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Smithsonian Contributions SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE • NUMBER 1 Astronaut Observations from the Apollo-Soyuz Mission Farouk El-Ba\ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS City of Washington 1977 ABSTRACT EI-Baz, Farouk. Astronaut Observations from the Apollo-Soyuz Mission. Smithso­ nian Studies in Air and Space, number 1, 400 pages, 280 figures, 11 tables, 1977.— During the Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab flights, orbiting astronauts collected valua­ ble information by means of observations and photography of Earth. Strengthened by the experience gained on these flights, the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment was carried out as one of the American objectives of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July 1975. The main goal of the experiment was to utilize the special capabilities of trained observers (namely, the American astronauts of the joint mis­ sion) in visually studying and photographing specific Earth features and dynamic phenomena. These special capabilities include the sensitivity of the human eye to subtle color variations (e.g., to desert sands or sea water), and the speed with which the eye-brain interaction results in interpretation of the scene and recognition of important features. This latter capability allows instantaneous selection of important sites for photographic documentation at any moment, which in turn, enhances the quality of photographic data from space platforms. Another goal of the experiment was to establish the role of human observers in future space programs, particularly the Space Shuttle. This book contains a detailed account of the experiment objectives, training of astronauts, preparation of aids for their use, and the results of experiment perform­ ance. These details serve as a historical-archival record and as a guide for conducting similar projects in the future. The scientific objectives of the experiment included the collection of data in support of ongoing research in the fields of geology (particularly desert studies), oceanography, hydrology, meteorology, and environmental science. A summary of significant results is given; however, detailed scientific analyses are currently being performed by a number of investigators in various fields in the United States and abroad and their results will be published later, as a special publication of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data El-Baz, Farouk Astronaut observations from the Apollo-Soyuz mission. (Smithsonian studies in air and space ; no. 1) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Earth—Observations. 2. Earth—Photographs from space 3. Astronauts. I. Title. 11. beries. QB631.E48 551 77-608094 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock Number 047-005-00013-2 Contents Page Foreword, by Michael Collins vi Acknowledgments vii Introduction 1 Scientific Objectives 2 Historical Background 2 Detailed Objectives 10 Geology 10 Desert Colors and Landforms 12 Fracture Patterns and Earthquake Zones 12 Growth of River Deltas 12 Mineral Alteration Zones 12 Plumes of Active Volcanoes 12 Circular Features of Impact Origin 12 Oceanography 13 Ocean Currents and Their Boundaries 13 Internal Waves in the Oceans 13 Ocean Eddies and Gyres 13 Upwellings and Bow Waves 15 River Sediments 15 Hydrology 15 Snow Cover Mapping 15 Closed-Basin Water Circulation 16 River Sinuosity in South America 16 Icebergs and the Edge of Antarctica 16 Meteorology 16 Cloud Features 16 Storm Centers 16 Environmental Science 16 Natural Pollution 19 Pollution by Human Activities 19 Visual Acuity 19 Lake Bonneville Racetrack 19 Glaciers and Firn Lines 19 Nazca Markings 19 Pyramids of Giza 19 Bioluminescence 19 Astronaut Training 20 Classroom Instruction 20 Summary of Individual Sessions 23 Ground Motion Simulations 26 Training Flights 27 Designing the Flyovers 28 Preparing the Flyover Booklets 30 Briefing and Debriefing the Crew i.*****. 30 f V i NUV 0 I 2005 / SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Page Description and Results of Training Exercises 30 Houston to Los Angeles Flyover 30 California Flyover 31 Gulf Coast Flyover 37 Gulf-Florida Flyover 37 East Coast Flyover 38 Southwestern United States Flyover 39 Northwestern United States Flyover 42 Conclusions 42 Flight Planning 43 Site Selection 43 Visual Observation Aids 46 Flight Plan 46 "Earth Observations Book" 46 Orbital Chart 49 World Map Package 49 Color Wheel 49 Ground Scale 54 Enlarging Telescope 54 Photographic Equipment 56 Hasselblad Cameras 56 Nikon Camera 58 Motion Picture Camera 58 Television Camera 58 Films and Filters 59 Mission Operations 60 Mission Profile 60 Experiment Support Activities 64 Mission Support 64 Science Support Team 64 Realtime Activities 65 Concurrent Investigations 72 Aircraft Flights 72 Land Investigations 73 Ocean Surveys 73 Summary of Results 76 Scientific Findings 76 Geology 76 Desert Colors 76 Dune Patterns 77 Levantine Rift 83 Volcanoes and Volcanic Plumes 83 Astroblemes 89 Oceanography 89 Internal Ocean Waves 91 Outflow of the Orinoco River 92 Hydrology 95 Snow Cover Mapping 95 Major Lake Changes 97 NUMBER 1 Page Irrigation Patterns 98 Meteorology 100 Environmental Science 100 Red Tide 100 Oil Slicks 102 Visual Acuity 105 Lake Bonneville Racetrack 105 Glaciers and Firn Lines 105 Nazca Markings 106 Pyramids of Giza 107 Bioluminescence 108 Conclusions 108 Experiment Performance 109 Apollo Crew Comments 116 Viewing from Low Orbit 116 Preflight Training 117 Observation Techniques and Procedures 117 Observation Aids and Photographic Equipment 118 Technological Developments for the Future 119 Scientific Objectives for the Shuttle Era 119 Recommendations for the Space Shuttle 120 Platform Design 120 Scientific Objectives 120 Astronaut Training 121 Flight Planning 121 Mission Operations 122 Data Analysis 122 Literature Cited 123 Abbreviations and Acronyms 126 Glossary 127 Appendix 1: Verbal Comments (with index) 131 Appendix 2: "Manual of Training Flights" 223 Appendix 3: "Earth Observations Book" 309 Foreword It gives me great pleasure to introduce this new monographic series, Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space, which will deal with the history of, and advances in, air and space flight and planetary exploration. An earlier series, Smithsonian Annals of Flight, although successful since its inception in 1964, was the product of the National Air Museum before "Space" was added to its name, and thus did not reflect the expanding horizons that the space age has opened to research. This new series of the National Air and Space Museum joins other series publications, begun several years ago, of the National Museum of History and Technology and the National Museum of Natural History. Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space will present volumes of archival value as well as scientific research papers and monographs that review the state-of-the-art. The overriding theme will be that the publications of this series, based on scholarly research, will provide a better understanding of past accom­ plishments and a possible guide to future ventures in air and space exploration. I am pleased to introduce the first volume in this series a short time after the opening of the new National Air and Space Museum in July 1976. The present monograph and future volumes will be dedicated by the museum staff and contribut­ ing colleagues from other institutions of learning to the "increase and diffusion of knowledge" in the dynamic, ever expanding fields of air and space. This first volume is an outgrowth of the "Earth Observations and Photography Experiment," which was successfully performed during the Apollo-Soyuz mission in July 1975. The astronauts' view from orbit turned out to be not only beautiful but also extremely useful. The author, Dr. Farouk El-Baz, was Principal Investigator of this experiment. His responsibilities included the selection of sites for observation and photography and the integration of the experiment's requirements into the flight plan. In addition, he pre­ pared my former colleagues, astronauts Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and D. K. Slayton, for the flight by means of an extensive scientific training program. The elaborate preparation paid off, and Dr. El-Baz is now coordinating a scientific data analysis program involving several government agencies and academic and re­ search organizations in the United States and abroad. I hope that this book and future volumes in Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space will serve as a useful source of knowledge and that these publications will inspire future generations to continue exploring the unknown. MICHAEL COLLINS Director National Air and Space Museum VI Acknowledgments This book was inspired by the highly successful American Earth Observations and Photography Experiment. The high priority assigned to this experiment could not have been achieved without the generous support of Capt. Chester M. Lee, ASTP Program Director. Chet did this with a deep appreciation of what was accomplished in this field during the Apollo lunar flights. His continued support of the experi­ ment and his interest in its results through the present data analysis phase are deeply appreciated. Staff members of the Apollo-Soyuz Program Offices at both NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., and the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas, also lent support to the experiment. Dr. Glynn Lunney, the ASTP Program Manager,
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