravinsky to build a coherent cow

position from fragments of unfinished prusic by the eighteexth- 28 century Neapolitan composer Giovanni Battfsta Pergolesi.* In doing so he was intrigued by eighteenth=csntury techzical dsvices such as counterpoint gTd dotted rhythms, which he began to apply in later compositions, such as the conic opera Ham3 (l9Z), the Octet for WWInstrumentp (1923), arJd the opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex (1926-27). Dotted rkty-tbms occur in the opening of Amllon Mussdte where, the composer states, they are kter;ded to be a conscious s%yUstic reference to the eighteenth centurg.47 The pas d'actioq and Apdlo*s second variatioq ham evoked reminiscences of BachM; Eric Walter White specifically points aat the Muence of Bach's cello suites in the lat.br.49 Terpsfchore's critics ham also noted resemblances to the seventeenth-century coni= poser Idly and the nineteerrth-century Delibes arrd Tcha5.kovsky.g me genera be~sftdt neoc1assicism consisted of no more than the imitation of historical technical devices and idioms dist~bed

December 3.p7, in which he argued that tb style was based on a broader vision.

The use of such devices is insufficient to consfAtute the mal neo-classicism, for classicism itself was characbrised, not in tha least by its techrlical processes which, then as now, mre themselves subject to modification from period to period, but rather by its constructiw values,

The -re n-khing't .. for insfancs, in music, a them clr rhythm - is in itself not tho sort of material that would satisfy an artist for the creation of a work. It is obvious tirat; the constituents of such material mst corn into a reciprocd relation, which, fn mc, as h aUart, fs ca&d fom The peat works of art were all imbued with this attribute, 8 qdtyof interrelation of the me;material. And this bte~relati~nwas the one stable elemnt, afl that lay apart from it baitig unintelligibly Mividud. - tbat is to say, in mtrsAc, an ultra-musical element. Classical ar~sfc- true classical music - ~2e;lmedmusical form as its basic substance; and this substance, as I have. shown, CQUid nemr be ultra-masicjl.52 Thus Stravinsky, u3ce Berger, defines nooclsssicism mainly In terms of stmxcturd principles ad the emphasis on the formal reellzdion of those principles. He refises to limit the neoclassical style ko the conscious use of reoogniznbb quataaons from the past. Sn general, the neoolassicd movement in twentieth-century msic can b 8m-d as a maction against ths excesses of nhebenth- century Romantic nusic. This reaction was not United to Stradnsky, though he K~Sone of Its leaders. The xnovamnt advocated the return to the eighteenth-celztarg preoccupation with form ud techniqae, and %nurder to qhasfue these elemants It called for the reduction of orchcistral calor, the maationof emotional expression ad program- matic content, simpl52Lcation, condensation, & the eSrmination of inessentaals.53 Ihnd-hdmid with StraVSnsky@s concentration on formal q~altlss uent a rat%od.,delibrate, ad craftsman-llbe approach towad the task. As mentioned abveI upon receiving the Library of Congress commission, ke inquired tbs exact dimensions of +&e stage and. orchestra

the Chzrles Eliot Norton lectures delivered at &.IT& Univsrsity in 193901940, bter publSsbed as the book Poetics of lfusic. ,buq$.nation is not only the mother of caprice, but the sera vant and haxhwLden of the creative wUas well.. Tho creator's function is to sift the alelnsnts he receivos from her, for human nctidty must impose Units upon itself. Tho more art is controlbd, Wtod, worked over, kho more 5% is free,’ , My freedom WSU. be so imch the greater and the more meaningfcll the more narrowly I lAm3.t my fisld of fiction and .the mre 1 surround myself with obstaclos. “hatever dbtinishos constraint dbinishm strength. The more constmints one imposes, the nore ono frees oneself of the chahs that s3acld.e the spj~9.t. What is important for the lucid ordering of the work - for its crystdU.zation - is that iill the Diowfan elements which set the imagination of the artist in motion arid make tho We- sap rise must be properly subjugabd before they intoxicats us, and must finally be made to submit to the law: Apollo demands it.55 A- and again the compass?? reibrabs the idea of control - not the constrictiw type of control that leads to frustration and murosis, but control in a positive sense, omouraging moderation, dellberation, and tke exerciso of reason, Stratlinsky understood that control paradoxically leads choice, whereas irxliscipline Qr’ten falls victim to its own rnmdum.. The excesses of indfscipw seldom confer clear vlsion upon the artist, and his output thus tends to be erratic. Ths disciplined artist, on the other W, bas the advantage of being able to evaluate his work both during and after the

Stravinsky scmplously separates the ephemeral quality of inspiration from the worMng process. Whereas hpk-ation and hagination dominate the woridng process of the [email protected] =tist, gims them materid form. Yet the strength of the idea is not 31 necessarily makenod; it should bs enhanced by the very care @ven to its reaUzation, As Skavinslcy states, - hvlention pmsupposse bagbation but sh- not be confused Kith it, For ths act of invention hplios the necessity of a lucky Mnd. and of achieving full. reaUzlation of this find. bht we [email protected] does not necessaruy take on a concrete form and may rem3.n in a stab of virhaU.ty, whereas invention is not; conceivable apart from actual v~dd~~g-0ut.56

St was probably no accklent that Stratrinsky invoked the IWZS of Agollo in connection with this approach, for tbis ''most Greek of all goc1sc857 has long ben associated with tb qualities of mason, control, and moderation identified, to the point of a clichg, with the intellec- tual climate of classical Greece. Xt seems more than appropriate that the composer's essay into naoclassieal style should utilize not only a classical Greek: them, brt tRe @ that exe@ifies the s-phit of

Bouewr, before Amlloq was composed, Sbavinsky had already tried his hand at applying the neoclassical style to a Greek th. This was the opra-oratorio Oediuus Rex,. first perfomd in concert version by the Ballets 2usses in 1927, then staged as an opera in Vienna in 1928, Adapted from Sophocles' play, it employed a Latin translation interspersed ~5thFrench narration by a nsn in modern evening dress (the idea of its librettist, Jean COC~LU). According .t,o White, Stravinsky had very definite ideas abut its staghg, vbich called for a ?d.nhml of action, The singers were to be almost

-Mile on stage, wearing built-up costulnes and masks recalkhg

those of the ancient Greek theatre. Oedipus' Unding at the end was to be symbolized by a si9p3e change of mask.% 32 was a step further towards simplification an3 reduction of mans. Because it was a ballet, Stravlnskywas able to dispense with words. He discarded the mrative form of the trapdy and the emotional tension associated with it in favor of a loose17 related sequence of dances during which Uttle occurs either dramat-

ic- or emotiondly. His vj.sualization of "short whtte ballet

skirts in a severely conventionaUzed theatrical Wscaps'' suggests that he orig5naUy conceived of a starkly simple decoration for the ballet. Taking hto consideratfon aU. of StravFnsky's statements on

Amllon YasaAe, including those t;haf; may have been influenced by

their chonol&cal distance from the event, om is struck by 42x3 many different definitions of "cl.assicisn*'that he impxed or intended in this Wet, The god Apollo and the thome of his birth and association wZth the Muses are depived from anclent Greece - or, as it is loosely *immed, the "cbssicd The alaxandrine which is @.mn musical form in C1'11.top*s variation stems from the %lassical baroqudl style of seventeenth-century France, which Stravinsky also evokes in his allusions to the Sun Ung, The neoclassical style of the music is generally considered to be inspired by the spirit of eighteenth-centurg nclassicaln music, By employhg the term %hike

ballet" and the choreographic division of the pas d'action, pas de deux, and so on, Stramsky pays tribute to the "classicd" ballet. w,the composer invokes the tixteless and urdversd. *'d.assical" values of formal perfection, discipline, clarity, precision, i*ationality, and control. Thus, as far as he was able, Stravbsky infused ADoYlon 33

with a spirit of classicism that drew upon many ages, arts, d places. -.-

IIIgor Strzivinsky, 1882 - 3.n Stravinskg in the Theatre, ed, M. Lederrnan, Eiew York,. 199, 169, 19, A, Chujoy and P,tJ, hnchester, ,m~Dmce Enc.vcloPodia, revised and edarged version, Now York, 1967, 210,

20, G.B.L. t\lilson, A D5ctionw.v of Salleg, 3rd ed, , Lodon, 1974, u50 21, L, Kirstein, What BalJ.et is AU About" (1959), reprintsd in Three Pamphlets Collected, Brooklyn, New York, 1967, 9.

22, E. Denby, "Classicism and George Bdlanchine''. (1%3), reprinted hpancers. BWdinrrs md People In the Streets, New York, 1965, 86-58,

24, Go Bdanchine, Balanchine's New Complete Stories of the Great B&&&, ed, F, Mascn, Garden City, New York, 1968, 20,

26, A, Schaeffner, quoted by E,W, 'IrJhite, Strnvinsky, A Crittcal Sur- =, New Yorlc, 19-8, 121.

29, Chu joy,' TJe Dance Enc.vclopediq $88,

34. G, Balancbine, "The Dance Elenent in Strawinsky's IaXsic," Dslnce Sdgx, VI;, 194.7, 253; reprinted as "The Dance Elemnt in the Nusic'' in Stravinsks in the Theatre, ed, 14, Ledem, PJsw York, 1949, 790

38, G, Grbntwr, L*&t whaue de Boileau, Paris, nod,, I, 39. 35

40. A. Bsrger, "Music for the Ballet," Dance Index, VI, I%.?, 29; reprinted in Stravinsky in the Theatre, ed, H, Lederman, Hew Xork, 1949,

46, AutaMoma~hy, 80-810 47, I. Stravinsky 816 Ii, Cr&, Conversations with Igor Stravinskg, Garden City, New York, 1959, 17-18,

49. White, Stra*sb. A Critical Surveg, 122,

53. W, Ape1 and R.T. Daniel, The kvm3 Bri0f Dict3.ona.v of lhsic, New York, l9&, 189190; P.A. Scholes, Tho Oxford Conpanion to ksic, 8th ed., London, 1950, 810; 0. Thompson (ed,), Jntermtiond. C-yclopedia of Rusic sii Ehsicims, 9th ed,,a I?ew York, 19&, 14.56. 54. E, Saal, nIgor Stravinsky, 1882-19'&" Netrsveek, April 19s 1971, 109. 55, I, Stra-sky, Poetics of H~sic,trans, A. Kmdel a& 1, Dahl, New york, 194.7, 66, 68, 83. 36 58, 1;Jh2te, Stradnskz, 290-291. 37

SI, Significant Productions of Awllon &~s&%e

Both the scenario and the score of Awllon I&mdte, had been the products of ZL sin& minl, However, if the ballet were to exist in the theatre rather than the concert hall, it had to be given visual and kinaesthetic form. Being neither a scenic designer nor a chore- papher, Stravinsky could not do this alone. Other artists had to be called upcmto fulMu these functions, and the process of artistic collaboratiop began, As noted in the preceding chapter, the process of making a ballet may follow several different paths, One such procsdure, which may b llksned to the d3.a pr5q method of painting, involves the parallel efforts of all of the ballet's makers: scenarist, coqmser, choreographer, and designer, tJork on aY aspects of the batadvvlces more or hss sittmlkneously, E& the ballet reaches fruition as a whole. A~~llonHusa~bte required a duferent process. Since its scenario 4 score were completed before either the choreographer or the designer began his work, the task of these two artists was inter- pretiw as well as creative. The guidelines of their work were already set, anl could not be modified as easfls as the ideas of collaborators worklng in tbs ,gXi.a DX~BQmethod, Yet, to paraphrase Stravinsky's words, there was tremendous freedom within this constraint, As we ham seent Stravinsky's omconception of the ballet comMned a number of different manifestations of the classical ideal, Also, the very of Hmsic makes it the most abstract of the arts, a quality which the non-specificity of the ballet's scenario reinforced rather W coanteracted, Furthermore, neither Stravinsky's aubMography nor

D&&omes and a Mar2 had been published, and although the composer mag haw offered to his collaborators suggestions sidlar to those formulated in tha boks, his autobiographg implies that this type of

interaction was min.tmnl.l

&ollon received two very different productions, one on either side of the Atlantic, in the first par of its existence, 1928, There is no evidence that the creators of the second 8-r saw the first, and except for the link of Strahky*s scenario and music, the two may be

The first performance: of 4wLlon msa;rBte took place at a

festival of contemporary chamber music presenbd under the auspices

of the Chamber Mslc Smiety. This was the occasion for which the Coolidge Foundation had commissioned Stravinsky, althoagh he never saw the resulting ballet,2 Adolph Bob, a fomr dancer with the BaUats Russes, staged three other ballets for the festival.: Alt-Vien, to i3eethoven's a Wiener mze, Arlscchinata, to excerpts from Jean-Joseph Cassanea

de Modonville's opera-ballet Carmvd du P;Llmsse, and Pav;lr.e POW me Infante D6funte, to Ravel's weu-kna~n piece.3 Amnon &sa&te

W8S the only score composed specifically for balLet aTld for the asion ion, as well. as the only score anong the four ballets to receim its premiere performance at the festival, 39 Verna Army states that Stravinskgwas h fact a second choice, and that Bolm had 0rigLnaU.y approached B61a Bartbk, who was unable to provide a score in timsO4 Bart& had made his fbst concert tour of the United States from December 3927 to February 1928,5 but his letters of that per'iod do not mention either ballet, Boh, or a possible corn- mbssion.6 Also, in 1928 hfs ballet output was more limited and less renowned than Str&insky's, although he had composed what he called a "choreographic poem,* The Iqoden Prince, in 1916, and a pantomim, The bflraculous Mandarin, in 1919.7 Howmr, tbe latter had enjoyed

&reat success in Prase in X927,* and &>himay Barn heard of .t;his product 5,.on. Apolloq was the first of Strav3nsky's works to have its world premiere in the United Stabs, Due to the composer's prestige, t;he reviews tended to focus on the m~~icalrather than the choreographic or deoorative aspects of tie ballet.

. HoxBvBr, at least two reviewers described the ballet at som length

the ballet's allusions to seventeenth-century France:

In Apollo ksalletss stravlnsky ha5 evidedly desired to revive the spirit of the classic French ballet, the ballet ~Mch,with nlodifications, had supreme sway in Zurope from the days of Lu32.i and Kamezu until ths adt-ent of IsadoTa Duncan, He,- we have the - familiar mythological characters, remizding us that the Floren- tines who originated the opra and the ballet as we bow them had jn their ninds the resuscitation of the true Grecian drama. We haw ApoUo, hader of the 1-hses, doubly respladent because - of ths fact that he is both Greek French, that his c&ass% is that of the Grecian god, his pr-xaue that of the 3ai Soleil. We ham the three 14uses, CCJ~.~G~,Po>yrmia, ad Terpsichore, suggesting, in their arm-bands and their golden fillets, Xmnt Parnassus, in their pale Wces and -:hair drouping tulle skirts, the Acadende 1li:ationale. $8 have a ballet didded into tuo scenes (a Eallat d'kction, it was caed) , each scene COW posed Qf a series of separab numbers: Variations, ?as de buy, 40 Pas dgL4ction, ensemble numbers for all. the dancers and the whole closing with the cusbnary Apotheosis_, It is the ballet ~ihose lineage may be found in antiquity but whose ancestral home is V6rSdLleS.9

JacobZ's analysis cantsins a few anachronisms, for the white tulle ballet sMrt was mom characteristic of the nineteenth century than the seventeenth, and the bjPlet d'action is usually considered to have originated in tbs eigh'bnth century with the ballets of Jean Georges N~verre,~*Also, the bdht d9actioq udyhas a tragic plot that provides a vehicle for dramatic expression as well as technical display, As we ham seen, Stravinsky underplayed this element in ApoUon, A slight change was made in the scenario of the ballet: The composer fndicated his desire that the first scene represent the birth of ApoUo; that Apouo be born on the s'cage, springing full-g0-m from the womb of his mother, It was thought, however, not addsable to stage it in just this way in Washington. Instead, two goddesses (in tulle) appear before the curtain and by thek gestures symbolize the importance of the glofious moment. The curtain then rises on a scene suggestive of PFTanesi, a ruined temple to the right, a pile of massim rocks momting towards the left, Apollo in dance celebrates his conrfng int0 llft3,~

The rest of the ballet apparently followed Stra.irinsky's scenario, ending with Apo& "rising highe- ad higher on the group of rocks to

the left while the orchestra briilgs the ballet softly to an end,e."12 JacoM eqhys an intriguing sidle in comparing Stravinsky's Apollon and Oeditms aex: "It is to Oedipus as a Tanagra figure is to the Niobe groug1.~~3Ho explains that =4pollon is ''a Ughkr, a more

informal, a more intbate manifestation of the sane phase of the composer s development. ~3.4 he analogy can be carried beyoad ~e

styustic to the themaf3c and expressional aspects of the -mrk, for both Apollon and the Tmg.a figurines are seemingly concerned with pure dance, dance for the sake of dancing, quite in contrast ta the

An ~onymoysreviewer for The New York Times of Nay 6, 1928, provides a rather mre graphic description of the actlon onstage:

Before the curtains a priest bears a huge glowing urn to the front of the platform, Three maidens in ballet skirts perform a brief symbolic worship bfore it ard withdraw, Thus is Apollo barn, in a nanner less literal than the original scenario demanded. Tim curtains then open, and bfore us is a scene uhtch suggests nothhg so much as an "elegant engraving" after Veronese, On our loft; is a huge pile of rocks aMi on our right a group of Corinthian columns in ruins, btween the two stands Apolzo, clad in gdd sandals, pink tights, and O. gold tunic decorated with sed festoons, Upon his long golden curls he uees a hehut from whose crest burst many fulsome plumes, In his had is Us lyre,,. To Ap0U.o corn C-ope, Powa, and Terpsichore, wearing the ballet cost- of TagUoni, with a border of gold about their skirts, and fillets h their hair to show that they are Greek. To each of tliam he g%msa particular mission. Cal.liope is presented with a tablet a& pencil and is made the patroness of epic poetry: Polpu6.a receives the mgstic veil and is chared with the care of sacred hpms; Terpsichore is given ths Awl- lon5an 1pe itself and is made priestess of choral song and dance. This great business performed, the Leader of' the kses climbs up the slope of the rocks and is transfigved by a strong light, His three followers do obeisance to him and the curtains class.~5

Although all of this soullrls ve~ysolemn, this was far from being the case:

The 'Apollo Musagbtest bid directs itself to the intellect. Xt is dry and unemtionzl in qnallty, but - at least in the hands of Mr, E?oh - it is far from dull, Those who claim to understad Stravinskg aver that it is music conceimd in all sobarr,ess, but Mr, Bob has treated it with no soledty. Under his direction it comes forth as a gentle and btle burlesque, witty and sparkling to the observing eye, B

Regarding the decor, the ,Times reviewer mports: The sets ard costumes by Hicolas Renisoff were conceived in exactly the sme spirit as the chorsosaphy, and were of 42 genuine sorvj.ce in fixing the mood of ih production. The scene of the action is not specif'ied on the progm, but the first gIlzmpse of the setting desit evident that it nevw took place anywhoro but Ln the mind of the early nineteenth century as it looked out upon classical culture.l? Despite their difference of ophlon in fixing the century whose style best summarized the ballet, both Jacobi and the Times reviewor rwd. that the Bob-Retdsoff interpratation followed Stravinsky's

stated intations in at least two wws: the vrhlte tulle ballet skirts of the l.Euses and the allusion, here quite explicit, to the Rot Soleil, Of course, Stiraxinsky did not publish these intentions until some time after the fact, and it is possible that his ideas were influenced by this production, althmgh he elaims to know nothing of it.

The ballet s2 a whole, Uke tk scenario md the score, was appwently not a stylistic unity. It is unfortunate that Stravinsky Pras abstained from giving his opinion of this prodaction. That there was some degree of co-cktion betmen Washington and the composer is suggested by an interviw with the CoTductor, Hans K3.dler, in The_ New Yo&imos of April 8, 1928. After remarking that Stra*.nsky had changed his style from Bach and Handel to that of BeWRUndler s~M, Xe has written us, however, that the melodies for his ApoUonic bset Win not 'be of the stuff of moonbeams and flowers, but of zhc. His scoring, hovemr, is less metallic than of yore, since he has exchaned the wid instmgnts of his ear er predilection for the warmer and mre emotional string. i.8

Unfortunately, it is unclear whethar the 1atk:ir statement is the opinion of Kindler or Stravinsky, The characterization of the strings as "warm1* and "emotAonal" is provocative, since the music of Apollon is often described as "drg" aml ''cold," and emotionality was certa-tnly not Stravinsky's principal aim in this score. .

43 Only three published photographs of this production could be 10cated.l~ All depict Bolm in the role of Apollo, wearing the costume described in .the reviews: the plumed helmet, Louis XXV prruaua with shoulder-lengtb. curls, nrstallic tdadecked with festoons, ba-

ribboned ballet shoes, anci leg,gings. He also carries a small me, of toylike propcrtions. (fig. 1) None of the ph0-t;ogr;ap.h~includes the stage setting, so it is . imp0ssim to whether Jacobi's comparison to Piranesi or the The%reviewer's to Veronesewere the zn0.t~ apt. In either case? one may deduce a fairly UCeral, recognieable, and traditional evocation of ancient Greek Wscape and architectme. Visually, Apollon Musa&te lud not yet reached the twentieth century; it remainsd in W,s pductZon heavily indebted b tr&tional images and metaphors.

Be Am Uon Bbss&tS, 32 June 1928, Th6h Sarah Bernhardt, Paris. Les i3allets Russes de Diaghilev. Choreography: George Balmchine. Sets: Andr6 Rauchmt, adapted by Prime A. Schervashidze. Costumes: And6 Bauchant, adapted by Serge Diaghilev, replaced in 1929 by costutues by Gabrblle Chanel, Cast: Serge Lifar (Bpo'llo), Alice NW.tina, labr alternating with Alexandra Danilova (Terpsi- chore), Felfia Doubrovska (Calliope) Lubov Tchernicheva (Polyhymnia). The names or' the dancers performing the roles . of Let0 d the attendant goddesses in Paris could not be locakd, but in London timy were named as Sophie Orlova (Leto) *sd Dora Vadimova snd Iienrietta PZaikersa (Two God- desses). Conductor : Igor Stravinsky. London premiere: 25 June 1928, Xis Majesty's Theatre, London,

The music historian David Ewen has poinbd out ehat Awnon was

both a "first" and a Just as it was the first Stravinsky

composition to be premiered in the United States, it was the last of his works to be produced by Diaghilev's Ballets Russest if one dis- 44 aounts the 1929 revival of Le Renard, a ballet first presented in 1922, Bath Sorgo Lifar and Sorgo Grigorlev, the company's regismmr, have attested to the unusually high degree of interest that Dhghilev took in this ballet, produced the gear before hfa Piuoh of the preparatory work was carried out in Monte Carlo, where the-corn- pany had established since 2927, a permanent base of The premiere performance was, however, given in Paris, and Monta Cwlo did not see the ballet unta the following ~ear.~3 Stravinsky, who conducted the orchestra at the Paris and London premieres, wrotd in his autobiography: As a stag8 prforwcs I got more satisfaction from thls than from Les Noces, which was the latest thing that Maghileff had had from ne, GeorGes Balanchine, 8s ballet mster, had arranged the dances exactly as I had wishsd - that is to say, h accordance with the classical school,. As for the dancers, they were beyond aU praise. The graceful Nikitina with her pity of line alternating wi+h the enchanting Danilova irr the role of Terpsichore; Tcherdchova biJand Doubrovska, those custodians of the best classical traditions; finally, Ssrge Lifar, then stUquite pun%,conscientious, natural, spontaneous, alad rull of serious enthusiasm for his art - all these formed an unforgettable company. But my satisfaction was lass complete in the natter of costume and dgcor, in which I did not see eye to eye with DiagUleff, As 1 haw already saJ.d, I had pictured it to mysolf as danced in short white ballet skirts in a sevr;rely conventionalized theatrical landscape devoid of fantastic embeusbent such as would have 'been out of keeping with my primary conception. But Maghileff, afraid of the extreme simplicity of my idea, and always on the lookout for somthing new, wishsd to ~IIIUIIC~ the spectacular side, and entrusted scenery ard costws to a provj-ncial painter, little known to the Paris public - -6 Bauchant, who, in his remote viUage, ind&ged in a genre of painting som3what in the style of the doumier, itousseau. 'rdhat he produced was interesting, but, as 1 had expected, it in 110 way suited my ideas.24 When and how Maghilev first became interested in Bauchmt's work

2s a mot point, ne role of inbraediary between hpresaio ad 26 paintar has been variously assipd to AddLhote,25 Jean Lwtat, an3 JemBucher, the art dealer with whom, according to Bauchant's biographer NaximiUen Gauthier, Diagmev and Ufar visited Bauchant - at his homo In Blutiere in Movembr 1927.27 Bauchant, though a recluse, was by no moans as obscure as Stravinsky makes Nm sound. Uisco.rrered by Ls Corbusier and Ozenfmt, be had exhibited his paintings regularly in Paris since 1921, and had been named a socidtaire of the Salon dfAutomne.28 Diaghilev, who bad never lost his passionate interest in art, may have discovered

Bauchant's work on his own at any of a number of exhibitions and coaction; in Paris. Lifar's collection of costw and set designs, now at the Wads- worth Athonaum in Hartford, Conaecticut, includes Bsuchant's pdnting Serseus and Andromeda (1926), which was purportedly intended far an unrealfzed ballet to masic by f4b.11,an idea jotted down by Diaghilev %n his notebooks of 1922-1923,2g If the associauon of the pabag with the ballet is valid, Diaghihv may ham had Bauchant in mind as a prospective designer at least since 1926, two pars before Apollon Ehsa&b, Possiblg, hmver, the painting was concsived and executed inlependently, and attached to the projected ballet 0d.y later, Un- fortunately, information on i3auchant is sketchy, and no mntion is =de of his connection with Diaghilev other than his work for bollon. The DiaghUev commission appears to have been one of the hi& psintS of Bauchant's artistic caroer. According to Gauthier, the painter went to work in Monte Carlo, at the invitation of Diaghilev, from April 12 to May 9, 1928. I1 est fet6 au Casino, on le pdsenta 'a des princesses, on s'accorde, dans les salons et les coulisses, 'a le d6clarer Hda'llcieux.183* 46 Diaghilev's secretary, Boris Kochno, teUs quite another story: We nemr did meet Bauchant; he Uved in the country and never came to town. hnd although he had accepted Diaghilev's commission, he never delivered any sketches. Diaghilev then decided to use for the sets the landscapes from two of Bauchant's cgnvase~,which Prince Schervashidm ad.apted for the ~tage.3~ The truth of the matter probably Uos somewhere between these two accounts, both of which are somewhat biased, Gauthier's for the obvious reason, Kochno's because he was at the time sqervising the ballet O&, which Diaghilev neglected in favor of A~ollan,~~Nicholas Nabokov, ths composer of e,recalled meeting Bauchant with Diagbilev in the rehearsal hall in Monte Carlo in April 1928; he also remembered Maghilev's annoyance with Bauchant because the painter had been working on a st5.U. life instead of the Apollon designs.33 The latter statemsnt bars out part of Xochno*s assertion, and indeed the four pdnungs usuciUy published as Bauchant's designs for Apollon bear Utt3e reser;lblance to the actual sets and costumes. Bauchant's painting Chaws-Elrvs6es (1927) is pnera'lly accepted as the design for the backdrop of. the prologue of the ballet, 'JA~U~8~

Birth." Its date reveals that it was I& executed during the painter's visit to bnte Carlo. This accords with Kochgo's statemnt that the Apollon sets were adapted from pre-edsting paintings. The pdnting depicts an enormous vase of flowers, which dwarfs the human figures that flank it on either side. Behind it, a stream winds away into a Ustant ldscap. (fig. 2) The j9xtaposition of an oversized vase and dwarfed figures in a landscape occws in at bast two other Bauchant paintings, Les Dumas (1927) ,* and Les Promneurs du Mmanche (198). '' 47 Unhrtunatdy, no photographs of the first scene of the ballet could be located, This scene is very dixnly lit in current- productions, and this may have hen the case in 1928, mkhg photography difficult. Luckily, verbal. accounts help describe the scene. Stravinsky, in Dialomas and a Di;crg, refers to the "curtain with bouquet 2 la OdUon iled~n."~~A contemporay obsomr in Paris, Andr6 bvinson, describes "le sib idylllque, tableau de chevalet aggramii, au aeu duquel s'gpanouit un grand bo~quet.~~37Apparantl;? there was no st'tsmpt to translate the two-dimsnsional surface of Bauchant's canvas hf;o the three-dimensional space of the stage; the whole of the pahting-appears to have been used as a backdrop, W.A. Propert, who saw the ballet in London, wites of "Bauchant, whose was associated With the settfng, an3 whose giant bouquet uas hung above the cave of Apollo's natidty.'"* This concisely estabushs three points at once: it was recognized that the sets

Conspicuous part in the stage adaptation of the pdnting; a new elenent had been added, a cam which is not present in the Champs- Elyse'es, The Cave is mentioned by LevinsonSw Cyrll Beawaont, who

also saw the London premiere,41 and the Russian writer Vlsdj.xuir Haareneff, who recalls that

The birth of ApoUo was a subtle artistic rendering of a Freudian symblisrn. ApoUo8s another, Latona, was sitting on a rock. As she gave a sigh, Apollo's forward movement was pr- ceptible bside c ve underneath. With her third si.& he the 62 CELEB out of the cam. An American xusic joud, apparentLv reporting on the Paris

produo.tion at second hand, capa0-d a repraction of tb C%2!2Z 40

El.vs&s with the statement; "The huge vase in this opening scene was designed to fall. apart and become a grotto for the succeeding action of the ballet."lC3 Such an effect, which certainly would have been

noteworthy, is not mntioned 3.n any other account of the ballet, and it is possible that someone(s leg was being pulled. Neither the humen figures nor the landscape in the painting are mentioned as elements in the stage design, and rnsy have been deleted. Such alterations were not new to the Ballets Russes. Vladimir Polualn, one of the company's scene-painters, told Beaumont that

Mawev sometimes "editedn the set designs, for instance, by

altering colors.w According to 'ydaldemar George, fer of the painters emploged by Maghilev after 1917 had had practical experience with the

theatre, tiirpd most of them contented themsslves with doing a sketch or &el after which anonymous specialists executed the actual sets and , castumes. George also notes that Prince Schervashidze served as '*un interprate scrupiLewc et fidhe. 184-5

The msntion of SchervasMdze brings us full circle to Kocho*s statement about boUon, Propert too mentions the fact that the

seczarg had hen '*smadsptted.v*46 Schervashidze, whon Grigoriev

praises as "a remarkable scenic artist,lr4?received explicit credit

for the sets at the 1929 3bn-b Carlo premiere.48 ft seems quite clear that the stage settings for &onon were not pure Baucbant, and Us patings should not be dataken for pointfor-point renderings

of the acta appearance or" the stage. The issue is complicated in the second scene of the ballet, for no

femr than three p,=intings ham been published as its de~ip.~~ 49 of these are very similar, the principal differant behg format, since

one is executed on a vertical canvas and the other on a horizontal, which mom closely approximates the usual shape of a backdrop. The vertical version, entitled AmUon Apparaissant awc Bermrs (fig. 3) is dated 1925 by Gauthier, while the horizontal is signed and dated 1928, (fig, 4) It is likely that the second version was a deliberate adaptation of the first, perhaps executed at Diaghilev's : request. Bath paintings depict Apono flying through the air in a guadrisa,

or four-horse chariot, while human. figurns in a wooded landscape gaze up at him in wonder. In both paintings a winged female figure, bearing a lyre and surrounded by pute, hovers Jn the sky before him. In the lgZ5 version, the putti bear a meda'lon which they turn towards ApoLlo as if displaying it to him; in the 1928 version they carry a garlard, and there are additional female fzogpxs, bare-breasted and xingbss, floating behind the winmd female. Below this group, both phmgs

portray four other wingless women, flying as if to pet ApUo. The

foremost carries a pair of scales and proffers a wreath; the other three carry small. objects that resem- lanterns or, prosaic-, handbags. Most of these fi,aures and symboh mre e'liminntsd in -the tkhd painting, Le Char d'Ap0-n of 1928, (fig. 3) Landscap is hst nonexistent here, an unusual departure for Bauchant, who insisted on

placing landscapes even behindI his flower pieces (cf, ChampsdI.vskes). A few rocky shapes, like mauntahtops, protrude from the lower edge

of the cmvas, but they form little more than a fringe for the vast remain of the original camposition,

However, this painting bowas pared down, The one photograph of the production that proaes a full view of the stage reveals a very austere setting. The proportions of the rocks and the auadriRa have been enlarged, and the putti and flmg females completely discaked,

H The adaptation has, however, attempted to retain a flavor of Bauchant's style by faithful3y copying the guadrin8 (note the disposition of the horses' heads and Legs, which remains constant in all three paintings), and the characteristic wrinkled texture of Bauchsnt's rocks. (fig, 6) The three paintings form a logical sequence that mv8s progessiva-

ly towards the stark siqlicity of the actual stage set, It is unfortunate that no one has recorded the working relationship of Bauchant uxi DiaghUev, or evBn Bauchant's reaction to the adaptations of his paintings, for the final realhations are certainly several removes f'rom the original conceptions.

George Amberg has published, in Art in Modern Balle2, a fifth painting which he identifhs as a desigp for Ap0llon.5~ (fig. 7) The painting is, however, signed aad dated 1939, and this date ard its location in the AlbrighGKnox Gallery in Buffalo -cab that it is actually Baachant's Souvenir d*Ar>ollon f.lusa&te, listed in The New

York Public Library's catalogue Stravinsks and the Theatre.r HowBvBr,

the ttktle is mis2eadhg, for the painting gives little sense of the

'Wet. On an island surrounded by the sea stands a youthful de

figure in a dsrk-colored tunic, flanked by six bare-breasted uomn. Two otbr women seem to be rising from the earth at the right of the 5l pahting. Ha attributes are present to identify any of the figures, but while the male mag conceivably represent Ap0lJ.o in the ballet, the number srd costume of the females bear no relation to the ballet. Indeed, the figures are essentially static, and nothing in the painting suggests that Bauchant derived Ms Inspiration from the ballet in particular or any form of dance in general. Robert Craft, Stravinsky's clcse associate, has recorded that the composer origimI,ly wanted Giorgio de Chirico to design the ballet,52 while Linco3.n fllrstSh, Bdbrrchine's associate, states that de Chirico was %gh~v'schoice.53 There were sewrd possible points of con- tact 'rntween StraVinsky, DiaghilQv, and de Chirico, since the Ballets Ruses Pgrfomed in Paris during the pars de Chirico lived there, 1913-1915 ad1921.11929. They may have had mutual. acquahtances among the artists uho worked for Diaghilev. By 1928 de Chirico had already designed two ballets, La Jawe (1925) for the Ballets Su6dois in Paris, and Le Norte di Nioha (b926), performed in Rome.* He &id design a ballet for Eaghthv in 1929, b 3al. Tbe costumes for AlrsoUoq, uke the sets, we- not spciaUy designed by Banchant, AccorGbng to fiochno, Bauchant confessed himself incapable of desfgning the costums, so Diaghilev copied Apollo's tunic from a figure in an nnspecifbd mythological phting by Bauchand5 Sh~e much of Bauchant*s oeuvre remains unpbllshed, this paFnting could not be idenUied. Rpbuo apparently wore two costws in the ballet.

Levinson descxibes his emergence from tha cave of his nativity, n56 wrapped in swaddling clothes "pareil au Lazm des icones byzantlnes.

Then, reports Beaumont, he '"was met by two goddesses who inwsted him with a white tunic arrl golden girdle."57 jz When the scene changed, Apollo reappeared in a tunic described by

Kemeneff as "red.,,with a splash of fuchsia over i.t,l1Sthe costume which he wears in all of the photographs located of this procluction, TMs hue, visualized against the turquoise-blw sky of the setting,59 recalls a favorite color combhation of Bauchant's, and may have been another conscious attempt to Mtate his style, According to Alexandra Danilova, who alternated with Hildtina in the role of Terpsichore, there were no less than four sets of costumes for the Muses.6o None, apparently, were designed by Bauchant, Kochno reports that Diaghilev '@dressed'@(the word is ambiguous; he may ha& desfgned the costumes bseU or had someone else do so) the Muses in

IBIS& tutus, which we= hater replaced by costumes designed by Gabriene Ch&& 61

The photographs reveal two basic tspes of costume, One is completely wMta or Ughbcolored, With a sMrt reaching to the knee. The womBn's heads are covered by light-colored, close-fitting caps, comp1etd.y concealing their hair. (fig. 8) The second typ has a darker-colored bodice, a white or light-colored skirt reaching to the knee, and a sash which in tb mre distinct photographs appears to be made of the "striped men's cravats from Charvetn62 with which Chanel bound the Xuses' waists. Kirstein states that these were contemporary tennis dre~ses,~3although none of the other observers coPrmsnts on this, possibly due to a male indiffemnce to feminine fashions, Terpsichore mars a tutu shorter than those of her sister hfnses, wuch was probably a deliberate means of dis~&-sbgbr. The headdresses appear to b darker in color, thou& ornmnted in white or light colors. (figs. 6, 90'12, 14) 53 Arnold Haskell has published an unusual photograph wbicb he identifies as tho ballarina Lubov Tchernicheva in Apollan. 64 Tchernicheva, who created the role of Polyhymnia for the Ballets HUSSBS, wears a soft, flowing costume, ti mre Uteral evocation of Greek draperies than the ba3letic tutus worn by the Bhrses in the other photographs. possibly this costurns was one of the discarded versions of the 1928 cost-, but it is also Ukely that this is a studio portrait of the dancer, astaken for a picture of tha '0a~t.et.65 None of the verbal accounts describe the costumes of Let0 or the atbndaat goddesses. but these are visible in a photograph of the male of the ballet. (fig. 6) Leto, presumably the figure who flings up her arms in despair at ApoUo's depart& for Parnassus, is dressed in a long, dark-colored, vaguely Grecian-looking gown, while her attsndants wear sh&l.ar dark draperies and cross-gartered ~hoes. The practice of reserving the balletfc tutu for the principal ballerina, while lesser personages wear costumes more suggestive of authentic local color, dates back to the Romtic era, although Fobe had attempted to refom this custom. Only one stage property appears in the photographs: the lute carried by Apollo. In this production ft had an aplusuay swsound box with a flat back, and in one photograph might almost ke mistaken for a hand-mbror. (fig, 9) It is also visible resting on the rocks at downstage left in the photograph of the apotheosis scene. (fig. 6)

Icemson, the ody contemporary critic who comments on the substitution of this instru3lent for the lyre more frequently associated with Ap0U-o

(see chapter UI), found fault vith its incongruity in relation to the music2 "On n'a don& su Cithdde qu'un thgorbe pow en jouer. Mals 80s doigts pinosnt dans les airs Xes cordes d'une grande lyre inpisi-

In a discwsion of the music, the London critic W. J. huner con- nranted on the1 bat's revival of a classical them:

+..in 8 wopk entitled "ApoUo, Leader of the Muses,'* we must expo4 to find the red Apollo and the true lbhses. Apollo sym- blisss a great conception of the human race and it is a sad counwntary on the present age that when one of fts most genuine &3.sts re-presents this conception, he does so in a form which, although real, is very much df3ninlshed. But even this is a proof af Stravbsky's genuineness. An inferior artist would ham aven PS a sham-ronant.&c Apollo fitted wLth az1 the dead, romantic Utter of the past and he would have trusted to the effect of these associations with the past to deceive most of us hto be- lieving tihat he had re-created Apollo. Stravinsky, on the con- trwy, does really create something, It is not the ApoUo of past creauon; it i less than that Apollo, but it is, nemrthe- less, new ani re& 87

The choreographic hterpretathn of the ballet followed closely upon that of the music, Unlike Hijinsky, who had attempted sfxteen pars earlj.er ta re-create the effect of Greek friezes and vase- paintings 5.n The Afternoon of a Faun, Balanchine broke with the cus- tomary conception (or adsconception) of arrcient Greek dance, ?:,-ty ;)Tears sftW the creation of ADonon bklsa.&tQ, he stUfound it necessary to reitorate that the butwas not a traditional representation of the god:

Awlla is not the kind of bdet most people expct to see when they know its mine. piken the ballet was Tbst prfor&, a FrsnCh-critic sdd that this vas not Apouo at a,that the choreogr~ph3rhad cultivated the deliberately odd, that ApoUo wo3d nemr haw don3 this, or this, or this, etc, #hen tihe critic was asked how he knew Khat ApUo would ham done, he had no msxer. Ha was thinking of so- fanilia statue of Apollo, the Ap033.0 Belvedere perhzps, ad im&ed that a ballet about tke gcd t;ou3c! perso.dfy sculptural representations, But Awnon -ksadte Is not AFOXLOBelvedere; he is the a,half -human youth who acqujrcs nobility through 55 In 194.7 Balanchine first published, in an issue of Dance Index devoted to Stravinsky, an essay on his working relationship with

I Stravinsky, The statements in this essay, r"he Dance Element in Strawinskg's Nusic,fl have been repeated by him in many subsequent publications and interviews, and the reiteration of these ideaa emphasizes the significance of Stravhsky's influonce in the fom-

lation of Balanchine s neoclassical style of choreography, c

Stravinsky's effect on my OW^ work has ,always been in the direction of control, of simplification and qaetness.. . [email protected] I look back on as the turning point of my life. In its cUscipUm and restraint, 3x1 its sustahed oneness of tone and feeling the score was a revehtion. It s881nSd to tell me that T. could dare not to use everything, that I, too, could eliminah. Xn ApoUon, and in all ths mic that follaws, it is impossible to ir;la@ae substituting for any single frawnt the fragment of any other Stkavinsky score, &soh piece is unique in itself, nothing is replaceable, 1 exdned my own work in the light of this lesson, I , began to see how I could clarify, by -tinge by reducing what seemed to be multiple possibilities to one that is inevitable., *

St was in studying ApoUon that 1 came fhst to understad how gestures, like tones in music and shades in painting, have certain family relations. As groups they impose their own laws. The more conscious an artist is, the more he cornes to understand these laws, and to respond to them. Since this work, I have developed choreography inside tba framework such relations suggest, 8

Like Stramsky, Balmchine saw the ballet in hrms of a calor

analogy;

Stravinskg's music, thou& the force of its invention, learns strong after-images. I myself think of ADO~~O~as white music, in places white-on-wbite...For me the whi"Leness is something positive (it has in itself an essence) and at the same titw abstract. Such a quality exerts great Wmr over me when I am creating a dance; it is th0 msic's Mnal communication and fixes ths pitch that determines oly own invantion.?* For his part, Stravinsky expressed himself thoroughly pleased with Balanchinets work, writing in his autobiography:

Georges Balmchine, as ballet master, had arranged the dances oxactly 8s I had Idshed - that is to say, in accordance with the classical school, From &hat point of view it was a complete success, and it FT,~+at$ Pbst attempt to revive academic dancing in a work actuall,; tda,.. oscad for the purpose. Balmchine.. .had designed for the choreopaphy of Apollo groups, movlements, and lines of matdigrdty and plastic elegance a3 impired by the beauty of classical farms. As a thorou& xusician - he had studied at the St. fetersburg Conservatoire - he had bad no difficulty in grasping the smallest details of rqy music, and his bea~%fulchoreography clearly expressed my meaning.71

Conbmporay opinions of the chomopaphg varied, Reviewers saw in it both classical and inn0vatA.w elements, The snonymoas critic of

The Illustrated London News noted that "the slow movements snd CW~OUS posturings of this ballet represent the 'modernt style, and some mry beautiful and unusual affects are achieved.Ifn Beaumont observed that

Balsmch5ne Its& aside his modernist experimnts and plannod a ballet which, while based on academic technique, had zi certain novelty in its choreographic conception.^^^ TWO critics, Turner axxi ~ienryPrdres. found it somwkt DIO~O~Q~~US,~~the latter mmarking aat #lone has impression of attellding a school of classical dancing where the artists are studying275

h*son, a staunch advocsb of classical Wet, recognized the Choreography the attenpt to work within the classical. school, but felt that the choreographer was not yet experienced enough to succreed, He notfced tb Mluence of the "adas acrobatique," especially the pas de deux of Apolro and Terpsichore.76 Propert, on tfEc3 other M, seemed to realize dong with Balanchine the lesson that the choreo-

@'8pbr had learned from the musician: The determination to be classical nt all. costs which had so effectually taken the edge off Strcr'dnsky's genius had done wonders for Balmchin, 1,: vas just tho sort of discipline he needed. Neither tho scor'b nor the subjott offered him any--opportunity for experiments. He was forced to explore tho classical field, and here he was rewarded by discovering a series of poses and grouplngs that was the nmre surprising for its air of natural- ness; the pxes were but arrested movement and the groupings ~e~msdbut chance meetings; nothing of this hard-won artistry soemed promaditated, One couldn't believe that anything so difficult could haw looked so supemsly effortless.77 Gordon Craig criticized the ballet for "the ~UIK~U:I~OSSor inability of the arranger to make his ballet in one pioce. It was broken up into .ten or twenty or thirty sections. Nature in this respect does bstter than he," Howewr, despite this shortcoming he professed himself so iapessed that he left without seeing the other. ballets on the prop-, in order not to forget "the loveli- ness of .tplpoUoo"; he further stated, "I somethes wonder why it is that the spectators are not given two ballets and then asked to sag uhich of the two they would like repeated. I would have called for

Since it is unfortunately true that most musicians are highly critical of choreographic interpretations of "great the following evaluation by Eric !.Calter Whits can be taken as high praise indeed:

Although tho music of An0110 seems to ke almost entirely objective, thsre is no doubt that Bdlanchin*s choreosaphy adds considerable point to the score, To take a single instance: the psgses Lht occur Lr Terpsichore's variation seem willful and [email protected] in the concert hall; wbreas in the theatre it is absolutely in character that the dancer should hold her poses for a momnt arid that the flow of music should be arrested at the same time, In the ori@nal production, the dancing was disfipred by certain extravagances, such a5 the tableau at the end of the Prologue whsn the four legs of the two racumbent goddesses formed a pedestal on which Apollo balanced himself prone vith his arms legs swimming in the a: but these bledshes vere later romdved, and the choreography was then seen fn a32 its or9ghsxty and beauty. A~oI.3.o Musamtes is one of the very fow modern baUe.i;s of which it csu, be said that its music and choreograph are completely classical both in conception and in execution.? 5 A partid visual. record of the ballet has been pmserved in a nmber of photographs published In various articles and books, To the best of tiswritsr!s knowledge, this has been the first attempt to hrhg together a large number of these. One of the photovaphs is clearly a portrait of the dmcers rather than a wcenr3 from the ballet, since it includes both of ths dancers who 81bi;~tedZn the role of of Ufar alono, seem to be studio portraits or poses struck for the photographer rather than actual poses from the balnet, of the group photopaphs depict the second scene of the ballet, in wbich the Muses appear, As noted above, the dim lighthg of the first scene may ham discouraged photography; possibly too the torso movaments performed by Let0 in simulation of labor may not have been considered aes-tic, Except in the photograph of the apotheosis, neither Let0 nor her attendants appear, Several of the photographs depict kog poses, which were retained in the choreography of subsequent productions of the ballet and indeed

1) The Ymes in arabesque on three sides of Apollo, who hieels in the middle with his lute. This occurs in thg be,&nning of

the second scene pas d'act.ion, afbr their enby and greeting bow to Ap~llo.~* In the photogaph Apllo bozds the lute in a rather low positkon before his face. (fig, 9)

2) TKO mmenks from the pas de deux of Apollo and Terpsichore: 0

59 the "swkdng lesson" in which Terpsichore reclines on the baak of the kneeling Apolzo, here, with her legs- extended %n a straight be, and the subsequent position, when ApoUo stands,up with Terpsichore currred against his back. (figs. 11, 12) 3) Coda - the three Museg, in II row, extend their arms towards Apolao, who phces his head on the%rupturnad palms, This is

sometinvjs c& si the "sleeping" POSO. (fig. 13) 4) Cod4 - ApoUo, standing, supports the three Muses who pose in arabesque one behind the other, as if to form a many-legged creature. (fig, 14, l.owr right)

5) The apotheosis, ApoUo, standing on the upprmost point of the rock that projects from the background of the stage, raises his arm h gree*S.ng to the guadria that descends from the skg-, Behind him the three Pfuses stand in single fa,here with thelr arm outstretched and both hands placed on the shoulders of the Hue in front. Terpstchore, in the bad (identified by her short skirt), stretches both arm towards Apoll.0, (fig. 6) These poses recur, with variations, in photographs of later productions choreographed by BabnchFrze (see followixq fiscussion) . The variations - for example, changes in the height of leg extensions, alterations of arm gestures, mdifications ir. Ldy car-rfage - reflect , the developent of technical proficiency and aesthetic taste. Some changes, however, were deliberately made by th3 choreographer, a stadard przctice of Balanchine, who freely tailors his choreopaptr-g to the indiddual.dancer, Others. no doubt result from lapses of memory, since, as noted in the introduction, Balanchjlke does not belleve in notsung his ballets and in fact does not see the necessity of preserving his choreography as a step-for-step copy of the original, A fuller and more det.siled verbal description of the choreography may be found in Balanchine's Ooolcs of ballet synopses. Hottevler, since the fbst book was not published until 199, its description of Amllon is probably clossst to the 1951 revival of the ballet, and will be discussed further below, bong tho contemporary commentators on the ballet, Propert has bft'a viv3.d word-picture of severdl of the poses: .. .against the bent arms of the kneeling Apollo leant the three mums in receding line, linked together so closely that one could see kt OW body; and from this gauze-clad body shot the diverging Pines of many curved arms ar.d legs, The description m~ysuggest an octopus, but the reality w?,s nearer some undreamt- of floxar. At another moclent Apollo drove his muses befom !xh, he on the north and they straining east, west, md south, ard again one sax the intricate floxer-like pattern of the arms stretching upwards from tho outward-cumin3 bodies. One ssw Nikitba, Uke a long silver fish, poised on Lifr?r's crouching back, or Tcbrnicheva and Doubrovska, ono on either side of the erect young 602, with their bodies so subtly curvad that they looked like the oval setting of a Cellini jewel, 0-ne knew then that four dancers are the perfect number for a ballet, and that 110 one of them must be greater than the others.81 Although it is impossible to resurrect the ba,Uet as it was performed in 198, certain doductiorls may ka proposed on the basis of the photosaphs a-rd verbal descriptions, The strongly sculpturesquo quality of the poses is evident from the photographs; there is a clear att8mpt to form pictures pleasing to the eye, 115than emphasis on the qualities of balance and stahi3ity. The flow of movment that pverd the transitions between poses is more difficult to deduce 61

from still photographs.

Lincoln Kirsteh, who first saw the ballet at Covent Garden h~ 1929, baliens that the choreography was influenced by the technical. limitations of Lifar:

* Lifar had the air of a postadolescent, self-indulgent boy of grace and energy, but he was by no means a f'ully equipped classical techrrlcian. Balanchine arranged steps for him which accommodated and capitalized on his limitations, accentuated his brusqueness, set off his strength to such a degree that in his triumph, pattern and structure were eclipsed by personality and idiosyncrasy. Hence an eccentricity in many parts of the femele variations, which wore organized and desi.gned to be consistent with the unique masailhe role, at first appeared as particularly disturbing.82 The tn;rsqneness and eccentricity which Kirstein speaks of are less evldent in the photographs, which conveg a sense of calm iud digcity, at least to the eyes of the present day. The general mod is one of detachment rather than passion, of self-absorption rather than eon-

SC~USdisplay, In %hip3otoF;raphs there is little sense of a direct address to tb awence; even when facing front, tfie dancers amrt their eps as if to maintain the dfsthction between the vietserts world and the secondaryworld being created onstage. whi3s this type of mood is associated with the precepts of classicism in a broad sense, it is true that this was not necessarily characteristic of the more degenerate forms of ths so-called classical ballet. Fobhad rebelled against ths exploitation of ths classical technique for the sake of exhibitionistic display, ELnd in many of his ballets he had discamled the academic ballet bchniqus in order to incraass dramatic expressimness. With Awllon Babnchills reinstated

the classical. technique and style, but used it as a basis for choreo-

graphic invention rather than 8 means of either display or dramatic e1qmss3.0~. The ''classical" traits of restm.int and reduction =e *licit h such an action, - In s;lmmarg, although the 1928 Ballets Russes Apollon was not the definitive mrsi.on of the ballet, it broke new ground and Ndthe basis

for subsequent productions. Since the Ballets Russes was a more prestigious ballat company, it attracted more cri.Ucal attention than the Washington production had; it also gave more performances in more . locations. Tbis helped increase pukuc awareness of the new cLassical idoil. that Stravinsky and BeSanchine had begun to fodate. Both artists applied this new approach to other works: Amllon was by no mans a dwid-end or a culm2natN statement of their aimS. fJOwemr, the fact that they rsturned to it again and again, as will be discussed blm, suggests that it represented to them a touchstone which they sought both ia emula.t;e and ixprom

Eune years elapsed between the first twu productions of ApoUon and its next hportant revival. The Bolm-Eleraisoff production appears ta bave bean limcited to a single performance. The Balmchine-Bauchant production, on the other hand, continued through the last two seasons of the Ballets Rxsses. bmr, with Dia&levts death in 199 the company was disbaded anci its dancers and choreographers scattered.

Although Apollon shad th3 acclaim and rewrence that nostalgia

eventually awarded to all the ballots of the Diawev canon, it may well have fded into obliv;,on along with the majority of the experi- mental ballets presented during the postwar period of the Ballets Bosses. Indeed, of the ten ballets choreographed by Balanchine during USperiod, only APollon and The Prodinax Soq (1929) bave survived to this day.

Dance is a perishable commodity; the fact Is unfortunate but; trUa. Although &stein wrote of the 1937 revival of Awlloq that Stradnsky and Balanchiae ’%xishedto present it in the choreography of its Paris

pl.e~enta,tion,~~~3he was probably fully cognirtant of the difficulties

of reconstructing any ballet, especiaUy after a Matus of so olany

pars. No matter how good the choreographer’s memory, som degree of change was inevitable, if only because the batwas being performed by dancers with different physiques and temperaments, .It is noteworthy that the two collaborators specifically desired

to rt3pivP only ths choreography of the ballet, rather than the ballet as a whole. In term of material substace, sets and costumes are the most durable components of a ballet, although they too are not proof ’ against the ravages of W. plrobably, if the collaborators had so desired, they could have unearthed the designs if not the actual. sets and costumes asd by the Ballets Russes, and by dint of exhuming these artifacts d delving into the msmorfes of contemporary participants irrrd observars (much more numerous ad freshsr than they are today), a reasonable facsimile of the Ballets Russes Apollon might have been created, in +the spirit of the carefully researched revivals of Petrouchka and Parade, which haw been presented in recent pars, ht just as the ApoUon of 1928 had brokan with the traditional expectations of the “Greekt1 ballet, tho ApoU-ons of subsequent pars =re to beak with their predecessors and nanrssakes, The declaration

of independence embodied by Stra,vfnskyps score was still in effect,

h the sense that none of the collaborators felt the need for a COW 64

current nostalgic frae nrfnd; perhaps, slightly assumed its of in- a more optimistic age, it still had faith in the concept of progress, At any rate, the following productions of Apollon fhsa&te did not marely dust off tho old bones of the Ballets iiusses, but attempted to &ve the ballet a farm rneaingful to the present age. The follo.YJFng discussion will focus prinudLy on the productions choreographed by Balmchine simplsp for the reason that more information is avd3able on these productions, making a fuller picture possible.

Ca APO llon &s &e, 27 AprU 19378 Metropolitan Opera flouse, New York Cit% Th3 Anierica Ballet, Choreography: Goorge Balmchine, Sets d costumes: Stewkt Chaney. Cast: hw Christensen (Apolla) # EUse Reimm (Terpsichore) , Daphm Vane (CdUope), Holly Haward (Polyhymia), Jane I3urkhal.h- (bto), Kyra Blank and Rabana Hasburgh (TWO Goddesses). Conductor: Igor Stravinsky. The New York Philharmnfc Orchestra,

&&on Musag$te re-turned to the nation of its world pedere on the occasion of another special event :Ln the musicaf, world, It was revived for a bro-day Stravinsky Festival presented by the hrican Ballet on April 27 and 28, 1937, at the ktropolitan Opera Home in New York City. Stravinsky, then living Faris, appared as guest conduc tor, The program consisbd of three ballets choreopapbd.. by Bzlancfaine to music by Stravinsky, The Card Partx (Jeu de Czrts) had keen commissioned especially for .the festival, where it received its world predere. The third billet, Eaiser de la F6e8 had ben first performed by Ida Rubinsteincs comparu. in 1928 in Paris, Kith cbmogra- phg by BronLshva Nijimka, 65

The &erican Ballet, which porfomd theso works, was exactly what its name imp&sb 1% was the first fruit of a concerted effort by

Kirs-5~1, its co-founder and director, to establish ballet as a viable slatform in the United States, For this purpose he had invited Balan- chine to America, where the two opened the School of American Ballet in January 199. The American Ballet company made its debut in Decem-

An article written by &stein 5n 1937 remals that The Card Party was the fbst ballst projected for the Stradnsky Festival, 813d at APollon and Baiser were chosen to complemsnt iL85 ThematicaUy the three are quite dissimi'lar, since The Card Party takes as its pretext a poker game (it 5s subtitled A Ballet in TheDeals), while AmUon is based on classical mythology adBaiser on a fairy tale by Hans Christian Anderssn, bated as a m~~icaltribute to Tchaikovskg,

=stein@s many publidations contain AzuI1Brous references to @ollon, from the Ballets Russes production orrwards. Howevw, according

to Anatole Chujoy he W8S reluctant to mviw it in 1937, though not out of any particular dislike for it.

Kirstein was against the BalanchWe-Stra'ky performances from the very first. He felt "ht Stramsky was universally recognized as a great dance-musician, that h8 had received his due from all Europe, and that he would nsmr lack a chance to produce his om ballets, He also thought that all beballets chosen were, each in a different way, retardative. a2 If this was indeed the case, &stein gave no sf@ of his persona opinion when he wrote "€hiage to StravinSkf' for Arts arid Decoration of May 1937. He published with this article Stewart Chamy's designs for the swan3 scene setting and the costws of the kses. (figs. 14. 16) In the text, Kirstein wrote of th3se designs: ,

Stewart Cheney, one of the most br3lliant of the younger American stagre designers, has paid remarkable homage to the music and dancing, in his costwjs and decor. Ha has berl inspired by Nicholas Poussin to create a magnjf'icent laxdscape against a stomy sky, a wild place near a temple which has been so richly decorated that surplu pieces of its decoration are tumbled about, restin;: on great satin folds of a canopy of green, white, and hlue which make both sky and architectural fram.87 Y Kirsbin reiterated this allusion to Poussin in 1973, when he stated that Chanej's decor was based on the backgrounds of Echo md Narcissus and The Arcadian Shepherds-(though he does not specify which version of the latter is meant). The colors of the drapefies are said to derive from Xnsr>iratTon of the Poet.88 The latter cannot be evdmted here, since Cbeyts designs have not been published in color; It is difficult to draw exact parallels between Chaneg's &esSgps arrd the paintings named by &stein. Possibly Kir- stein Mended a spbitd affinity rather than one of specific motifs or iconographical content. Theatre ArLs tlanthlv also pUshed designs for &an fn 1937: the cost~xmfor Apoub and a set design. (figs. 17-18) Jud- from photographs of the production, this was the set actuallg esecuted, rather than that pubEshed by =stein. Two shots of the apotheosis show the large rock with its grotto-like cavity and the somewhgt sparse tree overhging it akaost exactv as in ths dravhg. (figs. 19-20)

Grace Robert, a contemporary obs0mr, described the set somewhat less enthasiasticalLy than Uxstein: This production of Amllon t.lusa&te rejoiced in a decor and costumes by Stewart Chaney that were eeveral degrees removed fram Stravinsky's notions of what they should b3. The Euses were clad in conventional Greek tunics. The settbg, a .

natWaUstic landscape, was cluttered with ctn assortment of objects: broken columns, urns, a coll;oss,d head, capitals, and a rock for the apotheocis. tho wholo overhung With a great set of drapories, complete with fringes arrl'tassels.89 HowevBr, Iiirstein, writing in' 5.973, asserted that Stravinsky exprossed himself pleased with the sot, and quoted the composer's comment, "Va fdt riche; tds Poussin~sque.~~~~ The grotto beneath the rock suggests that only one setting was used for both scems of the ballet, Such a sot would have been economical both 9n .terms of time and money, and nothing in the scenario precludes it. rnL-.- Chey's set design appears to have been oxecuted quite faithfully, the costumes were much altered in form. In Cby% sketch, ApoVo weas a tunlic With short sleeves, a cloak, sandals, and

8 burel wreath; in the photographs Lew Christensen, who performed t;hs title role, wears a short atand a dark cloak that partially cowrs Us bare torso, Xirstein described this cos.t;UmS as "a light, supple, gilt wrof soft kLd, with a short crimson silk mantle"; he further adds that Christensen's hair was tightly curlod, varnished, and powdered with gold d~st.9~ He does not appear to be wearing a lawel. wreath in any of the photographs. (figs. 19-22) Chancy's sketches of the three Ymes depict thorn in long, flowing Grecian draperies rather than the bell-shapd tutus of the Ballets Ruses version, Polyhymnia, identifiable by the msk she carries, is sketched with a bare breast, The costums are white or light-cobred, with dark cloaks, sashes, ard shoes, (fig0 16)

Tnese costumes also underwent a substantial. transforma'it on,

Photographs show the hses in very brief tunics, cut above the %ign, 68

The soft fabric and draped Wces lnnd a Grocian flavor. The color scheme of U&t dresses with dark accents has been retained in tho

mrrm sash passing over ths shoulder of .t;hs tunic, securod by the

girdle. In addition, the Msos mar hair ornamnts that do not appear in Chaney's ske'iches. (figs. 21-23} Leto and her attendats appw in a photogaph of the apofbosis, but the figures are too indistinct to allow a costume description,

. (fig. 19) Although this was the second mrican production of &oXLon, it was the first performed in New York City. EUse Reiman, who had creatsd the role of Calliope in Bolm's production, now dancbd as Terpsichore in Balmchine's version,

The ballet as a whoh mst with a varied reception, Albertina vi*# in a r8dm for B0 herican Dancer, deacribd Bdanchbe's choreography as "bharreit h deplored the fact that his fljghts of fa-

cy "occasionally go completely omr the border, resulting in sheer &= nesses." HoweverD sb adxS.tted, "1 found his origindity stimulating, although the audlence obviously did not,1aand continued, The very effectim setthg with its pastorzl quality accented the austere movemnts of the c!ancers, costmd in simple tunics patterned after the Greeks, In accordance With the music, the action was ofbn slok- with long pauses in psedo frieze-lilce poses which seemd to bring music and action into a closer relationship,

The tricky solos of ApoTllo were danced with ease by Lew Chris- tensen, who looked the very part, though he was not quite con&- cing dramatically. ,.Of' the Hues, Daphne Vane, as Callio-oe, passessed the cold, glamourous unreality suitad to this tpof bdllet...Hiss Hoxard's solo uas very fast, with all the big leaps and strong novemnt she does with such force. ,Particularly brilliant was frer repetitkon of one fib- which sounds almost ixqxssibls - a double phouette stopping perfect.ly stU i? arabesque. l*Sssiiebuan was best in the pas de den rvith ;k. Chris- tensen? comAposed almost entirely of arabsques in BVBA y conceivable position, with a delightful pause as she sits on his knees, her back to tho audience. But on the debit skde were the feet rJriggles of Apollo (not intended to be rond ds .jambe en 3.sas I imagine some might 'a&)and the unwrapping of Apolllo from some yards of silver cloth - and what loolted Uce a swhzdng bsson in the as do dew (Miss Re- on Apollo's back, doing the breast stroke* . . Grace Robert noted that;

Choreographically, bollon Iiusa&e, had its killiant as kjen as beWjUsrbg moraents, The bir-th of the god was achieved in the following manner: tho nymph Leto is seen on the rock; suddenly the figure of ApUo appoars, bound xith hieratic swathings, Uke a mtumay; t-xo npphs propel. hiar forward; they hold appendages of the confining band, while ApoJlo frees himself with a pirouette. From then on, his prhcipal. task was to p~t . tha lbses through a gas de awtra, which exploited every acro- htic predicament and convolution that the ingenuity of the choreographer could devise. 93 The last statement recalls Levinson's allusion to the "adage acre- batique" and conf5.r.m~Vitak's statement that in 1937 APoUon st5U . m&d an oddity in the eyes of the ballet-going public. That it ! stizZ retained laughable aspects Tor sme is apparent in Robrt's quotation of another review: At least om of the critics vas mused by the portentous solemnity of the action, remarkkg in his review: ltFhere was something to tempt tha risibles.oein the sight of one of the mses sit- thg doh- mmentar-ffiy on the recumbent Ap&'s knee, hr back to the audiencr,, and then flitti,.. away as if some important bit of allegory has becn visuaJlzed!*'3 4

John Martin, who was at the time a sonewhat UnCompro&shg para-

san of the modern dance, gave Apollon a scathing review in Tb New York Tbms:

IAoollon 3 vas first produced in Bdanchine8s version far ths DiaghLLeff Company in 1928, and tt bears the strong impress of that priod of artiness and affectation,..Just as Stravinsky has turned the rhybhmic complexities of the music in the direction of pseudo-BeItini melodiousness, so Eidanchine has assumed 2 surface of studied simplicity, but undernedth there is nom of the essentka nobility of the classic style,95 70 On tho other hand, EUot Carter praised the ballet as flBdmhinevs

rnasterpie~e.~~His review is esp0ciaU.y enlightening because he conjures r vivid of movement quality not of this production, ht of the 1928 Bal3sts Russes production as tmU,

Though in part a reprise of his former choreography for Diaghileff, 5% was less static and had greatly gained Zn feeling since fts Parisian performance. The jerks f'rom one statuesque pose to another were no longor in evidence and in their place was a ~~rgbeautif'ul plasecity having both nobility snd mpose. No one hzs worked aut flow in dancing as well as BalancWne. In Amllon...there was a constant line of movement which bound all the steps together and never ceased until the curtain feu. There was son&hing magical and stirring about this draviig of invisible lines in the air... Balanchim's geatest successes have been in asI,JTZYLC and poetic vein...96 IUrstein &o evoked the movwent qualities of the Muses' dances in Womage to Stravinsky":

Each variation cmacbrizes the nature of the goddess. The strong buoyant meof lyric verse, the eloquent gestures of the drlvmatic artist, ths fluent rk@hms of the dancer are the xmsicvs accoq-nt and equal.. ,George Br&znchine*s superb choreograpw recalls the school of Petipa, but, as it is inxigorated by contemporary develbpnts in movement. 97 b described Balanchhe's charactarization of Apollo as "neither a frigid echo of Greece, nor a Clash back to the court of Versmes. He is the god of swkmkg and dancing, an athlete and an artist, the hmr~que~nd *gorous partraya of a divine boy."g* However, in his polelnic "j31ast at Balletf1 (1937), l(frstein des-

cribed the characbr in somewhat different te-riflS :

hw Christensen in the role of Amllon achiemd a hunan nobility and technical wstery which he had pronised in Orpheus. His distin,dshed interpretation of this difficult pdCI ms more golden baroque, more the Apllo Ealvedere than Serge Lifar's dark, electric, archaic animalism of rjne years before. But at last here was an Awrican dancer with his o~m-vidual classical attitude, using his sjx feet of height with a suave and monumentril elegance which w2s wholly athletic, frank, rrmsical and jam, and wholly unlike th~smallQr-scded grace of the Russian prototype.% Usbin's allusion to the Apollo Belwclere, though an apt description of Chrisbnsen's physical spperance, is somewhat difficult to reconc3.b with Bdanchinels statements on the ballet, A long familiarity with the history of art predisposes Lirstein to describe the ballet in tern of famous sculptar+c3s of the past: Apalla, commencing as an awkward athlste, grad- emerges as 5f from a blunt four-square block, just as the early Greek stone -Kouroi over three centuries grew into the released humane prototype of Periclean and post-classical naturalism. By no accident, Balanchfne used quotations both from )IeUenistic sculpture (AwUr, Belvedere the SolfScraphg-- Vic'tOp of .Lys;ipf=) and from the beginnings of the Baroque (Piichelmgelot s God TouchAnn -4,dm into Life).100 Balmchine, on the other hand, has attempted to deny this sort of association: When the butwas f'irst performed, a French critic said that this was not ApoUO at &. .He was t'ninldng of some familiar stat- of Apollo, the Apol3.0 Belvedere prhaps, and imamd that a bdllet about the god 140ul.d personify sculptural representa t'ions, But m~x>n~~sagZ& is not APOXLO Belvedere; be islp wild, W-human youth trho acquires nobility throu& art.

However, f;irsteln8s imagery refers to specific poses or sequences of movement idthin tha balht, ire.r fo-rms; whereas Balancbins's stab- msnts apply to them aad content as well, This suggests a paradox: an fconaclast3.c ballet which nevertheless draws upon icons, or forms with certain establlshf%lCOIX~IO~~~~OIIS. Such a t;reat;msnt is not ~n- d - an obvioas exanple of its application is parody - but was Amllon intended to be a parody? The ~et.;ie:?rs quoted aSom show that some spectatars fdurxi it laughable at times, but did not see it in parodic intents, although Vitak for one recognized that the liberties taken were essentially based on the classical technique. Ian the b&et was repeated in the following par, 1938, it evoked the fYrst of several sensitive and perceptive reviews by Zdwin Denby. His words allow the reader not only ta visualize the physical. .' configuration of the Ipovmmts, but to capture something of their

evocative arxl expressional signjflcance as well. v. Did pu see the way Balanchine shows you how strangely tall. a dancer is? She enters crouching and doesn't, rise till she is well past the terracally hi@ dings; then she stands xp erect, and just staniEng Still and tall becomes a wonderful thing. Did mu see how touching it can be to hold it ballerina's extended foot? Tbs three ~~eskneel on one knee and each stretches her other foot up, Apono comes and gathers the three of them in his supporting haxi, Did you notice how he teaches them, turning, holding them by moments to bring each as far as the fmthest poss%Ueand most surprising bezuty; and it isn't for his sake or .hers, to show off or be attractive, but ody for the sake of that extreme human possibility of balance, with a faith h it as bpersonal and touching as a mathematicianrs faith in an extrem of human reasoning, Or did mu notice how at the end of a dance Balanchine will - insbad of armderwg it with a pose directly derived from it - introduce a strange yet simple surprise (an unexpected entrance, a resolution of the groupbg into two plain rows) with the result that ins"Lad of saying, "See what I did," it seems as though the dancers said, '*There are nany more worders, too." % effect of the whole is like that of a p1~~~7,a kind of pb3T that dsts in terms of dancing, ,The subject mtbr is the san~as that of the music, which as you know is, "the reality of art at every nrOment,'~102 Visual records of this production me rather few in comparison with the 198 BatsRusses version. A number of studies show Christensen

sty.- attitudes on a set of blocMike stairs which do not appear in Chancy's set designs; these appear to Is studio portraits. !ho phot*

graphs of thf3 apotheosis bave been published; note the different camera

Snae and 82ar gesture of Apllo in each. (figs, 19, 20) 73

The pose that opens the pas de deux of Apollo and Terpsichore (fig. 21) has been identified as a direct quotation of Michelangelo's - Creation of Adam on the Sistine ceiling?03Terpsichore enters from offstage, her Mad turned away from Apollo, and places the tip of her

index finger on his. Wethe gestural analogy is undeniable, the symboUc signifLcance is not quite the siimo, The hses were not the cmabrs of Apollo, nor, according to Stravjnsky's conception, hls

. fnstmrctors in the arts. IO4. Neither do they inspire him in the 8e-e of "the poet and his muse"; on the contrary, Stravinsky holds that hs inspires them.105

The fan#>us pose of the &fuses and A@lo in arabesque, one behind the other to fom a many-legged creature, reveds certain alterations

hi position. (fig. 22) irJhereas, in the Ballets Russes version, rjfar's torso faces front, his head turned to the prome view (fig. 14, bwer

fight) , Christensen's %ad and torso both move t;owards the prome position. His right arm gesture has also been altered. The positions of the kses have also changsd; the like in front is more nearly up right than har Ballets Russes counterpet, although she too does not support her own weight. The kse LZlrthest upstae naw twists around

Apollo and cranes up at his fsce, so that the pos as photographed shows

a triangle of three heads, ecktoing the right triangle whose apex is

ApoXLo's head and whose bases are his 101- foot and the left foot, touching the floor, of the foresost &se. This helps stabilize the

strong diagonal sweeping from tipollo's upraised left irrm to the left foot of the foremost ffuse. The pose as a whole is more stable and UC~that of tb Ballets II'USSgS. 74 In summation, as far as sets and costumes go, the 1937 production appears to have drawn upon a more conmntional armd consistent ''Greek1*

tradition than either of its predecessors. kt its choreograpby still seemed odd and innovatfve .t;O most of its audbnce; however tfchssicdlt

its garb, ApoUon had not pt been accepted as a "classic,"

D. JDO llon Hits&, 1%L, Teatro Municipal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, American Ballet Caravan, Choreography: George Balanchine. Sets: Tods Santa Rosa. In 1941 the Americm Ballet, xhich haci been defunct as a performing organization since 1938, merged with BatCaravan (another company fomed by iiirstein) to form the company variously known as American Ballet Caravan1o6 or sonetifftes sinxply as the American BaUet,1°7 The Wtus for the merger cme from official sources: Nelson A. Rocke-

feller, then head of the United Stabs Office for Coordinatbn of Cum-

1 nercial and Cultural ReSations between the American RepuUcs (an agency under the jurisdicaon of the State DapahnentL) had commissioned lllrstein to organize a ballet company for a g00d-W tour to Latln America, Kirstein becane director-general of the coq*a~~,Bdbnchine director of choreographye108 Ths tour opened on June 26, 1941, in the Teatro bhicipal in Iiio de Janeir0.~~9 Awnon was one of a nuhr of ballets presented on this tour. The rest of the repertory ranged from abstract works such as Balm- chine's Ballet Lx1perial and Cotlcerto Barocco to narrative ballets with glall-&nericanltthames, such as Eugene Loring's Billy th2 Fdd and ~ew~hristensen's Station, In a travel diary of the tour written for The Americm Dancer, 75 KIrst0i.n reported that Amllon had enjoyed an !lunforeseensuccess." In regard to the decor, he wrote: In Brazil we reset this ballet, as much as possible according to Stravinsky's wishes, He had, in his autoblopaphy, expressed himself d5spleased with the original docor by Bauchant. We employed a young Brazilian stage decorator, Santa Rosa, who also mado the superb chariot for us with four horses to carry Apollo off to heaven, but these tmre so heavy that after carting them a31 ovor South America tqe had to abandon them at the foot of the Andes due to their excess weight. ..no No sketch or photograph of the Smta Rosa set could be located, making it impossible to evaluate whether it followed Stravinsky*s specificatAons as cbs8v as &stein claims, ' A Serbs of six phobgraphs of the d-mcws 3a action on this tour was published fn Dance Index of 195. The caption identifies the dan- cars as Harie-Jeanne, Marjorie Faore, Olga suarez, and h Christen-

Besides a vague ilvlication of rocks in the backsotuld, obscured by ! the darkness of the photograph,. there is no intimation of the stage set

Lbg, The costums of the hes appear to be the same as fn the 1937 production, bat Apollo now wears a metallic-looking tunic that bares

OrY3 shoulder, a cloak, cross-garters, and a laurel wreath. Kirstein's tsavel diary mentions gilt leggings,* but it is unclear whether this rezers to the cross-garters or to an additional. article of clothing not shown in the photographs.

The nswbuing lesson" from the Apollo-Terpsichore D~Sde deux reappears in these photographs, as does the subsequent pose with Terpsickra leanfig against Apollo's back. The pse of ths three

!&es b wabesqus, joining hands with each other and Apaand str&?ing outwad, &so recurs, The arabesques now extend much 76' ------higher than in the Ballets Husses version (fig. 14, lamr left), a

change which mag have been influencad by the more revealing costumes as well as by the changes in taste and tschical capability,

The photographs also capture a moment not previously Ulustrated in earUer productions, although it reappears in photographs of later

ones. This occws during the pas d'action: "the muses form a close =ne in front of Apollo, This line moms backward as one, the young

. god and goddesses shufflbg awhrardly on their heel~.~~~3 D5d tbis movemant exist in earlier productions? If so, had It previously been considered too aukward and unballetic to be photographed? ?Jho made that decision: the photographer, press agent, or makers of the ballet? Obviously there is ne facile answer to these questions, but it is possible that the poses considered worthg of being photograph& and publicized may provide an Mication of chanRing

* attitudes and tastss, !

E. Amllon Kusadte, 1942, Teatro Col6n, Btrsnos fires, Brpntba. Choreography: Geclrge Balanchine. Sets and costumes: Pave1 Tchelitchew.

In Jnne 1942 Pawl Tchelitchew designed the sets and costumes for two balets by Ebchine to be produced in Buenos Aires: Awnon and was means -IConcerts, the latter to music by Mozart, This by no the artist's first experience with stap design; he had already decorabd seven ballets, the Mrst of wh%ch, Ode_, had been produced by the Ballets Russes in 1928, sbultaneously with bollon, Five of the ballets had been choreographed by Bdlanchhe: L'Errante (1933), Mazic' (196)

Orpheus (196), Balustrzde (1*1), and The Cave of Sleep, cdssiomd Two sketches for this production of Apollon are now in the Depart- ment of Theatre Design in the Eluseum of Modern Art, Now York City, the of Lincoln KiF~tein.~5Both are apparently the same set, for according to Donald WiniUmn, writing in hnce Indq of 1944:

A single set,. serves for lxo scenes in Apollon Ihsa.&e, transformed in this case purely by 8 change in illumination. Here we see the face of the earth still and stone-like until an inner light reveals dl the richnesses of nature which were in Cave of Slee~. The still earth, a mountain top of pure marble, comes to ufe and ApUo leaps full grown from his mother's womb. U6 At the end of the ballet, when the god departs for Parnassus, Softly, through a change in Ughting from front to b3ck, the stage becomes a world rich with vegetatio,rl, and full. of human faces. The Golden Age is over and "&e stage again pales to a Weless dragonfly wing, dark With the iridescence of fear.1.p17

Ths first of the two sketches (f'ig. 25) remas a rocky, barren .Mscape striated by ribbons of Xght that form a webbing which con- ceals ths human faces, dominated by a radiant upturned face In center stages that are revlealed in the apthosis. (fig. 26) Both the ueb

the doahze finages of human faces recall Tche~tchew's=de (1944)-42), which he worked on simultaneously with the Apollon

apotheosis incorporates the airborne aWiEa that also Bauchant Smta Rosa sets. TcheUtchew enriched thfs hge by bansforrofng each horse into a Pega~\t~.The .f;otd effect %s visionary aaCl poetic, and it is unfortunate that no photograph of its onstage realization could b fd.

WindBBm also reproduces in Dance Inclex a page from TcheUtchew's sketchbook, with the costumes of the Hwes f'resly sketched in the lower bft corner. The 712mes Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, and "CaYioppe" are 78 also discernible at the left of the page. These sketches show dresses with draped bodices and heht-We headdresses. (fig.- 27) The costunrss executed for the stage are fairly similar, though the helmets were eliminated. Each Huse has a different pattern on her dress$ *'the deaf=and-dumb sign for Polyhymnia, the Greek dphabet for CWope, and music staffs and bars for Terpsich~re.~~~g(fig. 28) Apolla is dressed in a tmic that bares one shouldcir, a dg, and

. cross-gartered shoes, Windhrup mtes that he also bsd a golden clods, lyre, and scroU. X?' (fig. 28)

The identincation of thp ballet coxqany or of the individud. dancers who performed in this prodaction remainv something of a mystery. The New York Puhlic Library's catalogue Stravinsky and the Dance stztes that the Amrican Ballet but this company lmd been disbanded in October 1941, dter its South hrlcan tour. EJO other sou-ce attributes tus production to that cornpang, PossiUy It was danced by members of the Ballet of the Teatro Cosn, which perforpeed in ths other ballot by Balanchine presented at; this tima,

Concsrtq.122 Possibly, too, the ballet was danced by &pest art&stB bought in by Balstnch.f-ne. The one photograph of the produotion that could be located depicts the shuffling movement from the pas d'action, (f'ig, 28) The

dancers were not identified in the caption acco-g ths photo-

graph,

P, &d&, 25 April 1943, &tropolitan Opera House, New York City. BaUet Theatre. Choreography: Gears Balanchine, Sets: Eugene B. Me1Studios, Costurass: Barbara k~ka. CatstZ A&& Zglevsky (Apob), Vera 2o-a (Terpsichore), 79 Rosella Hightower (Calliope), Nora Kaye (Polpnia), June %rris bto) Miriam Golden antl Shssley Eckl (Two Nymphs) With this revival, Bn'lnnchine's ballet asswaed the sbnplif'ied Utle Aaollo, which is preferred today. This production rein the repertory of Ballet Theatre, the presen-ay American Bat Theatre, through the seasons 1942-194.3 aril 19+1950.123 Various

changes in cast took place during these ~BRTB, ths most notable being tho assumption of the role of Apallo by Igor Youskevitch during the . 1-7 season, and that of Terpsichore by Alicia Alonso in lyrcg-Lt6 and hiaTallchief h 1g4-8-49, l2' The ballet was presented in London at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, in 1946,E5 ad performed

during 8 EWOP~tour 1950. 126 Contemporary ohservers suggest that the ba77et had become more au-ptabb to tb public .and critAcs, throw sheer fdUarity if nothing else.127 Edwin Denby, who had championed the ballet from the

The bdbt itself I rev=iewed in this column fiple pars ago, explaining and deferwling the choreography; now it turns out to be perfectly clear way. Everybody desat the little jokes, everybod ppmciates the '3timacy of tone and the wide openness of une,928

This reference to humor recalls the reviews of Bob's version of the ballet, m.3 suggests that, for the first tbw since 1928, light-

heartedness was seen as an appropriate qUty of Usballet. In approaching the mgthological tbme in this mood, rather than with awe a& retTBrence, the choreography no longer seemed bizarre, unsuitable, or tudignified, but wtlimsical and playful, Glenway tlestcott's opinion that the ballet should be called ,4po3lo's Gams With the bessuggests

this quality, dthuugh &stein in a more scholar- mgnner irrterpted the phrase to signify the wre solemn type of athletios =presented on Roman ooins and carneos.U9 Writing in 1947, Klrstein pointed out the transformation that the ballet had undergone in the eyes of its beholders with the passas of

&Uoq has now lost for us the effects which offoded, l.rritated or merely amused an earlier public. We forget that mch of the ~tmodernismltof adagio movement in OW classlc dance derives directly from A~olloq; that many ways of lifting women, of turning close to the floor, of subtle syncopation in the use of Dointes, of a singlo male dancer supporting three women, kire unknown 'before &-. Theso innovatAons horrUied many pop29 at mst, but they were so logical an ext8nsLJ of the pure line of ~aint-LQon, Petipa ~vanovat they re Wst hudiateJg absorbed into the tradition of the- craft. Eo

Eowever, some observers s.till found the choreography difficult to

absbact ballet S-Vmshodc Vadationg, by tM English choreogapher Frederick Ashton. After praising Ashton's "add musical desigu," she

Balanchine's transition from position to position is often strained, and one wonders if it was of this work #.at Stravinskg was thinking when he wrote, in his "Chrollicle of Wy Eifes1' of the chor.eographer's tendency to disrupt the musical. and choreographic llne by cutting up the rhythmic episodes into fragaents.131 On tbe other hand, the ballet inspired Edxd.n Denby to wrib, on bth as descpiptiolls and interpretations of the work. Tb first, "The Power of Poetry," is a more strdghtforward review, but the second, "Balancbiae*s Ap0ll.0,~ is timeless in nature; its descriptive tour de force trranscends any single performance of AwUo and @WS the impression that it could, or should, app4 to every perfmce of this To quota a few excerpts8 Throe young MUSOS appear and tb four of them dance together. They dance charmingly and a little stiffly, reminding you of the inexpressiw seriousness and shy, naive fancy of children. But as they end, the boy @ves the three 421s ench a magi0 gift, i scroll of verse to one, a theater mask to the second, a lyre to the third. dnd holding these emblems of poetry, each seems to be ins- beyond her years. The f'irst -1 dames flowingly with an airy and lyric delight; the second bounds with dramatic speed, with sudden reversals of dimction as if in mld-leap; just at the end one hand that has seemed all through to be holding a mask before her face seem to sweep the mask away, and she Is herself again and frightened. The third muse, Terpsichore, invents the most adventurcrusly brilliant dmce of all, bow cutting her motions in diamond-clear stops bre- the cumulative drfm. She CNnl'dnas suspense Kith calm. And as she onds, Apollo gen- touches her bright h~ad. But, the dance over, she ducks like a child and runs off. ,,.And now all three Muses dance together in darting hamng and dance inspired by poetry's power, &@ng from ApoUo Uke birds, curving from Us body zike a cluster of flowers, driven by him Uke an ardent charioteer; d enang, when immortal Zeus has cdhd through the air, in three grand accents of imarolatiox~l32 UWe most cnmntentabrs, who accepted the ballet on face value as

a myt;hologicsl narrative or a more-orless abstract work, focussing on

dance for .t;facs sake of danchg, Dgnby mad into Awllo a deeper meaning

81y1 si@fiC;utw. Efs irr.t;erpreted it as a mtaphor of the developneat of the poetfc d,as it travels from the more literal realm mpresenwd

steps), to an lncseasing sense of abstraction, which distills and trans- cends the pbnomenologica world. In th.3 sense Awllo conveys an image of increasfng discipl line, of increadng clarity of definition, It pars more and more civiUzgd, But the rhythxic vitality of the dmce, the abundance of vigor increases sirmrltaneously, so that you feel as if the heightening of discipline led to a heightening of power, to a freer, bolder range of ima&at;;lon. Since the piece is about the gods of poetSy, and haw they learned their art, it seems, too, to be describing concretely the dewlopnt of the creative h&ation.l% e. Discipline froedcmr - the linkago of the 4x0 A8 a direot eoho of Stravinsky's ideas, This approach to artistic- creation is essentially alassical. rather than romantic; It recalls the painstaking preparatory st~.@iesof a Poussin,, the striving for balance and harmony of a Cezmne. To the classicist, art is not prducod in a flash of inspiration or a Dionysiac frenzy. It results as muoh iron the asaftsman-like understanding and application of one's materials as from the sudden illuminating insight. Balanohine expressed the sa dewpoint more lightheartedly when he quipped, Wy Hue must coma to m on 'union' time,ml35 Iuthough the thematic content of the ballet may have progressed from the particular to tho universal, the costume designs re-d firmly rooted in a more-ohless literal emation of classical Greece. In the photogaphs, Apo- retains Us gold tunic, girdle, and dark-

I colored sash, plus his traditional attribute, the laurel wreath. (Mgs, 29, 30) The Xuses display more up-to-date chic: the unusual cut of the bodices of their brief white tunics suggest the world of haute coutum more than that of the Parthenon. On their heads they year what Minna. Ledem calls "VersaiUes headdresses, at136 a

elaborate sort of gold uig, (figs, 31-33) One photograph includes a column of nore-or-less anuque

appearance, but it cannot be verifiod as part of the settir,~, for which neither sketches nor photographs could be located, [fig. 31)

Apollo's lute has increased in size, and now looks nore like

/ an actual instrument rather than a toy. (fig. 32) Two photographs repeat poses seen in earlier productions: the 83 pose from the beginning of the pns d'acrtm, with the MUSOS In arabesque facing the kneeling Apollo (fig, 32), and the "many-leGZed croatupe"

pose from the cod4. (fig. 33) In both of tbso poses the arabsgques of the kasextend much higher than before. (of. figs. 14, lower right, and 22) The first pose increasos the space between the dancers by having the Muses link hds with oaoh other rather than resting their elbows on Apllo's shoulders, a8 in 1928, ApoVo now holds his . lute high overhead, Both of these changes increase tba sense of outward expansion and upward aspiration. They also increase the effect Qf strength and athleticism, which contrasts with the softer, more relaxed gualitg of the 1928 mrsion. The simplified costws, with tbjr brief ekirts, also add to the sense of modern streamlWg axi efficiency.

0. ,Am llon hsg&e, 23. May 194.7, 'J!h&tre National de l'OSra, Paris, Paris O$ra Ballet, Choreograph : George Balmchine. Sets arrl costumes: hdre' Delfau. Csst157: Mchel iiennult (ApoU.0) , Maria Tallchisf (Terpsichore) , Paulette Dyn& (Calliope) , Jacqueline Moreau (Polyranie) In 1947 Balmchine was invited to stage four of USwell-kno~n

works for the Paris Opora Ballot: Apollon, Serenade, 'Le Baiser de -FQe, and Le Palais de Crista (S.ymphony in C). Only om visual image of this production of Apolloii could be found: the set design by And& Delfau. (fig, 9) The landscape depicted is rocky and barren, with a two-storey grotto dominating the center of the

stage. If this structure were faithfullg reproduced onstage, it is difficult to tell how it was used. Md .4pono climb all the way t0 the tap, in order to stand on the hi&est point of the rock for the apotheo-

sis? Or did he merely ascend to the second storey, to pose frd

against the rock? Since the reviews that could be located were dis- appointingly silent on this point, these questions must remain un- answered here, Delfau's design employs a nervws, flickering texture that fractures U&t and forms, The effect is rather busy, and one cannot help wondering if this quality were retained in the set, and if so, hcw it worked during the ballet, No costunae designs or photographs could be located, but Leandre

'laat mantions that A~UOwore a go^ tunic.138 VaXUat has published an interesting critique of the ballet, which bi his eyes exemplifies the neoclsss~cdstyle both in its strengths and weaknesses: Toutas Pes recherches dites ttdo-classiqueslz sont contenues dm:i cet ouvragei e'pures ddpouilles de vains ornements, lignes tendues 3 l'extren~, de'placemnt audacieux du centre de gravis, path6tique zequis par l'expression $u corps autant que du visa@, manilBre ingenieuse de nouer et de denouer les mabs ou les bras, de joindre 2sfi&ms en um fray uniqile a plusieurs bas, 3 plusieurs tetes, qui semble 6chapp de quelque ciel hindou.., Peut-8tre le n6o-classicisme, qui par a se diffgrenci: du cbssicislne acaddndque, fait-il appel 8 une v6he/rance rythrllse des pas et du geste, qui n'est pas toujours compatible avec leu accomplisseEent parfait? C'est pourquoi il rencontre tant de faveur aup&s d'artisbs jeunes et irnpatients d'enlever l'applaudis- sement sans %re obliss/ de se sournettre 2 une discipline bop rigoyense 'a leur gre, he sensation d'inached dans le fini. de l'execution, que,rachetent 2 bon compte le? presties li-ues de la musiqne, du decor et des costumes, en msulte pzrfois339 VI.J.llnt thus ascribes the experimentalism of the chomopaphy to a lack of finish and discipline. As noted above, this quality had also been attributed to the technical deficiencies of Lifar in 1928. How8vBr, by 1947 it certainly must have been inteded by the choreographer, Working with different dancers through the pars, he had had ample opportunity to alter both steps and movement qualities. Vaitlat's 85 ergument is akin to that of the nineteenth-century French academy, in its debate over sketch versus finished painting, Just as in the case of painting, a new definition of "finish'' had to be evolved, Another intriguing point in Vdllat's critique is his characterization of Apollo: Ce n'est pas sa&ment l'athlate a l'aro infa-ible, .le gagnan.1; des jeux O'iympiques rnontr6 par la statuaire grecque, mats une jeune homme fin, norveux, sensikLe, rgceptif, avec un je no SEASquoi de naturellement noble, qui laissc pressentir la grdeur: &si Louis UV adolescent. .140 This refereme to the Sun King recalls that of Strsvinsky, but appxes the analogy to a different aspect of the ballet; instead of its decoration, its theme, Like Denby, VaiUat has discerned the idea of

growth ad dewlopent, although Denby applies this to the more abstract concept of the creative nrird, while Vast describes the personality of an individual, In both inbrpretations, the fact that

the protagonist is the godlApoUo is no longer germane t0 the issue,

The thorns from classical mythology has become llllerely a pretext for a mom profound underlying meaning.

H, Apollo, Leader of the lhses, 15 November 199, New York City Center, The Mew York City 3alle%, Choreography: George Balanchine. Costumes: Barbara Karinska. Lighting: Jean Rosenthal. Cast: hdr4 Eglevsky (Apoll~) Maria Tallchief (Terpsichore), Diana Ada (Calliope) Tanaquil hClercq (Polyfiymnia), Barbara Ailberg (Leto), Jillma ad Irene Larsson (Handmaidens), Conductor : Leon Bar&. The setting vas Limited to some rocks and an insubstantial : looking, poorly executed hi71. in the backgrod, ?ut to effective use in the opening and closing tableam, when the stage was darkened, it therwise lent a tawdry air to the proceedings in front of it,181

This descriptio3 of the set for _!::-sflo, from a review in ksical

America, reveals that the ballet's physical surroundings had come a 86

long wag since the Piranesi-Ue design of its first production, Tho set had become so insignificant that no designer was listed on the

progme. Instead, as with many other contemporary ballets and

theatrical works, Lighting took its place, Balanchine's om synopsis of the ballet, published in 199, incorporates Ught as an inbgrd means of &&tic expression:

The scene is Delos, an island in the Aegean Sea, It is night; stars twinkle in a dak blue sky. Back in the distance, in a shaft; of Ught, Leto gives birth to the child whom the all- powerful Zeus has sired. She sits high on a barren rock and holds up her arms to the light...Apollo is born. bto disappars, and in the shaft of light at the base of the high rock stands the. infant god, wrapped tightly in swadmg clothes. .. There is a blackout,..When the lights come on again, the scene is brilliant, as if a flash of Ulghtning had been sustained and permanently illuminated thei world. ..142 Light, non-specific and unimrsd riln nature, now provided tb principal stae-dressing for a ballet in which the costumes of the Efuses had been simplif'ied to plain white tunics, of the type worn as pactice clothes. Other ,ballets produced by the fiew Pork City Ballet

in the same year also discanded elaborate costumes and scenery in favor of this sewre garb; both Concerto Barocco and The Four Temwra- -ments were revived in "what has almost become a uniform for .the dancers of the New Pork City Ballet - simple black tarics for the girls and black tights ad white shirts for the boys - against a blue cyclorama. . 1,143

Aposlo himself remained an anachronism in his gold tdc, cross- garters, and laurel wreath. Balanchine mentions the "short gofd tunic"

and crown of "golden vhe 18~~8s~'fn his synopsls,l* but it is not

clear whether this costuros was his idea. A sampling of reviews seem to indAc.n,te that th critics, who may

or may not be representative of the av19enco as a whole, had begun to - shift their focus from the narrative eielasnts of the billet (which are minimel) and the movements per se (whose "grotesque" and ttbizarrett aspects had been softened by time and familiarity) to the subtler nuances of mood and the deeper underlying significance of the ballet as a whole. pzayfulness and humor had become more acceptable as characteristics of the goutkN. god, This humor was no longer provoked solely by the oddity of the movements, nor was it mrely de~isive,but it was seen to be an intontioral part of the total expressional effect. As P,N. hchester pointed out in a review for Dance News:

The ford, almost icy classicism of Apollo is relieved by flashes of a boy's humor, as when Polghymnia, Muse of the sacred lyric, suddenly becomes aware that she may be making too much . noise and cowrs her mouth with her hand: and again where Apollo, in youthful sport, drives the Mzses round tb stage as though already he anticipates the moment when he will, for the first time, step into his chariot and driva the sun across the heavens.

Then the playrulnsss Ceases, Apollo hears the surmons of Zeus. 'Jntil then he has been a boy. Xow it is time to put away childish things and acmpt .the responsibilities of a man and a god. tiith an awed soleranity he leads the Muse in the ascent of O~pusand stands ready for what is-to come.lG5 &inchester also points out the alterations made in the choreography since 1928, k'hich in part account for its evolution from the grotesque to the playful. had nellowed, and so had some of its critics.

John Hartia, though disdwto acknowledge the ballet as Ira first class work in its 0-m right," stated in his New York T~FE?S. review: In the present revival there is happily nothing left of the om-th self-conscious iconoclasm; even when Apollo shings his arm in furious circles from the shoulder, or when he and the three muses do pas de burr& .on the heels, nobody is trying to be 88 shocking, It is much lighter in mood than it used to be, much simpler and more straightforward in style, and even its occasional touches of banter are genial rather than impudent. It may even be that Balanchine has changed details of the ohoreogrnph7. here and there, for it all looks less deliberataly difficult 146

Similarly, the reviewer for observed :

The ballet's intrinsic ValUQ is still considerable, and if it seems on the whole a rather pallid work today, it is almost free from gzuchsries of experimentation or sophistication gone stale. In its simple picture of Apollrofs birth and his relationship with three of the nine Musesc.*a mood of classical serenity is delicately maintained throughout the work, orily mildly dis- turbd by Polyhgmnia's lively variation or the jazz-Uke synco- pations of the pas de quatre during the coda. The movement has many fine, characteristic Balmchine touches, such as the inter- twining arms and figures, and is often freshly hventive from Apllo's second variation on,..Frequent tableaux or poses keep 'the ballet somewhat static - legitimately so, considering its nature and style - but the transitional mo;Jsm,ent is occasionay awkward or seemingly illogical, and there are some grotesqueries that are n longer as witty as they my have seemed in the beginning. p't?

Doris Hesing, the reviewer for Dance Hagazine, characterized

AmU.0 as "a curiously impdrsonal work,'' yet also reiterated the emphasis on the moods convsyed in the ballet: ...Terpsichore (Maria Tallchief) returns to join the god (Andre Eglevsky) in a pas de deux that is no longer plaflul but literally takes wing 2s at the end he bends down and allows her to lie on his back with her arms outstretched in birdlike fU&t. Her companions (Tanaquil laClercq and Diana Adam) return, and the quartet forsakes its former athletic play for a mood of sweet and absorbd solennity.l@

Incidentally, it is amusing to note that the ''sdmhg lesson" pose has evolved from water to ab'!

Hering, me Denby, saw the ballet as 8 metaphor of awakening atistic consciousna ss : As Kith aU genuine works of art, Amllo may be understood on two levels. There is its literal self - the sunny hap of a god growing up. ,!there is its symbollc self - the pictm of an artist maturing, In style# milo has the same duality. On one hand it is a model of classic order and CJiscipline. On the other it is a clever combination of athleticisnl and willful distortion, It is as though the choreographer were trying to see how far he could deviato from the classic structure and still be able to snap back to it. Thus, when a ballerina is turned in deep pli6 by her partner, one knows that she will not continue on this tangent ht wi~lreturn to some more conventiod frame.149 In 199 Arthur H. Franks published a more lengthy analysis of Balmchine's relationship to the classical ballet:

Nijinsky, Nijinska and "Issine, the choreographers who had preceded Balanchine in the Diaghilev company, had diluted and ev8n at times rejected the classical technique. In doing so they undoubtedly enriched the scope of ballet both as to its thematic material and its expressive power. On the other hand an art must die unless its fundamsntd laws are from time to tima restated in a new way. This re-statement cam at the psychological moment from Balanchine in ADoUO...~~ which he made a naw claim for the danse d'gcole phrased in twentieth-century idiom. In this ballet he revived classical dance in all its purity, yet with a Uference that idenUfies it from the Petipa enchahments as clearly as a modern automobile stallds out against an Old Crock. The difference is difficult t0 explain 0d.y because we are concerned in Amno Kith a flow of steps, many of which are almost identical in shape an& pattern, for this was before Balanchine be~mhis wholesale modification of classicd. E. But wherezs Petipa built up his dances, joinhg appropriate figures together, skill- fully allowing ample contrAst, Yalanchine concerned hiraself.. .-dth the impetus of the dance itself, allodrg the figures nore or less to dictate themselves by necessity out of the momentum of the dancers in response to his own reaction to the music. In addition to this, Edanchine provicles an occasional surprise in his choreography by changing the biiptlis of the dance and sktirg off a flow of images in a different direction. Like Petipa he invents new figwes in keeping with the classical vocabulary; also like him he interpobtes such figures partly for the purpose of providing th3 dance wi.th a new bpdse, and partly to suggest some particular character or quality to further a slerader plot.. . ..,In this work Bala?chime had to employ a certain amount of mim, but obviously sought to dispense with it as soon as his sleder literary theme had been made as clear as necessary for the developnt his theme the dyndc grodh of dancin of true - 550 hto a series of cuesfully satisfybg in their own right.,,

hngthe photographs of this production, at least one recalls the 1928 Ballets Russes version: the opening of the pas d'action, with the Muses in arabesque around ApoUo. As in 194.3, the arabesques are wry high, but the lute that ApoUo raises ovsrhead has again dwindled

Another photograph repeats a pose from the 1N3 production, in which Eglevsky also danced the title role. Apollo holds his lute in his outstretched left hand, wltb its sound box resting against his left bip; his right arm is held en haut (overhead) , his right leg extended croise' devant.(crosshg the left leg in front). (fig. 36; cf, figs. 29, 30) The profile position of the head, contsasthg with the three-puarbr or full-front view of the chest, may be a deliberate quotation of Greek friezes and vase-painting. Nancy Reynolds has poinbd out that this position also occurs in Terpsichore's variation. 1s

Us0 hluded among the 19s photographs are momants LQ the ballet described verbally but not photographed in previous productions. In the coda, Apollo lifts two Huses at once (fig. 37), recr77ing Denby's phrase "curvbg from his body uke a cluster of flmars."l-~ Denby had also described, in 198, the sequence in which the &ses kneel on the floor and stretch their feet up towards ApoUo; Balmchine explains that rlApoUo blesses them dth a noble (fig, 38) In 199 Balanchine published, with Frmcis Mason, his first anthology of ballet synopsesI Complete Stories of th3 Great Eallats,

The synopsis of Am3lo doubtlessly corr.esponds mst closely to the 199 revival, Its reference to ApoUo's crown of golden vim leaves ani gold tunic was not deleted when the book was republished in a revised and enlarged version in 1968, although the costume had been 91 Tho descriptions of the movcmont and music are quib detailed, though not consistently clear to one who has not seen the ballet. Of greater value to the'historian is the knowledge that this synopsis

was written dth Balanchsinefs approval, if not in his own words. One

detail %nwhich the synopsis does not concur with Stravinsky's account of the ballat is the designation of Apollols future destination as Olympus,'~ whereas Stravinsky says it is Parnassus,l55 However, this point is not crucial to the action of the ballet, and either

destination woufd be apx>roprfab (see chapter m). 'he excerpt quoted below describes the pas de dew of Awllo and

Terpsichore :

As his dance ends, ApUo sits on the ground 5n a gracefhl, gcxUi!!e pose. Terpsichore appears before him and touches -his outstretched hand. The young goddess steps over his an and bends law in extended arabesp beside him. Now the girl rises srd sits on Apollo's knees. He holds his arm up to her, she takes it, eid both rise to dance a muted pas de deux. The melody is softly lgrical, but at the sam~time strong; it depicts in sodan awakerbg of Olympian power and strength, beauty and grace. Am0supports Terpsichore in extended arabesque, lifts her daringly high so that her bdy curves back owr his shoulder, holds her as she extends her legs and sinks on the ground to rise on point in graceful extensions. She pirouettes swiftly AIyl sheply in his amthen entwines herself around Apono. %he musLc brightens, they separate, dancing playfully, then meet again. Both kneel, Apollo puts his head in Terpsichore's open hands. NOW, at the end, she falls across Apollo's back as the gd bends down to give the l.iuse a short swinmbg lesson for her beautiniL dancins. Her ampush the air aside as if they were mving in the . !bn Apollo rises, Terpsichore's body is curved against him,

Awllo was at this time considered by Kirstein, Stravinsky, ard

Balanchine as the first ballet of a trilogy based on classico-mythological. thems. Omheus, the second of the trilog, had been created

in 3948, but in 199 the third ballet, &on (1956) was yet to corns.157 I, I%.mdte, 9 Janwy 1957, Roy& Tbatre, Copenhngm The iioyal Danish Ballet. Choreography: George Balmchine, Cast: He-g Xronstam ( ApoLlo) , Illette 1.lOllez-u~(Terpsichore) , Kirsten Shone,. Khsten Petersen,

With this production, Apollo at last surrendered his gold tunic, cross-garters, and laurel wreath, and donned instead the black and white practico costurns of the twentieth-century male dancer, According to Bent ScboNnberg, writing in D.mce and Dancers, Balmchine himself designed these costumes. Schznberg describes the set as 'Ivery simple - a blue background, sone steps and a platform.t* He concluded, "It must be said that this recent version is generally believed to be the pwest thzt Ealanchine has yet made. There is not one super- fluous mvement.f'l58

Unlike later productions of Apollo outside the United States, which have been staged by B&Lanchine*s assistants, the Danish production was staged by Balmchine himself during the New York City Ballet's visit to Copenhagen in 1956. 159 It is said to be the last foreign production of one of Us Wets that Bdanchlno supervised from bewgto endel'' Included mong the photographs of this production are the pose from the., codq in which the Muses, seated on the floor, rdse their feet toward Apollo's hand,161 and the sequence ih.ich

drives the ~uesme a chariot across the stzge162 (tMs appeas to be the movemont called the tyoika by Strevin~k3?~3and Ursteinl64). The well-known "many-legged creature" pose also reapparsel65 The 2hse larmsdiakdy bhind Apbllo is seen fvll-facs rather than in profile, an albration uque to this production, or at least to this photopaph. 93 Since Balanchlne supervised this revival, one assumes that any chmges were made with hzs approval,, if not initiated by him. - Balmchine is indeed well known for his bUef that a ballet is not

sacrosanct, but.a living, growing entity, According to Erik Aschen- green, the dancer Petor Martins first learned the role of .4pUa from Hermlng Xronstam, who learned it from Balanchine for this productfon, When Martins joined the New York City Ballet, he was taught a notice-

. abxy different version of th0 choreography, 166

J. AmUo, 13ecember 1957, New York City Centar, The New York City Ballet. Choreography: George Balmchine. Cast: Jacques d' Amboise ( Apollo) , Maria Tallchief (Terpsichore) Nelissa Hayden (~a~iope)Patricia wilde (Polyhymnia), After a few years' lapse, the New York City BaUet revived AwUo for the young dancer Jacques d'AhfbOise, who has since become one of the principsl exponents of tb role, In this production, the New York City Ballet adopted the aoyal Danish Ballet's drastically sbplified sets and costumes. The once naturalistic munt&top which Apollo asceded for the apotheosis . was now replaced by a s-le staircase elevated on poles.167 Ap0ll.o wore a dancer's practice costme, black and white; in soma of the

photogrzphs he wears a shirt that B.H. Haggin ksdescribed as "t.wo large handkerchiefs htted together," Xaggin disliked the simplified

costumes, which he considered inzppropriate to the theme of the god

and the hes.168

Quite the opposite point of V~QW, though here in regard to the

choreography, was taken by Doris Bering in her criticism of the solos of Chllope and Polyhymnia: "They have a gestural Xteralness that 94 we have always found somewhat unrelated to the lofty srsapllcity of

the rest.1t Expandhg on hor 1951 review, Hering saw in the bdht - "the artistLC affirmation of a young choreographer and a poetic

synthesis of the search for manb~ad.~' She praised the casting of d'Ambio0 in the ttt3-e rob, "for, liko ilp0lJ.0, he is on his way to achieving fd.3.paJsr as an artist, but he is still. appding in his young manhod, 51 169 In a later review, Hering summed up her interpretation of the ballet's style and expression: 'I;AIEoll? is one of the great challenges of ballet, requiring not histrionics but a stab of awareness. Its language is succinct, like the symbol-languap of poetry, n 170

Photographs taken in 1957 and the pars that follow repeat many of the poses frou previous producti.ons, A number of these may be compared uith their 1928 Ballets Iiusses prototypes. For instance, in the opening of the pas d'actton, ApoUo now turns the back rather than tbe front of the lute towards the audience, and he gazes up at it rather than straight ahead. (fig, 39; cf. figs. 9, 32, 35) In the PsWinrming lesson," Terpsichore bends her hees rather than ex- tending bar legs straight outwBL'd. (f?~.40; cf. figs. 11, 24 louor bft)b

In the "muly-legged creature" pose, Apol3.o extends his right arm in front of him, which gives a sense of QCGdt balancs to the spoke-ljke configuration fomd by the Huses' arzbasques. (fig. 41; cf, figs. 14, lomr right, 22, 33) The ECIU pstues of the 1411~s have been dtcersd in the apotheosis. (fig, 44; cf. f'igb 6) David

Vaughan has noted, in regard to the last alteration, that revivals 95 of ballets usually tend Lo conventionalize unusual movsmsnts, ' them more of tho classical bdlet style which is the "least- common denominator" among performers and thus easiost to teach and transrrdt.ln In general. the impression gimn by photopaphs of the 198 version is softer and more lyrical., while the 1957 productdon gives a fee- of clearwdged clarity, crystUe brilliance, athleticism, and precision, (figs, 41-46) These qualities are doubtlessly engendered

. as much by the costumes and decor as by the poses: on one hand, gauzy tutus that recall (however faintly) the misty phantoms of Les Ss3Phides Giselle, the background a never-neverland of fantastic rocks and airborne chariots; on the other, brief, remd5ng practice costumes, recalLing the classroom, whose colors are limited to se~8p8black and white, set against a nameless, timeless space, At a dance history seminar given at UCLA in EV., John fkrtfn drew a distinction between dancers of rtplacet9and dancers of lt~pecie.tl To tlze dancer of tlplace,tttho spec5Xi.c locale of the dance is of primary concern; his example was Ruth St. Denis, who attemptsd to give a strong sense of local color through the autbntic costumes an3 evocatim music and choreography of her Hindu, Egyptian, Japmse, and Anerindian dances, On the contrary, the rlspacegldancer desires to invoke the universal rather than the particular, Xsadora Duncan exempUied this type, in the sense that her dances were more

fpequen.tLy concerned with emotions common to all mankid rather thvJ the depiction of picturesque scenes. Simple blue curtains often

formed the setting for her dances, and although she displayed a

predfleeuon toiqards Greek draperies, she did not think it necessary 96 to dress in a dirndl to dance The Blue Danubo. By 1957 A~ollotoo had bcome a dance of "space." The mythological frmwork, though cer.t;dnly an en.richment of tho theme, was no longer materiasly manifested in sets and costumes. Tho ideas of youth, growth, and dewloping awareness which it expressed wem comn to the hunan condition, exporiences unbounded by temporal or geographical barriers. In its evoluuon from the individual and the particar b the general and the universal, from elaboration and specificity to simplitication Bxd reductj.on, ,Awllo parallels the developnt of twentieth-century artists such as Constantin Brancusi and Piet Monclrian, interpretatkon; the lack of concreteness serves to elimlnate re- strictions on [email protected] thought. An example of this is the analysis by the Ckmnaxx critic brst Koegler, who saw Awllo as

-gory of the Ustory of'ballot: Dabi durchlhft es fn der halben Stunde, die es dauerte, oinen ganaen Gnttrjcklungsprozess der Ballettgeschichte: es begimt ds reine Pan"m&e nit der Geburt 4.poU.s aus dem Schosss betos, und auch clit: ersten i3agegnungen mit den drei hsen Calliop, Polyfiymnia urd Terpsichore silad noch sehr stark antonidsch orientiert, Zwar keginni; Balanchins die beiden !as seuls fb Calliope und Polyhpm5.a noch mit den mimLschen Leitmotiv. ihres i6ttJicfisn Auftrags, lasst sie sich aber immer weitel- vom pantodrxischen Ausgangspznkct entfermn und FJ entspreckd roineren tanzsrischen Formen vordrinpn, Ver- k8rpcrt das Ballott bis dabin den Prozess dor dnanzipation des klzssisch-a:c~rie?lischenTmzes ms der Pantomime so sigdsiort die dara,? aaschliasse;i5e Variation Farpsichores die d&anft an diesem Ziel, Zs ist die klassischste von allen Vaiationen, in der der Tanz nur noch sich selbst reprgsentiert. Aber auch sisist noch ein Pas sed, Zu sehr letzen VoDndUng bdwf der klassisch-dcadenische Tam des nhlich-weibachen Partnorsch~t~r;~~sses, Der darauf folgpcie Pas de deux von Terpsichore und ApoU rezlisiert dieses Vermtnis - xLederun in rein tbzerischer Fora. Danach ist dam nw noch e- einzige Steiprwgsfom m5glich: die Apotheose. Aus dem Tmz wgchst das Eallett in das Zeremoniell hinbr: 8s voUzieht 97

- Thus IbegZor, 3fk~Dcsnby, traces within tho bdlet the progression from the libre1 to ths abstract, conwpd thou& ths gradual abmdonmont of nfrr,etic dance for the purer f0r.w of the dansa d'6cole, Koefier takes Denby's analogy one step ftcther by applybg it to the Mstoricd dewlopment of an art rather than the individual growth of an artist,

In the visual sense1 at least Balanchhe's APOUOreached its ndefin.ttimn fom in 199, DespAts xinor chanss in the costume, Apollo has never returned to his gold Wc8fd laurel wre~th,nor the IIIuses to their white gauze tutus, Neither has the chariot re-

appeared 8s pWt Of the PhYSiCd. setting. The butis performed by a nmbr of companies bsides Balanchine's own, the Mew York City Ballet; these others include American Ballet Theatre, the Royal Ballet of E@Land, Het Nationale Ballet of Holland, the Norske Ballet, & the Viom Stab Opera B&.eteln

The majority of productions are staged by Ealanchke's choreo-

gra2hi.c assistants, while Balanchine "frequentkv arrives at dress rutzea.mil time to supervise the final details of a production. 18 174 According to John Taras, an assistant, Edancm requires a certain

amount of discrimination in the staging cf Apollo: "lk. Balmchine

hzs not allomd Apollo to b done dess the cormditions are right. For one thing, he feels that it nnrst be taught by a man. For another, A sampling 0.t photographs from various recent productions he8 ken reproduced hero, (figs. 47-49) Again, the latitude permitted in tho choreography is obvious. A phohpaph of a Cuban production of the ballet show Apolao with a long-mmd, rather stylized lyre instead of the lute usuall,y used in this ballot, In iconographical. t;ra&tion, Apoll~~sattribute - is more frequantly the lyre than th0 lute (see chapter IXS), The attendant goddesses here are drossed in long robes and mfls rather than the brief tunics of the New York City Ballet prod~ction.~7~

(fig, 47) Of course, choreographers other than Balanchine ham also created their oxn interprc "&&donsof the ballet, Discussion of those has been omitted not due to qdtative judpnts, but because of the , paucity of information on these productions, Also, despits the fact

that he was not 42x1 First to chomograph Amulq, Balanchins's nam is firmly attached to it ~IXIMs version remains the standad inter-

pretation of the bUt. . Notes: 1, AutoMomaphy, 141, 2, IMd. 3. Nome, "Coopids Chamber Music Festival," 4. 4, V. Arpey, Choreographic lhsic, New York, 1941, 257. Zf. J, Demeny, @la Bart6k: Letters, trans. P. Bdabm and I. Fakas, trans. rev. by IS, West and C. &son, London, 1971. Ujfalussy, Bart&, 4U, 414. Xbrid., 3% Jacobi, "The New Apollo," 3.l. c Chu joy, The Dance iincsdopodiq, 88-89. Jacobi, "The New ApoUo," 32. * Ibido Ibid., 14.

"Stravinsky*s Novel *ApoJlo Musaabs' biJ created by Adolph Balm," The New York Times, 14ay 6, 1928, X, 7:l. IMd.

Bid,

"Stravinsky's Festival Ballet," The h~qYork Brnes, April 8, 1928, mi, a:?. ! Reproduced in The Dance Naaazine, X, August 1928, 14; reproduced in J, Hatin, 'The Dance, i4ew York, 1946, 3.00 and reprinted in J, Ksrtin, John &.rtin's Eook of %he Dance, New York, 1963. 90; reproduced in Theatre Arts, JUI, 1928, $5. D, Ewen, Twentieth Cent;zlry Composers, New York, 1937, 24.

Grigoriev, The Diaddlev aaUeL, 188-189.

Autobionm&, 143-3.44.

J,P, CrespeUe, La Folle bwaue: des Eallets 3usses au surrbalisne, Paris, 1968, 248. P. Courthion, I*Ardrg Bauchant, peintre ppiiieriste,l* L*Oeil, L, February 1959, 3. 1.I. Gauthier, .Mr6 Rauchmt, Paris, 1943, 32, Ibid., 31. F

Hartford, -Wadswoi..th Atheneum. ' The Serm Lifar Collection of Ballet Set & Costume Lsesi,gs, camp. 1,i.C. Palmer arid S,J, Wagstaff, ffartford, 1965, 18.

30 31.

32 Grigoriev, %.e Didxilev &net, 247. 33 N, Nabokov, Old Friends and it'ew Xusic, Boston, 199, 105, 108-109. 34. 33. Beproduced Gauthier, Bauc-t, pl. 20. 36. 37. A. bvfPlson, La Danse d'au.iourd*hui, Paris, 199, 89, 389 W.A. Propert, The dussian Ballet in Western Europe, 192101929, hndon, 1931, &. 39. A s3.zdlar point is made by Schaeffner, who reproduces Bauchant's ChmPs-Elys6es and Apollon Apparaissmt 3m Eerqrs (1928) with,& caption, "Tableau de Bauchant auquel fut em- prams la decoration du ballst," Schaeffner, Strawinsky, pls. m, IXTT. 400 Levinson, Dame, 87. 41. C. Beaumont, The DiaWlev Ballet in L~lldoq, 3rd ed., Landon, 1951, 282. V. iiameneff, Russian Ballet Throuqh Russian E.~s,London, 1936, 33. 43. Modern 1-&sic, VI, 1928, 24, 44. C. Ekaanont, Serm Diaqhilev, London, 1933, 25.

45 W, George, n&ors et costumes de ballets-" in L'Art du ballet des orjldnes 2 nos .jours, Pais, 1952, 283, 293. 46. Propert, The iliussian Ballet, 66. 47. Grigoriev, DiaFWev Sallet, 217. 101

48. Detaille, Les Ballets de Monte-Carlo, 134. 49. In addition, tm preliminary sketches, both depicting "celestial scenes," are preserved in the.Dance Collection of The New York Public Library. The New York Public Library, Dictionary Cataloq of the Dance Collection, I, 187,

50 Reproduced in G. Amberg, Art in Modern Ballet, New York, 1946, ll, 77- The New York Yublic Library, Stravinsky and the Theatre, New York, 1963, 28. R, Craft, Stravinsky: The Chronicle of a Friendship, 194801971, New York, 1972, 67 n. 1. 53. L. Khstein, "Apollo: Orpheus: Agon," in The Stravinskg Festival of the New York City Ballet, ed. Ne Goldner, New York, 1973, 168. "Notice bio-bibUographique sur Giorgio de Chirico ,** Masters of Modern Art, no. 3, Giorgio de Chhico, Publications of the Institute of French Studies, Colunabia University, New York, 193-7s 30.

Kochno, Dianhilev and the Ballets Russes, 266. Levinson, Danse, 87. Beaumont, The Disehilev Ballet in Lodon, 282, Kameneff, Russian Ballet, 33. Beaumont, The Diaghilev Ballet in London, 283, A. 'fwysden, Abxandra Danilovs, Lodon, 1945, 70.

-stein, The Nsw York City Ballet, New York, 1973, w; ,also L. Hirstein, "Balanchine bIusag8te,'' (Nov. lw7), reprinted in Theatre Arts Antholoey, ed, H. Gilder et d., New York, 1950, 209.

63. Kirstein, The New York City Ballet, Me 64" Reproduced in A,L. Xaskell, Banetomania, New York, 1934, facing page 131, 65. She wears the same costme in a different photograph by th@ same photographer, V. Eimitriev, in a souvenir programme for the 1929 season of the Ballets tiusses at the Theatre Sarah Bernhardt, Paris. No ballet is identified here. .lo2 66, Levinson, Dame, 88, A theorbo is a form of the lute.

68. Balmchine, New Comple* Stories, 21, 69. Balanchine, "The Dance Element in Strawinsky's MUSIC," 253-255. 70. fbid., 253-254,

72. '"Apollo ktusagetes' - and 'The House Party': Russian Ballet," The 3XLustrated London kws, LzxlcIII, JULY 7, 1928, 13, 73, Beaumont, The Diachilev Ballet in London, 283. 74. W.J. Turner, "The World of Music," The Illustrated London bws, CUXLII, Jtily 7, 2928, 42; H. Prunibres, Wusic of the Paris Season," The Mew York Times, July 22, 1928, VII, 5:6; H. Pr-ares, "Ballets Husses,l' Lz iie711~i.hsicalc, XX, July 1928, 288.

76. Levinson, m, 88, 77. Propert, The riussian Ballet, 63-66. 78. G. Craig, "Balmchine's ApoUo," The Yesk, XV, 1929, reprinbd in i3ance Index, 11, 193, UO-111.

80, Balanchine's Xew Compleh Stories of thQ Great &&Lets was used as a reference for all the poses. 81. Propert, The dussian BaU-et, 66. 82. Kirstein, The New York City Brdlst, 4'7. 83, L. Kirstein, ";.lorking with Stravinsky,it Ihdern Phsic, XIV, fkrct.1- April 1937, 1~6;reprinted in Dace Index, 'a,lw?? 281; reprinted An Str3vins:c.v in th9 Theatre, ed, it. Ledarman, Sew Yoric, 1949, . 14Q,

84, This was not the first revival of ApoUon to take place after 1929. i3alanchine also staged it for the iioyal Danish 3allet in Copenhagen in 1931, but the information available on this production was insufficient for a satisfactory discussion here.

85, Xirstein, Working with Stravinsky," Dance Index, 281. 86. A. Chujoy, The New York City Bdlet, New York, 1953, 85. 87. L, Kirstein, "Horusp to Stravinsky," Arts and Decoration, =VI8 May 1937, 46. 88, Kirstein, The New York City Ballet, 48. 89. G, Robert, The Borzoi Book of Ballets, New York, 194.6, 30.

90. &stein, The New York City Ballet, 47. 91. Ibid,, "r8, 92, A. Vitak, "Dance Events Reviewed," The American Dancer, X, June 3937, 27-2h. 93, Robert, Borzoi Book, 30.

95. J, Martin, I1Stravfnsky bads Ballet Preaere," The New York Times, April 28, 1937, 19:3. 96, 8. Cater, With the Dancers,w &dern hsic, XTV, &y-June 1937, 239. 97. IUrstein, 'IHomage to Stravinsky," 4-6. 98, Ibid, ! 99, L, Kirsbin, "Blast at Sallet" (1937), reprinted in Threa Pamph- lets Collected, Brooklyn, ibw York, 1967, 40. 100, &stein, The New York City 2allet, 48. 101, "Palanchine, I?ew Comdete Stories, 21. 102, E. Denby, nWith the Dancersln Modern l.hrsic, XV, 1938, 184-185. 103. Kirsbin, The New York Citv Eallet, 48. Nancy Reynolds, a former dancer with the New York City Ballet and the author of a forth- coraing book on that company, also ascertained, frog Ba3anchine that '.this wzs indesci a conscious reference. Information received at the Second History of Dance Seminar, The University of Chicago, 23 June - 1 Augst 1975. 104, Dizlomes, 33. 105, Autobiom?ap&, 134. 106, Chujoy, The Dance Enc.vclopedie, 18. Chujoy, ,The New York City Ballet, 133. G. Amberg, Ballet in America, New York, 1949, 87. Chujoz, The New York City Ballet, 137. L. Xirstein, "The American Ballet in Brazil," The herican -'Dancer XU, September 1941, 19. m. fieproduced in Dance Index, IV, February-March 1945, 2Mj; reprinted in B.H. Hag&, Ballet Chronicle, New York, 1970, 134, Only four of the six photopa?& ham been reproduced here, u2. Kirstein, "The American Ballet in 19. 113. Bdanchine, New Complete Stories, 19-20. u4. J.T. Soby, Tchelitchew: Pzintinm, Drawings, fiew York, 192, 95-96. P. Tchelitchew, Dradnrrs, ed. L. Kirstein, New York, 1947, 16; The New York Public Library, Strcivinsks and the Theatre, 28.

Soby, Tchelltchew, 32. Nirdham, "Stage and BdetDesigns of ., .Tehelitchew," 30.

The iew York hblic Library, Stravinsky and the.Dance, catalogue by S.J. Cohen, New York, 1962, 51. 122. B. Taper, Salanchine, revised and updabd edition, Comer edition, 13ew York, 1974, 380. S,J. Cohen and A,J. Pischl, "The .Lxerican Ballet Thea";re: 190- 1960,~t Dance Persmctives, VI, 1960, 33, 49-a. 124.

G. Balancbine, Comolete Stories of the Great Sallets, ed. F. Mason, Garden City, Sew York, 193, 21. 327, Cf, Robert, Sorzoi Book, 32; R. Krokowr, quoted by Cohen, "The American Ballet Theatre," 33. u8, E, Denby, With the Dancers," Modern Music, XX, Nay-June 194.3, 281.

A, trinson, Ballet. Reqissance, London, 194.8, 81. E, Denby, tlBalanchine's Apollo81 (1945). reprinted in LooHnz at the Dance, Curtis edition, New York, 1968, 115-116. 133 134. Ibid. 135. Tapr, Balmchine 14. 136. M. Ledenaan, 'Witn the Dancers," Mern hsic, UIII, 194.6, 71. 137. BalancbSJtls, Comlete Stories, 21; P. lilichaut, Ballet con- temporr-. 1929-1950, Paris, 1950, 356; L. Vai~at,~a Danse a l'O&rs de Pzris, Paris, 19%. 43. Chujoy, The Dance Zncyclo- pedia, $, and WUon, A Dictionary of Elaet, 19, List the cast as Alexaiie iialiouj,?y (APOUO) and iknise ~our~ois(Calliope?) but due to the unreliabikity of those sources the other cast list has beenused here.

K.E., mr2pollo,'' lbsical -4merica, LXl, December 1, 193, 9. Bdanchine, Comlete Stories, 16-17; Salanchine, New Comulete Stories , 18-19. 143. Chujoy, The New York City Sallet, 314. 144. Balmchine, Cormlets Stories, 17; &lamhim, New Complete Stories, 19. P.:J. Hanchester, rcAp3U~,11Dance News, L'ecember 199, reprinted in Chujoy, The New Pork City Sallet, 307-308.

1w ., 106

148, D, Hering, "Season in hmiew," Dance Idagazirm, ZVI, January 19% 38, -

150. A.H. E'ranks, Twentieth Century Ballot, New York, 199, 50-51. 15L Information received at the Second History of Dance Seminar,

152, Denby, ''Bdanchine's &0~0," 116, 153. Balanchins, Comgleta Stories, 19; Balmchine, New Complete Stories, 21. 1%. Ibid, 155. Autobiozraphy, 134. 1%. Balanchine, Complete Stories, 18-19; Babzlchine, New Complete Stories, 20-21, 157. Chujoy, The New York City Bdlet, 29rC-295, lse 3. Schonbrg, 'lApollon Pisa$te," Dance and Dancers, April 1952, 20-21, 159. Z, Palatsky, I*Reports from Abroad," Dance bmzine, -, July1958,=. 160. T, Burke, "The New York City Baet's Koving Masters,rtDance &gazins iCT;Tf Novembsr 1968, 41. 161. hproducad in M. von Haven, The 30yd Dznish BaUet, 2nd rev. ed,, trms, Pi. Neiiedan, Copenhapn, 19&, 74. 162. fieproduced in Palatsky, '%eports from Abroad," 20. 163. Dialo,;mes, 33. l&. iiirstein, Xovemmt and htaphor, 227. 165. deprduced in Dance %azine, XLII, November 1968, 37. 166, Information receip-ed at the Second Zl.storg of Dance Semi=. 167. This is visible at thz back of the stage in a photograph reproduced in Dance I~L~~afi~~,XAII, Janwy 1958, 25. A slightly more conplicatea structure appears in a photogaph in H, iioegler, Sdanchine und cias i.;0dc,-n3 B.dIstt, Yanover, 196% 69. Cf. also I;irstein, The S9w York City 3aUet, 31. 168, Haggin, Ballet Chronicle, 48. 169. Do Horing, lfReviews,'tDance haazine, XXiII, January 1958, 25, 170. D. Bering, ''A iieview,*' Dance Maxazine, WXI, November 199, 28t. 171, Information received at the Second History of Dance Senrim.

172. Koegler, Balanchine urrd das Floderne Ballett, 26. 173. V. Krasovskaya, "Forty Years Ago Georgp 9alanchina Created a Ballet," Dance lYer~s, June 1968, 11; Surke, llKew York City Ballet's Roving bbsters," 41.

. 174. Burke, "Naw York City B&Letts Boving >fasters," 40&L 175. Quoted by Burke, "New York City Ballet's lioving ~asters,"41, 176, Reproduced in Dance I.laaazirae, iiL;fV, March 1970, 40, 108

Iu, The Iconography of Amllon hsanh~

A~nllon3hsa.dte was in no sense parthonogenic, Rather than sprin,@ng full-gown from a single creator's forehead, it required the

work of many hands before it was realized onstage, Nor did this stage realization remain static; as demonstrated in the previous chapter,

. the ballet changed and evolved through the pars, Furthermore, despite its innovations in style, it derived many of its symbols from the antique mr1ds although these symbols were couched in modern rather than arcb.aist3.c terms. Historical precedents can be found for most of

the events, objec;ts, personages, ad ideas in the Idlet, The situation is malogous to Ihmt's transformation of itaphael's antique river gods in Le Dgjeuner sur l'Herbe, although in the case of the painting only one artist arid one art object were involved, whereas the andysis of ApoYon l.fusa&te must take into account a number of artists, both creative and interpretive, and several different manifestations of the work. In genera, this iconographical ar~alysiswill. not attempt to Unk specific symbols to the experience or tholight processes of any particular arast who- worked or1 the bzllet. Instead, the discussion will emphasize the identifit;&.on of traditional themes and images operative

in the ballet, and the comparison of these to earUer treatments of the

same themes and images, Three imprtan'c points shmld be kept in mind: 2.) the staging of a ballet is generally a comdeffort,

and the ult-te result combines the contributioA?s of many artists; 109,

2) since the production of a ballet is a complicated and costly enter-

prise, some of its elomnts may be determined by practical needs, ex= pedience, or even chance, rather than artistic intentions; 3) Diaghilev and his entourage of aides, choreographers, dancers, musicians, designers, et al, were widely travelled, frequently very well. educated, and well known for their interest in the arts both of the past and the present; thus, the range of sources of inspiration should not be underestimated.

For the sake of convenience, the discussion has teen divided into three sections, each combining a number of related themes: the birth of Apollo, Apollo bsagetes, and the chariot of Apollo.

A. The Birth of Apollo As noted in chapter I, Straufnsky's autobiography quotes an excerpt from the Bomeric hyk To Delien dpollo, which apparently inspired or at least explicated the first part of the ballet, "The 3irth of Ap0U.o." &fore embarking on a closer analysis of this hymn, it may be help- to examine some 2f the details and elaborations

surroumling the story of ApoUu's birth, as collected and cornpiled by

various classical scholars.

According to Hesiod's Theoaon- (c. 700 B.C.), ApoUo's mother

Leto (Latona to the r(0mans) was a Titaness, the daughter of Coeus and Phoebe, who also had a daubter named Rsteria.l She and Zeus coupled

in the shape of quails,2 whereupon the jealous Hera, the w5fe of Zeus, sent the serpent Python to pursue Leto through& the world. Not

content with inflicting *this punisbnt, Hera added others: in SODS LlO versions of the story, she decreed that Leto should not be delivered Xn any place uhero the sun shone,3 while in others she forbade a&L lands to shelter br unfortunate rival, and set, ~Irosand Iris to see that they did not,' Furthermore, she forbade Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to ease Leto's labor,

- Hera's decree was not the only deterrent to offering Leto refuge; many places denied her because of her gigantic size, and the terrible nature of the gds to be born. The island of Delos, fearful at first, finally agreed to grant her sanctmary after she Swore an oath that her son Apollo would fourd his temple there,j In another version of the tale, Zeus ordered Boreas, the south wind, to carry Leto ta

Poseidon, who in turn took her to 5m island of Ortygia, which floated unanchored on the surface of the ocean an3 thus did not count as land.

A f'hrtber elaboration has it that Poseidon made a wave curl OVSP the island to hide it from the sun. After the birth of the twins ApUo and Artemis (the latter the Roman Diana), Poseidon fastened the island 6 to the sea bed with a pillar, and its name was chansd to Celos. Ortygia, which literally means "quail island," has a story of its om. It is identified with Asteria, the sister of Leto. Fleeing the morous pursuit of Zeus (or, alternatively, Poseidon), she was transformed into a quail, & leapt or was thrown into the sea, where she became an island. Sisterly loyalty prompted her to defy Hera's inter- dict, and she was forgimn because of this.?

Sometimes Ortygia d Delos are identified as two different places. Artends was born on Ortygia, and bediatelg helped her 8 mother across tho narrou straits to Delos, where Apollo was born. Delos is an actual geographioal location, a small island In tho centor of the Cyclados group In tho Aegean Saa, It; is blleved to ham _been a cult center since the second millennium, if not earlier, and the worship of Apollo and hrtsmis is said to have begtui there during

the poriod of the Dorian invasions (c, lI.00-1000 B.C.). Excavations have uncovored sewrd temples dedicatod to ApoUo, and it may have been

the site of the first temple to the god. The base and torso of a . colossal image of the god, Eirected during the archaeo period (probably dwbg the second quarter of tho sixth century B,C, 9 ) by the citizens

of Naxos, remain in situ, Temples to Artemis and Let0 have also been fourd*lO Since the number sewn was sacred to Apollo, he is said to haw been a seven-math's child,ll born on the seventh of tho month, when his festivals were usually held,12 The swans of Maeonia,circled sewn

times around the island of 'ljelos, sindng to Leto as she lay in labor (cf, CaUimachus, The H.m to Delos).'3 After nine days and nine

nights of labor, ApUo was born between an olive tree and a a& palm growing on the north side of Ibmt Cynthus.14 Since Let0 had leaned her back against this mountain while in labor, Apollo and Artamis are called not onlyI)elius and bki.a* after the island, but

cpthius ad~pthia.3-5

The infant god was fed by the Titaness Themis (one of the oracles of Delphi16 ) on nectar and ambrosia, On the fourth day he burst his swaddling clothes, claimed the bow and the lyre as his attributes,

and went to Parnassus -3 fight the serpent Python, his mothar's eneay, which he eventually killed in Delphi, 212 !?usis o8aantiaU.y the story told by the tfomerio hgmn Ta &?la $POUQ,whioh has boon dated as emly as the sighth oentury B,C,l7

Tho author of the, hymn 58 not toddy considarocl to be Homer, ab the genorio term implies, Although the ancionta attributed tho so-oalled Homorlc hymns to him, it is now bolieved that the principal part of this co3lectl.m of poems was compaoed somiwhat latsr in the eovrenth century B.G. by poets now unknown,18 The following excerpt from the hymn describes tne evsnts most closely congruent to the action of the ballet. (Translation by Theh

When Eilelthyia, lady of comfort in painful travail, Set foot on Blas, ILeto'a time came and she strained to giva birth, Sbs flung both her arms round the paba tree, her knees baring down Against the soft grass. i3:arth smiled bemath her, and into the light Laapt ApoUo, and loud cries of joy burst from dllz the assembled immortals. Then the ,@desses bathed you, 0 Phoebus, purifying Yoa with fresh water and making you holy, and mapped gcu In swaUg clothes made of fine white cloth mwly WOW n, And around you tied a swaddling band fashiomd of gold. But his mother did not give suck to gold-bladed Apollot Tbds madout nectar and lovely ambrosia Ard with her immortal hands fed him, and bt.0 exulted Because she hcd brne a mighty son and a bowman. But when you had eaten the food of imnortals, 0 Phoebus, Gozd bands had no strength to confine you nor bods to restrain Bs you struzgled, panting within them, but all the strands Pew, .'a3 straightaway Phoebus ApoUo spoke amang the imnorlds: "bar to me may the lyre be, 3rd the curved bow, Ad3: uill roclsim to mankind the infallible uill of Zeus. "P 9

Stravinskg quotes in his autobiography a briefer excerpt, Fn prose : ,

Loto was with child, and, feeling the mcment of birth at hand, threw hor arms about a palm tree and knelt on the tender peen turf, and the earth smiled beneath her, and tho child sprang forth to the liht, b .,Goddesses washed him with limpid water, gave him for swaddling clothes o. white veil of fine tissue, and bo^ it with a &.den girdlo.20

The scenario of the bal2et; follows 1318 hymn in a number of points: the labr of Leto, the presence of the goddesses wHo attend her, the exclusion of Artemis, and the wearing an3 subsequept discardhag of

swaddling clothes, The score contains 8 chord that heralds Apo&'s

' birth, and the dance of the attendant goddesses.21 Levinson also discerned in the music ths sounds of "um grde lyre ;Lnvisibls,1'22

kwev~r,there is no mention in the hymn 01' the somewhat Freudian grotto or cam which appeared in at least three- productions of the billet (1928 BaZlets iiusses, 1937, 1947). Theatrical requirements, conventions, ad expectations, both conscious and unconsctous, played m important role in the selection ! of the images, actions, and personages to ts represented onstage. The substitution of a cam or grotto, or in som cases a blackout23

for the actual scene of childbirth is an obvious example, The ballet also dispensed with the bathing and feeding of the Want god, although these actions could have 'been easily pantomimed. The specificai,ions of the Coolidge commission made it necessary to eliminate the crowd of "assembled bwrtals,rrand in fact the ballet's use of seven

characters (Apllo, three Muses, Lek, and boattendants) oversteps

the comissiones terns by one, The commission's linritatLon on the duration of the ballet was fortunately aided by Apllo*s precocity

in the hymn, 114 To Delian hello is not the only example of ancient literature Chat describes the birth of Apollo. Callhachus of Cyrene (c. 305 - c. 240 B.C.), one of the most famous and popular Hellenistic poots, parallels

the Homeric hymn in his fourth hymn On D~~OS.~' The fragment of an anonymous bmn to Apollo was discovered engraved on a marble slab from

the Treasury of the Athenians at Delphi, dating to the and of the second

century B.G25 Doubtlessly other sxamples can also be found in the body . of ancient Greek arad Konan literature,

The depiction of Ay;sllsrs birth in the visual arts is far more

sporadic. For the most part, tho actual scene of parturition hets been avoided, thou@: Karl Schefold tentatively identines such a scene on a relief-amphora from Thebes, dating from the seventh century B.C. 26

(fig. 50) The scene represents a crowned frontal figure with upraised arms, its body reduced to a flat, patterned rectangle, flanked by two smallnrscale figures a& two lion-like animals, The sex of the figures is difficult to determine, since the bodies are mch schematized, and

long hair was worn by both males and females In archaic Greece (cf, the

kouroi and korai fii;ures). There is no sign of a child. Let0 is more commonly represented with both of her chiklren,

Apollo and Artemis. The latter, of course, does not appear in the ballet. The three ham been tentatively identifbd on two Attic black- figuw vase-paintings 3.n the Sritish 2=fuseui3?7 In both Leto is cowren- tionally colored white, but both infants are colored black, which nor-

dgdenotes the male. Althou& this might fnvalidate the identifi-

cation, it is also possiue that the de-female color differentiation was not rigorously sppried in representations of children. HOW~VBF,In ancient art ApoUo and Artemis appear more frequently as adalts, egen with their mother, In a group of thee bronzes from Dreros in Crete, dating from the late eighth or the seventh century B.C,, an outsiee ApUo is flanked by Let0 and Arte~nis.~~The three also appear on Att3.c vase-paintings; Sir John Beazlsy's monumentai index Attic Red-Fi meVase-Pahters lists twenty-two rapresentations identified as th3.s goup, plus an additiondl sown which depict the - trio with othr myt;holog~capersonaps.29 The Erth of the god and goddess was trea'ted in the sixteenth century by Giulio Romano, whose The Birth of .4mllo and Diana (1538-39) now hangs in Hampton C0urt.3~ Despite its title, the actual moment of childbirth has been avoided, and the painting depicts only the weary kh aad the attendants who &aster to her and the newborn twins. two appear as slightly &!.der infants in a Florentine tapestry (1579) designed by KLessandro AU0ri,3~in Nicolas Pou~sin~stapestry Latona with hsr Chiklren. Awllo and Dimp (c, 1636), executed by the Barberini &3Uer,32 in the Fountain of Laton3 at Versdlles (c. 1670). scdpbd by t;he brothers Gaspard and Bdthasar 1.brsy933 and in the sculpture Lstona and her Chfldmr,. Amllo and Diana, (1874) by the American arest WXU.am bnry !linehart. 34

Nom of the works listed above bezrs any meanhgfd resemblance to the ballet, Bven if the presence of Artemis is mentally cancelled out, ths fact redthat in general the tone of these vorks is tranquil, maternal, an3 domestic, while the ballet stresses woder and mamaf.: the superhuman agony of Leto's labor, the universal rejoicing at Apdlo's birth, and ths divina precocity of tbe god. Visually, the landscapes and costms which set the scene ttn the works above do not recall. any of the known designs for the ballet, IWe it - is entirely possible that these works- were seen by the zdcers of the ballet, and contributed to the idea, it seems unlikely that any of 42.m provided a strong inspkration for the first part of the ballet,

The theme of ApoUo ksagetes unites a number of the god's roles and fhnctionss Loader of the choir of Muses, patron deity of m91c, musician and dancer in h.Ls own right, and central figure in representations of Parnassus, the symb0Ij.c horn of the fine arts, According to Kathi Y~yer-Baer, ApoUo was not identified with masic in Greek mythology until the sjXth century B.C., prior to uhich a Nuse or ths Muses served as patrons of the art.35 HowBvBr, Apollo appears as a musician, dong with the Muses, in the first book of 3omervs -Iliad, which is believed to dab before 700 B.C.36 The scene is a banquet on Olymps, and the god and goddesses provide an exdted form of dinner music, (Translation by Ennis iiees.)

Thus 611 day long till. the sun went down they feasted, NOP was there any l~ckof delight in the banquet Before them, nor in the gorgeous lyre that Apollo Played, nor yet in the dulcet ihses, who Entertained them all with sweet aitiphonal song.37

The Homeric hymns also link ApUo with music and the Muses.

In the hymn To P.vthim Apollo, dating approximately from the seventh century B.C., ApUo again entertains the gods. (Translation by Thelma Sargent.) And he goes on his way, the son of glorious Leto, To rocky Pytho, playing on the strings of the Iiollow lyre, And wearing itmortal gyrments fragran%with incense,- and his lyre Under the golden plectrum gives forth a beauafril sound. There, quick as thought, he goes from earth to Olympus, To the palace of Zeus and to tho assembly of gods, And sbaightaway music and shegb,auile the irmnortals. All the Muses together, voice answering heavenly mice, Hymn the undyhg @ts of the gods and thee sufferings of men,.

The lovely-haired Graces snd imperturbable Hours, Harmonia ard Hebe and the daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite, Dance all together, their Usclasping the wrists of the others.,.

And Phoebus Apollo, stroking the strhgs of his lgre, Steps high and nimbly among them, and around him radAance shines From the gleam of his flashing feet and his fine-woven chiton, 38

In a subsequent section of the S~IIB hymn, Apollo leads in song and dance a shipload of Cretans whom he has appohkd to be his followers.

They set out with the son of Zeus, lord ApoUo, who led them, Holding ?, lyre in his hds and playix~gbeautiful music And stepping high and nimbly before them, and the Cretans, stamping The earth in the dance, followed after. To Pytho they went, Hymning the paean, like the chmters of Crete, And +those in whose hearts the hemanly Huse has instilled honeyed song, Unwearied, on foot they ascended the ridge and soon reached Parnassos aril the lovely spt where they were 2estined to dwell, Honored by men without number, and Apollo, leading them, Shared them his mst holy innermost shrine and the rich temple ,39

Thus, as early as the seventh century B.C., the god hzs a3ready manifested himself as musician and dancer, -dth one of his hou places established on Parnassu~, U8

In the Homeric hpm?~brms, ApoVo states in the first person, as it were, his relationship to the hesand the arts of music and r dancing. (Transhtion by Thelma Sargent.)

I, though atbdant upon the O'iympian Muses, Who took carefhl thought for the dance md the bright strains on' song, The swelling chant and tha siet shrwng 02 pipes...ll' And the E0merj.c hymn To the Muses and Amllo crodits the existence

of singers and lyre-players to the god and the >fuses, as Eesiod also does in his The~mnv,~~Xn the words of the hymn (translated by Huh

I wf13. bagin trfth the hses and ApoUo and Zeus. For ft is through the Ituses and Apollo that there are sinprs upon the earth and players upon the lyre; but angs are from Zeus. is he whom the Huses love: sweet flows speech from his Ups,&BY

Hesiod's TheoEoa 5s considered one of the prime sources of information on the f-kses, as befits a work which is said to be inspired by them. It begins with an invocation to the Nuses, which describes Mount Helicon, one of their homes, & the two springs sacred to them, Permessus d the Horse's Spring on Olmsius, where they %ake their fair, lovely dances...& move with vigorous feet.lr43 Their fathsr

is said to be none other than Zeus, who lay with their mother mmo- sp(bnory) for nine niats. Hesiod is generally credited with

establishing the canonical nmber of nirre 14uses, and uith @.- them names: Calliope (fair voice), CUo (renown), Euterpe (sadness) ,

Terpsichore (joy in the dance), Erato (lovely) 3blpomene (slrLS%)

Polyhymnia or Polyrrmia (msongs) , TUa(abundance, sod cber), and Urania (heaved~~).~Although Hesid singles out CdX-opo as the

leader of the nins, he does not clearly differentiate them; Meed U.9 .the* various functions were not established until late Roman timesO45 StmVinsky's telescoping of the nine Musos into three was br no mans unprecedented, for tho nwbr nine does not appear to haw been rigorously applied in ancient times. Classical. scholars believe that there were od.gLnally three "6;Pausdas gives their names as %let8 (Fract;Licei or, alternatively, Meditation), heme (fbmory), and Aoeds! (Song), corresponding to the three principal parts of the art of tbs rhapsodes, tha professional reciters of poetryO4? Plutarch list;. a different set of names, said to be used in Delphi; these are Neb (Bottom), bse (MhkUe) , and Eypate (Top), derived from the strings of the early lyre.48 Both sets of names, and the concept of three Yuses hstead of nine, were revived in the sixteenth-century writings of Pantus de Tyard. 49

The depiction of .4pollo with three womn lnay also be traced to his association with the three Graces, or Charibs, with whom he often appears in literatwe (cf. the Homeric hpn To P.Vthian Awllo, above) and the visual arts. Some examples of the latter will be mentioned in the discussion of the theme of Apollo atld the IIUses, for both groups of women may be represented together. The colossal cult imdge of Apollo at DS~QS,dathlg from the sixth century B.C., was said to have h~Llthe Clwites on his ha&5o In the Chapel of the Liberal lLrts of the Tempi0 tblakstiano at Rimid (mfd-fifteentlh century), Apllo carries a cittern whose head is decorzted with the figwes of the three ~races.51 (fig, 3) ~hehge of A~UO

Uith ~e Graces in his hand was published in Vhcenzo Cartari's my tho logic^ mnual Le imzini colla sposizione der-lt dei degU Of course, this should not imply that the three Muses were confused tdth the three Graces in the ballet, The Graces were tho beauty; &thou$ they were fond of poetry, singing, and dance,B they do not appear to ba'w been connected with the arts as Lntimably and spcifically as the ~ISOS. Moreover, the names and attributes of the three principal womn in the ballet are clearly drawn from the tradiuons describing the ~SBS. A number of attributes are consistently ascribed to the Kusesr flute, lp, masks of tragedy and comedy, scroll, ard tablets. How- wmr, with the excepUon of the sphere, which is invariabZy assigned to Urania, the kbse of astronoqy, the other attributes are often interchanpame among the various MUS~S..~)~hese &cams More specific at approximately the same time as the h-;.tiansof the f4usesp but neither becaola rigidly codjfied.

Of the three 1bes in the ballet, Cdliope represents epic or heroic poetry, PolyhymL or P01ymni.a hymns or sacred songs (Le., songs to or in honor of gods and heroes), or alternatively, mime,55 and Terpsichore lyric poetry and "&e dance. Calliopef s attributes are the stylus and tarnets, or the scron, Polyhymnia frequently doas not have an object as attribute, but is represented in an attitude of meditation, often enveloped in a veil OF cloak; sometimes she rests her chin on her had or places her fbger to her Ilps. The lattar

gesture, si,eifying expressive silence, nay ham led the 2oxnans to denote her L%e ,noddess of panto~~&n.% Ths lyre is Terpsichore's 121 most frequent attribub, aUhough she is sotnetfmes represented with cymbols.57 Strevinskz's conception of the NUSBS, as described in his auto- - biography, is quite fai- to tradition: Calliope, receiag the stylus and tablets from ApoUo, persoflies poetry Lts rhythm; Polyhymin, finger on lips, represents mims. .,Terpsichore , combining in herself both the rhythm on' poetry and the eloquence of gestWe, rsveals dancing I to the wopld, an3 thus among the €fuses takes the place of honor beside the bl~sagetes.5~

of the Muses, but her pr?e-sznhmt status is not unique to th6 ballet.

A bas-relief of Apollo, mrva, and the Pluses in the Zfuseo p90-

C1enenti.m is the Vaucsn places beside Apoll.0 a figure holding a lyre sWar to his, Edo Quirino Visconti identified this fibwe as

Terpsichore, commenting, '' cette Dgesse accampagne avec raison Apo.3lonV

rnsqu'elle a hvend ses &ns, et qu'elle l'aide dans ses chant~.@~59 According to Balanchine*s synopsis of the -et, Polyhymnia not only employs the gesture of finger on Ups (fig. 8), but is also given

a mask by Apollo in the pas d'action.60 Terps'zhom dances With the

lyre. In the synopsis Callioope Is given tablets, but a photograph from a recent New York City Bdlet performance shows her with a scroll. 61 This set of attributss - scroll, lyre, fingpr to lips - is found 62 on a group of wall-paintings from Herculamum, now in the Louvre.

Since each bestands on a pedestal inscribed with her name, these

paint5ni;s are son;Stimes used as the basis of identifying the indiv5dual

Muses in otb~works,@ but it should be reaembered that the assignment

of attributes .was by no means rigid, 122

One of the earliest representations of Apollo ad tho Ijluses in the visual arts appears on the so-called Chest of Cypselus (e, 570 B.C.), Dedicated by the tyrant Cypselus in the Heraion at Olympia, tbis poly- chroine chest ofacedar, dlt, and ivory includes among its five friezes

of mythological themes the bearded figure of Apollo, carrying -, lyre ard plectrum and surrounded by nine female fi,cures. 64

These figwes are represented in static positions which, according to Phy3lis Lehmann, are typic& of visual images of the Muses in ancient

times, although literature often portrays them as shging or dancing.

She states that no eV.tant ancient monument shows them dancing,65 and indeed, no such exmfie could be located for this study. The them of ApOUo ani th hses occurs in ancient sculpture, wall-painting, and vase-pabag. Female figyres accompanying Apolao

in Attic vase-paintings are often identified as Muses, although the lack of attributes sometimes makes this difficult to confim, The Muses also appax In representati~sof Apollo's music contest With Marsyas, 2s on the filzntinea statue base (c. 350-330 B,C,), attrfkbd b Pr&tel~s.~The god a'ld the kses also form part of the Apotheosis

of Honer bas-relief (c, 200 B.C.) by Archslaos of: h.ieneO67 The them

was popular on sarcophagi of the late Eioman Empim, idoften included the fi,.U-re of tiinerva. 68

During the middle ages the Piuses tended to be replad by heir Christian counterparts, the Liberal Arts. Hovever, they began to

appear again during tha rifteenth century, due to their revival by Itall= humanists such as Dantem69 An exmpb may be found in the

Codex 2eyTln2nsis 1290 (c, 1420), which contains the texts of 4x0 123 treatises on myLhology and iconography, the Lfhcrmbmm den

%e L5bellus de-&,&fd.nibus de0rm.7~ The SQpfa drawing depicts ApoUo

with sun-like roys emanating from his head, baring a lub-uke instrument, mJ seated between the tSrin sumnrits of Parnassw, On his left the nine l4uses dance in a circle around a lawel trse.71 A fresco whose iconography 9s said to have been derived from this

drawing is the 'J'&URh of bono (lM?-70), painted by Francesco Cossa in the Palaze0 Schifanoia, Ferrara, Apouo is agah crowned with rays of the sun and agdn carries a musical hstrumant [whose shape is idi.sti.nct b reproductions); he is accompanied by the nine Muses, this me in static positions, carrying musical instruments, 72 bmreproduces a baf froa a "mid-fifteenth-century English

prlcture-book,tf the Ms. Hawlbson, which depicts a labelled fi,pure of ApUO in coDbniporary dress, with a harp. Again, nine female figures,

supposec~y3bet3, accollzp& him.73

A -script; from Urbino describs ard depicts a wedding cake made for a festival in Pesaro in 1475. kn elderly, bearded ApUO in

contemporary &05s, playing a Viol, stands with six wonen atop a

mountain la&Ucld as Helicon, OIIQ of the tSa&tional horns of the Muses, Three Inrger women, labelled "Astronomla," "Retho~ica," and

l'Grmtj.ca," c:arry the cake, 2kyor-Baer identifies these nine female

ti,ms as the bl~ses.~~She also points out that whflo in Greek myth03x,gy &.=con was a location distinct from Parnassus, during the msdievg~pe~d it came to be considered one of the s&ts of Par-

nassu, d in later tines ae two were eq~ivi~ent.75 The theme of Ap033.0 and the Muses was sometimes interwoven with elaborate philosoph;lcal schemes, such as that fllustrahd by an engraving for the PrackLca mice by Gafurio (Milan, 1496). Coslnic theory and musical t;heorg ELTB united in this diagram, which places ApoVo, who carries a ~3.01-or guita-like instrument, at the summit of the heavens, from which he presides over the nine hses, eight of whom are linked with planets, musical modes, and tones. The ninth bhse, Thalia (not to be conf'used with the Tlda of the Graces who appears rdth her sisters to th~left of Apollo) is assigned to the planet Emth aad placed at the bottom of the page,@ AP1 early representation of pol lo and the hesin easel painting 77 is Anbea bntegna's Parnassus (1497). They .do not, however, ocwpy the highest positLon in the painting, which is t&en by MELTS and Venus, Nercury and the wLnged horse Pegasus are also present, The IGEX~Sare depicted dancing to the aceonpant of Apollo's lyre, an activity which seems to be more the exceptkon than the dein pairkings entitled Panassu+

Parns.ssus is, of course, sn actual moutain in Greece, rising 8,061 feekin height. Located north of Pelphi, another of ApoUo's hoLy places, it was in ancient thes sacred to Dfonysus as well as Apo~o,

Panassus has tw? chief peaks, Tithorea and Lycorea,@ which sometimes appear in visual representations (cf, the Codex :Ie+nsnsis 3.290 drahdng, above).

Mantegna also included ApofLo an3. the Muses Ln the Tarocchi, a

series of sngravings sajd t0 have been devised as a past- for a church council of Pope Pius IS in likntua in 1457-11&, Again, ApUa 125 appears in the double .?ole of der of tho planets and leader of the bli~ses~~~who again revort to static positions.80 Perhaps the bosbknown depiction of Parnassuq is Raphael's fresco in the Stanza deUa Sesatwa of the Vatican (~~oo-~),Represented a divinsly-hspired musician with eyes upturned to heavo;::, Apollo plays the lira da bracc3.o in the midst of the tfuses and various poets. The anachronistic use of this instrument, which was developed during the Renaissance rather than in anbiquity, is often explainad as Raphael's desire to raerge past and present, which is also indicated by his juxta- position of poets of different periods (e.g,, Homer, VergU., Dante, and

SOB of Raphael's contectpora.rj.es). Also, during the fifteenth arid sixteenth centuries, the lira da braccio vas believed to bo of ancient ori&,a me question of ~po~3o'svarious musical twixwwnts wi~b~ f'urther dfscuswd belov.

Raphael's liluses do not dance, and their idantifieation, through attrfibutes, has sparked some degree of scholarly debate, A lyre-we instrument and a mask, used respectively by Terpsichore and Polmia in the baet, are in evidence in the group of Kuses to the right of

Ap~Uoo Marcantonio Hairnod's engraving after an early study of the Parnassug depicts the god uith the encient lyre ra.i;her than the Ura da braccio. A lyre of similar shape is carried by om of the 'fuses, though not tha sarins as in: the completed fresco. The APOUOand the biuses in the Prilaezo Pitti, Florence, attribuhd to Giao is a rare example of a'danchg Apo-. (fis. 2)

Thje Muses are deplcted in mommnt more frequently than the god, who , u6 u8uaU.y sorv8e as accompanist. Although the Muses carry no attributos hem, airnms are insaribod at the baoe of the painting, CaUiopo is placed furthest loft, Torpsichore directly opposite ApoUo, and Polyhymda to Terpsichoro's ri~ht,~3 A,P, do IU.rimorxlo has pubushod an article on the "Concerts des

Xuses" them in the north, tis treabd from 1550 to 1650 by painters such as Frruis Floris and Bartholonew [email protected]'4 Althou& ths presence of Apollo appears to have beon optional, many painters chose to include him, As an art Mstorj.an interested in music, Isr%.imonde focusses on works depicting the god and the hses as musicians rzther than dancers,

Their instruments are as often modern as antique; as in Raphael's [email protected] sus, ApoLlo often substitutes the lira dc braccio or some other bwsd stringed instrument for the ancient lyre, which was plucked, ApoUo plays the lute on the title palp of the Ch.msons reduicts of Pierre Phaloso (154.7). Fa!ng him, the nine k&ses are agdn occupied with muiical in~truments.~5

The god aryl goddesses fii;?lred in a number of sixteenth-century theatricd. piioduc~onsr A drawing by Holbeb depicts a design for a pageant honoring Anne Boleyn's coronation entry into London (1533), A coffered arch supports a fountain arouzpd which the &e Ztuses, in contemporary dress, play musical instrunsnts such as the lute, drum, ad triage. One of the l.iuses carries a scroll. Seated in aemiddle is Apollo, harp in hand, der a baldachin surmounted by an This fi5me has also been identified as Henry VllX,87 though the resemblance is not striking. earth in the procession celobrating the entry of Charles- IX of France into Lyon (l$4).8a They repeated this service at a festival given in 1373 in honor OS the PoUsh ambassadors' mission to Paris, upon the election of Hemi of Anjou, son of Cathorine de fbdilci, to the throne of Poland, This festival stimulated at least two commemorative works of art, which include the fi,oTures of musicians garbed as ApUo and tho Muses and seatod upon a rock representing Panassus: one is a drawing by Antobe Car0n,~9 the other a Flemish t~tpestrg,executed circa 1%,90 In 1581 the BLlht-ggdaua de la mim, one of the earliest court ballets, was presented in the Louvre for the marriage of the Duc de

Joyeuse and Ifarguerite de Valmont. It was much influenced by the academic thought of the W, particularly that of the group called the Pleiade, which desFred to revive ancient music, dame, and theatre.

A msmber of this group, J. Dorat, wrote a long poem on the emnt, which includes a description of a picture on an arcade constructed for the festivities,

ApoUon conduisant des Muses le consert Marchant deuant les Dieux de bau Ioieuse sert, Et am deesses monstre et miUe et mille volbs.,, 91

Frances A. Yates, in her study of sixteent'n-century French academies, interprets this verse to signjfy that ApUo "teaches the goddesses ancient dancing,rrp just as he does in Stravinsky's ballet,

She furth3r suggests that "baa Ioieusel* refers not only to the DUC de

Jopuse, but to the dancing master Balthazax. BEsaujoyeulx, who is US- cl.adited with Creatiag a large pat of the ~pectacle.9 ,

The popularity of Apollo, particularly in his solar manifostakLon, is well-known as a hR7.7mark of the reign of Louis XIV, This theme will be further &iscussed in tho thbd section of thio chap&r, The seven- toenth-century omphasis on this aspect of the god did not completely overshadow his association with the Muses. Nicolas Poussin treated. this theme twice, in the painting APOUOand the MUSOS on PsrnassuA (pre-16630),* and the dosign for am of the Barbrinl tapestries (c. l636).95 The them also appeared in several decorative ptlintjxgs, an art fom highly esteemed in Rpance. A prototype of this may be seen in the series of paintings of Apollo and the Muses by RagUone, sent by the Duke of Mantua .t;O France as a gift to &rie de Hedici. Srr Anthony Blunt states that they were hung in the Cabinet des Muses of the Louvre, where they were *'much appreciated by the Queen and the whole c0urt.~9~ Simon Vouet painted a fresco of Farnassus for the gotto of Wide~Llle,~7 as did Eustache Lesueur for a ceiling in the ;Louvre; the latter survims today OW in a dra~hg.9~Lesueur also painted five panels of the Muses for the Cabinet des Muses 5n the @tel Lambert in Paris (1647-49), which also included a scene of Phaeton requesting of Apollo the chariot of the sun.99 In 1663 Charles La Brun was commissioned by Louis XIV to redecorate the Galerie d'Apollon in the Louvre. He exscutad several drawings of various Muses,100 and some of his designs were sculpted for the Galerie by Francois Girardon, the brothers Marsy, and Thomas 101 Regnaudir; during the pars 1664-1671, Girardon and Rapa-adin also created the sculpture ApoUon servS. par

10s !4..D hes (1666-75) for the grotto of Theas at Vers=riUas. Although 3.29 at first glance the female figures may appear to be Muses, they number only six carry none of the musical or theatrical attributes an3 -- which generally identify the bses. They were not labelLed as Muses in any

of th0 sources aonsulted for this study.lo2 The seventeenth-century ballet du cow continued to include Apollo and the Ifuses among the dramatis personae. I1 Ra-nto di Cefalo, presented in 1600 at the wedding cf Marie de Medici and bnry

. IV of fiance, opersd with a n;ountain scene depicting Pegasus, Apollo, the MUS~S,~~~When Louis XIII of France visited the Jesuit Collage de Pa F1;fche in 1614, he was greeted by a eulogy sung by Apollo and the mses from a mountain. IO4. In Le Ballet de la Prospe’rit6 des Armes de la, Franc? (16b3.), the Graces joined ApoUo, the Muses, and other Greek deLties in paying homage to tWmule Gaulois,tl who symbolically mpr0- sented Louis XI=. 105 ApoUo was enthroned in the midst of the nine Muses in the thirtieth and final entree of the Ballet des Fates de

Bacchus (169). He was accompanied by only three Muses, CEO,

Euterpe, and Erato, in the Ballet de la Nuit (1653). lo7The latter Uetnarks ttie first appearance of Louis XIV, then fourteen years

old, as the god of the SUn. 108

Louis again assuned the guise of Apolro Lq Les Noces de F61&

etde Thgtis, presented the folldng year, The first entree of the

baU,et revealed the god surrounded by the nine Muses on Mount Parnassus,

He caused it to descend to earth, where they all danced- together.109 Other seventeenth-century ballets ard theatrical works in which ll0 Apollo and the Muses appeared are the Ballet des Saisons (i.661)*

the play Les Amours du Soleil, whose prologus depicted the twin peaks of Mount Helicon, with Pegasus on one and Apollo and the Muses on the other, and La Fontaim's comedy C&dne.= .- The them appears less frequently in the eighteenth century, although neoclassical artists such as Asmus Jacob Carstens sometimes treated iteU3 The Penassus (1761) of Anton Raphael MenZs, on the ceiling of th ViUa fib& in Horn, was a deliberate imitation of Greek sculpture (the ff,we of Apollo being modeled on the Apollo Iktlvedem) and the 2rescoes from Herculaneum. 114 Simon-Louis Bofzot created an Apollon ksadte (c, 1786) now in the Mus& National de C&dque at Shes, In this sculpture, the god, with his lyre, is accompanied by the hse urania with her sphere and compass, and two youthful fiwes.ll5 In 1m Handel's opera Terpsichore was presented at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London. The role of Terpsichore, "President of the Dancing," provided a vohicle for the ballerina Marie Sd<, The opera, which evidently included mch dancing, portrayed Apollo on an Inspection tour of the new Academg (which also included Erato, "Presi- dent of the Musick," and other Muses). Howevsr, the god spends mast of his tims dancing with Terpsichore and declaring his love for .heron6 The god's participation in dancing and preference for Terpsichore fore- shadow the act3.on J, Stravinsky's ballet,

Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote a ballet, -ks Muses Galantes, which was presentced in 17Q5, 1747, and 1761, It reiterates a mber of

Pdarelements: ApoUo, the $€uses, the Graces, adMount Parnassu~.33.7

At least koother ballets treated this them during the eighteenth- , century, The Viennese choreographer Franz Hilferding created Le Retour d'Apollon sur le Pa-masse in St. Petersburg circa 1762en8 In Ladon, the Frenchman Jean-Georgts Noverre, whose fdeas on the reform of ballet

are immortalized in his Letters on the Dance, choreographed a diwrtisse- -,ment bpollon et les Muses (1782),for the first appearance in England

of his pupil Charles Le Picgong The generally plotless nature of -&,e divertissement form, a series of dances with little or no narrative relationship, also book:; forward to the 1928 allon Musa&te.

c In the nineteenth century Apollo and the Muses seem to have lost favor in the Visual arts, though Andrea Appiani, an official painter to Napoleon, used the sub3ect for a fresco in the Villa bale, Milan

Although Apollo does not appear in the fresco Le Bois Sacre/ Cher aux Arts et am Muses (commissioned 1883) in the Palais des Arts, Lyon, 121

this work by bwis de Chavannes includes wg&ISUS which recall. the

flying female figures in Bauchant's Amllon Apparaissant aux Bermrs. Other examples of this motif will be discussed in the third sectLon of this chap'ter.

In the rimrld of dance, the Italian choreogapher Salvatore Vigano set the secoIld act of the ballet Prometheus, to music by Beethoven, on Mount Parnas~, ApUo took a minor role in this ballet, which included the Mixses, Gmces, Bacchus, Orpheus, Anphion, and other rqythological

beings connected with mic and dance, Among its offerings was a bucolic dance prformd by Pm and In St. Pstersburg,

a prand divertisser~entcalled Apollo and the Ikses was ,presented by the French choreographer Charles Didelot in 1817.123

The theare does not appear to have regahed favor in the tuextieth century, although the sculptor Emile-Pntoins Bourcielle eslployed it for 132 the frieze on the facade of the Theah des Champs-Elys6es in Paris, Tim work was completed in 1933, the gear when the Ballets Russes --. presented the first performance of Stravinsky's Lo Sacre du Prinbmps in the theatre, ,at which the composer was present.124 Howevw, the sculptor stated that Isadora Duncan inspired the figures of the Muses, snd indeed the poses are free and abandoned, with little of the structured quality of classical bat, ApoVo is represented seattd on a rock with a lyre in his lap, deep in meditation. The quality of the sculptured forms is choppy ard agitated, almost rough-hewn. 323

IconographicaUy, Awllon blusa&t;e is closely linked to +the past, Perhaps its most notable departure from standard practice is the substitution of the lub for ApoUo's more usual lyre. Although this may have arisen from simpLe axpedience (e.g. , the need to differentiate the attribute of Apollo from that of Terpsichore, who is here awn the *e), there are a number of other possible explanations, There are examples of Apouo with a lute in the arts, although these are rare, The fifteenth-century drawing froni the Codex Paainansis 1290 and the mid.l-sixteenth-century title page of as Chmsons reduicts have already been cited ab-, These examples, howaver, seem to be relatively obscure. More accessible is the relief from the Chapel of the Liberal Arts in the Tempi0 Malatestiano, Rk&ni, This mid- fifteenth-century work is gerx3rallF credited to Agostino di Duccio, although John Pop-Hennessy attributes it to Matte0 de' Pasti, *6 The

god carries a lute-like instru;ment which Emuel Wintsrnitz identifies as a quattrocentro cittern or cetr+UT (fig. 9) 133 Hmver, the instrument mom coxrnonly substitutod for the lyre is the bowed lira da hraccio. Raphael's Parnassus is perhaps the most famous OXE~EP~E? of this, thou@ not the First. Winternitz, a music historian who has made an e-utensive study of musical instmnts in the visual arts, points out an earlier representation of this instrument in the hands of ApoLIo in a woodcut from Ovidio metamorphoseos voln,?re

(Venice, 1497 and ljm),u8 The lira da braccio, he states, dewlopod during the Itallan Renaissance in connection ~ththe atbmpted revival of ancient music. A widespread belief held that it was inwntsd by

Sappho, and it was often called the llra or lira antic3 due to its purported sinrilarities with the ancient Besides the lyre and its mope elaborate form the kithara (variant spqllbg *cithzrq), ApoXLo is also represented with the harp (whose strings are of graduated length, as opposed to the eqdlen&hs of the lyre mcl Ethara), the viol, and guitar-like fnstrumgnts (cf. the engraving for Practica musice, above),

In ancient art, the lpe or kithara in the hands of a youtw male generally denotss ApoUo. The lyre, sometir~escalled the phorminx, has a tortoise-shell or wooden sound box, with slender, curved ms, and strings numbering frcm three to seven. Lik0 the kithara, it has strings of equal. lensth and is played with a plectrum, Considered the instrummt of schoolboys and ;urateurs, it is frequently plaged in a seated position, resting against the player's left hip,

The kithara, on the other hand, was a much larger irstrument, with a substantial woaden sound hx and large hollow arm. Used by the professional sinprs or kithaodoi, it was plvd in a standing position, resting against tho plapr';; body or supported by a band attached to the playor's left wrist. Sown strings wore canonicd during the classical 1;eriod.~3~The Mtharodoi, who u:ually performed on a platform, were identified by a spcid costume consisting of a long rob, sometimes elaborated by a belt and sleeves. The so-called Amllo Musaretes statue in tho Vatican mars this costunvs and caries a kithcrra.l3l

Two exmples of Attic vase-paintings in which the god, identified by inscriptiors, carries the kith=& are a black-fi,cnrre vase-painting by Exekias (c. 530 B.C. ) ,lj2 and an early red-figure amphora in the

British ~1usem.133 A nude male Mgure holding a. Mthar+, from the House of the Vettii in Pompii (c, A.D. 65-70), has also been identified as Apollo. 134-

Mytholoscal tradition divides the credit for the invention of the lyre between Herms, Apollo, and occasionally Orpheus. CaUimachus eves the credit to Apollo in On Delos,135 while the Homeric hymn 9 -Eermss tells how the infant tlermes invented the lyre, stole Apollo's cattle, then won back Apollo's good will by pesenting him Kith the instrurnent.136 Itichaol Grant states that ApolLo invented the luke or cithar% (apparently usin2 the terms as synonyms), then received the lyre from liernes. 137

This statemnt reflects a problem in definition that surrounds the word cithara or kithara. In an essay entitled "The Survival of the

Xithara and the Evolution of the English Cittern: A Study in Morpho- logy," Wintornitz has zttempted to trace the reasons for the confusion of the antique kithara, a plucked instrmnt without a fingerboard, with the cittern (also spelled cither, citbrn, cetra, etc.) rn instru- -_-_ 135 ment a finprbod, resembling the lute though with a flat instead of rounded back.138 Winternita has found actual instruments that

borrow the shape of the anciont kithara,, adding it to a fingerboard instrument.139 Possibly one of the creators of the Bdlsts Russes Apolloq boliewd, like Grant, that the lute end the cith;tra were one

a*x1 the same, and accordingly gave the instrument t0 ApolI.0 in the ballet, The 1928 production used an instrment with a flat back (cf, figs, 10, 14 upper right, and other photographs of Lifar listed

in ths appendix), though a round-backed instmmnt i.s used in so=

productions, (cf, fig. 39) Stravinsky's writings do not take up

the question of lub versus lyre at all, and one can only assume that

he acceptsd if not initiated the substitution. For the record, thore was a lute-like instrument in ancient times.

This was the pandore, said to be of Egyptian or Assyrian origin, which had two or three strings. It appars in Greek art only during the Hellenistic period, but grew more popular during Roman times and vas depicted on many sarcophagi. '44 No representations of Apllo with this

instrument could tx located for this study, Lute, lyre, kithg3, harp, lira da braccio, and cittern zre all stringed instruments, a class of instruments regaxled by ths Greeks and

Romans as symbolic of virtue. The antithesis of this class *re the Kid insLmnts, such as the flute played by I-hsyas in his ill-fated competition with 9_~ollo.~~~According to Hbtarnitz, these associations

were carried into the Renaissance, when Apollo's lira da hrrccio becam

a symbol of the "noble 'mathematical' music as opposed to the gutturd and lascivious music of the various reed knstruments played by his 136 ~pponents~~~~~~SLravinsky's decision to limit his orchestra to strings thus hshistorical ml symbolic overtones as WOUas styUstic artrl practical functions.

C. Tim Chariot of Apollo . The ballet &ollo as it is perfornaad today employs no actual chariot, although the Piuses and Apozlo form, In dance, a chariot-like figure or troik~,during the concluding coda, (fig. 46) Stravinsky does not mention a chariot in his autobiography, although he refers to the ape&eosis scene during which the chariot desceded in the 1928 BaJlets Russes prod~ction.1~3In the 1956; Didormes 2nd a Diary, he denobs the chariot, three horses, and the sun disc as the emblems of the Roi Soleil, addiqg in a fooknots, "This chariot was attractively designed by Batlchmt," vhich makes clear that he had the Ballets Ruses production in mind. '44 It is therefore uncertain whether he, Bauchant, or someone else Within the Ballets Russss initiated the idea of the chariot. His referitnce to the three horses may allude to the troika formed by Apollo as the driver and the three Muses as horses, sin- Bauchant's designs utilize the guadriaq, or four-horse chariot. The actual chariot does not appes- to have been used in Bob's version of the ballet, According to The New York Tbes, in the end of the billet Apollo lfclimbs up the slope of the rocks arxl is trans- figured by a strong lig.ht."llc5 No chariot is mentiomd among the reviews of the 1937 revival, but it was apparently reinstaked for the 1941 tour of South kwrica, for Kirstsin recofis that the Brazilian designer Santa Xosa ttmde the superb chariot for US wi"A four horses 137 to carry Ap0U.o off to haawn.t116 T~Q1942 decor by TcheEtchew literally gave wings to tho horses, possibly with the c'-l.ibrate intont of evoking the image of Pogasug, (fig, 26) Subsequent productions make no mcntton of the chariot, and its abdonmont accords with the increasing simplification of the scenic desL@, The symbol of the chariot in the ballet is thus associatxd with the concept of Ap0U.o as sun god (which becam transmtsd in the seventeenth century to the image of the iioi Z-la),with the mythological figure of Pegasus, and rdth the idea cf apotheosis. In earls Greek fiterary baation, Apo& and ths sun god Helios were two distinct personages. Felix Buffisre points CItrt that Homer clearly distin,@shes the two in Book UIII of the Iliad, when ApoXLo protects the body of Hector from the heat Df the sun, and in Book VliiI of the Fdyssey, in the 10; story of Ares and Aphrdlt0.147 The nomaric hymn To Helios states that Helios is the son of Hyperion and

Euryph$6ssa,:!@ although his mother is sometimes identified.as Theia,

as in ~esj.~d*s~h~~~~~g.149 Aeschylus equated A,mlZo with the sun in his pbjSeven Aeainst

Thebes, as did Euripides in his play Phaeton; this &lief was echoed in th3 thought of the Pythagoreans and the Stoics,lS* Ap0ll.o and

Hdios appear to have become one by the fifth century BOC.,l5l and

this theory prevailed in EIellenistic and 30- times.'2 Va-ricus reasons have been set forth far this trznsmogrjficatio?l: Apoflo's epithet Phoebus, signifying brilliance, which eventually becane

idenwied b.th the sun153; the connection of gold wiu Apouo (cf, 138 Cal’Lhach11s, H.m to Apollq, which reads in pat, “Golden are both the garment, and the clasp of Apollo, Us lyre, his Lyctian bow, and his qui-j-er: golden, too, his sandals; for Apollo is rich in gold, and has also many possessions. Ill%), Several of the productions of

Apollon Musac2t.e drsssed tho god in gold; in 1937, even his body hair was gilded, so that he shone in the light.155

On a more abstract leml, ApoUo was associated with the sun hcause he kriew everything,156 The Pythagoreans equated the sun leading the choir of the planets with Apollo leading the dances of the Muses on Olympus. 157

L. de Ronchaud has postulated a connection between Apollo and the

Hindu solar gods Surya and iludra of the Vedas (c, Z5OO-EOO B.C.). He equates the serpent Python with the Hindu serpent Ahi, while Daphne corresponds to the Sanskrit Ahma, the dawn, who is loved and pursued by the sun, and dies in his embrace. The Charites (Graces) are etymologically related to the Harits, the mares harnessed to the sun chariot. 1* In the visua?. arts, Apollo is said to be the bearded figure riding a chariot on an amphora from the Aegean island of Mslos

(seventh century B.C. ). Ccrying a seven-stringed klthara, he is accompanied by two females slternatively described as &fusesor

Hyperborean dens. Four winged horses draw the chariot, before which stands a figure identified as Artads, with bow, quIvBr, arrow, and deer.l59 Apollo and Leto are depicted in a chariot on an Attic red- figure vase dating circa 500 B.C. The chariot is again drawn by 139 four horses, this time without wings.160

Neither of these chzriots is represented as airborm, According to Philip Mayorson, the motif of Apollo riding the sun chariot through the heamns was rare in Greek art. Roger Kinks has published an Attic red-figure vase (c, 440 B,C.) depicting a male figure crowned by stm rays, riding throngh the aii- in a chariot drawn by four hpd horses, bxt Hinks ide:L,lfies this figure as Helios rather than

APOUO. (fig, 53) This seems correct since the fib- has none of the other attributes of Apollo, such as the laurel wreath, kithaa, or bow and arrow, and the vase dates from the period when the two deities were only beginning to be mrged.

A manuscript dated circa 1000 depicts Ap0U.o in a chariot, surrounded by other gods, some of whom &so ride chariots, Apollo, identified by inscription, is cro-imed by sun rays, and carries in his hands a bow ad the three Graces, represented "as a kind of bouquet out of which emerge three fenale bust~."~~3There are apparently three horses drawing his vehicle, sharing seven legs among them. 164

Previous mention has been made of the fifteenth-century Triumph of Apollo by Francesco Cossa, The god is represented 8s a solar deity, but again, the chariot is not unique to him, since the fresco is par& of a series depicting the twelve major Olympian gods, each mounted upon a ~bariot.~~5

Although lacking a chariot, the chimney-piece fn the Italian hall of the Residenz in Landshut, Germany (192) appears to reinforce the identification of Apollo with the sun god. The top central panel, labelled tlSol,tt depicts a young man in a crown. cloak, and 140 kilt-like garment, carrying what appears to be a harp in his left hand ard a bow, quiver, and other objects in his right. A serpent trans- fixed with an arrow lies bhind him, He stands on a creature with three griffin-like heads and a serpentine tail, upon puffy cloud- like forms. To the right of the panel is a bird in flight and a tree encircled by nine nude female figures whose attitude suggests dancing, If these elements have been correctly identified, llSolt' may represent Apouo with "lyre" and bow, the serpent Python, and the nine Muses. 166

The motif of Apollo in the sun chariot was @veri theatrical_ application in 1566, in the mascarade La Genedocia desli Dei det pent5U'. presented in Florence upon the marriage of Francesco de'

Medici and Joanna of Austria. A drawing of a pageant car designed by Giorgio Vasari depicts "Apollo mounted on the chariot of the Sun, bearded and wearing a cuirass, a basket on his hezd and a flower in his hand, pmceded by two eagles, three women, a serpent, etc. This figure. BBis not in any sense the god of Olympus, but the Assyrian Apollo described by Macrobius in the Sat~rnalia.~!~~7

Ii; tke sixteenth century, Giulio Romano decorated the Sala del

Sole of the Palazzo del Te in Mantua with a fresco of the chariots of the sun ard the moon (19'7-35). The sun has been identified as Apollo, but the figure is seen di sotto ii sk, with no attributes visible except the whip in his right hand.l& Guido Reni painted

(1613) on the ceiling of ths Casino delltAurora, Palazzo tiospigliosi, * Rome. hrne on a cloud, the chariot is surrounded by clawing fenales identified as the Horae, or Hours. A putto and the flying figure of 141

Aurora precede it.169 These elements are also strongly reminiscent of the Bauchant pabtings associated with Apollon Musawte.\

A fresco of Apollo's chariot was painted on the ceiling of the

Palazzo Patrid in Rome (1615) by Domenichino. Again, the god's auadriF?;ais supported by clouds, while flying females and putti appear froni the four directions.l7*

poussh used the motif of Apol3.0 driving his chariot through the skyborne circle of the zodiac in at least three paintings: Diana and Endmion CC. 1631-33),ln The Kingdom of Flora, (1631),ln and -4 Dance to tho Music of Tim (1639-40).~73 The last-named work again hcor- porahs flying female figures. Sir Anthony Blunt believes that Poussin conceived Ap0230 ''as the source of life in nature, not as the symbol of beauty and truth11174; hence the god becomes a sort of fertility deity, and MS role of divine musician and dancer is underplayed.

Poussin &so pdnted Phaeton Beg~nr?l.the Chzriot of Awllo (1633-35), whose subjeck derives from Ovidts &Iet2mor~hoses.~75In the painting, a crown of law1 and the lyre identify the sun god as A-pollo. In the seventeenth-century theatre, Apollo appsared in a cheriot "flamboiant et do&* in Le Aallet de &dam (1615). 176 Ha was repre-

sented as the god of light in Le Ballet dV-4pollon (1621), in FThich he WAS play& by the Duc de Luynes, the favorite of Louis XI=.- 7 77

However, one nonth later the Grvd Baet de la Re.vne rerresentsnt

Le Soleil vas performd, Its preface stated that Apollo (de Lqy-nes) was a false maintained solely by the Sun, who symbolized Louis

XIII.178 Thu court politics revived the ancient distinction between

ApUo and the sun god. 142 Borne doft in his ouadriaa, ApoUo appeared with an equally airborne I*iOlpomne (].fuse of tragedy) in the prologue of Pierre Corneille's tragedy Mror;?&e, presented in 1650 in tho Salle du Petit Bourbon. 179

The decor of this scene also included a grotto reca&ling the cave of

Al)ollo's nativity in the 1928 Ballets Russes and 1937 productions of Apollon k~sadto, (fig. 9) The coincidence is intri,dng, but it seems doubtful that any signiiXcant connsction can be established, Louis XIV, the Roi Soleil, made his debut as the sun god and/or

Apollo several years before ascending the throne, Several sketches depict his cosf;unss for %hese roles: as Amllo, carr-ving a lyre and crowned tdth sun rays, in Le Ballet du LFoa (1651). 2s the Sun Khg in Le Ballet de la hit (1653) and as Apollo, crowned with plumes, in hs Noces de P6li?e et de Th6tis (169),182 (fig. 55) These costumes mag be compared with that of Adolph Soh in the 1928 Library of Congress Awnon &sa&te (fig, 1); the spirit is sm,if not the letter.

Although huh ;cIV ad6 his 1st stage appearance (again, as

Apollo) in Les Amahs Mamifiaues (1670) of 140likre,~~3the hps of ApoUo and the sun continued. to surround him, Charles Le Brun designed a scene of Apollo in this chariot for ths ceiling of the 184 Gderie cilApcllon in the Louvre, although this was not realized.

Ap0llonit.n tkms in the sculpture of Versailles have badyhen nientioned in the preceding sections of this chapter; -4pd.0 5x1 his chariot is also represented, in the sculpture by Jean-3aptiste =by, 185 executed after designs by Le Bm, in the Bassin dtApollon (1670-71).

Acco-rding to Pierre Franczsbi, this sculpture symboli~sthe 143 rising sun, wh3.I.e setting sun is depicted in the Apollon servi pa les Wdms, which is accompan-ied by the Chevaux du Soloil, . sculpted by tihe brothers Bbrsy, 186

The role of Apollo was also assumed by Louis XV, whoso bust by Lamber&Si@-sbert Adam (pr~=1741)is ornamented by a laurel wreath and a hrooch with the sun's face. 18' Franfois Boucher represezted

Apollo with his lyre and the horses of the sun chariot in two ptud-~, The Risinz and Se%ti.ng of ths Suq (1753), which probably originated as cartoons for Goblin tapestries. 188

In tie nineteenth century, Eugh Delacroix was conncissiomd to complete the Galcrie d'Apollon in the Louvre. Like his predecessor Le Brun, he chose for his theme ApoUo in his chariot, this time

&nhg an arrow at ths serpent Python, The martial connotation is very far f'rom the pacific one of Apollon MusaAte, but Delacroix's painting may have serwd to reinforco the hge of ApUo in an airborne chariot.

Odilon Redon trezted the them of ApoUo's chariot numw?ous tines during the years 190>10. 189 Thus, as in the casB of thg

Apollo Husagetes them, neither Bauchant nor the makers of the ballet cmcl_Rim to ke the first to revive it in the twentie"& csntury.

In addition to the pictorial antecedents that link the winged horse to the chariot of Apollo, tho winged horse Pegasus is also associated with the Muses throw$ a Hellenistic legend. The spring

Bppocrene, asinspiration of poets, is said to ham been stntck out of the rock by his hoof; LISspring is located slightly blow the sumit of Helicon* 0% of the horns of the Muses. '9' Pegasus 1W is therefore included in many paintings ard theatrical works that include the Iiusss (see above).

In the 1928 Ballets Russes production of Apollon EEusa&te, ApoUo's chariot descended during the finale of the ballet, which Stravinsky called ths rlapothcOsis.r~lgl The word is in some ways a nrisnomr, since in ancient tims, particularly hi Rome, it signified the raising of a mortd, us~ya ruler, to godhod.19 ~pono,born as an immortal and a full-fledsd god, technically doas not need to be apotheosized.

In a looser sense the word ltapotheosistlmay signify an "ascension to glory,n193 ami this my he ths waning Stravinsky had in mind, denoting ApUo's attaimnt of manhood and his assqtion of Ns rightful. place arriong the other Olympians.

The use of tb word also recalls the baroque theatre, which

Dialolrues 2nd a Diwy evokes in reference to the ballet, The ap- tbosis was om of *e innovations of the baroque period194; it &Lowed ths baroque theatre to exercise its penchant for spectacular effects, created by devices such as the d-oire, s,and ciel, 195 all of which provided means of transporting gods through the air, Scenes of apatheos5-is as a physical transportation to heaven have ah0 apipared in the visud. arts; for example, the &driani.c relief of Antoninus &IS and Faustina, in which the couple are bre to hearzn by a tringed genius. Closer in date and motif to P-pollon

HusaF8te is the Apotheosis of ETzwleon (comissior.ed 1853) of Jean-

Auguste-Dominique Lnses, in which the emperor stands in a chariot drawn br four df~tehorses, led by the flsing figure of Victory, -145 whilo Fame holds a wreath over his head,' Although the painting was destroyod by fim in 1831, it was ham through oil and watercolor sketches in the Louvre and the Museum of the City of Paris, 196

None of the Bauchant paintings associated with tho ballet bears the title "apotheosis," and it soems unlikely that the use of the word was suggested by the paintings, since the two versions of Apollon

APPrWaSSat a,y Bermrs focus on the god's manifestation to mortals rather than his relation to the other immortals. Another possible source of Stravinsky's adoption of the word is

the similar use of the term in the late nimtsenth-csnturg Imperial Russian ballets of kius Petipa ard Lev Ivmov. Somths it is used in the strict sense, as in Petipa's La Fslle du Phaaon (l862), fn which the heroine is received by Osjris and XsisO197 However, in

the fide of Petipa's Ra.morid4 (1898)- the "apotheosis" is *la

brilliant tourney, while in Ivanov's Casse Noisette (The Nut- cracker) (1892) it denotes "a bee-hive ,med by flying bee~."~99 The term has also been applied to the ultimate union of the lovers,

either on earth or in the hereafter, in ballets such as La Bandhe (1877), Swan Lake (Petipa-Ivanov version, 189j), and The Sleepin% a (1890). The original meaning of the word was therefore lost

or obscured, and Stravinsky may have believed it to be nothin,0 more

than the conventional eagto th3 "traditional classical" type of

ballet that he wanted to re-create 5.n Apollon ).fu..sa&~, -146 Notes :

Hesiodus, ,Resid: the Homeric Hams 3rd Ebnierica, trans. Hugh Go Ewlyn-'dhite, London, 1914, 109.

Ri Grams, The GroLMyths, Baltimore, 1957, 55. Ibid, Hammond, The Oxford Classicdl Dictionar.v, 598, Hmond, The Oxford Clzssical Dictiomry, 598; M. Grqt and J, Haml, Ceds and i-iort.ds in Glassicd I'?vtholor,v, Springfield, Massachusetts, 1973, 262-263. Hmond, The Orford Classical Dictionary, 598; Grant, Gods and Mortds, 263,

Hammond, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 598, Grant, Gds

Hesiodus, The Korks of Eesiod. Callimchus, and Theomis, trans. Rev. J, Banks, London, 1901, 166-167. Graves, Greek Nvths, 55-36. Grant, 263,

Grant, Gods znd Xortals, 388-389; HammDnd, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 1052, Home-ws, The Homeric Hwns; A Verse Trpslation, trans. T. Scent, New York, 1903, vii.

Homerus, 'The Homric 3:ms, trans. Saxgent, v5i; HORE~US, The Bomx5c Xsm~,trans. C, Boer, Chicago, 1970, l83-l&, The blhd poet Cynaethus of Chios is scmet-s identifisd as the author of To Delian AmUo, but this creates a problem in dating, 3-47 since Cynthaeus was active at the end of the sixth century B.C. Homrus, The Honeric Hymns trans. Boer, 182. Homerus, The Homeric H.vmns, trans. Sargent, 17-18, 19. - 20. Autobiography, 135, 21, white, Stravinsky, 303.

22, Levinson, Danse, 88.

23, Balanchine, New Cornplete Stories, 19. 24, Hammond, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 194-195.

25, H. Hail, "Un Nouvel hymne 2 Apollon," Bulletin de correspondance helldnioue, XVIII, 1894, 345f.; J.H. E.lcDaniels and F.P. Nash. "Another Hymn to Apo110," Nation, LXI, August 19, 1895, uf; 26, Athens. National Museum. Reproduced in K, Schefold, Lepend. in Early Greek Art, trans, A, Hicks, New York, 191, p;L, 12.

27. Amphora B168, side a, reproduced in H.B, Halters, Corpus Vasom Antiauorun, Great Britain 4, British Museum 3, London, 1927, pl, 31, 2a, and Amphora BZl3, side a, reprcduced in H.9, Walters, Corplls Vasora? Antiauorum, Great Britain 5, British Nuseum 4, London, 1929, pl, 50, 2a. 28. Pfeiff, Aponon, 27; Hammond, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 598,

29, J,D, Beazley, Attic Red-Fi-curs Vase-Pahters, 2d ed,, Oxford, 1963, =, 1721, 30. Reprodnced in I?, Hartt, Giulio Rom,mo, New Haven, 1958, 11, pl. 459.

31. Florence, Museo Civic0 Eardini, Reproduced in Grant, Gods and Hortds, 262.

32. Ane,rica.n collection, Seproduced in ILL. DfOtrange-!&.stai, 't!{icolas Poussin and the Sararberini Tapestries: The Apollo Series.a1 APOUO, UJII, June 1956, fig. 1. 33. Reprodwed in H. D. Molesworth and P.C. Brookes, @roman Sculptwe, New York, 1965, pl, 240.

34, New York, hktropolitan fiuseum of Art, iteprcducsd in M.F. Thorp, Th0 iitorzyy Scapkrs, khan, iiorth Cao&a, 1965, pl, 9. 148

35. K, YIyor-Daer "Musical Iconography in Raphael's Panassus ,I' Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticisnr, VI=, Decembsr 1949, 8% 36. I-kmmond, The Oxford Clnssj-cal Dictfon,.trX, 324. 3 7. HO~~FUS,The Illad of Homer, trans. E, Rees, New York, 1963, 22, 38. Homerus, The Homoric E!,mns, trans. Sargent, 20, 39. Ibid, , 28. 40. Ibid., 42. 41, 4.2. Ibid, 451.

43 Ifid., 79. 44. 45. Haxmo.d, The Oxford Classical Dictionarg, 704, 46. Grant, Gods and &rtals, 284; Graves, Greek Myths, 53. 47. 0, Navarre "Musae in Dictionnaire des antiauids mecaues et ronwines, ed. E, Szwo, Paris n.d,, 111. ?art 2, 2061; Grant, Gods and Hortd.s, 284.

48. Grant, Gods .=XIMr;rtals, 284; Navarre, "Musae," 2061.

49. F.A. Yates, The French Acadenies of the Sixteenth Century, London, 1947, 63, 77 n, 1.

50. Berve, Greek Temples, 60. 51. E, Xhternj.tz9 -- Pfusicd Instrunents and Their Srmbolisn in -Western- Art, London, ~~67,45, pl, iCb; J, Seznec, The Sur- viva1 of the Pz

59, E.Q. Visconti, 1Zus6e Pio-Cl&entin, Itiilan, 1820, IV, 120, pl. uv, 60. Balmchino, New Com~loteStories, 20, Cf. photo,.3raph in K, Money, The tioyd. Ballet 'I'oda, London, 1968, 105 (top). The mask is also visible, lying foreshortend on the gro.m3, in Q photosaph from a 1972 performance in N, Goldnor (ed.) The Stravir~kyFestival of the Naw York City Sallot, New York, 1973, 172.

62. Navarre, "Kusae ," 2067-2068; ii. Helbig, Wandrrern"dlde der von Vesuv verschctteton St5dt.a czmmiens, Leipzig, 1868, 173- 174, 177, nos, 858, 868, 8Y7; rcproducod in drawinm in

63. Cf. the discussion of a bas-relief of Apollo, Minerva, and the PSuses in Visconti, i-ius6e Pie-Clhentin, 109-119. 64. Olympia, Hiisem Drawing of a reconstruction reproduced in Schefold, K&h an3 IR-nd, fig, 26; G. Zlecatti, The $Tt of Ancient,, Greece end dore, trans. J, Ross, tbw York, 1967, 103. 65. Pew, khm," The Sources and Meaning of Mantegna's Parnassus," in Spmothracian Reflections, Princeton, New Jersey, 1973, 92-93 660 Aihens, Acropolis Xuseum. G.M.A. Richter, A Hdbnok of Greek -Art, 5th ed,, LoLdon, 1967, 129; Becati.i,, .bt of .imfent Greece adiiom , 204; reproduced in a draThg .in Navurc , "3ixsae ,If .fig, 908,

68. Navarre, "f.ksae," 2068; cf. the Vatican bas-relief of :?r>ollo, the Muses, ad lfinerva, reproduced in Visconti, i.I?.&e lie- Cl€bntin, IV, pl. XIV, and the Vienm Smsthistorisches Pfuseu sarcophagus, ex. Collection Giustiniani, reproduced in Winternitz, Husical Instruments, pl. 77a, - 150 . .- --.- - __

69. 11. van Marle, Iconomanhie de l'art. profano nu ma-yon-am et 3 la Xon,?isssnco, La Haye, 1932, 11, 276,

71, hhmann, ltSources,ll 95. Tho three-headed dragon- or griffin-like figure also appears beneath th3 feet of llSoltl in the chimney- piece froa the Laxishut Residene (see following discussion) * 72, Ibyer-Baer, "Musical Iconography," 87; hhmann, 11Sources,8193, 95, f3.g. 24-25, 73. Oxford, Bodleian Library, Lehmann, lJSources,l' 97, fig. 27.

76. New York, Pierpont Morgan Library. Seznec, Survivd, 140-141, pl. 48, 77. Paris, Louvre. More extensive studies of this painting may bc fowd in E.H. Gorubrich, "An Interpretation of ManteLgna9s Parnassus," in ~~i50U.CIma.zes, lomlon, 1972, 82f.; and Lehmvln, '#The Sources ad Nsaning of Idantegna's Pamassus," 59f. 78. Encvclou3edia Brittzqica, Chicago, 195, XVTI, 336.

80, Lehmnnn, "SOUSCBS," 93. 81. Winternitz, i3usicd Instmments, 87. 82. Reproduced in A. Blunt, Nicolas Powsin, Washington, D.C., 1967, I, fig. 1230 83, J. Aadtson, Classrcd I4yths in Art, London, 1904, 102-103.

84. A.P. de Hirhnde, llLpIs Concerts des Muses chez les maitres du nord," Gazette des %a-a-.4rts, S. 6, LiIII, Harch l9&, l29f. 85. Reproduced in tieyer-Zner, WQsical Iconogaphy," fig, 5.

860 Berliq, Staatliche Muse-m. 3. Stron-j,, Splendor at Court, Boston, 1973, 17, fig. 6.

88. Stron:, Splendor, 133. Harvd University, Fbgg Museum, Rsp~oducedin Strong, Splendor, fig. 98, 90, Florence, Uffizi, Reproduced in Winbrnitz, HusScol Instru- -ments, pl. 95c. 91, rates, Tho French Academies, 272, 92. 1bid.e 271. 93. Ibid., 272, Ror more informtion on the Ballet condoug cf, Kirstein, Movomnt ani Metaphor, 9+f., and J. Lawson, k Historg of Ballet an3 its f-kkcrs, Dance Books edition, London, 1973, 14f. 94.. Madrid, Prado. Reprodtrced in Blunt, Nicalas Poussin, II, pl, 18. 95, Anarican Collection. Reproduced in D'Otrange=l$ast3, "Nicolas Poussin,tt fig, 4, 96, Blunt, &colas Poussin, I, 9 n. 78, 35, pl, 28.

98. Dimier, FAstoire, Paris, 1927, II, 4-5, 99. A. Blunt, Art aM Architecture of fiance, 1500 to 1'700, Baltimore, Iizryland, 193, 202; Wer, iiistoire, 11, 7, pl. 11,

100. Cf. H.A. Jouin, Charles Le Bmet les arts sous Louis XIV, Paris, 1889, 558-559,

101, S. Lami, DictionnLre des sclilpteurs de 1'6cole francaise sous le rams de Louis XIV, Paris, 1806, 207.

3.02, Cf, Lami, I)ictionnaire, 207; Blunt, Art and Architecture, 24.6, 103, Strong, Salendor, 198-202, fig, 145, 104. M. HcC3)wa-.l, L*kt du ballet du cow en France, 1581-1&3, Paris, 1963 , 209-210, lG5. Ibid., 186-188,

108, Christout, Billet de Cow, 156; Kirstein, Movensnt a?.?Metzphor, 74, UO. Christmtt, Ballet de cow, 105.

U. S.W. Deierkauf-Holsboor, L'Histoiro de la mise en SC~Mdans le th@tre francais h Paris do 1600 2 1673, ?*is, 1960, 72.

113, Heproduced in Arts Council of Great Britain, The A- of Neo- ClassicSsm, catalo,gue of an exhibition at the doyd Academy and the Victoria ard Albert l*iussm, London, 9 September - 19 No-mbr 1972, London, 1972, pl. 97. 11% J.L. Allen, "Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Classicist,11 Metroooli- tm 2.hsemn of Art Dulletirl, nos. VII, April 19'19, 231-232; B, iiod.md, The Classical Trzditioa in tiestern Art, Cambridge, Massachnsetts, 1963, 291,

Uj. Reproduced in F. Licht, Sculpture: Ninsbentb and Twentieth Centuries, London, 196?, pl, 29. 116. P. Netu, The Dmce in Classical Pfusic, New York, 1963, 11-12, u7. 3.J. bnsseau, *'Xes Huses Galantes, Ballet,1t in Oeuvres de Je?a Jaccues 2oussem, Paris, 1826, XI, 38U. u8. S. Lifa, Histoire du ballet russe, Pais, 199, 29. 119. Do Lynbn, The Chsvdier iLomrre, London, 1972, 104, 171; I, Guest, The a%mntic 3allet in dnel-md, Hiddletown, Connecticut, 1972,323.3. 120. Enc.yclo.pedia of !iorld .kt, New York, 19s1968, XV, 27, VlII, pl. 228 (below),

121. bprociucsd in If. Vachon, Puvis de Chavannes, Paris, 1895, ficing pzge 128,

122, Lawson, History of Ballet, 9; Nettl, The Dmce, 15l-12.

123. 3f.G. SxLft, A Loftier Fli:?ht; The Life ;L?d -4ccc~i~lisb~~ntsor" Charles-Louis ikidot. 3&at:msixr, %i.ddletom, Connecticut, 1974. 1'37.

125, C. Avafine and frf. met, Eourdelle et la dmse, Paris, 1969, pls. 100-105, 109-111; G, Veronesi, Sty12 and Ciesi.-x, 1909-1329, New Yo&, 1963, 72. 1260 J, Pope-Hennossy, It-dian Rendssance Sculpture, Garclen City, New York, 1958, 328, u?, Winternitz, 14usical Instruments, 44, pl, 4b. -

128, fieproduced in Xinternitz, Ihsical Instrwntg, fig, 21, u90 IMd.9 97, 2210

130. I!,Reinach, I1Lyra,l1 in Dictionnaire des antiauitds ,necaues et romaines, 2nd ed., ed, E'. Saglio, Paris, 190-1, 111, part 2, 1437f.; "iiithara" in Grovess Diction,. of hIusic uld :Xusicians, 5th ed,, ed. E, Elom, London, 199, 111, 7'72; 11Lyre,81in Eric-vclomcdia Brittanicq, XIV, 483; "Kith-a," in The Hew Encyclopsedia Srittnnic?, 15th ed. , Chicago, 1975, Fiicropaedia, v, 84.2. 131. E, Saglio, r'Citharoedus," in Dictionmire des antiauit6s pecques et romaines, 2nd ed., ed, C, Daremberg, Paris, 1875, I, part 2, 1215f. 132, Athens, Agora kseum. Reproduced in Pfekff, AmUon, F.L. 9b, 133. Amphora E256, side a, reproduced in C.K. Smith, -Catdox, of thB Greek md Etruscan Vases in the Eritish 3iuseum, London,- In, pl, A. 134. Becat& Art of Ancient Greece and Ram, 298; reproduced in Winternitz, Musical Instnmnts, pl. 77b. 135. Schmitz, lrAp~ll~,"231; L, de Ronchawl, trApoU~,"in Ectionnaire des ,mtiauit$s zmcaues et romines, 2nd ed,, ed. C, Deemberg and E, Saglio, Paris, 1875, I, part 1, 313.

136, Hesiodus, Hesiod, tra,rls. Evelyn-Xhite, 36)-369, 397-399. 137. Grant, Gods and Mortals, 62, 138. Scholes, Oxford Coxpanion to Hnsic, 169-170; Thompson, Inter- national CycloDedia, 403, 139. Winternitz, lhsical Instrumnts, 56f , 140. iieinach, "Lyra," 14-50. "Stravinsky's Novel 'Apollo l4usag8tes,@"Tho New York Times, 7:1. Urstein, "The American Ballet in Rrazil," 19.

F, Buffisre, Les Xythes d'Hodre et la pens& grecQue, Paris, 1956, 187-188, Hoasrus, Tha Homeric H.vnns, trans. Sargent, 80.

Hammod, 'I3-p Oxford Classical Dictionary, 535,

Hammond, Tho Oxford ClnssiczL Dictiomry, 82; P. Qprson, Classical hiirtholoxv in Literatxre, -&t, anc! I.fuic, Ndtham, Nassachusetts, 1571, lb6; H.J. Kose, Gods and 3eroes of the Greeks, Cleveland, 1968, 20.

Hmmnd, The Oxford Classical Dic'c-ionarz, 82, Enc.wlopaedia Brittdca, I1 , U2.

Eesiodus, The :forks of Hasiod, trans. Ganks, 3.28-129, Information received from Lvancy Reynolds, Secozd History of Dace Semi-, Cf, also Kirstein, The ikw York City Ballet, 48.

Hayarson, Classical l.fvLholo.z.y, 146. 'Ibis characteristic is shared by FMi.os, Hmond, The Oxforci Classical Dictionary, 4.94..

Ronchaud, "Ap~llo,~~312. Athi?ns, Bational Museum, Reproduced- in ?.E. Arfas adIf. EIimer, A Histors OT Greek Vzse faintirq, trans. and rev. B.B. Shefton, London, 1962, 277-278, pl. 22: also Pfeiff,

London, British Huseum, Reprcduced in Hinks, H* and Allegory, 131, p1. la, Seznec, survival, 168.

klunich, Bayrische Staatsbibliothak, C&, 3bnzc. 12t. 14271, fox. 1~ V. of Auxerre). he page reference is aven as fol. ll r. in the list of illustrations on pas xiv. Seznec, Survivq, xiv, 167, 167 n, 46, pl. 67.

166, A. L4arbUz.g. ''Hirchliche und Hefische Kunst in Landshut" (1909), in Ges2_7.57;sl-t;o Schrifton, Leipzig, 1932, 11, 457, pl. 105; Seznec, Survival, fig. 79. 167. Florence, Uffizi, Ainbrosius Theodosius Ihcrobius, a Roman gramntarian and philosopher, lived during the late fourth arad early fifth centuries B.C. His Satwnalig has been described as "an academic spposiuin" encoxqassing philological, historical, antiquarian, and scientific subjects, Seznec, Survivsl, 282, 363, pl. 103; tfanrmond, The Oxford Classicd Dictionary, 635.

168. Hartt, CAiLio Romzno, I, 108-109, U:, pl, 169.

169, COCOVermule, European Art and the Classicd Past, Cambridp, Massachusetts, 1964, 99, pl, 81. 170. Reproduced in A, Nappi, Gli Mfreschi del Domsnichino a Row, Rom, 1958, 49, pl. XI. l7l. The Detroit Institute of Arts. A. Blunt, Tho PairAtinPsof Nicobs Poussir~:A Critical Cztaloque, Loadon, 1966, L08; reproduced in Blunt, Bicolas 3oussint 11, pl, 63. 172, Dresden, Staatliche Xunstsdungen. Slunt, Paintinps ll.3; reprodcced i.n ant, liicolas ~oussin,IX, p1.r' 173, London, adlace Collection, Blunt, Paint,ino%, 81-82; reproduced in Blunt, Micolas Poussh, II, pl. 327. 174. Blunt, Eicolas Poussin, I, 124, 175. Nest Berlin, Staatliche Museen. Blunt, PaFntincs, l23-l24; reproduced in Blunt,, l+icolas Poussin, TI, pl. 69. 176, 3L-F. Christout, Le !Grveillewc et le thda- d~ silence en Frznce, La Baye, 1965, 206, 177, H, PrwAres, Le Brdlet de cow er, Frince avant Bnsemde et LUy, Paris, 1914, 122, 197 no 2; :.lcGowan, kt au ballet au

_Icow, 180.

179. Chistout,, &&Let de car, 9-55, 258; reproduced ia Deierkauf- Holsboer, Histoire de la mise 0n scane, pl, XVII. 180, Paris, Biblioth&qus l4ationaI.e. &stein, lbP.emnt and htaphar, 260, pl. 132, 181, Paris, Bibllothbque IJatlonzle, Ibid., 261, pl, 233. 182. Paris, Bibliothbque de l'lnstitut. Ibid., 261, pl. 139; also reproduced in Christout, Baflet de cow, pl. 33. 183. Ydrstein, Nowmnt and HettaDhor, 860 184, Paris, Loutre. Reproduced kn J, Nontagu, Brun et Dela- croix dais 12 galerie d*Apollon,I1 Revue du Louvre et des MusQes de France, XII/5* 1962, 233f., fig. 1.

186. P. F'rancastel, La Sculpture de Versaillos, Paris, 1930, 49, fig. 1, 187. London, Victoria Albert Huseun. Xeproduced in We& Kalnein and 11, Levey, Art and Architecture of the Eizhteenth Century in France, Harmondsworth, ikiddlesex, 1932, pl. 68. 188, London, gallace Collection, %id.* U3-ll4, PIS, XL4-U.5. 189. Cf, ii. Berger, Odilon Redon; Phantasie und Farbe, Cologne, 1964-, 192-193

190. Hanmond, The Oxford Classicd, Dictionary, 493.

193. The Oxford Endish Dictianar-v, Odord, 1933, I, 393. 194, Christout, Ballet de cow, 172, 19.5. Cf. T,E, Lamenson, The Trench Stzm in the Seventeenth Century, Manchester, 1957, lM-143.

3-96, Ingrcs Centennial 3xhibition, 1867-1967, catalogue of an exhibition at Fog2 ht Suseulli, 2arvard University, 12 Febxsy - 9 April 1967, catalose by A. Xongan & H. kef, Greemich, Connecticut, 1967, no, 102. 197. C,W, Beaumont, Comlete. Rook of Ballets, New York, 1938, 399. 198, Ibid,, 49. and the Tmntieth Century

The Ballets Kusses in the 'twenties was dominated by a spirit of

' experimentaljsm. This spirit, which found its raying cry in Diaghilev's fanous exhortation to Jean Cocteau, ltAstonish pene&ated even the hallowed groves of ancient Greek mythology and

literature. In the pars from 1920 to 1929, no fewer than four bdlets were based, however distantly, on antique subject-matter: Zgphire et Flore (1925) La Chatte (1927), Mercure (1927) and

Amllon Husa&te (3.928). Tho use of the ancient Greek world as a

thematic source, even in the midst of experix'ntation, sugests that

the artists of "he Ballets 3usses still feud its persolldlitiss

and legends dame, strimulatin~,and fertile.

bmver, none of the ballets were particularly concerned with presenting an a.rchaeolo&cally exact picture of ancient Greece;

certainly none of the four emulated the deliberate archaLsms of two earlier "Gresk;" ballets presented by the Ballets Russes, Nijinsky's

The Afternoon of 2 Faun (19l.2) and Fokine's Darshnis and Chloe (1912). Zktahire, with scenery and costmss by Georges Braque, was originally

planned as SI eighteenth-century mythological ballet as presented by

a Russian serf ballet troups. Also, as Grisoriev points out, the subjact-matter already had an anteceden.t among the late eighteenth-

century batsof Charles Dide1ot.l La Chatte began with a fable

by Aesop, which was costumed and decorated in the Constructivist

PLanner by the bothers Naum Gab and Anton Pevsner. Mercure, first 158 presented in 1924 at the Soides de Paris of Comte Eticnne de Beaumont, was an irraverent romp, largely inspired by the wit of -Pablo Picasso, its designer, Among its episodes was a scene in which Mercury stole the pearls of the three Graces, who were impersonated by three men in false hreests irmnersed in CL t1bathtub,112 To a greater or lesser extent all of these ballets and, as we have seen, Apollon Hus&Yte, were considered iconoclastic bocause they did not conform to the traditional and expected conception of ancient Greek gods znd heroes.

Paradoxically, the 'twenties also saw a reawakening of interest in what was deemsd the 'lclassical'l style. This trend touched a number of arts ad artists: in literat-, Andre) Gide, Pail. Vdgry, GuiLlaume ApoUinaire, Jem Cocteau, and Raymond Radigueo; in music, Erik Satie, Francis Poulenc, and Stravinsky; in the visual arts, Georges Braque, Wre/ Dkrain, Juan Gris, IIenri Matisse, the

Purists, and Pi~asso.~Douglas Coopsr has attributed this general movement towards order and regularization to "the reaction against the brutality and destruction of the war, as well as against the violence and anarchy of Dada.I15 The rise of this movemsnt nay also be seen as the reaction of om artistic win, the so-called classical, d.th its emphasis on form, against the so-called romtic, with its emphasis on expressional content, in a progression that continues cyclically thou* th3 history of art. The artists themselves may have seen the pheno.mnon first as a purely individual response to individual artistic needs. Both Stravinsky and Balmchine *rived at their respctim "neoclassical" styles after a period that was

comparatively I1rocxmtiP; in Stravinsky's case, in zn emphasis upon 159 emotional expression 3xIcI a predilection towards the llcolortl of ht;rU- mntal timhres rather than melodic ttlimll;in BdancMne's, a lack of -- restraint h his use of choreographic forms, The new classicisn or neoclassicism of the twentieth century was not to be a pastiche of ancient Greece, nor of any otkr stylistic period usually described as "classical." As forrrmlakd by Stramsky in music and Hcasso in painting, neoclassicism derived its nams from its use of structural principles associated with the word llclassi- cisrn'' : economy of means , ShpliCity, clarity, order, A certain mod of detachment and aloof tranquiUity is often evident in the xorks of these artists, although this may be leavened by the humor for which both artists are famed, Balanchins's choreography for Apollon

Nusadte also contai?s many huxorous momnts; possibly it may be said, at least in regard to these three artists, that neoclassicism is a style that knows how to laugh at itself; the frigidity and pomposity of some previous t*classical" styles has been left behind. The evolution of Amllon Xusadte's visual design through ths pars illustrates a slow, somtimes painful groping towards the mo- classical ideal. From Solm's rather literal simultaneous evocation of ancient Greece and classical bwoque France, the ballet was then subjected to the iconoclastic and exper-ntal tastes of the Ballets flusses, resulting in a solution that was hstunanimously voted unsatisfactory. -4 return to historical classicism was attempted in

the "PoussinesqW1production of 2937. In 1942 Tchelitchsw appears to have allowsd hiasself freer rein with the Greek material, although recognizable quotations from the mtique are still evident. The 160

baLet was slow to surrender the trappings of tradition; Apollo did

not discard his golden tunic and laurel wreath until 1957,-- nearly thirty pars after the premiere of the ballet, The ballet is usually performed today in the generalized practice costume of the twentieth-century ballet dancer, on a stage that

is almost bare. Although neither costume nor setting is specuic to the ancient Greek theme of the ballet or the neoclassicd style of

choreography, few protests have been registered against this use of gelaerallzatfon. The qudLlties of reduction, simplicity, and general-

ity which govern the ballet's present-day decoration are also shared by movements and artists which have also been Labelled "classicdL" by modern critics: Cubism,' Le Corkier,? Mondrian,8

That Apdlon fhcdte can today be called "classical" is probably due in part to its survival over the y~ars,forty -seven being a

venerable age for a ballet, but the definition of 1tclassicisn18has indubitably &aged too. Otto J. Elrendel has offered some thoughts

on the modern conception of classicism in an essay entitled "The Cfsssical Style in Modern -kt" (1962): We now treat it as an open proposition, the conditions of which may be fulfilled by an unspecified number of actual hstances. It is still apt to sugsst references to past art, but not necessarily to Greek and ilomzn ody. The line of continuity, of a classical style, leads well beyond the Italian Renaissance into more recent periods uld even the present. Thus the term has lost something of ths categoricd precision uhich it had once possessed in academic classicism. Yet in other respects its selective function ks been strength- ened, &parting to it the qualitativa precision of a critical concept which is well known by experience, if not by theory. Classical., in this sense, is a certain way of doing things or of presenting them, It cm be actualized in unfamiliar fonns and recognized in unexpected circumstances, by the analogy of other pheaonana previously Tound 'I cbs~ical,~~g 161

Such a definition immeasurably widens the range of works which may be cded Yet the looseness of the definition sh.d..t;aneously hinders its own articulation; Brendel seem to imply that the qudfity of beins "classical" is easier to recognize b a general sense than to analyse in every particular. Does this mean .t;hat the adjective "classical" is subject to the whim of the prson bestowing it8 Such license does not seem to be Brendel's hbnt, get tho defwtion of l'cLassicismlJ remains a problem, not ody in its twentieth-century application but in its general statement, While certain qualities are generay considered to be "classicd.,tl how is one to judge the degree to which a work or artist must possess these qualities order to earn the title t'cl.assical?"

How new must a work be in order to becorn ltneoclassicaltr rather than simply "classical?" Should the "classical" qualities of a work be judm against its contemporaxies (which might, in som periodn, expmi the range of ttclassicisn" emn more), or should an vulvarying, timeless standard be used? ApoUon Plusadb- cen offer but 3ited help in answering these questions. Illthough its long survival offers a record of changes both in its creators and the public's conceptions of classicism, it cannot clah to represent all. of the arts and ideas of the twentieth century. Although iconographical antecedents can be found for most of the thems and motifs in the met, there is no evidence that its creators were making a concert2d effort to revive classicism by using them as9 fer instance, Jaques-Louis David and the neoclassicd school did 162 in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centwies.

Yet APollon Musa~teis of value both as an example of a so-

caLled neoclassical work and as an illustration of the type of_

classicism Brendel has discussed, the "open proposition, It Although its music would never be mistaken for Bach nor its choreogrzphy for Petipa, its many ties with other "classicaltf styles and periods

in history help place it in perspective not only as a new development, but as a continuation of the lrclassicdttkndition,

Notes:

1, Kochno, j)ia&i.lev and the Ballets Russes, 226; Grigoriev, Diarrhilev Ballet, 2ll,

2b Perhaps because this ballet was not created under the auspices of the Ballets Husses, both Kochno and Grigorfev, staunch adherents of Diaghilev, give it snort sh!ift in their books, A more detailed account is available in Douglas Cooper's Picasso Thestre, New York, 1967-1968, 3. 0.J. Bredel, "The Classical Style in fbdern Art," in From Sophocles to Picasso, ed, W.J, Oates, Bloomington, Indiana, 1962, 90; Cooper, Picasso Theatre, 63-64. 4. Cooper, Picasso Theatre, 63-64.. 5. Ibid. 63. 6. W, Pach, The Clzcssical Trzdition in Modern Art, New York, 1959, 18,

?b Veronesi, Style and Desim, 1909-1?22, 308, 8. S, Greene, "The Tragic Sense in hdem Art,t1in From Sophocles to Picasso, ed, N.J. Oates, Blooaington, Indiana, 1962, 164, 9. Brendel, "The Classical Style in Fadern Art," 88-59. SELECTED BIBLIO GKAPHY Amberg, George, kt in Modorn Ballet, New York, 1946,

Balanchine, George, Ealanchine's Now Complete Storiss of the Groat Ballets, od, Francis hiason, Garden City, New York, 1968. ------, "The Dance Element in Strawinsky's Music," Dance Index, VI, 1947, 25Of. ; reprinted as "The Dance Element in the I4usic," in Stravinsky 3.n the Theatre, ed. 14i.nna Lederman, New York, 1949, 73f.

------0, The Diaghilov Ballet in London, 3rd ed,, London, 19s. Berger, Arthur, "Music for the Ballet," DaRce Index, VI, 194-7, 258f.; reprinted in Stravinsky in the Theatre, ed. Minna Lederman, New York, 1949, 43f. Brendel, Otto J,, "The Classical Style in Modern Art," in From Sophocles to Picasso, ed. 'Mtney J. Oabs, Bloomington, Indiana, 1962, 7Lf,

Christout, Mzie-Franyoise, Le Ballet de COW de Louis XTV, 1643- 1672, Paris, 1967.

Chujoy, Anatole, The New York City Ballet, New Iork, 1953.

Chu joy, Anatole and P. bI, r4Zanche ster , The Dance Encyclopedia, revised and enlarged version, New 'iork, 1967. Cohen, Selma Jeanxe and A.J. Pischl, !'The American Ballet Theatre: 1911.0-1960,'1 Dance hrspectives, VI, 1960.

Daremberg, Charles, et a1 (eds.), Dictionnaire des antiquids grecques et romaines, 2nd ed., 5 vols., Paris 1873-1919.

Deierkauf-Holsboer, S. '.Uib,L'Histoire de la mise en scbe dans la tdhe francais 3 r'aris de 1600 ?i1672, Paris, 1960.

Denby, Wwin, Looking at ths Dance, New York, 1949. Franks, Arthur H., Twentieth Century Ballet, Ne.;: York, 199.

Grant, Michael and John Hazel, Gods and Mortals in Classical M.flholoey, Springfield, Massachusetts, 1973.

Graves, Robert, The Greek Hyths, Baltimore, 1957. 164 Grigoriev, Serge L., The Diachilev Ballot 3909-1922, trans. and ed, Vera Bowen, London, 1953. Hammond, N,G,L, and H.H, ScuJlard, 'l'he Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1970. Hartford, Wadsworth Athenoum, Lhe Serm Lifar Collection of Ballet -Set and Costurn Designs, compilcd by Mary C. Palmer and Samuel J. Wagstaff, Hartford, 1965, Kirstein, Lincoln, Movement and Metaphor, New York, 1970. ------, The New York City Ballet, New York, 1973. Kochno, PoriLx, DiaEhilev and the Ballets Russes, trans. Adrienne Foulke, &u York, 1970. Lawson, Joan, A History of B,dlet and its Makers, London, 1964. Lederman, Hima (ed,), Strav5.nsk.v in the Theatre, New York, 1949. LElhraann, Phg,'Uis W., "The Sources and Heaning of Nantegna's Pamassus," in S_amothracian Reflections, Princeton, New Jersey, 1973, 59f. mar, Serge, Seree Diacchilev; His Life. His Work, His Lemnd, New York, 1940.

HcCawan, Margaret, L'Art du ballet du cow en France, 1581-16rc3, Paris, 1963. Heyer-Baer , Kathi, "Musical Iconocgraphy in Raphael's Parnassus ," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, VIII, December 1949, 87f. Mirimonde, A.P. de, "Les Concerts des Muses chez les mitres du nord," Gazette des %am-Arts, S. 6, LXIII, hhch 19&, 129f.

The New York F-ubEc Library, Dance Collection, Stravinsk,y and the &nce: A Survey of Sdlet Productions 1919-1962, catalogue by SekJeanne Cohen, iew York, 1962,

The New York PU'GEC Library, Stravinsky and the Theatre: A Catalome Of Cecor a?Costvmne Gesi;ns for Stage rroductions of )iis ,Jerks* 1910-1362, Jew York, 1363,

Pach, iJd.ter, Tb Classical Tradition in Hodern Art, New Iork, 1959. Percival, John, The World of Diazhilev, London, 1971,

Pfeiff, Karl A,, @Uon; Die 'Jandlung seines Eildes in der Griechischen iiunst, Frarkfurt am bin, 1343, 165 .- _- Propert, Walter A., The Russian Ballet in Western Europe, 192101929, London, 1931. Hobert, Grace, The Borzoi Book of Ballets, New York, 196, Rowland, Benjamin, The Classical Tradition in Western Art, Cambridge, Mas sac huse tt s , 1963.

Seznec, Jean, The Survival of the Pagan Gods, trans. Barbara F, Sessions, New York, 1952.. Stravinsky, Igor and Robert Craft, Dialornos and a Diary, London, 1968. Stravinsky, Igor, Igor Stravinskg, An Autobiomaphv, Norton edition, New York, 1962. Stravinsky, Igor, Poetics of Music, trans. Arthur Knodel d-_Ingolf_ D&l, New York, 3-54?, Strong, Roy, Splendor at Court; Renaissance Spectacle and the Theater of Power, Boston, 1973.

Taper, Bsrnard, Balanchine, revised and updated ed., New York, 1974.

Vermeule, Cornelius C., European Art and the Classical Past, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 19&.

Winternitz, Emanuel, Nusical Instruments and theb S_vmbolism in Western Art, Lordon, 1967.

Yates, Frances A,, 3sFrench Academies of the Sixteenth CenmXI London, 194.7. 166

This should by no means be considered a definitive list of sources for published photographs and designs. A separate number has ken assigned to each different design or photograph. Some have been published in more than one source.

ApoUon Musa?>te Coolidm Chpmber Kusic Festival, 1928

Adolph Bob as Apollo - 1. Theatre Arts, XII, 1928, 95.

2. (Maurice Goldberg) J. Martin, The Dance, Ihw York, 196, 100, reprinted in J. Ilartin, John liartin's 3ook of the Dance, New York, 1963, 90. 3. (Maurice Goldberg) Tk.a Dance Magazine, X, August 1928, 14.

Apollon Husadte, Ballets Russes. 3.928 Works by Andd Bauchant 4. Chmps-Elys&s (1927) . A. Schaeffner, Strawinsk.v, Paris 1931, pl. LII; G. .&nkerg, Art in Modern Ballet, New York, W6, pl. 78; Hartford, jladsworth Atheneum, 'fha Serze Lifar Collection of Ballet Set and Costume Bsizns, Hartford, 1965, pl. 13; B. 'Taper, Bdanchine, rev. and updated ed., New York, 1974, 102. 5. ApoLlon ADparaissant am Beraers (I 925) . M. Gautbier, And& Emchant, Paris, 1943, pl. 10; G. Dstaille and G. Mulys, & Ballets de i(onte-Czrlo, 1911-1*, Paris, 193, 135. 6. A,poUon Aaparaissant am Bergers (1928). Schaeff ner , Straxinsky, pl, LIU; M. Ledernan, Stravinsky in the "heitre, New York, lg@, 157. 7. Le Char. d'ApoUon (3.928). The New York Public Library, ,Ctra*s& ,and the I;?-, ?Jew York, 1962, 28, pl. 2; Hartford, ?ixist:orth Atheneum I'hs Ser.m Lifar Collection, pl. 14; Strasbourg, Ancienns Couane. Les Bdlets ctusses de Sers de Diaahilev, 1309- lJZJ, Strasbowg, 1969, pl. 110, 8. Souvsnir d*Apollon NusaKkte (1939). -berg, Art in Hodem -Ballet, p1, 77. Serge Life as ApoUo.

9., lo., 21. Three photographs, (Hopinen-Eiuone) Theatre Arts, UII, November 1947, 36, (below),

12, S. Lifar, Srae Disehilev, New York, 1940, facing page 332. This pose seems to be the same as no, 11 above (right) , though reversed in'direction.

13, (Lipnitzki) Schaeffner, Strawinsk-v, pl, LIV; Strasbourg, Ancien- ne Douane, Les Ballets Husses, pl. 11.2;A, Levinson, La Danse d'aujourd'hui, Pari-5, 1929, 71 (left), 14. (Lipnitzki) Schaeffner, Strawinsky, pl. LV; Levinson, Danse, 71 (cenbr). 15, (Lipnitzki) Levinson, Danse, 71 (right),

16. Note the flat-backed lute. (Lipnitzki) H, Lawrence, The Victor Book of i3allets and Ballet Kusic, New York, 1950, 39,

Apollo and a &fuse 17. Apollo bestows his gift on Calliope. (Tis Illustrated London -*LJews- The Times, London) The Illustrated Lonion Ssws, CLiXiII, July 7, 1928, 13 ('below, second from loft); N.A. rropert, 3 Russian i32llet in Kestsrn Eurme. 1921-1929, London, 1931, pl. X~LXIU: (above left); _?'heatre.bts, LdX, ihember 1947, 36 (above left).

18. "Swimming 1,Zsson," pss de deux. Nikitina as Terpsichore. (The IUustrata?Lordon News) The Illus'crsteci i 2ndon Sews, CLXXIII, July 7, 1928, 13 (blow, far left); Dancs '.?dex, Ii, 1943, lll ( atxm1.

19. "Swimming lesson," pas de deux. Danilova as Terpsichore, Taper, Ealanchine, 77; J, Percival, The Xorld of DisEhilev, London, 1971, 84 (erroneously captioned as Niicitina).

20, Pas de deux, Danilova as Terpsichore. (Niki Ekstrom) B. Xochno, Diaghilev zrvl tl.3 Ballets ii?~ssss,lieu York, 1970, 267.

21. pas de deux. Dadova as Terpsichora. (Sasha; Niki Ekstrom) Tapr, Balanchiz, 103; iiochno, DiaEhilev, 266.

Apollo z.d Two Muses

22, (Lipnitdci) Schaeffner, Strawinsky, pl, LVII; Strasbourg, Ancien- ne Douane, Les Sdlets Ausses, pl. U; Lederman, Strwinskg, 3.57 (above left); The iJew York Public Library, Stravinskg ard 168 the Dance, 28, p1. 1; L'Art Vivant, V, Septembr 15, 1929, 724 '75ZZiZieft) ,

23, (Lipnitzki) L'Art Vivant, V, Septembr 15, lPZ9,--?24(middle right) 24, (Lipnitzki) Schaeffner, Strp.winsk.v, pl, LVI; LOderrnan, Stravin- sky, 157 (above right),

Apollo and Three Muses Pas d'action, The ILlustrated London News, CLUIII, July 7, 1928, 13 (blow, far right); B, Searle, Eallet i.iusic, 2nd rev. ed., New York, 1973, facing page 103. Coda. (The Illustrated London News; The "hzss, London) Propert, The Russian Ballet, pl, XXLII (below left); The Illustrated London News, GhIII, July 7, 1928, 13 (below, second from right); Theatre Arts, Novenrozr 1947, 36 (middle left); Dance Index, II, 1943, u1 (middle); About the HOUSS, 11, Christmas 1966, 16.

ttSleepingltpose, coda, About the %user 11, Christmas 1966, 17.

It&ny-legged creature'' pose, codz, (The. Illusbated London News; The Times, London) The Illustrated London fk'n's, CLUI, July 7, 1928,- 13 (blov, center); Yropsrt, The iiussian Ballet, pl. WIII, (below, right); Theatre Arts_, ;ixXTI, November 1947, 36 (nridae right); ~anceIndex, TI, 194-3, XL~(blow), (The Times, London) Propsrt, The Russian Ballet, pl, (above right); Theatre Arts, AAAII, Novembar 19b7, 36 (above right).

ApoUo and Four Muses

30. 'h3.s is not a scene from the ballet, A,L. Haskell, Dia&.leff, New York, 1935, facing page 305.

Apotheosis Scene

31. (Tho Illustrated Lor,c?on News; Richard Tucker) The Illustrated London !Jews, CLidiI, July ?, 1928, 13 (middle); 2. 3auxont , Ballet Design Past and i'resznt, London, 19b6, 115 (above): Percival, The iiorla of iriaabilzv, 85.

The pfuses

32. A Muse. Captioned as Doubrovska (Calliope) but the gestura is that of Polyhymnia. (Lipnitzki) Levinson, Daase, 69. 169 33. Two Muses, Tchernicheva and Doubrovska, bason, Danse, pl. X.

Apollon MusaAk, The American Ballet, 1937

Works by Stewart Chaney

Design for second scene. (Columbia Concerts Corp.) L, XirsbSn, "Homage to Stravinsky," Arts and Decoration, XLK, May 1937, 14 (above).

Design for set, Theatre Arts Nanthh, UI, 1937, 43.l (below); "New Sketches for Stravinsky iiallets, Old and New," Modern Music, uv, 193'7, 149, Design for costume of Aponoe Theatre Arts Monthly, XXI, 1937, 4U (above left),

assign for costume of Terpsichora. Theatre Arts i.lontfl?-, XXI, 1937, 43.3. (abow right); Kirstein, "Homage to Stravinskj.," 14 (below right).

Design for costute of Polyhymnia. Kirstein, "Homage to Stravin- sky,ll 14 (below center),

Design for costume of Calliope. Kirstein, "Homage to Stravin- sky,'' 14 (blow right).

Lew Christensea as Apollo

40. L, Klrsteh, "The herican Ballet in Argentin3," The American -Dancer, XLV, October 1941, 13 (below). This is not a scene from the ballet. 41. (Richard Tucker) Taper, Balmchine, 106 (fa left).

ApoUo and a Huse

42. "Creation of Adan" wse, pas de deux, Dance index, VI, 1947, 2% (left).

Apollo and Three tiuses

w. Wa.ny-1egged crezture" pse, cod+ The Hew York Public Library, Stravhsky an3 the Dance, 29, pl, 5. Apotheosis Sea= 46, (The Tims, London) Beaumont, Ballet Des&nr 115 (below), 47, Martin, The Dance, 72 (left),

ApoUon hIusa.&te. .American Ballet Caravan, 1941

Apollo and a Huse 48. Pas de deux. (Schulmann) Dance Index, IV, February-March 1945, 25 (above right), . .

49, "Swimdng lesson," pas de deux. (Schulmann) Dance Index, IY, Februarydarch 1945, 25 (below left). 50. Pas de deux. (Schulmann) Dance Index, IV, February-March 1945, 25 (blaw right).

5L (Schulmaan) Dance Index, IV, February-Harch 194-5, 25 (above left). 9. Coda, (Schulmann) Dance Index, IV, February-kch 1945, 25 (middle left), 33. Pas d'action. (Schubann) Dance Irdex, IV, February-March 1945, 25 (middle right),

nos, 48-53 are reprinted, in the same order, in B.H. Haggin, ,&- let Chrmicle, New rork, 1970, 134,

Works by Pawl Tchelitchew

9. Design for the opening scene. Dance Index, m, January- February 194, 31 (ab-). 55, Design for the apotheosis scene. Dame Index, I, July 1942, 102 (ab-a), 111, January-February 19*, 31 (below), VI, I*?, 253; The New York Public Libray, Stradnsky and the Dance, 28, pl, 3; Anberg, Art in Xodern Ballet, pl. 105. 36. Page from 8 sketchbook, costumes of the Muses at lower left, Dance Index, In, January-February 1944, 2.

ApoUo and TheMuses 57. Pas dvaction. Cance Index, I, July 1942, 10% (below).

Apollo, Ballet; Theatre, 194.2

Andr6 Eglevskjr as Apollo 9, (Constantine) Dance, XVII, Novembr 1943, 5 (atrow left).

Igor Youskevitch as Apollo (1946A7 season or later)

59. (Fred Feu) Lamence, The Victor Book of Ballets, 36.

60, Pas de deux. Alonso as Terpsichore (19kF.46 season or later), Dance Perspectims, VI, 1960, pl. 14.

Apol3.0 and Three kses 61. (Dwight Godwin) G, Amberg, Ballet in Ampica, New York, 1%9, following pa@ 108,

62, Pas d'action, (Eloger good) Parformance of 1946. F. Hall, Modern Gn&ish Ealfet, London, 1950, facing page 64 (above). 63. '"any-letgged creature" pos0. Youskewitch as ApoUo, (Fred Feu) Theetro Arts, XUI, May 1947, 33 (blow),

Apollon Husa&te. Paris O&ra Ballet, 1%7 dorks by andre' Delfau

64. Desim for set. The New York Public Library, Strqv2.nsk.V an3 the Dance, 28, pl. 4,

Apollo, Leader of the Muses. The Xew York City Eallet, 1951

A..dre Eglevsky as ApoU.0 65. R, Krokomr, The Hew Borzoi Eook of Ballets, New Xork, 1956, pl. la. ApoUo and a Mse

66, (Fred Fehl) Taper, Balanchine, 107 (top). -

Apollo and Two Muses

67. Coda. (Fred Feu) Haggin, Ballet Chronicle, 135 (below). c

Apollo and Three luses 68, Pas d'action. (George Platt-Lynes) A. Chujoy, The New xork Cit-y Ballet, New York, 1953, fonotzing page 48 7atmve). 69. Pas d'action, (Fred Fohl) Haggin, Ballet Chronicle, 135 (above).

70. Cod., (Fred Fehl) Chujoy, The New York City Ballet, following page lr-8 (blow), 173

UUSTR ATIONS 174

176

4928 177 .'. .. I

¶I ..': ....I. :. . .. 179 180 183 /3*

19 2s 183

I 184

186

188

._.. -. . _.-, .... iI ......

j! !! I.I' i

267, 190 191

_..- .- .. .. - .. 192

- f 193

195

198

200 201 202

. -C. - -,

f ._' 263 204 205

.... END OF THESIS