Empire, Reform, and Internationalism : Britain and the Changing Politics of Opium, 1875-1931
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Lingnan University Digital Commons @ Lingnan University All Open Access Theses and Dissertations Theses and Dissertations 2018 Empire, reform, and internationalism : Britain and the changing politics of opium, 1875-1931 Simon John CASE Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.ln.edu.hk/otd Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Case, S. J. (2018). Empire, reform, and internationalism: Britain and the changing politics of opium, 1875-1931 (Doctor's thesis, Lingnan University, Hong Kong). Retrieved from https://commons.ln.edu.hk/ otd/24/ This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at Digital Commons @ Lingnan University. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Open Access Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Lingnan University. Terms of Use The copyright of this thesis is owned by its author. Any reproduction, adaptation, distribution or dissemination of this thesis without express authorization is strictly prohibited. All rights reserved. EMPIRE, REFORM, AND INTERNATIONALISM: BRITAIN AND THE CHANGING POLITICS OF OPIUM, 1875-1931 CASE SIMON JOHN PHD LINGNAN UNIVERSITY 2018 EMPIRE, REFORM, AND INTERNATIONALISM: BRITAIN AND THE CHANGING POLITICS OF OPIUM, 1875-1931 by CASE Simon John A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Lingnan University 2018 ABSTRACT Empire, Reform, and Internationalism: Britain and the Changing Politics of Opium, 1875-1931 by CASE Simon John Doctor of Philosophy Throughout the nineteenth century, opium occupied a position of great significance within the British Empire, comprising by the 1870s as much as 17% of the total revenues of the British India Government. Opium also made up the greater part of British exports to China, a legacy of early-century market exploitation and highly favourable commercial treaties signed following two opium wars fought by the two countries. Between the emergence of an organised anti-opium movement in 1875 and the close of the final international Geneva Opium Conference of 1931, British opium policy experienced a complete transformation. The development of British responses to the issue of opium offers a case study in the cultural history of international relations, while also offering insights into developments in the political scene in Britain. A critical issue at the heart of the transition from elite to mass politics in Britain at the crux of the emergence of a new socio-political landscape after the passage of the 1867 Reform Act, the increasing importance of public opinion and popular politics, the course of debate over opium characterised shifts in the British domestic political scene, highlighting the defining transitions in political action and social activism of the period. Opium was also a central focal point in the transformation of the global geopolitical environment at the turn of the twentieth century, with the emergence of hostile rival powers seeking to challenge British commercial and geopolitical pre-eminence, particularly in the form of the United States and Japan in Asia, with a radically different and reforming American approach to imperial policy in the region. This thesis examines these transitions, exploring the different phases of opium policy, and identifying the driving forces, causational factors, and continuities that defined these processes of reform, comprising a re-reading of the history of opium reform as a critical juncture within the cultural sphere of international relations. DECLARATION I declare that this is an original work based primarily on my own research, and I warrant that all citations of previous research, published or unpublished, have been duly acknowledged. _______________ CASE Simon John CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL OF THESIS EMPIRE, REFORM AND INTERNATIONALISM: BRITAIN AND THE CHANGING POLITICS OF OPIUM, 1875-1931 By CASE Simon John Doctor of Philosophy Panel of Examiners: _________________________ (Chairman) Prof. Tejaswini NIRANJANA _________________________ (External Member) Prof. David POMFRET _________________________ (Internal Member) Prof. Niccolò PIANCIOLA _________________________ (Internal Member) Prof. Mark HAMPTON Chief Supervisor: Prof. Mark HAMPTON Co-supervisor: Prof. LAU Chi Pang Approved for the Senate: ___________________________________ Chairman, Postgraduate Studies Committee ___________________________________ Date CONTENTS Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………. ii Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Literature Review ………………………………………………………………………….. 11 1. Between elite and mass cultures of reform: The anti-opium movement and the politics of imperial reformism in late-nineteenth century Britain ………………... 22 2. Diplomacy, imperial expediency, and the reform debates in British politics: The Liberal government of 1906 and the resumption of the anti-opium position ……...75 3. Empire, trade and diplomacy in China: The United States’ Open Door Policy shift and the challenge to British pre-eminence ………………………………………. 101 4. Moral capital and the new internationalism: Opium regulation and the cultural basis of “legitimate empire” in the early twentieth century …………………………… 149 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………. 182 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………... 190 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my supervisor, Professor Mark Hampton, I owe a debt of gratitude that I fear can never be repaid, both for his constant encouragement and support, and for his enthusiasm in urging me to pursue and develop my initial ideas into the project that they have become. Without this, there could have been no dissertation, and I would not have grown to be the person that I am today. I would also like to thank Professor John Carroll for his warm responses and discussions of my early thoughts, which greatly inspired me to pursue the project. I am tremendously appreciative to Professors David Pomfret, Tejaswini Niranjana, and Niccolò Pianciola, whose critiques and suggestions during my examination both challenged and inspired me, and whose expertise and enlightened perspectives have proven invaluable in giving shape to the final project. I have benefited from being part of an engaging and prolific academic community during my time at Lingnan University, and I am incredibly thankful for the support of Professors Mark Hampton, Niccolò Pianciola, Han Xiaorong, William Liu Guanglin, Poon Shuk Wah, Grace Chou, and Diana Lemberg, within the Department of History, and for the expert assistance of Ann Wong and Vincy Au of the department’s administrative team. I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my friends for their ever present support, especially to Luca Yau, James Fellows, Ylber Marku, Peter Law, Andy Pisavadia, Peter Case, Alicia Presa García, Jovita Law, Charlie Angelo, Mat Pitts, Joe Melhuish, Tom Hatch, Enyi Hu, Zardas Lee, Vivian Kong, Rodney So, and Kong Rong, for their feedback and inspirations, and for their companionship. Special thanks must go to Luca for her constant encouragement and positivity, always uplifting, and to Ylber and James for their refreshing cynicism. I am indebted to my grandmothers Eileen and Primrose, who cheerfully hosted me through long spells of research in London, without whose generosity I would have finished this research a much poorer man. My thanks must also go to my mother Lucy, and to my father Steve, who may never read this, but whose support throughout my studies have made it possible. ii This thesis is dedicated with love to the memory of my dear friend Andy Pisavadia. iii Introduction Throughout the nineteenth century, opium occupied a position of great significance within the British Empire, comprising by the 1870s as much as 17% of the total revenues of the British India Government. Opium also made up the greater part of British exports to China, a legacy of early-century market exploitation and highly favourable commercial treaties signed following two opium wars fought by the two countries. By the turn of the twentieth century, however, British opium policy was beginning to undergo a reformation, as British geopolitical and economic priorities evolved in a period of great global flux. This thesis examines these transitions, exploring the different phases of opium policy, and identifying the driving forces, causational factors, and continuities that defined these processes of reform, comprising a re-reading of the history of opium reform as a critical juncture within the cultural sphere of international relations. In the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, British governments’ positions regarding opium underwent significant changes, encompassing diverse priorities and approaches across metropolitan and imperial branches of government, within the contexts of domestic social pressures, political currents, and international arbitration. Between the emergence of an organised anti-opium movement in 1875 and the close of the final international Geneva Opium Conference of 1931, British opium policy experienced a complete transformation. The development of British responses to the issue of opium offers a case study in the cultural history of international relations, while also offering insights into developments in the political scene in Britain. A critical issue at the heart of the transition from elite to mass politics in Britain at the crux of the emergence of a new socio-political landscape after the passage of the 1867 Reform Act, the increasing importance of public opinion, and