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Tom Hsiang the Battle Under Snow Between Fungal Pathogens Naoyuki Matsumoto · Tom Hsiang Snow Mold The Battle Under Snow Between Fungal Pathogens and Their Plant Hosts Snow Mold ThiS is a FM Blank Page Naoyuki Matsumoto • Tom Hsiang Snow Mold The Battle Under Snow Between Fungal Pathogens and Their Plant Hosts Naoyuki Matsumoto Tom Hsiang Graduate School of Agriculture School of Environmental Sciences Hokkaido University University of Guelph Sapporo, Hokkaido Guelph, Ontario Japan Canada ISBN 978-981-10-0757-6 ISBN 978-981-10-0758-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0758-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016937674 © Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd. Preface Climate change does not occur uniformly across the globe; its effects are considered most severe at higher latitudes in the northern hemisphere, and agricultural pro- duction is most likely to be influenced there (Murray and Gaudet 2013). This concern motivated scientists to convene an interdisciplinary forum, Plant and Microbe Adaptations to Cold (PMAC), in 1997 in Sapporo, Japan. Fifteen years later, PMAC 2012 met again in Sapporo, and this conference focused on sustainable agricultural production under changing climatic conditions. Scientists, as well as farmers and policy makers, participated the conference to discuss issues of impor- tance affected by climate change. Although concrete countermeasures were not presented, available scientific knowledge and established techniques can be adapted to minimize overwintering problems of crops. For example, extended snow cover for up to 163 days in certain areas of Hokkaido in northern Japan in the 2011/2012 winter (S. Inoue, personal communication) made farmers anxious; however, the survival of winter wheat was better than expected. Both biotic and abiotic factors that affect agricultural production respond to changes in winter climate. Abiotic factors mainly consist of freeze damage due to low temperatures and of ice encasement and damage that occur after repeated cycles of freezing and thawing of soil. Biotic factors are comprised mostly of snow molds incited by low-temperature fungi that prevail on plants under snow cover and represent the main theme of this book. Winter damage to agricultural production, unlike drought in summer, is not well documented. Gudleifsson (2013) presented an example in Iceland, where analyses of ice cores from glaciers indicated that the temperatures around the time of settlement from 900 to 1200 were fairly high and then fluctuated until 1900 with frequent winter damage to forage grass. Over one-third of the years were characterized as having mild or severe winter damage of pastures, resulting in reduced livestock production and subsequent famine. Correlations between temperature measurements and hay yield from 1900 to 2010 revealed that winter temperatures affected forage production more significantly (r=0.57***) than summer temperatures (r=0.28***). Recent global warming is generally considered to favor forage production. v vi Preface Frost depth (cm) 1987 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 Year Fig. 1 Change in annual soil frost in nine spots in Memuro, Hokkaido (Hirota et al. 2006) Climate change also affects agriculture in Hokkaido, Japan, where the quantity and quality of summer crops have been improved due to extended growth periods and increased cropping acreage, as well as reduced cool weather damage. The trends are not so apparent in forage crops or winter wheat that overwinters under snow. However, especially in eastern Hokkaido where deep soil frost is character- istic of the winter climate, early onset of snow cover and deep snow cover has attenuated the depth and duration of soil frost (Fig. 1, Hirota et al. 2013). Conse- quently, changes in winter climate have led to changes in snow mold flora, affecting breeding strategy. In this book, we described a common phenomenon occurring in snowy regions, namely, snow mold. Snow mold is important not only as one of agricultural issues in cold regions but interesting as a biological phenomenon. This book is an English version of the book Snow Mold written in Japanese by NM (Matsumoto 2013) and represents a synthesis of ideas of both authors of this version. References Gudleifsson BE (2013) Climatic and physiological background of ice encasement damage of herbage plants. In: Imai R, Yoshida M, Matsumoto N (eds) Plant and microbe adaptations to cold in a changing world. Springer, New York, pp 63–72 Hirota T, Iwata Y, Hayashi Y, Suzuki S, Hamasaki T, Sameshima R, Takayabu I (2006) Decreasing soil-frost depth and its relation to climate change in Tokachi, Hokkaido, Japan. J Meteorol Soc Jpn 84:821–833 Hirota T, Yazaki T, Usuki K, Hayashi M, Nemoto M, Iwata Y, Yanai Y, Inoue S, Suzuki T, Shirahata M, Kajiyama T, Araki K, Maezuka K (2013) Soil frost control: its applications to volunteer potato management in a cold region. In: Imai R, Yoshida M, Matsumoto N (eds) Plant and microbe adaptations to cold in a changing world. Springer, New York, pp 51–61 Preface vii Matsumoto N (2013) Snow mold. Hokkaido University Press, Sapporo (in Japanese) Murray T, Gaudet D (2013) Global change in winter climate and agricultural sustainability. In: Imai R, Yoshida M, Matsumoto N (eds) Plant and microbe adaptations to cold in a changing world. Springer, New York, pp 1–15 ThiS is a FM Blank Page Contents 1 Introduction .......................................... 1 1.1 SnowMold....................................... 2 1.1.1 Damage . .................................. 4 1.1.2 Life History . 5 1.1.3 Environment Under Snow . ...................... 6 1.2 Subnivean Environment .............................. 10 1.2.1 Litter Decomposition . 10 1.2.2 Organic Matter Recycling ....................... 11 1.2.3 Diversity Creation ............................. 11 1.3 Microorganisms in the Cryosphere . .................... 12 1.3.1 Physiological Issues ............................ 14 1.3.2 Ecological Issues . .......................... 16 References . 16 2 Ecology and Physiology ................................. 23 2.1 Survival Strategy . 24 2.1.1 Individualism ................................ 26 2.1.2 Population Structure ........................... 29 2.2 Predictability of Snow Cover . ......................... 33 2.2.1 Sclerotial Germination . 34 2.2.2 Sclerotial Size . 38 2.3 Psychrophily and Freeze Tolerance . ................... 43 2.3.1 Metabolism . 44 2.3.2 Freeze Tolerance . 45 2.3.3 Mechanism of Freeze Tolerance . ................. 46 References . 49 3 Snow Mold Fungi ...................................... 55 3.1 Typhula spp. .................................... 56 3.1.1 Mating Incompatibility . ....................... 56 3.1.2 Niche Separation . 59 ix x Contents 3.1.3 Typhula incarnata ............................. 60 3.1.4 Typhula ishikariensis ........................... 66 3.1.5 Typhula phacorrhiza ........................... 75 3.2 Sclerotinia spp. ................................... 76 3.2.1 Sclerotinia borealis ............................ 76 3.2.2 Sclerotinia nivalis ............................. 79 3.2.3 Sclerotinia trifoliorum .......................... 80 3.3 Microdochium nivale ................................ 81 3.3.1 Taxonomic Issues ............................. 81 3.3.2 Ecological Features . .......................... 82 3.4 Pythium spp. ...................................... 84 3.5 Other Basidiomycetous Snow Mold Pathogens . ........... 85 3.5.1 Supponuke fungus (Athelia sp.) . 85 3.5.2 Low-Temperature Basidiomycete (LTB, Coprinus psychromorbidus)............................. 87 References . 88 4 Resistance ............................................ 95 4.1 Field Observations .................................. 96 4.2 Laboratory Trials . ................................. 99 4.3 Resistance Mechanism . 100 4.3.1 Hardening . 100 4.3.2 Reserve Materials ............................. 101 4.3.3 PR Proteins and Other Substances ................. 102 4.4 Conclusions . ...................................... 104 References . 104 5 Control .............................................. 109 5.1 Chemical Control . 112 5.1.1 Bordeaux Mixture . .......... 113 5.1.2 Organic Mercury . 113 5.1.3 PCP, PCNB, and Thiophanate-Methyl . 114 5.1.4 New Fungicides and Mixture of Chemicals ........... 114 5.1.5 Resistance Activators . ........................ 115
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