land

Article Exploring the Distribution of Gardens in City in the Qianlong Period through a Space Syntax Approach

Jiayan Yun , Wenbo Yu and Hao Wang *

College of Landscape Architecture, Nanjing Forestry University, 159 Longpan Rd., Nanjing 210037, ; [email protected] or [email protected] (J.Y.); [email protected] (W.Y.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-138-05161-9757

Abstract: This study explored the spatial distribution of Suzhou gardens in the Qianlong period (AD 1736–1796) through an innovative method combining spatial syntax and historical textual analysis. Through a spatial syntax approach, a stress axis model analysis suggested that the greater the degree of integration and prosperity of a street, the denser the distribution of gardens surrounding it. A canal axis model analysis indicated that more gardens were built around canals that were less integrated and had less traffic. The accuracy and reliability of the axis model analysis results were validated using historical documents and images. The following was observed: (1) Gardens were densely distributed in the prosperous commercial areas at the northern and southern ends of Suzhou City. The more prosperous the location of a garden, the greater the influence on its popularity. (2) Gardens were concentrated in residential areas with booming businesses. (3) Large numbers of gardens were built along canals with poor traffic functions. Building gardens by diverting water into them reflected the complementary relationship between urban geographical characteristics and garden-building techniques. (4) Gardens promoted commercial development, and commerce drove the preservation   and continuation of gardens. The findings revealed the complementary relationship between garden preservation and commercial development. Citation: Yun, J.; Yu, W.; Wang, H. Exploring the Distribution of Gardens Keywords: Suzhou city; Qianlong period; classical gardens; garden distribution in Suzhou City in the Qianlong Period through a Space Syntax Approach. Land 2021, 10, 659. https:// doi.org/10.3390/land10060659 1. Introduction

Academic Editor: Shiliang Su Since the late Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–1644), Suzhou City, the national cultural and trade centre at that time [1–4], had become a commercially prosperous and densely Received: 14 May 2021 populated [5] city with high land prices [6–8]. By that time, garden culture had infiltrated Accepted: 18 June 2021 all aspects of life [9–11]. Large areas of land in Suzhou City were covered by gardens [12]. Published: 21 June 2021 There were more than 80 recorded gardens in existence in the Ming Dynasty, and more than 100 by the time of the (AD 1644–1912) [13], a majority of which were built Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral during the reign of Emperor Qianlong [14]. The reign of Emperor Qianlong was another with regard to jurisdictional claims in period of large-scale construction of Suzhou gardens after the late Ming Dynasty. The published maps and institutional affil- locations, scale, water sources and artistic merits of Suzhou gardens were deeply affected iations. by urban development in the Qing Dynasty [15]. The intrinsic association between gardens and the city was an important part of urban landscape and life in Suzhou City [16]. From the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the spatial structure of Suzhou City also experienced some minor changes. There were about 500 streets in and around Suzhou Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. City in the Ming Dynasty, whereas this number reached 612 during the reign of Emperor Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Qianlong. The mileage of navigable canals, however, had declined from 92 km in the late This article is an open access article Ming Dynasty to 57 km in 1797 [17]. Did the change in urban spatial structure lead to the distributed under the terms and change in Suzhou garden distribution from the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty? As conditions of the Creative Commons projects that took up large areas of land in Suzhou during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// what was the relationship between the spatial distribution characteristics of gardens and creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the larger urban spatial structure? 4.0/).

Land 2021, 10, 659. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10060659 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/land Land 2021, 10, 659 2 of 18

Over the past few years, this issue has been studied by several researchers. A study by Tiantian showed that the distribution of the gardens inside Suzhou City from the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907) to the Qing Dynasty was subject to the influence of changes in the layout of political and commercial centres in Suzhou City. Tang and Song gardens are distributed primarily near the political centre, and Ming and Qing gardens are distributed mainly in commercial areas [18]. By comparing the Suzhou garden distribution maps of the Ming Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty, Jen-shu argued that the gardens were mostly located in the business districts inside the city in the Ming Dynasty. The change in commercial areas in the Qing Dynasty caused the difference in the spatial distribution of gardens between the two dynasties. For example, the Feng Gate area did not have many businesses in the Ming Dynasty, but it developed as an important area for business in the Qing Dynasty, becoming a concentrated garden area [19]. Jing found that new Suzhou gardens were concentrated at the edges of the northern and southern ends of the city in the Qing Dynasty, whereas the gardens in the town centre were mostly based on the old ones built in the former (Song and Ming) dynasties. She also argued that the change in Suzhou garden distribution in the Qing Dynasty was primarily the result of the change in urban functions. The political centre of Suzhou City shifted from the city centre area in the Ming Dynasty to the western part of the city in the Qing Dynasty, and the commercial centre area further expanded from the northwest part of Suzhou City in the Ming Dynasty to the northwest Changmen area in the Qing Dynasty, which promoted the gardens’ expansion into that area [20]. Yong attributed the large-scale construction of Suzhou gardens during the Qing and Ming Dynasties to the rapid development of urban commerce [6]. These studies mostly compare the distribution of Suzhou gardens between several dynasties from a macroscopic perspective or attribute the major factor determining gar- den distribution to economic development. Few studies, however, have focused on the distribution of Suzhou gardens in only one historical period from a microscopic perspec- tive. This study analysed the spatial distribution of Suzhou gardens during the reign of Emperor Qianlong using space syntax based on the streets, canals and garden plots shown in the Map of Suzhou City. First, we translated the Map of Suzhou City and plotted the map with scientific scales. We used space syntax to analyse the axis models of the streets and canals inside Suzhou City that bore important traffic functions, thereby identifying the overarching spatial structure of Suzhou City in that period. Next, we analysed the intrinsic connection of garden distribution to urban spatial structures based on the street and canal axis model calculation results in combination with the locations of Suzhou gardens. Lastly, we validated the connection between garden distribution and urban spatial structure us- ing historical documents and images, based on which we summarized the distribution characteristics of Suzhou gardens. Unlike the historical document- and image-analysis methods used in traditional historical research on cities and gardens, in this study, we integrated space syntax in urban history research to explore the distribution of Suzhou gardens. Through a research method that combines scientific spatial syntax methods with historical literature interpretation, we examined why Qing Dynasty gardens were distributed mainly in commercial districts. Previous studies have not thoroughly excavated the relationship between gardens and commercial development. A detailed analysis of the garden distribution characteristics of the Qianlong period will help establish an in-depth understanding of how Suzhou gardens evolved from the late Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty and identify the geographic correlations of the changes in garden distribution during the transition from the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty. This research not only provides insights into the distribution of Suzhou gardens in the late Qing Dynasty but also reveals how Suzhou gardens were preserved throughout history. Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

Land 2021, 10, 659 3 of 18

2. Methods

2.2.1. Methods Translation of the Map of Suzhou City 2.1. TranslationDrawn in of the1745, Map the of SuzhouMap of City Suzhou City is an ancient map of Suzhou City from the middleDrawn of the in 1745, Qing the Dynasty.Map of SuzhouIt is the City mostis co anmplete ancient map map that of Suzhou has been City preserved from the after the middleMap of of Pingjiang the Qing Dynasty.City of the It isSong the most Dynasty complete (AD map 960–1279) that has and been the preserved Water Sources after the in Suzhou MapPrefecture of Pingjiang of the City Mingof the Dynasty. The whole (AD 960–1279) map is andwell the scaledWater with Sources accurate in Suzhou orientation Prefectureand detailedof the labels. Ming Dynasty.There are The 612 whole streets map and is alleys, well scaled 128 temples, with accurate 28 ancestral orientation halls and 25 andgovernment detailed labels. buildings, There areas 612well streets as more and alleys, than 128100 temples, gardens 28 ancestraland farmlands halls and with text 25annotations government in buildings, the map [21], as well which as more have than provided 100 gardens a favourable and farmlands condition with for text translating annotations in the map [21], which have provided a favourable condition for translating it it into a practical historical map with scientific scales. As shown in Figure 1, gardens and into a practical historical map with scientific scales. As shown in Figure1, gardens and farmlandsfarmlands were were located located at the at the southern southern and northernand northern ends of ends Suzhou of Suzhou City; the City; industrial the industrial andand commercial commercial centre centre was was situated situated in the in northwest the northwest area near area Chang near Gate;Chang the Gate; political the political centrecentre in in the the southwest southwest area wasarea located was nearlocated Xu Gate; near the Xu silk-weaving Gate; the districtsilk-weaving was located district was inlocated the northeast in the areanortheast near Lou area Gate near and Lou the commercialGate and the district commercial was located district in the was southeast located in the areasoutheast near Feng area Gate near [22 Feng]. Gate [22].

FigureFigure 1. 1.The TheMap Map of Suzhouof Suzhou City Cityand and its spatial its spatial distribution. distribution.

YinongYinong dedicated dedicated a significant a significant portion portion of The Chinese of The City Chinese in Space City and Timein Spaceto demon- and Time to stratedemonstrate that even that though even ancient though maps ancient of Suzhou maps were of notSuzhou scientifically were not scaled scientifically or correctly scaled or plotted,correctly the plotted, spatial topology the spatial of city topology walls and of thecity water walls system and the they water included system were they fairly included accuratewere fairly [23]. accurate For this [23]. reason, For it this was reason, still feasible it was to still build feasible the axis to modelsbuild the using axis space models using syntax based on incorrectly scaled ancient maps [24]. Nonetheless, for our study, the Map space syntax based on incorrectly scaled ancient maps [24]. Nonetheless, for our study, of Suzhou City was translated with scientific scales to obtain more accurate research results. the WeMap used of theSuzhou geographical City was information translated system with scientific (GIS) to retrieve scales theto dataobtain of streets,more accurate canalsresearch and results. garden plots from the Map of Suzhou City. We then superimposed data on the currentWe spatial used layout the geographical of Suzhou City. information Lastly, the historical system information(GIS) to retrieve was positioned the data in of streets, thecanals modern and urbangarden space plots of from Suzhou the City Map to of complete Suzhou theCity translation. We then andsuperimposed plotting of thedata on the Mapcurrent of Suzhou spatial City layout(Figure of2 )[Suzhou25,26]. City. These Lastly, operations the werehistorical completed information using ArcGIS10.2 was positioned in software.the modern As shown,urban thespace streets of Suzhou of Suzhou City City to duringcomplete the the reign translation of Emperor and Qianlong plotting of the wereMap distributedof Suzhou City with (Figure a checkerboard 2) [25,26]. pattern These and operations extended were in all directions;completed the using canals ArcGIS10.2 mostly ran along streets. Large garden plots and fields were situated near the city walls software. As shown, the streets of Suzhou City during the reign of Emperor Qianlong at the southern and northern ends of Suzhou City. Some smaller gardens and fields were scatteredwere distributed throughout with the towna checkerboard centre. pattern and extended in all directions; the canals mostly ran along streets. Large garden plots and fields were situated near the city walls at the southern and northern ends of Suzhou City. Some smaller gardens and fields were scattered throughout the town centre. Land 2021, 10, 659 4 of 18 Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

FigureFigure 2.2.Translation Translation ofof thetheMap Map of of Suzhou Suzhou City Cityby by scientific scientific scales. scales.

2.2.2.2. AxisAxis ModellingModelling andand AnalysisAnalysis ofof StreetsStreets andand CanalsCanals BillBill HillierHillier firstfirst proposedproposed spacespace syntaxsyntax theorytheory inin 1974.1974. HeHe defineddefined itsits corecore concept,concept, “spatial“spatial configuration,”configuration,” inin SpaceSpace IsIs thethe MachineMachineas asfollows: follows: “if“if thethe spatialspatial relationshiprelationship betweenbetween two two spaces spaces was was defined defined as any as formany offo connectionrm of connection between between them, such them, as adjacency such as oradjacency interconnection, or interconnection, the initial relationship the initial relationship between them between was subject them towas change subject when to change either ofwhen them either was connectedof them was to aconnected third space to in a anythird form, space and in thereany wasform, configuration and there was in it”configuration [27,28]. Configuration in it” [27,28]. means Configuration a set of relationships,means a set of anyrelationships, one of which any one depends of which on alldepends other relationshipson all other relationships related to it. Asrelated a spatial to it. structure As a spatial analysis structure method, analysis space method, syntax providesspace syntax a scientific provides and a rationalscientific way and to rational analyse way urban to spaceanalyse [29 urban]. In studies space [29]. that useIn studies space syntaxthat use theory, space syntax cities are theory, simulated cities are by generatingsimulated by the generating topological the models topological of streets models and of amplifyingstreets and various amplifying behavioural various patterns behavioura [30]. Unlikel patterns the perceptual [30]. Unlike interpretation the perceptual of space byinterpretation traditional space of space analysis by traditional [31], the analysisspace analysis of space [31], syntax the analysis can identify of space the correlation syntax can betweenidentify the space correlation form and between space. space As space form form and space. has feedback As space on form and has influences feedback human on and activities,influences an human inherent activities, logical connection an inherent exists logical between connection form and exists function between [32]. form and functionWe manually [32]. plotted the axis map of streets and canals on the translated Map of Suzhou City withWe manually city walls plotted as the boundary the axis map using of the streets space and syntax canals axis on modelling the translated method Map and of AutoCAD. The axis map was then imported into DepthMap for calculation, which was Suzhou City with city walls as the boundary using the space syntax axis modelling method Land 2021, 10, 659 5 of 18

followed by checking the Node Count values to validate the axis map and model accuracy. After confirming the accuracy of axis plotting, we calculated the integration of street and canal axis models [32]. The degree of integration refers to the degree of agglomeration or dispersion between a certain element and other elements in a spatial system. It measures the ability of space as a destination to attract arriving traffic and reflects the centrality of the space in the entire spatial system. The greater the number of intersections with other streets, the higher the degree of integration of the street, and the same is true for canals. The greater the number of intersections with other canals, the higher the degree of integration. The more integrated a space is, the easier it is for people to gather, which means that a more integrated space is more accessible [33]. Based on the principle that the more integrated an area is, the more accessible it is and the more cultural, economic and political functions it can provide [33], we analysed the spatial attributes of the areas where urban gardens were distributed to identify the spatial distribution of Suzhou gardens during the reign of Emperor Qianlong.

3. Results 3.1. Street Axis Model Analysis The street axis model analysis (Figure3) indicated that Xibei Street and Shiquan Street, located at the northern and southern ends of the city near the ancient city walls, had the highest integration degree in Suzhou City. That is, Xibei Street and Shiquan Street were the streets that had the greatest number of intersections with other streets throughout the entire Suzhou City. People could reach Xibei Street and Shiquan Street from multiple streets, which further demonstrated that these two roads had the greatest degree of accessibility for people and thus were the places where people gathered in the city. Xibei Street in the north extended eastward to Lou Gate. According to Cheng Zhanghua, a Suzhou local during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, “The eastern region of Suzhou City is Louguan [Lou Gate] where shops are densely scattered like stars and merchants from all over the country gather” [34]. This description not only shows that the Lou Gate region was a key commercial area in the city but also indirectly confirms the analysis result—that is, Xibei Street was a highly accessible street. Shiquan Street joined Feng Gate to the east. Gu Gongxie, a scholar from Suzhou during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, once wrote, “Pan Gate and Feng Gate used to be desolate areas. In the early period of Emperor Qianlong, people would not even bother to take a look at the luxurious houses on sale there. However, now they find that they cannot afford them at all” [35]. This quote describes the rapidly rising land prices and frequent commercial activities in the Feng Gate area at that time [19] and also confirms the reliability of the analysis result—that is, Shiquan Street had the highest degree of integration. According to the analysis result, large areas of gardens were located along one or two blocks adjacent to the north side of Xibei Street, and a few small block-shaped gardens were located on the south side. By contrast, multiple block-like gardens were located along one or two blocks adjacent to the south side of Shiquan Street, and some smaller ones were located on the north side. The streets in Suzhou are distributed in a checkerboard pattern, and the distribution and area of each block are relatively average. The north–south length of each block is about 150 m. Gardens were the most densely distributed in the area around Xibei Street in Suzhou City during the reign of Emperor Qianlong; the garden distribution around Shiquan Street ranked second to that around Xibei Street. Thus, it was evident that the gardens were concentrated near highly accessible commercial areas in Suzhou City in that period, which was consistent with the conclusions that Jen-shu and Tiantian reached: Suzhou gardens were mostly located in economically prosperous areas during the Ming and Qing Dynasties [36]. Furthermore, our analysis also corrected Jing’s opinion on the major reason why Suzhou gardens were distributed in the fringe areas at the northern and southern ends of the city during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. She argued that it was because that was where there was plenty of land [20], but both areas were the core commercial districts in the city that had shortages of land and neither were outlying areas. Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

reign of Emperor Qianlong. She argued that it was because that was where there was plenty of land [20], but both areas were the core commercial districts in the city that had shortages of land and neither were outlying areas. After Xibei Street and Shiquan Street, Hulong Street had the third-highest degree of integration. Hulong Street connected County, which was the western half of Suzhou City, and Changzhou County, which was the eastern half of the city. This street extended southward to the Confucius Temple and northward to the Great Pagoda. As a main road, it was the spine connecting a number of checkerboard-like blocks. However, few gardens were located along Hulong Street, suggesting that traffic arteries were seldom considered in garden site selection in Suzhou City. Xida Street, Yangyu Alley, Wusa Road and Fenghuang Street were below Hulong Street in terms of integration, and a small number of gardens were located in one or two blocks around these streets. Xida Street stretched from Pan Gate in the south and ran through bustling marketplaces [37]. Large gardens were located near Pan Gate. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Yangyu Alley and Daoqian Street, where local government offices were located, were collectively known as the Daoyang district. Yangyu Alley, along which was located all kinds of shops and stores, used to be the residential area of government officials [37]. Gardens also could be seen along the alley. Wusa Road was adjacent to Fenghuang Street, which joined Shiquan Street to the south. Most of the buildings along both of these blocks were residences and some gardens also were Land 2021, 10, 659 scattered along them. Based on this analysis, we concluded that commercially prosperous6 of 18 residential areas were another type of area with densely distributed gardens in Suzhou City.

Figure 3. Street axis model analysis results. Streets marked in red are the most integrated streets, Figure 3. Street axis model analysis results. Streets marked in red are the most integrated streets, and and those marked in dark blue are the least integrated streets. Streets with a higher degree of those marked in dark blue are the least integrated streets. Streets with a higher degree of integration integration have more intersections with other streets, and streets with a lower degree of integration have morefewer intersections intersections with with other other streets, streets. and streets with a lower degree of integration have fewer intersections with other streets. As shown in Figure 3, the streets marked in light green in the street axis model After Xibei Street and Shiquan Street, Hulong Street had the third-highest degree of analysis were blocks with an average degree of integration. They were residential areas integration. Hulong Street connected Wu County, which was the western half of Suzhou around which a small number of gardens were scattered. The rest of the streets (marked City, and Changzhou County, which was the eastern half of the city. This street extended southward to the Confucius Temple and northward to the Great Pagoda. As a main road, it was the spine connecting a number of checkerboard-like blocks. However, few gardens were located along Hulong Street, suggesting that traffic arteries were seldom considered in garden site selection in Suzhou City. Xida Street, Yangyu Alley, Wusa Road and Fenghuang Street were below Hulong Street in terms of integration, and a small number of gardens were located in one or two blocks around these streets. Xida Street stretched from Pan Gate in the south and ran through bustling marketplaces [37]. Large gardens were located near Pan Gate. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Yangyu Alley and Daoqian Street, where local government offices were located, were collectively known as the Daoyang district. Yangyu Alley, along which was located all kinds of shops and stores, used to be the residential area of government officials [37]. Gardens also could be seen along the alley. Wusa Road was adjacent to Fenghuang Street, which joined Shiquan Street to the south. Most of the buildings along both of these blocks were residences and some gardens also were scattered along them. Based on this analysis, we concluded that commercially prosperous residential areas were another type of area with densely distributed gardens in Suzhou City. As shown in Figure3, the streets marked in light green in the street axis model analysis were blocks with an average degree of integration. They were residential areas around which a small number of gardens were scattered. The rest of the streets (marked in light blue and dark blue) not only had a poor degree of integration but also had fewer gardens distributed around them. For example, the streets along the area on the north side of Xibei Street and the south side of Shiquan Street that extended to the city wall had a very low degree of integration. Although large green areas surrounded them, the Map of Suzhou City Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18

in light blue and dark blue) not only had a poor degree of integration but also had fewer

Land 2021, 10, 659 gardens distributed around them. For example, the streets along the area on 7the of 18 north side of Xibei Street and the south side of Shiquan Street that extended to the city wall had a very low degree of integration. Although large green areas surrounded them, the Map of Suzhou City has shown that these green areas were all farmland (Figure 4). Only one or has shown that these green areas were all farmland (Figure4). Only one or two blocks near two blocks near Xibei Street and Shiquan Street had gardens. Suzhou gardens were Xibei Street and Shiquan Street had gardens. Suzhou gardens were distributed mostly at thedistributed southern andmostly northern at the ends southern of the city and and northern were developed ends of inthe commercial city and were and mixed developed in residential–commercialcommercial and mixed areas residential–commercial during the peak of the Qing areas Dynasty. during Few the gardens peak wereof the Qing locatedDynasty. in residential Few gardens areas were with onlylocated residential in residential functions. areas Thus, with we only concluded residential that the functions. distributionThus, we concluded of Suzhou gardensthat the was distribution tightly connected of Suzhou to the gardens economic was and tightly trade connected districts to the ineconomic the city during and trade the reign districts of Emperor in the Qianlong.city during Gardens the reign were of more Emperor densely Qianlong. located in Gardens areaswere with more busier densely commercial located activities. in areas with busier commercial activities.

FigureFigure 4. 4.Fields Fields on on the the north north side side of Xibei of Xibei Street Street and the an southd the sidesouth of Shiquanside of Shiquan Street in theStreetMap in of the Map of SuzhouSuzhou City City. .

3.2.3.2. Canal Canal Axis Axis Model Model Analysis Analysis Canals were considered to be a major element of the urban landscape in Suzhou Canals were considered to be a major element of the urban landscape in Suzhou City City [38]. Due to the existence of canals, streets were no longer solely responsible for trans- portation[38]. Due [39 ].to With the the existence population of boom canals, in Suzhou streets City were in the no mid-Qing longer Dynastysolely [responsible40–42], for residencestransportation occupied [39]. a With large amountthe population of land, boom and many in Suzhou canals wereCity eitherin the silted mid-Qing up or Dynasty polluted[40–42], by residences domestic sewageoccupied [43 ].a Largelarge numbersamount ofof canals land, wereand reclaimedmany canals as land were in thiseither silted context,up or polluted which resulted by domestic in a sharp sewage decrease [43]. in Large the number numbers of canalsof canals [44], were from reclaimed a system as land ofin seven this context, vertical canalswhich and resulted 14 horizontal in a sharp canals decrease in the late in Mingthe number Dynasty of to canals one of [44], six from a verticalsystem canals of seven and vertical 10 horizontal canals canals and [1417 ].horizontal In particular, canals the numberin the late of canalsMing aroundDynasty to one Changof six Gatevertical dropped canals the and most. 10 Inhorizontal contrast, becausecanals the[17]. eastern In particular, city area nearthe number Lou Gate of canals was the silk-weaving district, which required plenty of water [8,45], the number of canals around Chang Gate dropped the most. In contrast, because the eastern city area near Lou there had been maintained and increased [17]. According to the comparison between canal distributionGate was the and silk-weaving garden distribution district, in thewhich canal requ axisired model plenty analysis, of water several [8,45], canals the also number of werecanals running there through had been every maintained garden either and north–south increased or east–west,[17]. According evidencing to thethe close comparison associationbetween canal between distribution water sources and and garden garden distribution distribution. in the canal axis model analysis, severalThe canalcanals axis also model were analysis running (Figure through5) indicated every thatgarden the north–southeither north–south canal marked or east–west, inevidencing red, which the flowed close from association Chang Gate between to Pan Gate,water showed sources the and highest garden integration. distribution. This Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

Land 2021, 10, 659 8 of 18

The canal axis model analysis (Figure 5) indicated that the north–south canal marked in red, which flowed from Chang Gate to Pan Gate, showed the highest integration. This canalcanal ranran parallel to intermediately integrated integrated Xida Xida Street. Street. There There were were a asmall small number number of ofgarden garden plots plots distributed distributed around around it. The it. The two twocanals canals marked marked in orange in orange that ran that north–south ran north– souththrough through the developed the developed silk-weaving silk-weaving district district near Lou near Gate Lou were Gate the were second the second most highly most highlyintegrated integrated canals, canals,which shared which sharedsimilar similargarden gardendistribution distribution to the canal to the with canal the with highest the highestintegration. integration. The canals The canalsmarked marked in yellow in yellow were wereintermediately intermediately integrated. integrated. They Theywere werelocated located in the in areas the areasaround around Qi Gate, Qi Lou Gate, Gate, Lou Xiang Gate, Gate Xiang and Gate the and silk-weaving the silk-weaving district. district.Gardens Gardens were more were densely more densely distributed distributed along these along canals these than canals along than those along with those higher with higherintegration. integration. Canals Canals marked marked in light in light green green had had average average integration, integration, but but they werewere surroundedsurrounded byby moremore gardens.gardens. DespiteDespite theirtheir lowlow integration,integration, thethe canalscanals markedmarked inin lightlight blue and dark blue were surrounded by many small garden plots. blue and dark blue were surrounded by many small garden plots.

FigureFigure 5.5.Canal Canal axis axis model model analysis analysis results. results. Canals Canals marked marked in redin red are theare mostthe most integrated integrated canals, canals, and and those marked in dark blue are the least integrated canals. Canals with a higher degree of those marked in dark blue are the least integrated canals. Canals with a higher degree of integration integration have more intersections with other canals, and canals with a lower degree of integration have more intersections with other canals, and canals with a lower degree of integration have fewer have fewer intersections with other canals. intersections with other canals. Based on this analysis, it can be inferred that fewer gardens surrounded the canals Based on this analysis, it can be inferred that fewer gardens surrounded the canals with a higher degree of integration and more gardens and denser gardens surrounded the with a higher degree of integration and more gardens and denser gardens surrounded thecanals canals with with a lower a lower degree degree of integration. of integration. That Thatis, fewer is, fewer gardens gardens were built were around built around canals canalsthat had that a greater had a greater number number of crossings of crossings with other with canals other and canals higher and higheraccessibility. accessibility. Canals Canalsplayed playedan important an important role in roletransportation in transportation in Suzhou in Suzhou City during City during the Ming the Mingand Qing and QingDynasties. Dynasties. There There were were stone stone carriers carriers and and carg cargoo ships ships for for logistic logistic transportation, patrolpatrol shipsships usedused by by the the garrison garrison and and picket picket ships ship drivens driven by farmers by farmers and sailorsand sailors and private and private boats usedboats by used civilians by civilians as a means as a of means transport of transport [46]. Traffic [46]. was Traffic the most was important the most function important of urbanfunction canals. of urban Fewer canals. gardens Fewer could gardens be seen coul aroundd be moreseen heavilyaround traffickedmore heavily canals trafficked where therecanals were where more there cargo were ships, more government cargo ships, ships government and private ships ships, and whereasprivate ships, gardens whereas were densergardens around were denser less-trafficked around less-trafficked canals. This findingcanals. wasThis consistentfinding was with consistent the conclusion with the drawnconclusion by street drawn axis by modelstreet axis analysis—fewer model analysis—fewer gardens were gardens distributed were distributed around Hulong around Street,Hulong which Street, featured which stronger featured traffic stronger functions. traffic Although functions. some Although green spacessome weregreen located spaces atwere the located southernmost at the southernmost end of the most end integrated of the most canal, integrated according canal, to the accordingMap of Suzhou to the CityMap (Figure6), there were two temples on these green spaces. Another small piece of green Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18 Land 2021, 10, 659 9 of 18

of Suzhou City (Figure 6), there were two temples on these green spaces. Another small spacepiece wasof green located space near was the located Wannian near Bridge, the Wannian but this is Bridge, where thebut countythis is governmentwhere the county was located.government There was was located. also a There small areawas also of green a sm spaceall area distributed of green space around distributed the canal around with thethe degree canal with of integration the degree second of integration only to theseco canalnd only with to the the highest canal with degree the ofhighest integration. degree Accordingof integration. to the AccordingMap of Suzhou to the City Map, however, of Suzhou this City was, however, a field (Figure this was6). This a field also (Figure showed 6). thatThis the also distribution showed that of privatethe distribution gardens wasof private indeed gardens far away was from indeed the canals far away with from a high the degreecanals ofwith integration. a high degree of integration.

FigureFigure 6. 6.The The distribution distribution of of green green space space around around the the canals canals with with the the highest highest and and second-highest second-highest degrees of integration in the Map of Suzhou City. degrees of integration in the Map of Suzhou City. 4.4. Validation Validation and and Discussion Discussion 4.1.4.1. Gardens Gardens Were Were Densely Densely Distributed Distributed in in the the Flourishing Flourishing Commercial Commercial Areas Areas at at the the Southern Southern and Northern Ends of Suzhou City and Northern Ends of Suzhou City The Humble Administrator’s Garden was located along the north side of Xibei Street, The Humble Administrator’s Garden was located along the north side of Xibei Street, which enjoyed the highest integration and accessibility in Suzhou City during the reign of which enjoyed the highest integration and accessibility in Suzhou City during the reign Emperor Qianlong; the Lion Grove was situated along the south side. Located between Qi of Emperor Qianlong; the Lion Grove was situated along the south side. Located between Gate and Lou Gate, the Humble Administrator’s Garden was built by Wang Xianchen in Qi Gate and Lou Gate, the Humble Administrator’s Garden was built by Wang Xianchen the mid-Ming Dynasty, but it was possessed by the Xus in the late Ming Dynasty. During in the mid-Ming Dynasty, but it was possessed by the Xus in the late Ming Dynasty. the early period of Emperor Qianlong, the western part of the garden belonged to a Mr. Ye, During the early period of Emperor Qianlong, the western part of the garden belonged to who served as a court historian, and it was renamed the “Shuyuan Garden”; the middle a Mr. Ye, who served as a court historian, and it was renamed the “Shuyuan Garden”; the part of the garden was held by the Jiangs and was renamed the “Fuyuan Garden” [47]. Shen middle part of the garden was held by the Jiangs and was renamed the “Fuyuan Garden” Deqian described the Fuyuan Garden as “a famous garden situated between Lou Gate and Qi[47]. Gate” Shen [48 Deqian], implying described that it hadthe gainedFuyuan a Gard highen profile. as “a Equally famous famous garden was situated the adjoining between LionLou Grove,Gate and which Qi Gate” was famed [48], forimplying its “springs that it and had stones gained that a high were profile. more spectacular Equally famous than thosewas the in the adjoining whole prefecture” Lion Grove, [48 which]. Thus, was the famed Lion Grovefor its was “springs as popular and stones as the that Humble were Administrator’smore spectacular Garden. than those The dense in the population whole prefecture” and frequent [48]. commercial Thus, the Lion activities Grove on was Xibei as Streetpopular further as the contributed Humble Administrator’s to the popularity Ga ofrden. both The gardens. dense The population finding that and the frequent most recognizedcommercial gardens activities were on Xibei situated Street by further the streets contributed with the to highest the popularity accessibility of both confirmed gardens. theThe reliability finding that of the the street most axisrecognized model analysisgardens andwere the situated strong by association the streets between with the garden highest popularityaccessibility and confirmed the spatial the accessibility reliability of of the the site street where axis the model famous analysis gardens and were the located. strong The Master of the Nets Garden and the were located one or two blocks away to the south side of Shiquan Street, which was as accessible as Xibei Street. The Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

association between garden popularity and the spatial accessibility of the site where the famous gardens were located. Land 2021, 10, 659 The Master of the Nets Garden and the Canglang Pavilion were located one 10or of two 18 blocks away to the south side of Shiquan Street, which was as accessible as Xibei Street. The Master of the Nets Garden, however, differed slightly from the Humble MasterAdministrator’s of the Nets Garden Garden, and however, the Lion differed Grove in slightly location. from According the Humble to Notes Administrator’s of the Master Gardenof the Nets and Garden the Lion, “as Grove a metropolis, in location. the Accordingcity proper to ofNotes Suzhou of the has Master been offilled theNets with Garden houses, “asand a metropolis,crowded with the people city proper in nearly of Suzhou every part. has been However, filled within the houses southeast and crowdedcorner, there with is peoplea different in nearly place against every part. the city However, wall beside in the a stream. southeast It is corner, covered there by luxuriant is a different vegetation, place againstwhich makes the city it wall look beside like half-city, a stream. half-countryside” It is covered by luxuriant [49]. The vegetation,Master of the which Nets makes Garden it lookwas likelocated half-city, “near half-countryside” the bustling marketplace, [49]. The Master but of people the Nets who Garden visit was here located enjoy “near the thetranquillity bustling marketplace,too much and but forget people to leave” who visit [49]. here Half enjoy of the the Master tranquillity of the too Nets much Garden and forgetneighboured to leave” the [49 prosperous]. Half of the city Master and the of theothe Netsr half Garden abutted neighboured the countryside, the prosperous which was cityconsistent and the with other the half results abutted of the the street countryside, axis model which analysis. was consistent Even though with it thewas results not rated of theas a street “famous axis garden” model analysis. or one “more Even thoughspectacular it was than not the rated whole as a prefecture”, “famous garden” the Master or one of “morethe Nets spectacular Garden was than still the an whole important prefecture”, gardenthe in the Master period of theof Emperor Nets Garden Qianlong was still[50]. an As importantit was situated garden only in the one period block ofaway Emperor from Qianlongthe highly [ 50accessible]. As it was Shiquan situated Street, only it one was block able awayto offer from visitors the highly a reclusive accessible experience Shiquan that Street, contrasted it was with able the to offerbustling visitors marketplace. a reclusive As experienceit was far away that contrastedfrom the dense with population, the bustling its marketplace. popularity and As influence it was far were away weakened. from the denseThe population, location itsof popularity the Canglang and influencePavilion werewas weakened.different from that of the Humble Administrator’sThe location ofGarden, the Canglang the Lion Pavilion Grove wasor the different Master from of the that Nets of the Garden. Humble It Adminis- was two trator’sblocks Garden,away from the Shiquan Lion Grove Street or theand Master lied “a ofcross the Netsa block Garden. from Itthe was Master two blocks of the away Nets fromGarden” Shiquan [49]. Street Song andLuo lied of “acrossthe early a blockQing fromDynasty the Masteronce wrote, of the “the Nets place Garden” near [ 49the]. SongCanglang Luo ofPavilion the early is Qinguntraversed. Dynasty Wild once streams wrote, “the are placerunning near freely the Canglang across here. Pavilion Giant isstones untraversed. are scattered Wild everywhere. streams are There running are freelyalso many across small here. hills Giant among stones lush are weeds” scattered [51]. everywhere.This area contained There are residences also many smallduring hills the among reign lushof Emperor weeds” [Qianlong.51]. This area By containedno means residencesflourishing, during at least the it reignno longer of Emperor looked deserted Qianlong. by By that no era means (Figure flourishing, 7). It was at evident least it that no longeralthough looked the desertedCanglang by thatPavilion era (Figurewas near7). It wasShiquan evident Street, that althoughthe two-block the Canglang distance Pavilioncompletely was removed near Shiquan it from Street, the dense the two-block population distance and boisterous completely streets. removed It still it enjoyed from the a densehigh profile population because and Emperor boisterous Qianlong streets. visited It still it enjoyed four times a high during profile his becausesouthern Emperor tour [52]. QianlongThis further visited suggested it four timesthat the during influence his southern of the most tour [52accessible]. This further commercial suggested blocks that in theSuzhou influence City of was the confined most accessible to two commercial blocks during blocks the in reign Suzhou of CityEmperor was confinedQianlong. to Such two blocksspatial during constraints the reign could of be Emperor broken Qianlong.by the visit Such of an spatial influent constraintsial figure, couldbringing be brokenpopularity by theto the visit gardens of an influential that were figure,not located bringing in bustlin popularityg commercial to the gardens districts. that In were brief, not the located human infactor bustling played commercial a role in districts.enhancing In brief,the prominence the human of factor gardens played that a rolewere in confined enhancing by the the prominenceurban spatial of structure. gardens that were confined by the urban spatial structure.

FigureFigure 7. 7.The The CanglangCanglang PavilionPavilion and and its its surroundings surroundings during during the the reign reign of of Emperor Emperor Qianlong Qianlong [ 53[53].]. 4.2. Gardens Were Concentrated in the Commercially Prosperous Residential Areas inside Suzhou City With high integration, Yangyu Alley was a typical residential area for officials with a wide range of commercial functions in Suzhou City. The Garden of Jiang Family was built for Jiang Ji, who was an assistant minister of the Ministry of Penalty during the reign of Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

4.2. Gardens Were Concentrated in the Commercially Prosperous Residential Areas inside Suzhou City With high integration, Yangyu Alley was a typical residential area for officials with Land 2021, 10, 659 a wide range of commercial functions in Suzhou City. The Garden of Jiang Family11 ofwas 18 built for Jiang Ji, who was an assistant minister of the Ministry of Penalty during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, at the northern end of Yangyu Alley, which extended in a north– Emperorsouth direction Qianlong, [54]. at This the northerngarden was end also of Yangyuknown as Alley, the Huanxiu which extended Villa of inSecluded a north–south Beauty directionin the late [54 Qing]. This Dynasty. garden wasWhen also building known asth thee garden, Huanxiu Jiang Villa Ji ofinvited Secluded Ge BeautyYuliang in from the lateChangzhou Qing Dynasty. to make When rockeries. building Jiang the garden,“built five Jiang houses, Ji invited behind Ge Yuliang which from small Changzhou hills were topiled make using rockeries. stones. He Jiang dug “built into the five ground houses, un behindtil clear which spring small water hills flowed were down piled and using the stones.spring Hewas dug named into Flying the ground Snow” until [55]. clear Such spring splendid water views flowed led down the garden and the to spring be rated was as namedone of the Flying “famous Snow” gardens [55]. Such in Suzhou splendid City” views until led the the end garden of the to Qing be rated Dynasty as one [56]. of This the “famousdescription gardens not only in Suzhou supports City” the until popularity the end of of gardens the Qing built Dynasty around [56]. Yangyu This description Alley but notalso only validates supports the theresults popularity of the ofstreet gardens axis builtmodel around analysis. Yangyu From Alley the butmid- also to validateslate Qing theDynasty, results the of the spatial street distribution axis model analysis.of Suzhou From City the had mid- not tochanged late Qing dramatically Dynasty, the [57]. spatial The distributionGarden of Jiang of Suzhou Family, City built had in not the changed mid-Qing dramatically Dynasty, [remained57]. The Garden a well-known of Jiang Family,garden. builtAll of in its the views mid-Qing were Dynasty,preserved remained in the late a well-known Qing Dynasty, garden. and Allit became of its views part of were the preservedHuanxiu Villa, in the indicating late Qing Dynasty,that the preservation and it became and part continuation of the Huanxiu of a Villa,garden indicating were closely that theassociated preservation with its and location continuation in the city. of a garden were closely associated with its location in the city.Wenya Lane was connected to the intermediately integrated streets around Chang Gate,Wenya near which Lane was the connectedGarden of to Cultivatio the intermediatelyn was located. integrated Around streets the aroundgarden Changwas “a Gate,commercial near which district the that Garden is boisterous of Cultivation all day long” was [58]. located. Although Around it was the a gardenresidential was area “a commercialfor civilians district rather thatthan isfor boisterous officials, allit wa days surrounded long” [58]. Although by frequent it was commercial a residential activities area for(Figure civilians 8). The rather Garden than forof Cultivation officials, it waswas surroundedsaid to be “lying by frequent among commercial such bustling activities streets, (Figureknown8 for). The the Gardensplendid of views” Cultivation [58]. Next was saidto the to Garden be “lying of Cultivation among such was bustling the Garden streets, of knownFive Rocks, for the which splendid was views” located [58 in]. NextXihun to Lane the Garden and connected of Cultivation to the was intermediately the Garden ofintegrated Five Rocks, streets which within was the located Chang in Gate Xihun ar Laneea. The and garden connected was tobuilt the in intermediately the late Ming integratedDynasty, but streets in the within late Qing the Chang Dynasty, Gate it area.was transformed The garden into was a built private in theresidence late Ming and Dynasty,held by butthe inShens the late [54]. Qing Fortunately, Dynasty, it the was fi transformedve rocks and into the a privatestone residencewell had andsurvived held byhistorical the Shens changes [54]. Fortunately,(Figure 9), evidencing the five rocks that and the the garden stone had well been had survivedproperly historicalpreserved changeswhen it (Figurewas a 9private), evidencing residence. that theAs gardenfamous had gardens been properlyin the late preserved Ming Dynasty when it and was the a privateearly Qing residence. Dynasty, As famousboth the gardens Garden in of the Cultivation late Ming Dynastyand the andGarden the earlyof Five Qing Rocks Dynasty, were bothwell thepreserved, Garden ofalthough Cultivation they and once the served Garden as ofprivate FiveRocks residences were wellin the preserved, Qing Dynasty. although The theypreservation once served reflected as private the enthusiasm residences infor the garden Qing construction Dynasty. The in preservation this area. It also reflected could the be enthusiasminferred that for large garden numbers construction of gardens in this were area. located It also could in the be residential inferred that areas large around numbers the ofChang gardens Gate, were and located some of in them the residential were built areas by renovating around the or Chang preserving Gate, andold gardens some of themof the wereformer built dynasty by renovating [14,19,54]. or preserving old gardens of the former dynasty [14,19,54].

FigureFigure 8.8.Residences Residences andand marketplacesmarketplaceswithin withinChang ChangGate Gate[ 59[59].]. Land 2021, 10, 659 12 of 18 Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Figure 9. Photos of the five rocks and the ancient well in the Garden of Five Rocks [54]. Figure 9. Photos of the five rocks and the ancient well in the Garden of Five Rocks [54].

InIn additionaddition toto the the abovementioned abovementioned twotwo gardens,gardens, ShaohuShaohu Garden,Garden, aa garden garden of of the the Fangs,Fangs, was was also also located located around around the the intermediately intermediately accessible accessible streets streets within within Chang Chang Gate. Gate. In NotesIn Notes of Fangs of Fangs Shaohu Shaohu Garden Garden, Shen, Shen Deqian Deqian wrote: wrote: “Shaohu “Shaohu Garden Garden is situated is situated to the east to the of Pochueast of Gate. Pochu Due Gate. to theDue narrow to the narrow space, the space, houses the therehouses are there lined are densely lined densely like fish like scales fish toscales make to the make best ofthe the best land, of whichthe land, makes whic theh placemakes particularly the place clamorous.particularly Amazingly, clamorous. ShaohuAmazingly, Garden Shaohu is a totally Garden detached is a totally zone withdetached elegance zone and with tranquillity. elegance Peopleand tranquillity. who pay theirPeople first who visit pay do their not even first knowvisit do there not areeven bustling know there streets are and bustling crowded streets residential and crowded areas outresidential of the garden. areas out People of the who garden. pass by People have nowho idea pass of by how have fascinating no idea theof how woods, fascinating stones, water,the woods, springs, stones, birds water, and fishessprings, are birds in the and garden” fishes are [60 in]. the Pochu garden” Gate [60]. was Pochu another Gate name was foranother Chang name Gate. for Similar Chang to Gate. the Garden Similar of to Cultivation the Garden and of Cultivation Garden of Five and Rocks,Garden Shaohu of Five GardenRocks, Shaohu was also Garden located was in a also narrow located downtown in a narrow area. downtown This description area. This not description only confirms not theonly results confirms of the the canal results axis of model the canal analysis axis model but also analysis demonstrates but also that demonstrates new gardens that were new builtgardens in the were residential built in areasthe residential with frequent areas commercial with frequent activities commercial in Suzhou activities City during in Suzhou the reignCity during of Emperor the reign Qianlong. of Emperor Qianlong. TheThe SheShe Garden,Garden, alsoalso knownknown asas thethe Xiaoyulin Xiaoyulin GardenGarden and and renamed renamed the the Couple’s Couple’s RetreatRetreat GardenGarden inin thethe latelate QingQing Dynasty,Dynasty, was was located located on on Xiaoxinqiao Xiaoxinqiao Alley Alley within within the the blocksblocks withwith intermediate intermediate integrationintegration inin thethe LouLou Gate Gate area. area. In InNotes Notes of of She She Garden Garden,, Cheng Cheng ZhanghuaZhanghua wrote: wrote: “Situated “Situated next next to to the the eastern eastern city city god god temple, temple, the the She She Garden Garden used used to to be be thethe residence residence of of Lu Lu Jin Jin from from Liuzhen Liuzhen who who served served as as the the chief chief of of Baoning Baoning Prefecture. Prefecture. He He normallynormally livedlived inin thethe old old houses houses in in complete complete seclusion seclusion and and enjoyed enjoyed burying burying himself himself in in books”books” [34[34].]. ChengCheng ZhanghuaZhanghua continued:continued: “However,“However, inin thethe flowering flowering season, season, he he would would openopen the the gate gate and and allow allow people people to pay to pay a visit” a visit” [34] to[34] “remind to “remind them thatthem there that was there a garden was a ingarden such a in bustling such a area”bustling [34]. area” By doing [34]. so,By thedoing garden so, the had garden become had a semi-open become a tourist semi-open site fortourist the public site for in the Suzhou public City. in Suzhou This opening City. This implied opening that theimplied area that where the the area She where Garden the wasShe locatedGarden had was a located good flow had of a people,good flow which of people, was in linewhich with was the in results line with of the the street results axis of modelthe street analysis. axis model This also analysis. supported This also the phenomenonsupported the that phenomenon private gardens that private were opengardens to thewere public open in to the the period public of in Emperor the period Qianlong. of Emperor Qianlong. 4.3. Gardens Were Scattered around the Canals with Low Integration 4.3. Gardens Were Scattered around the Canals with Low Integration Suzhou City took on a pattern of “streets and canals intertwining with each other” [61]. Suzhou City took on a pattern of “streets and canals intertwining with each other” Most gardens were built by the canal. Fengmei Cottage, which was located by Lusi Bridge [61]. Most gardens were built by the canal. Fengmei Cottage, which was located by Lusi near the Feng Gate, once was the residence of Li Guo during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. ItsBridge gate facesnear the canal,Feng Gate, with bridgesonce was over the theresi riverdence at of both Li Guo sides during [62]. Situated the reign within of Emperor Xiang Gate,Qianlong. the Jiangmen-Shuwu Its gate faces the Cottage canal, with was bridge the residences over the of Zhangriver at Dashou. both sides As noted[62]. Situated in The Yuanhewithin CountyXiang Gate, Annals the of Jiangmen-Shuwu Qianlong Period: Cottage “Lying bywas the the canal, residence the garden of Zhang is coveredDashou. by As thicknoted ancient in The trees.Yuanhe Old County branches Annals spread of Qianlong in the sky, Period creating: “Lying large by areas the ofcanal, green the shade garden and is makingcovered the by whole thick gardenancient a trees. tranquil Old place” branches [63]. Thespread Saoye in Villathe sky, was creating beside Yujia large Bridge areas inof thegreen east shade of Pan and Gate. making In Notes the of whole Saoye Villagarden, Shen a tranquil Deqian noted:place” “It[63]. is builtThe Saoye along aVilla stream was againstbeside theYujia city, Bridge in which in the the east trees of Pan were Gate. so luxuriant In Notes thatof Saoye the pathsVilla, Shen have beenDeqian covered noted: by “It fallenis built leaves. along Therefore, a stream against people visitingthe city, the in wh gardenich the often trees get were lost. so Walking luxuriant in it that is like the going paths have been covered by fallen leaves. Therefore, people visiting the garden often get lost. Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Walking in it is like going into wild woods” [64]. All of these gardens were built by the Land 2021, 10canals,Walking 659 with in ait poor is like degree going of into integration, wild woods” which [64]. supports All of the these results gardens of the were canal built axis modelby the 13 of 18 analysis.canals with In aaddition, poor degree the waterof integration, nearby was which diverted supports into the the results gardens of theby canaldigging axis ditches, model suchanalysis. as the In addition,case of the the Master water nearbyof the Netswas diGardenverted into[61]. theIn gardensNotes of byShe digging Garden ,ditches, Cheng such as the case of the Master of the Nets Garden [61]. In Notes of She Garden, Cheng Zhanghua wrote: into“Streams wild woods” border [on64]. the All thr ofee these sides gardens of the wereShe Garden. built by theTherefore, canals with Mr. a Lu poor degree drewZhanghua water wrote: from of“Streams them integration, to borderthe whichpools on supportsthedug thr insideee thesides resultsthe of garden”the of She the canalGarden. [34]. axis A Therefore, modelmutually analysis. Mr.causal Lu In addition, relationshipdrew water existedfromthe them between water to nearby the the pools wascheckerboard diverted dug inside into spatial the the gardens garden”pattern by diggingmade[34]. Aup ditches, mutually of intertwining such causal as the case of the streetsrelationship and existedcanalsMaster andbetween ofthe the the Netstechnique checkerboard Garden of [61 ].diverting In spatialNotes of waterpattern She Garden into made, Chengthe up garden. Zhanghuaof intertwining Such wrote: a “Streams relationshipstreets and alsocanals reflectedborder and on the the the technique threeinfluence sides of of the diverting Shegeographic Garden. water Therefore,characteristics into the Mr. Lugarden. of drew urban waterSuch space from a them to onrelationship garden-building also thereflected techniques. pools dugthe insideinfluence the garden” of the geographic [34]. A mutually characteristics causal relationship of urban existed space between the on garden-buildingThe canal withcheckerboard techniques.the highest spatial integration pattern madein Suzhou up of intertwiningCity was the streets one that and canalsstarted and from the technique of diverting water into the garden. Such a relationship also reflected the influence of the ChangThe Gate canal and with ran the to highest Pan Gate integration by way inof SuzhouXu Gate. City Suzhou’s was the Golden one that Age started, a realistic from geographic characteristics of urban space on garden-building techniques. Chang Gate and ran to Pan Gate by way of Xu Gate. Suzhou’s Golden Age, a realistic painting completed inThe the canal period with of the Emperor highest integration Qianlong, in Suzhouportrayed City the was scene the one around that started from Wannianpainting completedBridge toChang the in south Gatethe period and of Xu ran Gate toof PanEmperor (Figure Gate by 10).Qianlong, way In of Xuthis Gate. portrayedpainting,Suzhou’s the the Golden varieties scene Age ,around aof realistic and painting sheerWannian number Bridge of to completedships the southon inthe theof canal,Xu period Gate the of (Figure Emperor frequent 10). Qianlong, commercial In this portrayed painting, activities the the scene varieties and around the of large Wannian and Bridge volumesheer number of people of to shipsalong the south onit identify the of Xucanal, Gatethis thecanal (Figure frequent as 10 a). major Incommercial this traffic painting, artery. activities the However, varieties and ofthe gardens and large sheer number werevolume not of found people byof along the ships canal. it on identify the As canal, shown this the canalin frequent Fi gureas a commercial major11, many traffic merchant activities artery. and ships,However, the government large gardens volume of people ships,were not cargo found ships byalong and the itprivatecanal. identify As ships thisshown canalcould in as Fibe agure majorseen 11, sailing traffic many artery. on merchant the However, canal ships, near gardens governmentPan wereGate; not a found by largeships, number cargo ships of shipsthe and canal. also private Aswere shown ships anchored incould Figure off be 11 theseen, many bank. sailing merchant In particular,on the ships, canal ships government near were Pan densely ships,Gate; cargoa ships and private ships could be seen sailing on the canal near Pan Gate; a large number of ships packedlarge number at the ofjunction ships also between were anchoredthis canal off and the a bank.smaller In particular,canal at the ships right were side densely of the also were anchored off the bank. In particular, ships were densely packed at the junction packed at the junction between this canal and a smaller canal at the right side of the painting, suggestingbetween that the this canal canal andmust a smallerbe a transportation canal at the right hub side in the of the city. painting, Figure suggesting 10 also that the showspainting, that suggesting gardenscanal werethat must the not be canal alocated transportation must along be a transportationth hubis incanal the city.section, Figurehub inbut 10 the alsoa city.few shows gardensFigure that 10 gardens were also were not foundshows aroundthat gardens thelocated noted were alongsmaller not thislocated canal canal along section,in the th sect butis canalions a few withsection, gardens less were buttraffic. a found few Once aroundgardens again, the were this noted smaller findingfound around supports the canalthe noted results in thesmaller sectionsof the canal canal with in lessaxis the traffic. modelsections Once analysis with again, less and this traffic. findingconfirms Once supports the again, fact the thatthis results of the gardensfinding supportswere built canalthe far results away axis model fromof the analysismajor canal traffic axis and confirms modelarteries. analysis the fact thatand gardensconfirms were the builtfact farthat away from gardens were builtmajor far away traffic from arteries. major traffic arteries.

Figure 10. Scenes at Wangnian Bridge and the canals around it described in Suzhou’s Golden Age [65].FigureFigure 10. 10.ScenesScenes at at Wangnian Wangnian BridgeBridge and and the the canals canals around around it described it described in Suzhou’s in Suzhou’s Golden AgeGolden[65]. Age [65].

Figure 11. SceneFigure of 11. theScene canals of the around canals Pan around Gate Pan described Gate described in Suzhou’s in Suzhou’s Golden Golden Age Age[65].[65 ]. Figure 11. Scene of the canals around Pan Gate described in Suzhou’s Golden Age [65].

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4.4. Gardens Promote Commercial Development; Commercial Activity Drives the Preservation and Continuity of Gardens In the late Ming Dynasty, the economically prosperous Peach Blossom Castle (Tao- huawu) area was once densely dotted with gardens [19], such as the Deserted Garden, the Lus’ Citrus Grove, Hanya Village, the Small Peach Garden (Xiaotaoyuan), the Tangs’ Garden (Tangjiayuan), the Sus’ Garden (Sujiayuan), Mi’an Jiuzhu and the Wens’ Hall of Magnolia [66]. During the Qing Dynasty, however, this area “was no longer prosperous and gradually became desolate. Looking from a distance, you will see hectares of fertile farmland lying there as flat as a palm” [67]. In other words, the Peach Blossom Castle area had been reduced to farmland during the reign of Emperor Qianlong [68]. A geographic analysis of the Peach Blossom Castle at the time showed that the streets in the area were poorly accessible. The number of streets was small, and most streets were broken roads that extended from the north to the south near the northern city wall. The number of inter- sections between these streets and other streets also was very small, and the accessibility was very poor. Apart from a highly integrated canal flowing in the east–west direction at the northern end, there were several canals with low integration in this area. The Xiugu Garden, which was built in the Qing Dynasty, also was located there. On the one hand, this fact validates the reliability of the street and canal axis model analysis; on the other hand, it highlights the important link between the decline of gardens in the Peach Blossom Castle area and the spatial change of Suzhou City during the transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasties. Another garden that was as famous as the Garden of Herbs (Yaopu Garden), the forerunner of the Garden of Cultivation, in the late Ming Dynasty was the Xiangcao Garden in Gaoshi Alley, which was rated as “a famous scenic spot located among bustling marketplaces” [69]. It was built by Wen Zhenheng, who was the author of Superfluous Things. Wen Zhenheng was the younger brother of Wen Zhenmeng, who was the owner of the Xiangcao Garden [70]. Although this garden enjoyed popularity for a time in the late Ming Dynasty, it was ruined in the Qing Dynasty. An examination of the location of the Xiangcao Garden shows that Gaoshi Alley was in a poorly accessible area without any canals flowing through it during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. This location was in sharp contrast to the Garden of Cultivation, which was located in an area with both high accessibility and small canals. Once again, this finding demonstrates that the degree of development of the surroundings of a garden had an impact on its preservation. Both the Humble Administrator’s Garden and the Lion Grove, which were located in flourishing commercial areas and enjoyed a high profile during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, were built in the former dynasty, as were the Garden of Cultivation and the Garden of Five Rocks, which were situated in commercially prosperous residential areas. Instead of fading into history because of changing dynasties, they were preserved because of the developed business environment where they were located. This finding is at odds with the general perception that the more developed the commerce, the more buildings and the less garden space. Therefore, Mote believes that the pressure of land use and the construction of gardens are intertwined to form the special spatial pattern of Suzhou City [71]. Mote has focused on the pure spiritual image expressed by Suzhou gardens as an ideal space, but in fact, these gardens also promote the prosperity and development of the surrounding economy. Yuan Jinglan, a native of Suzhou in the Qing Dynasty, in his Opening the Garden at Qingming Dynasty records the Humble Administrator’s Garden, Lion Forest and Canglang Pavilion as the leading gardens, and most of the gardens are open to visitors from the Qingming Festival to lixia (start of summer) [72]. Yuan noted: “In spring, the gardens open, and places for eating, lodging, and carriages are set up. Gardeners will ask visitors for money to enter the garden to enjoy the flowers. At that time, there will be a crowd of women, noisy carts and horses, and loud voices, making it too crowded to walk”; when the gardens opened, there were people selling candy, bait and small toys [72]. As Shen Fu described in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, written in 1793, he and his wife travelled to the Land 2021, 10, 659 15 of 18

South Garden near Canglang Pavilion and the North Garden in Chang Gate area when the rape blossomed [73]. Yuan Jinglan’s Appreciating Rapeseed Flowers in the North Garden and South Garden noted that restaurants and tea houses were located everywhere to entertain tourists [74]. Qian Yong’s Lyuyuan Garden Collection noted that in spring (February and March), when peach blossoms and rape blossoms bloomed, all the people in the city came out to visit the , as seen in Zhang Zeduan’s painting of Along the River During the Qingming Festival [68]. It also can be seen that during the Qianlong period, the gardens in the commercial area were not only separated from the commercial, public space as a private sector but also opened in the blooming season, making them a place for public leisure. Furthermore, they promoted commercial development and consumer culture around the garden. The entertainment functions and convenience facilities provided by the commercial premises also attracted a large number of visitors, which assisted in the preservation and continuation of the garden. Craig Clunas believes that Suzhou gardens should be understood in the context of early modern China’s commodity economy [10]. An analysis of the garden materials recorded in the book Superfluous Things in the late Ming Dynasty reveals that the Suzhou gardens are a reflection of the social economy and consumption patterns [2]. In the Qianlong period, the purpose of choosing exotic treasures to decorate the garden was no longer just to show the owner’s elegant aesthetic taste and lofty social status as in the late Ming Dynasty [9], but rather to attract tourists into the garden. Yuan Jinglan’s Opening the Garden at Qingming Festival wrote that to attract more visitors, “most gardens contain precious birds and exotic flowers. The buildings are hung with paintings and calligraphy works by famous literati, and decorated with tripods, pictures, books and antiques. Plant famous flowers in front of the steps inlaid with gold and jade. Set up colourful tents to shade the wind. Play music and sing traditional opera.” [72]. Most of these garden decorations were sold in the commercial district of Suzhou, such as the Zhuanzhu Alley along the most integrated canal near the Chang Gate, where many shops sold antiques, rare books, ancient paintings and calligraphy, jade, gold, lacquer, carved wood and embroidery [2,75]. Such commercial blocks provide gardens with decorations that conform to the aesthetic trends of the times so that they can be renewed to keep up with the times. As a result, gardens became carriers that could promote the booming development of the commodity economy of Suzhou. This formed a model in which the preservation and continuation of the gardens and the prosperity and development of commerce complemented each other, and they prospered together.

5. Conclusions In this study, we used space syntax to explore and analyse the spatial distribution of Suzhou gardens during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Street axis model analysis showed that denser gardens were distributed around streets with a higher degree of integration and more frequent commercial activities, whereas fewer gardens were built around streets with a lower degree of integration. The canal axis model analysis indicated that fewer gardens were distributed around canals with higher integration and stronger traffic functions, and more gardens were built around canals with lower integration and weaker traffic functions. We investigated historical documents and images to validate the accuracy and reliability of the results of the axis model analysis. Research findings suggest that the garden distribution in Suzhou City in the period of Emperor Qianlong showed the following characteristics: first, gardens were densely distributed in the commercially prosperous areas at the northern and southern ends of Suzhou City. The popularity of a garden was influenced by the prosperity of its locations. Second, gardens were concentrated in residential areas with booming businesses. Third, large numbers of gardens were built along canals with poor traffic functions. The technique of diverting water to build gardens reflected the complementary relationship between the urban geological characteristics and garden building techniques. Fourth, gardens promoted the development of Suzhou’s commerce, and urban commerce also promoted the preservation and continuity of gardens. Land 2021, 10, 659 16 of 18

The study reveals that most of the gardens in the Qianlong Dynasty were transformed into semi-open public spaces, which attracted a large number of people and promoted the commercial development of the surrounding areas. The commercial districts also provided convenience and entertainment for tourists and thus attracted tourists to visit the gardens. Most of the objects sold in the commercial districts decorate the gardens, allowing the gardens to constantly adapt to the times and further promoting the preservation and continuity of the gardens. A complementary relationship existed between garden preservation and commercial development. Today, some streets and canals in Suzhou City have changed to meet the needs of urban development. The old city, however, maintains its historical spatial pattern. As world cultural heritage sites, the Humble Administrator’s Garden, Lion Grove, Master of the Nets Garden, Canglang Pavilion and Garden of Cultivation still stand in the city after years of change. Unlike the tradition that gardens were opened only in the blooming season in the Qianlong period, Suzhou gardens are now open to the public every day. Their long history and exquisite designs have attracted a large number of tourists. Due to these gardens, Suzhou City has become a notable tourist attraction, promoting the development of the urban economy and making gardens a symbol of the city’s identity. Presently, the Humble Administrator’s Garden and Lion Grove are still located on the prosperous commercial street, whereas the Master of the Nets Garden, Canglang Pavilion and Garden of Cultivation are quietly located among the dwellings, which is not much different from the Qianlong period. Although the position of Suzhou gardens in the urban space has not changed, because of historical transitions and urban development, their spatial attributes and social functions are constantly changing. In the future, as an important part of the contemporary Suzhou urban landscape, these gardens will continue to find new value as the urban landscape changes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, J.Y.; methodology, J.Y.; software, J.Y. and W.Y.; validation, J.Y.; formal analysis, J.Y.; investigation, J.Y. and W.Y.; resources, J.Y.; data curation, J.Y.; writing— original draft preparation, J.Y.; writing—review and editing, J.Y.; visualization, J.Y.; supervision, H.W.; project administration, H.W.; funding acquisition, H.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by the “National Key Research and Development Program of China” (grant number 2019YFD1100404) and “A Project Funded by the Priority Academic Program Development of Higher Education Institutions, PAPD.” Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the author. The data are not publicly available due to [privacy]. Images employed for the study will be available online for readers. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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