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Te Wai Pounamu, New Zealand Circa 1769-1840

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Te Wai Pounamu, New Zealand Circa 1769-1840 ii AGENTS IN THE ARCHIVE Ordinary People and Things in Māori-European Encounters: Te Wai Pounamu, New Zealand circa 1769-1840 A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology By Annette Wilkes University of Canterbury Christchurch New Zealand 2008 © Annette Wilkes 2008 ii ABSTRACT This thesis examines the interactions between the worlds of social classes and cultures for Maori and Europeans in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Te Wai Pounamu (New Zealand). The very early Maori-European transactions are interpreted in the light of archival reports of what happened and how people behaved, what role objects had in these transactions, and why so many of the transactions culminated in violence. In the archival record, it is clear that ordinary sailors and Maori commoners obviously experienced, participated and reported their observations differently than captains and chiefs, thus enabling their subaltern perspective to shed a different light upon the transactions. Details of the cosmological, epistemological and philosophical understandings of the world and the place of others in it, that each of these peoples brought to the encounters, and which underpinned their actions are described and used to explain some resulting misunderstandings about trade and exchange. The agency and polyvocality of objects and their role as cultural mediators, which spoke for the human participants when language and cultural understanding were deficient is also considered. The thesis argues for a multiperspectival approach to history and anthropology, a methodology incorporating insights from indigenous and European discourse, and the concept of using additionally, insights from the present to look at the past because they may shed some light upon each other hermeneutically- the past informing the present and vice versa. Archival material is used to argue that the success or otherwise of the outcomes of these intercultural encounters, and their consequential adaptive cultural and identity changes and hybridity, were as much facilitated by the contingent actions of subalterns as by those of higher rank, and as much by the ‘things’ they made, collected and exchanged as by the people themselves. A possible schema for the development and nature of intercultural hybridity is also suggested. Key words: agency; cosmology; epistemology; exchange; gifting; hybridity; identity; polyvocality; risk-taking; subaltern; trade; transaction; utu iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements....................................................................................................vi List of Illustrations....................................................................................................vii Note on Abbreviations and Conventions ..................................................................viii Words ..............................................................................................................viii Accents ............................................................................................................viii Dialect..............................................................................................................viii Quotes..............................................................................................................viii Abbreviations...................................................................................................viii INTRODUCTION Boundaries, Horizons and positioning the observers.................... 10 Thesis Aims and Background................................................................................ 10 Chapter Previews .................................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER 1 Theory and the History- Anthropology frontier.................................... 20 An ‘other’ History................................................................................................. 24 Dynamic Contexts................................................................................................. 28 Text, Context, and the Representation of ‘others’.................................................. 30 Ethno-historical Methods ...................................................................................... 33 Methodology used................................................................................................. 37 A. Investigative phase ....................................................................................... 37 B. Analytical phase ........................................................................................... 38 C. Representational phase.................................................................................. 39 Summary............................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER 2 Land as a social actor........................................................................... 43 Māori epistemology .............................................................................................. 44 Naming the land.................................................................................................... 46 Time, Land & the Gods......................................................................................... 48 The Marae, the House and the Ancestors............................................................... 50 Myths, Ancestors, and Gods.................................................................................. 56 A Land in the Southern Ocean............................................................................... 60 Te Wai Pounamu and Rakiura: South Island and Stewart Island............................ 62 Summary............................................................................................................... 64 CHAPTER 3 Enlightenment discourse & the mariners.............................................. 68 iv Enlightenment Matters .......................................................................................... 69 Human Nature................................................................................................... 71 Ownership......................................................................................................... 73 Savagery and Nobility....................................................................................... 76 ‘Discourse[s] of Inequality’............................................................................... 77 Cannibalism ...................................................................................................... 83 Religion, Rights, and the Employment Environment of Working People ........... 85 Summary............................................................................................................... 88 CHAPTER 4 ‘Mariners’, mariners, Māori and others in the archives......................... 93 Navy Ships and sailors .......................................................................................... 96 Merchant ships and sailors .................................................................................... 99 Some Cross- cultural Incidents and issues ........................................................... 102 December 1773- The “Grass Cove Incident” at Queen Charlotte Sound .......... 103 12 December 1817- The Sophia at Port Daniel (Otakou) ................................. 107 May 1826- The brig Elizabeth at Open Bay-Dusky Bay .................................. 109 Theft as a social interaction................................................................................. 112 Summary............................................................................................................. 119 CHAPTER 5 The Cross-cultural Worlds of Things ................................................. 122 A fluid mosaic of transaction............................................................................... 122 Gifts and ‘other things’ ....................................................................................... 127 A Contested Domain........................................................................................... 129 Exchanging knowledge by being there ................................................................ 132 Theft or Utu?....................................................................................................... 135 Fish, Consumption, Tapu and ‘balance’............................................................... 139 Extra-ordinary things that may change their tapu status....................................... 141 Ceremonial Things and Transactions ‘offer’ illumination.................................... 143 Summary............................................................................................................. 146 CHAPTER 6 The Net of Tahu: Transaction and Identity......................................... 151 Some transactions in Southern Te Wai Pounamu................................................. 153 The Kaumātua’s assemblage: Intersecting social worlds in Te Wai Pounamu...... 155 Cook, Caddell, Tūhawaiki, Patahi: Agency and Identity...................................... 163 James Cook and ‘others’ at Dusky Bay............................................................ 168 Caddell and Tūhawaiki.................................................................................... 170 (Erihapeti) Patahi ...........................................................................................
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