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Child Labour in Hong Kong from 1950 to 1971

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Child Labour in Hong Kong from 1950 to 1971 University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2016 A Choice under Constraints: Child Labour in Hong Kong from 1950 to 1971 Lau, Nga Yee Lau, N. Y. (2016). A Choice under Constraints: Child Labour in Hong Kong from 1950 to 1971 (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/24659 http://hdl.handle.net/11023/3035 master thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY A Choice under Constraints: Child Labour in Hong Kong from 1950 to 1971 by Nga Yee Lau A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ANTHROPOLOGY CALGARY, ALBERTA MAY, 2016 © Nga Yee Lau 2016 Abstract This is the untold story of child labour in Hong Kong from 1950 to 1971. Based on 31 interviews conducted mostly with former child labourers and archival research, this thesis examines the many facets of child work from former child labourers’ perspectives. This study aims to broaden our understanding of the post-war economic miracle, child work experiences, and why children worked and contributed to the household economy. While the world was eager to stop child labour, the influx of Chinese newcomers kept it alive. Although some children chose to work out of filial motivations, they made their choices under duress and debased socioeconomic conditions. Family circumstances, limited education access and the lack of poor relief were among the constraints that reinforced their choices. This research enriches the mainstream narrative of Hong Kong’s economic success by documenting the toil and sweat of the post-war generation that built contemporary Hong Kong. ii Acknowledgements This research was a collective endeavour among different individuals and institutions. This thesis could not be completed without their generous assistance. My deepest gratitude goes to all my interviewees, who were willing to trust me and share their stories with me. They contributed greatly to this thesis and brought child workers’ voices back into the history of the economic miracle in Hong Kong. Whenever I listen to the recordings, I am reminded of how my parents’ generation pulled through hard times in such an impoverished era. I am also greatly indebted to C.S., Y. Y. Fong, S. W. Ho, Vivian Kong, K. B. Mak, Tom Tai, Neighbourhood Advice-Action Council and Pastor K. K. Fung from Shatin Baptist Church for putting me in touch with their families, friends and members. I am very fortunate to have them to try every means until they found the interviewees for this project. I owe much to my supervisor, Professor Alan Smart, for his patience, comments and guidance. Special thanks go to Professor Josephine Smart, for preparing me to be a well-rounded candidate in the academic field. I am grateful to Professor Elizabeth Jameson, for inspiring me how to do labour and oral history. I am thankful to Professor Linda Fedigan, Dr. Kathryn Reese-Taylor and Dr. Saulesh Yessenova, for teaching me much about Anthropology. I extend my gratitude to Dr. iii Michael Adorjan and Professor David Clayton, for giving me advice. I also treasure the continual support from Professor John Carroll. This research could not have been completed without the benevolent support of the University Research Grants Committee (University of Calgary) and the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology (University of Calgary), which granted me a two-year teaching assistantship and graduate research scholarship. I would like to acknowledge the Public Records Office in Hong Kong and their dedicated staff, for giving me timely help and becoming friends with me. Each of them taught me how to locate and handle the materials. Their encouragement helped me get through the bottleneck in the research process. Finally, I would like to thank my parents and my sister, for supporting me unconditionally in researching child labour, a collective memory of the post-war generation in Hong Kong. iv Dedication To my parents v Contents Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….…... ii Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………. iii Dedication …………………………………………………………………………..... v Contents …………………………………………………………………………...… vi List of Tables ……..……………………….………………………………………... vii Introduction ……………………………………………..……………………………. 1 Chapter 1: Contextualising Child Labour ………….………………………………... 40 Chapter 2: Child Work Experiences ….………….…………………………………. 68 Chapter 3: Why Children Worked ……………..………………………………..…... 97 Chapter 4: Childhood and Child Work ..…...…….……………………..…………... 134 Conclusion ……….………………………………………………………….…….. 154 Bibliography ……………………………...……………………………………….. 161 Appendix A: Source of Pseudonyms and Interviewees’ Information ……………… 184 Appendix B: Interview Schedule ……………...……………………………………188 Appendix C: Recruitment Poster ……………………………………………………189 vi Lists of Tables Table 1.1: Estimated Total Population, 1947-67 .....………….…………………… 180 Table 1.2: Crude Birth, Crude Death, Natural Increase and Population Growth Rates, 1947-67 ……....………...………………………………………………….. 181 Table 1.3: Working Population by Industry, 1961, 1966 ………….………………. 182 Table 3.1: Distribution of Post-War Immigrants in Hong Kong according to Reasons for Leaving China, 31 August 1945 to 30 June 1954 ……………………... 183 vii Introduction The end of the Second World War unleashed waves of independence in Asia and Africa. Yet, Britain still managed to keep its Crown Colony in the Far East, Hong Kong. During a period of reconstruction, the economy in Hong Kong was slowly recovering. To eke out a living, Hong Kong residents engaged in a range of informal labour practices.1 One was child labour, which to Britain signified a dismal past of oppression and exploitation.2 Still a Crown Colony, Hong Kong reached world headlines “usually because of its reputation as a corrupt ‘sweatshop colony’.”3 The use of child labour formed part of the “sweatshop” imagination. Although scholars have written about Mui Tsai working in the 1920s, very few have commented on child labour in the post-war era.4 Situating child labour in historical context, this research has investigated the diverse reasons why children worked in Hong Kong from 1950 to 1971 from children’s perspectives. It has also explored how, in retrospect, former child labourers assess childhood and their work experience. The period of study begins in 1950, the year when the colonial government set a permanent immigration control at the Sino-British border. The Chinese inhabitants could not move to and from China without restrictions.5 Studying from 1950 onwards also helps track 1 The word “Hong Kong residents” excluded the group of British ex-patriates in Hong Kong. 2 One example is E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London: Gollancz, 1963), 349, as cited in Hugh Cunningham, “The Decline of Child Labour: Labour Markets and Family Economics in Europe and North America since 1830,” The Economic History Review 53.3 (August 2000): 409. 3 Joe England and John Rear, Chinese Labour under British Rule: A Critical Study of Labour Relations and Law in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1975), v. 4 Mui Tsai is a Chinese term referring to domestic servant girls who worked for the families who had bought them. 5 Steve Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004), 180-1. 1 the making of the economic miracle resulting from industrialisation. Since compulsory education is often seen as a way to curb the practice of child labour, the period ends in 1971, the year when Hong Kong started to provide free and compulsory primary education to its subjects.6 1971 was also a time when the post-war baby-boomers grew up and were no longer children. Since Hong Kong enjoyed economic growth every year from the mid-1950s until the financial crisis of 1997, the 1950s and 1960s are crucial periods for the economic success and the development of Hong Kong.7 This thesis brings together stories from thirty-one interviewees and a collection of documents to examine child labour in Hong Kong from child labourers’ perspectives. This thesis explores how various factors pushed and pulled children into the workforce. It also analyses how former child labourers, in retrospect, assess their child work experiences. I recruited the interviewees mainly from my personal networks and two other third parties. They represent child workers born in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s with work experiences in various sectors. Their stories bring colour to the economic miracle in the history of Hong Kong. Economic Miracles, Household Economy and Child Labour 6 For discussion on curbing child labour through compulsory education, see, for instance, Marjatta Rahikainen, Centuries of Child Labour: European Experiences from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), 155; Cunningham, “The Decline,” 416. 7 Leo F. Goodstadt, Profits, Politics and Panics: Hong Kong’s Banks and the Making of a Miracle Economy, 1935-1985 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2007), 5. 2 This thesis enhances our knowledge of the economic miracle in Hong Kong. As
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