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The essay is an important paper for UPSC Mains and carries a weightage of 250 marks. Essay paper provides an opportunity to fetch more marks than the GS papers and can be a potential game-changer.
In this booklet, there are 14 topics, of which 10 are general topics and 4 are specific ones. General topics have been chosen in such a way that a candidate can take fodder points irrespective of the way UPSC frames the question.
It comprehensively covers many perspectives required to act as your springboard. It will also help you in brainstorming different sub-headings for a particular topic.
The 4 specific topics have been chosen because they have been in news frequently in the recent past. There is a high probability that these topics will be asked in the Essay paper. This booklet can also be utilised for your GS preparations.
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LEARN, UNLEARN
& RE-LEARN
S. No. Chapter Name Page No. 01. Mahatma Gandhi 3-11 02. Education 12-19 03. Agriculture 20-34 04. Governance 35-45 05. Vulnerable Communities 46-54 06. Security 55-70 07. Women 71-81 08. Health 83-91 09. Disaster Management 92-100 10. Environment 101-113 11. Space: A New Frontier 114-122 12. Water 123-132 13. India – 5 Trillion Economy 133-142 14. Sports 143-148
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Mahatma Gandhi 01
1. Previous Year Questions 9. Gandhi and Education 2. Context 10. Gandhi and Religion 3. Basic Information 11. Gandhi and modern India 4. Gandhi and Freedom Movement 12. Gandhi and the constitution 5. Gandhi and his principles 13. Case Study 6. Gandhi: society and way of life 14. Quotes 7. Gandhiji and women 8. Political Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi: A brief outline
1. Previous Year Questions
In the context of Gandhiji’s views on the matter, explore, on an evolutionary scale, the terms ‘Swadhinata’, ‘Swaraj’ and ‘Dharmarajya’. Critically comment on their contemporary relevance to Indian democracy -2012 Be the change you want to see in others (Gandhi)-2013
2. Context
This year India is celebrating the 150th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi whose values of peace, tolerance & sustainability continue to be relevant and guide the world. The two yearlong celebrations from 2nd October 2018 to 02nd October 2020 is being held across the country and all over the globe to mark the 150th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi. Recently the Government has been invoking his principles through various programmes like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan etc. Recently UAE released postage stamps on Mahatma Gandhi to commemorate his 150th Birth Anniversary in UAE. Mahatma Gandhi and his principles are always important and are asked very frequently in the exam.
3. Basic Information
3.1 Early Life
Mahatma Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, at Porbandar (Kathiawar), a small town on the western coast of India. He was seven when his family moved to Rajkot, another state in Kathiawar, where his father became Dewan. He attended a primary school there and later joined a high school. He was married at the age of thirteen, to Kasturbai who was also of the same age. At the age of 19, he left home to study law in London. He came back to India in mid-1891 and set up a law practice in Bombay, but met with little success. He soon accepted a position with an Indian firm that sent him to its office in South Africa. Gandhi remained in South Africa for nearly 20 years with his wife, Kasturbai, and their children.
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3.2 Gandhi in South Africa
Gandhi, in 1898, went to South Africa for a case involving his client, Dada Abdullah. In South Africa, he was shocked as he saw the ugly face of white racism and the humiliation and contempt to which Asians, who had gone to South Africa as labourers, were subjected. To organise the Indian workers to enable them to fight for their rights, he decided to stay in South Africa. He stayed there until 1914 after which he returned to India. Most of the Indians workers were illiterate and had little knowledge of English. They accepted racial discrimination as a part of their life. They had to suffer many disabilities. They were denied their right to vote. They could reside only in prescribed locations which were unsanitary and congested. In some areas, they could not stay out of doors after 9 PM nor could they use public footpaths. He formed the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 to fight for the rights of the indians and raise a voice against the discrimination faced by them. Here Gandhiji was involved in many movements like Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906), Campaign against Restrictions on Indian Migration, Campaign against the Poll Tax and Invalidation of Indian Marriages, Protest against Transvaal Immigration Act. He started the journal Indian Opinion to bring to light the issues faced by the people and give a voice to their plight. It was during this long struggle of two decades that he evolved the technique of satyagraha based on truth and non-violence. Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa (i) Gandhi found that the masses had an immense capacity to participate and sacrifice for a cause that moved them. (ii) He was able to unite Indians belonging to different religions and classes, and men and women alike under his leadership. (iii) He also came to realise that at times the leaders have to take decisions unpopular with their enthusiastic supporters. (iv) He was able to evolve his own style of leadership and politics and new techniques of struggle on a limited scale, untrammelled by the opposition of contending political currents.
4. Gandhi and Freedom Movement
Gandhi returned to India in 1915 at the age of 46. He was keen to serve his country and people. Since he was unaware of the situation of the country, he promised his "political guru", Gokhale, that he would spend the first year in India knowing the country, with "his ears open but his mouth shut". In 1916, he founded the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad where his friends and followers were to learn and practice the ideals of truth and non-violence. Gandhiji perfected his technique of Satyagraha in India During 1917 and 1918. Gandhi was involved in three struggles during this period—in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda—before he launched the Rowlatt Satyagraha. o Champaran Satyagraha: This was the first civil disobedience movement by Gandhi in the freedom struggle. The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes and an exploitative system. They were forced to grow indigo by the British planters under the ‘tinkathia’ system. After peaceful protests against the planters and landlords led by Gandhi, the government agreed to abolish the exploitative tinkathia system. Champaran struggle is called the first experiment on Satyagraha by Gandhi. It was during this satyagraha that Gandhi was given the names ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatma’ by the people. o Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Due to droughts in 1918 crops failed in Kheda district of Gujarat. The farmers were entitled to remission as per law. But the government denied any remission. Under Gandhi’s guidance, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led the farmers to protest against the
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collection of taxes in the wake of the famine. Finally, the authorities agreed and gave some concessions to the farmers. o Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Gandhi for the first time used Satyagraha and hunger strike during an industrial dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad. The owners had earlier promised the plague bonus to the workers but now wanted to withdraw the same while the workers were demanding a hike of 35% in their wages. Gandhi led a peaceful strike and started a hunger strike. At last the owners agreed and the workers were granted the wage hike they wanted.
This is how slowly and gradually he perfected his idea of satyagraha and became the leader of the masses. Gandhi demonstrated to the people the efficacy of his technique of satyagraha. He found his feet among the masses and came to have a clear understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the masses. It was the Rowlatt Act of 2019 with its denial of civil liberties which finally brought Gandhi into active Indian politics. From there, he led the country in various movements like non-cooperation, civil disobedience, quit movement etc. From 1919 until his death in 1948, he occupied the centre stage of Indian society and politics and was the hero of the great historical movement which culminated in the independence of his country. He changed the entire character of the political scene in India. And ultimately, he was able to drive British from India. Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation, was shot on 30 January in 1948 by Nathuram Godse.
5. Gandhi and his principles
It is generally known that he lived an austere life, practised strict vegetarianism and abstained from alcoholic drinks, tobacco and even the milder stimulants like coffee and tea. The first principle which guided all his thoughts and activities is the complete unity and integrity of body, mind and soul in the individual human being. He was never tired of saying that the body should be controlled by the mind and the mind by the soul. He was convinced that real thought must be organically connected to moral purposes on the one side and useful and right action on the other. The second principle of Gandhian philosophy may be stated as follows: All social action should be governed by the same simple set of moral values, of which the main elements are selflessness, non-attachment, nonviolence and active service. It was Gandhi's firm conviction that means are at least as important as, and often even more important than, ends. Satyagraha: Gandhi evolved the principle of Satyagraha during his stay in South Africa. It was based on truth and non-violence. It was characterised by the use of the method of passive resistance or civil disobedience. In India, it was first used in Champaran Satyagraha in 1917 by Gandhi ji. Its basic tenets were as follows: o A satyagrahi was not to submit to what he considered as wrong, but was to always remain truthful, non-violent and fearless. o A satyagrahi works on the principles of withdrawal of cooperation and boycott. o Methods of satyagraha include non-payment of taxes and declining honours and positions of authority. o A satyagrahi should be ready to accept suffering in his struggle against the wrong-doer. This suffering was to be a part of his love for truth. o Even while carrying out his struggle against the wrong-doer, a true satyagrahi would have no ill-feeling for the wrong-doer; hatred would be alien to his nature. o A true satyagrahi would never bow before the evil, whatever the consequence. o Only the brave and strong could practise satyagraha; it was not for the weak and cowardly. Even violence was preferred to cowardice. Thought was never to be separated from practice. In other words, ends do not justify the means.
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Gandhi and Untouchability: Communal Award, Poona Pact: The Communal Award was announced by the British prime minister, Ramsay MacDonald, on August 16, 1932. The Communal Award, based on the findings of the Indian Franchise Committee (also called the Lothian Committee), established separate electorates and reserved seats for minorities, including the depressed classes which were granted seventy-eight reserved seats. Gandhi saw the Communal Award as an attack on Indian unity and nationalism. Once the depressed classes were treated as a separate political entity, he argued, the question of abolishing untouchability would get undermined, while separate electorates would ensure that the untouchables remained untouchables in perpetuity. He said that what was required was not the protection of the so-called interests of the depressed classes but root and branch eradication of untouchability. Gandhi demanded that the depressed classes be elected through joint and if possible a wider electorate through a universal franchise while expressing no objection to the demand for a larger number of reserved seats. And to press his demands, he went on an indefinite fast on September 20, 1932. Poona Pact: Signed by B.R. Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes on September 24, 1932, the Poona Pact abandoned the idea of separate electorates for the depressed classes. But the seats reserved for the depressed classes were increased. While in Yerwada Jail, he set up the All India Anti-Untouchability League on September 1932 and started the weekly Harijan in January 1933. After his release, he shifted to the Satyagraha Ashram in Wardha as he had vowed in 1930 not to return to Sabarmati Ashram unless swaraj was won. Starting from Wardha, he conducted a Harijan tour of the country in the period from November 1933 to July 1934, Gandhi believed that standing at the heart of the inherited Hindu tradition, including its caste system, it was possible to overcome untouchability. "In my opinion, untouchability is a blot on humanity and therefore upon Hinduism. It cannot stand the test of reason. It is in conflict with the fundamental precepts of Hinduism, ” he insisted. Untouchability was reform “custom masquerading under the name of religion.” He set out to reform but not to reject Hinduism. According to the Mahatma, "the caste system is a hindrance, not a sin. But untouchability is a sin, a great crime, and if Hinduism does not destroy this serpent while there is time, it will be devoured by it." He firmly believed that ultimately the removal of untouchability depended on the change of heart of millions of caste Hindus.
6. Gandhi: society and way of life
Gandhiji was very clear about his programme of social reconstruction. He insisted that the growth of the individual and that of society were interdependent and the individual and society had to grow together. Gandhi was of the opinion that a moral man and immoral society cannot co-exist in harmony. Mahatma Gandhi in his scheme kept people at the centre and all his programmes and policies were designed to ensure the full participation of people enabling them to develop the in-built capacities to work as members of one interrelated community. He believed that moral resistance through non-violence must be the guiding principle to regulate the relationship between individual and society. According to him, Industrialization was a challenge to non-violent society. It is true that industrialization has led to the enormous development of the productive forces, making human life prosperous and comfortable. But the offshoots of industrialization were materialism, consumerism, urbanism and competitive economy. The effect of all these factors is that the moral and ethical values necessary to regulate human life are marginalized and they have come to occupy only a secondary place in the lives of individuals and society. Industrialism and materialism inevitably lead to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the few and thereby divide the society into two - one of the few rich and the other of the many poor. This is could be identified as the root cause of war, violence and conflicts in the society.
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The Charkha or the Spinning Wheel: Gandhiji was against mass production because it did not promote human development. The artificial increase in wants has made mass production a necessity of modern life. The Charkha according to Gandhiji would eradicate the poverty of millions by providing the instrument for earning their livelihood in their own homes with dignity and self- reliance in a most natural and simple way, without much cost, and thereby save them from starvation. The Gandhian theory provides new vision and space for people to live sustainably, to share Nature's resources equitably, to live without violence, fear, oppression or alienation, in spiritual harmony and peace. Gandhi and Gram Swaraj: Gandhi's concept of democratic decentralization bears the stamp of his passionate belief in non-violence, truth and individual freedom. He called it Panchayati Raj or village Swaraj. He wanted to see each village as a little republic, self-sufficient in its vital wants, organically and non-hierarchically linked with the larger spatial bodies and enjoying the maximum freedom of deciding the affairs of the locality. Gandhi wanted political power to be distributed among the villages in India. Gandhi preferred the term ‘Swaraj’ to describe what he called true democracy. This democracy is based on freedom. Individual freedom in Gandhi’s view could be maintained only in autonomous, self-reliant communities that offer opportunities to the people for fullest participation. As Gandhi said, "Panchayat Raj represents true democracy realized. We would regard the humblest and the lowest Indian as being equally the ruler of India with the tallest in the land". Cleanliness: Mahatma Gandhi said, "Sanitation is more important than independence". He made cleanliness and sanitation an integral part of the Gandhian way of living. His dream was total sanitation for all. He believed that cleanliness is most important for physical well-being and a healthy environment. Mahatma Gandhi said, “I will not let anyone walk through my mind with their dirty feet.” Gandhiji dwelt on cleanliness and good habits and pointed out its close relationship to good health. “No one should spit or clean his nose on the streets. In some cases, the sputum is so harmful that the germs infect others. In some countries, spitting on the road is a criminal offence. Those who spit after chewing betel leaves and tobacco have no consideration for the feelings of others. Spittle, mucus from the nose, etc, should also be covered with earth.” (Navajivan dated 2 November 1919). Concept of Trusteeship: Trusteeship is a socio-economic philosophy that was propounded by Mahatma Gandhi. It provides a means by which the wealthy people would be the trustees of trusts that looked after the welfare of the people in general. Gandhi believed that wealthy people could be persuaded to part with their wealth to help the poor. Putting it in Gandhiji's words "Supposing I have come by a fair amount of wealth – either by way of legacy, or by means of trade and industry – I must know that all that wealth does not belong to me; what belongs to me is the right to an honourable livelihood by millions of others. He said, “If one takes care of the means, the end will take care of itself.” End and the means are the two important concepts in Gandhian philosophy which play very important implication for his doctrine of truth and non-violence. His principle of aparigraha is one of the most important concepts to bring simple and peaceful living and cooperation with one another.
7. Gandhiji and women
In India, a lot of credit goes to Mahatma Gandhi for women empowerment. Through his technique of satyagraha, he gave the women a chance to participate and work for the Indian Independence. o Gandhi's view on Women’s Liberty: Gandhi worked not only for the political emancipation of the nation but for the liberation of all the suppressed and oppressed sections of society. One of the noteworthy results of his life-work has been the awakening of women, which made them shed their deep-rooted sense of inferiority and rise to dignity and self- esteem. For Gandhi, "When woman, whom we all call abala becomes Sabala, all those who are helpless will become powerful".
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o Gandhiji’s view on Women upliftment: Gandhiji was against child marriage, All social and religious barriers to widow remarriage, purdah system, dowry system, heavy expenditure in connection with marriages etc were strongly condemned by him. o Gandhi's View on Participation of Women in Politics: M. K. Gandhi is known to be one of the few people who encouraged women's active participation in the freedom struggle- marking him as a rare promoter of women's liberation. In Gandhi's words, "My contribution to the great problem (of women's role in society) lies in my presenting for acceptance of truth and ahimsa in every walk of life, whether for individuals or nations. I have hugged the hope that in this, woman will be the unquestioned leader and, having thus found her place in human evolution, will shed her inferiority complex.” Women's entry into national politics through non-violent methods brought miraculous results. On the one hand, women became aware of their inner strength, and on the other, the process brought human and moral elements into politics.
8. Political Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi: A brief outline
Coming to the political thought of Gandhi, we have to remember certain dispositions of Gandhi. First of all, Gandhi was not a system builder in an academic sense. He was not a political philosopher as all his sayings were coming from his deep feelings and sincere realization of the truth. Many political Scientists thought that Gandhi was a combination of a prophet and a politician of the highest calibre. So he combined within himself aspects of the Philosopher and politician. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, a great admirer and critic of Gandhi, once said that Gandhi had to play the role of a world teacher as well as the Supreme leader of the Indian National Liberation Movement. It can be said that Gandhi considered politics as an instrument for the uplift of mankind in social, economic, moral and spiritual spheres. Gandhi himself admitted to his South African friend that his bent of mind was religious and not political. Romain Rolland in his biography of Gandhi written in 1924, had remarked that if Tilak would not have died Gandhi might have chosen a religious life rather than political. For him, politics had encircled him like the coil of a snake. He famously conceded that he must wrestle with the snake, as there was no respite. He strongly felt that without involving himself in politics it was not possible to remove socio-economic exploitation and political subjugation and thereby moral degradation of the people of India.
9. Gandhi and Education
Gandhiji said, “The individual is the one supreme consideration.Man is neither mere intellect, nor the gross animal body, nor the heart or soul alone. A proper and harmonious combination of all the three is required for the making of the whole man and constitutes the true economics of education.” His concept of the political system is closely connected with education. In a good political system, there must be an element of goodness necessarily present in every man. There is a need for a proper education system to the individuals in order to bring out such an element of goodness. He views about education is more comprehensive than that of the literal meaning of the word carries. He said, “By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man–body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of education not even the beginning. It is one of the means whereby man and woman can be educated. Literacy in itself is no education.” He thought that education is closely associated with the socio-economic development of the society. He took up schemes for basic education in which vocational training or work experience was of utmost importance. His view on basic education is greatly influenced by his philosophy of Satya (truth), ahimsa (non-violence), firm belief in God, the dignity of labour. He regarded discipline as one of the most important parts and parcels of education. Without discipline, the sound education system is impossible.
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‘Work and knowledge should go together’ is the Gandhian principle of education. Gandhi’s concept of education is quite significant in the contemporary situation. His philosophical concept of education is entirely based on the development of human personality, to maintain discipline, to create manual work with learning and to develop a culture of peace. He was a great educationist and an individualist par excellence. He knew that education is the most important means in the society which can be used as an instrument of socio-economic progress, material advancement, political evolution and moral development of an individual. His concept of education is also founded on ethics and morality.
10. Gandhi and Religion
Faith in God is, according to Gandhi, the foundation of all moral values. He never defined God and was prepared to allow every person to have his own idea of God. But, so long as a person believes in some source of spiritual life and holds it superior to the material universe, he is a believer in God. To Gandhi politics, itself was his religion. He was opposed to politicizing religion. He was for spiritualizing religion but he was essentially a worldly man and never sought his own salvation secluded from the world. He said, ‘I believe in the fundamental Truth of all great religions of the world. And I believe that if only we could, all of us, read the scriptures of the different Faiths from the standpoint of the followers of those faiths, we should find that they were at the bottom, all one and were all helpful to one another.’ According to him, “Man can only conceive God within the limitations of his own mind. What matters then whether one man worships God as Person and another as Force? Both do right according to their lights. None knows and perhaps never will know what the proper way to pray is absolutely. One need only to remember that God is the Force among all the Forces. All other Forces are material. But God is the Vital Force or Spirit which is all-pervading, all-embracing and therefore beyond human kind.”
11. Gandhi and modern India
The teachings of Mahatma Gandhi for maintaining peace, harmony and non-violence are extremely relevant and important in the modern-day society, where we are seeing a rising trend of people resorting to violence in addressing their issues and conflicts are seen. Especially after the 1991 reforms, capitalism is on the rise and it can be seen that greed has overpowered the necessity. Machines are replacing the man and unemployment is rising. Due to this crime is on the rise. Here Gandhiji’s concept of Charkha and gram swaraj can prove to be very useful. We can see that the Indian Government is also trying to inculcate his teachings in the policies. Some of the recent examples are Swachh Bharat Mission, MGNREGA etc. They focus specifically on rural areas and cleanliness. In the 21st century where the state has become even more powerful and the threat of nuclear war is always on. His teachings of Satyagraha and non-violence can be a torch-bearer for the entire world.
12. Gandhi and the constitution
Although Mahatma Gandhi was not a part of the constituent assembly. But his teachings were incorporated in the constitution in many forms. It was because each and every member of the assembly was his follower or was influenced by his teachings. And those provisions are still there in our constitution. His principles can be found under the Directive Principles of State Policy. They represent the programme of reconstruction enunciated by Gandhi during the national movement. In order to fulfil the dreams of Gandhi, some of his ideas were included as Directive Principles.
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(1) To organise village panchayats and endow them with the necessary powers and authority to enable them to function as units of self-government (Article 40). (2) To promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operation basis in rural areas (Article 43). (3) To promote voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, democratic control and professional management of co-operative societies. (Article 43B). (4) To promote the educational and economic interests of SCs, STs, and other weaker sections of the society and to protect them from social injustice and exploitation (Article 46). (5) To prohibit the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to health (Article 47). (6) To prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves and other milch and draught cattle and to improve their breeds (Article 48). Apart from this, we can see that his idea of political decentralization (Gram Swaraj) was included in the constitution through 73rd/74th Constitution Amendment Act.
13. Case Study
The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) o To promote the idea of khadi which Gandhiji emphasized in his entire life, Parliament of India established The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) as a statutory body. o The broad objectives that the KVIC has set before itself are: . The social objective of providing employment. . The economic objective of producing saleable articles. . The wider objective of creating self-reliance amongst the poor and building up of a strong rural community spirit. o The KVIC is charged with the planning, promotion, organisation and implementation of programs for the development of Khadi and other village industries in the rural areas in coordination with other agencies engaged in rural development wherever necessary. o Khadi and Employment: Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) turnover crossed ₹74, 323 crore in 2018-19 with the sale of Khadi products witnessing a growth of over 145 per cent since 2014-15. o "Khadi has made an average jump of 62 per cent in Khadi fabric production in the last five years, that is, from 103.22 million square metres in 2014-15 to 170.80 million square metres in 2018-19. In fiscal 2014-15, the share of Khadi in overall textile production was 4.23 per cent, which, in the year 2018-19, has gone up to 8.49 per cent, which is almost double." o In the last three-a-and-a-half years, the KVIC had provided over 32, 000 new model charkhas (spinning wheels) and 5, 600 modern looms, which increased the Khadi production. o "During this duration, 376 new Khadi institutions have been added, along with over 40, 000 new Khadi artisans. The KVIC has also created employment through Khadi in the remotest parts of the country such as Leh, Ladakh, the Kaziranga forest, the Sundarbans in West engal etc., o Currently, KVIC employs five lakh people under Khadi category and 1.5 crore people under ‘village industries’.
The Anna Hazare of Ralegan-Siddhi o Kisan Baburao Hazare popularly known as Anna Hazare is an Indian social activist who led movements to promote rural development, increase government transparency, and investigate and punish corruption in public life. In addition to organising and encouraging grassroots movements, Hazare frequently conducted hunger strikes to further his causes—a tactic reminiscent, to many, of the work of Mohandas K. Gandhi. o Hazare started a hunger strike on 5 April 2011 to exert pressure on the Indian government to enact a stringent anti-corruption law, The Lokpal Bill, 2011 as envisaged in the Jan Lokpal Bill, for the institution of an ombudsman with the power to deal with corruption in public places. The fast led to nationwide protests in support. The fast ended on 9 April 2011, a day after the government accepted Hazare's demands. o The Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013 was passed due to his efforts.
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14. Quotes
I will give you a talisman. Whenever you are in doubt, or when the self becomes too much with you, apply the following test. Recall the face of the poorest and the weakest man [woman] whom you may have seen, and ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him [her]. Will he [she] gain anything by it? Will it restore him [her] to a control over his [her] own life and destiny? In other words, will it lead to swaraj [freedom] for the hungry and spiritually starving millions? Then you will find your doubts and your self melt away." Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever.” “The greatness of humanity is not in being human, but in being humane.” “In a gentle way, you can shake the world.” “I will not let anyone walk through my mind with their dirty feet.” “The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong.” “Freedom is not worth having if it does not include the freedom to make mistakes.” “We need not wait to see what others do.” “A ‘No’ uttered from deepest conviction is better than a ‘Yes’ merely uttered to please, or worse, to avoid trouble.” “The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others.” “To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is man's injustice to woman.” “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.” “Love is the strongest force the world possesses.” “Nonviolence is a weapon of the strong.” “A man is but the product of his thoughts. What he thinks, he becomes.” "An eye for an eye only ends up making the whole world blind".
Reference: Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal Gandhi Research Foundation
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Education 02
1. Previous year questions 4. Thinkers 2. Education: Various perspectives 5. Quotes 3. Gist of Reports
Introduction
Education is formally defined as the process of learning or the knowledge thus received. However, this is not to be confused with just attending any educational institution. The real meaning of education is to invite curiosity, inculcate the spirit of discovery and to imbibe certain desirable values.
1. Previous year questions
Destiny of a nation is shaped in its classrooms. -2017 Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make a man more clever devil-2015 Independent thinking should be encouraged right from the childhood. -2007 Are the standardized tests good measure of academic ability or progress? -2014 Irrelevance of the classroom. -2001 Is the growing level of competition good for the youth? -2014 Literacy is growing very fast, but there is no corresponding growth in education. -1996 Is an egalitarian society possible by educating the masses? -2008 What is real education? -2005 “Education for all” campaign in India: myth or reality. -2006 Restructuring of the Indian education system. -1995 Privatization of higher education in India. -2002 Credit-based higher education system – status, opportunities and challenges -2011 Modern technological education and human values. -2002 Value-based science and education. -1999 The march of science and the erosion of human values. -2001
2. Education: Various perspectives
2.1 Historical
In ancient times, education was restricted to the ruling class and the nobility. In India, the gurukul system was in vogue wherein student stayed with his Guru for education. Panchatantra is a series of stories authored by Vishnusharma in order to educate members of a royal family. Nalanda, Takshashila, Alexandria etc. were exalted centres of education. The industrial revolution also revolutionised education. Education was more need-based and aimed at getting a job. Colonial India saw a rise in English-based education. English education exposed our leaders to Universal ideas of revolution, humanism etc. Post liberalised India saw a spurt in privatisation and commercialisation of education in India.
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2.2 Social
The need for education Education completes a man and leads him on the path of enlightenment. It moulds his character and inculcates values. Education also removes doubts while instilling curiosity. This healthy scepticism removes superstition and fear from one's mind. Education helps a person break shackles of discrimination and nurture his self-esteem. This helps him in attaining dignity, social mobility and earning respect in the society Education also helps a man appreciate history, arts and other fields that make him human. Education nurtures in a person, respect for the environment and the need to look beyond economic utility when it comes to matters of ecology.
Other Issues Education, especially English education, has turned into a luxury commodity to be flaunted. The immense pressure of exams is taking a toll on the mental health of children. In some cases, it is driving them to suicide.
2.3 Political
Education imparts in a citizen awareness about his rights. It helps him organise and negotiate with the state in an effective manner. It also helps a citizen to make informed choices and evaluate the decisions made by the government. The preamble of the Indian Constitution states that every citizen is guaranteed equality of status and opportunity. Education is one way of achieving that. Education including technical education is in the Concurrent List. The Constitution also guarantees Right to Education as a Fundamental Right
Right to Education Act Requires the State to provide free and compulsory elementary education to all children. All children between the ages of six and 14 years shall have the right to free and compulsory elementary education in a neighbourhood school. 25% of students should be from disadvantaged and economically weaker groups. There are provisions for SC/ST reservations as well. No child shall be subject to physical punishment or mental harassment. Those officials that contravene this provision shall be liable for disciplinary action under the applicable service rules. A child above six years of age who are not enrolled in school or was unable to complete his education shall be enrolled in an age-appropriate class. Furthermore, these children have a right to receive special training in order to reach their peer group level. Elementary education shall be free until completion, even if the child is older than 14 years. The appropriate government (central or state government) shall specify an academic authority to develop the curriculum and evaluation procedure for elementary education. The academic authority shall consider Constitutional values, child-centred and trauma-free learning, and instruction in the mother tongue when developing the curriculum. Standards for teacher-pupil ratio, school infrastructure etc are also specified The National Commission for the Protection of Child Rights (established by the Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005) shall review the safeguards for rights provided under this Act. Source: Ministry of Human Resource and development, PRS Legislative Research
Other government initiatives Padhe Bharat, Badhe Bharat: a sub-programme under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, aims to improve the reading and writing skills of children in classes I and II, along with their mathematics skills.
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Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan: It is a centrally sponsored scheme with the objective to enhance access to secondary education. National Testing Agency: to conduct entrance examinations for higher educational institutions. Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan: A Centrally Sponsored Scheme to increase enrolment in higher education by 30% by 2020. Unnat Bharat Abhiyan: It is aimed at providing rural India with professional resource support from institutes of higher education to address the development challenges through appropriate technologies.
2.4 Technology and Modern Education
The Internet has started making campuses and brick-and-mortar buildings irrelevant. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are available freely to anyone with an internet connection. Indian satellite EDUSAT also was launched to meet the demand for an interactive satellite-based distance education system for the country. Though it has been decommissioned, India has a lot of initiatives like ‘Vidya Mitra’ to cater to the online education sector. SWAYAM portal has been set up by the government to provide digital learning thereby serving the underserved. Credit-based education has also made education more flexible. It helps students choose as per their aptitude/interest, and not according to peer pressure, or popularity of a subject. In the Indian context, skill-based education is gaining importance.
2.5 Economic
Education has a positive externality. The benefit of the education received is not limited to the individual, it spills over to the society. Many countries offer free and universal education including higher education. In India, the private sector has become a big part of education.
Challenges in the Indian Context
Schools Over 36 % of India’s schools do not have electricity. School buildings are not of the required standards or are diverted for purposes other than teaching. There is a predominance of primary schools which means that a large number of students might drop out or might have to travel further to go to secondary school. Access to toilets have improved but much more needs to be done. A crackdown on cheating caused a massive decline in the pass percentage of students in many states. This points to a lack of governance in education. This also points to an unhealthy obsession with examinations in our country. There is a shortage of qualified teachers and there is rampant teacher absenteeism as well. There is undue importance given to rote learning and critical thinking is subdued. Learning abilities are very low compared to other countries. There is undue political interference that tries to replace objective, scientific learning with narrow partisan ideologies.
Way Forward Government spending on education as a whole (not just school education) should be increased to at least 6% of GDP by 2022 from the present 3%. According to the World Bank, the world average is 4.7%. State governments should develop and formulate robust mechanisms to enforce regulations on teacher qualifications, teacher absenteeism, and learning outcomes. Small schools, especially in sparsely populated regions must be given transport facilities
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Greater emphasis should be put on continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE) to achieve the defined learning outcome. Remedial classes, if and when necessary, should be put in place in a timely and effective manner. Flexibility in education - Courses with fixed credits must be introduced with a set minimum credit to be earned to appear for the final examination. This will encourage students to learn subjects based on their interests. Students with an advanced aptitude in certain subjects must be mentored separately to nurture their talent. Design guidelines for states to implement vocational education at the school level. Additionally, the syllabus of vocational education must be updated regularly after consultations with all stakeholders. Life skills, including coping with failure/crises and stress management, should be included as part of the school curriculum. Easy and safe access to mental health support should be strengthened.
Higher Education Enrollment is skewed as the representation of females, backward castes and minorities in higher education institutions are less. Women are increasingly opting for higher education but in professional, technical and other streams like MBA, Law etc. the gap remains wide. There has been a gradual government withdrawal from higher education. About two-thirds of students have enrolled in private colleges while the rest attended government colleges Education has become costlier. Education was supposed to reduce the gap between various classes and promote equity. But ironically, the pursuit of education is widening these gaps. The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) in its assessment report pointed out that 68% of institutions in India are of middle or poor quality. Teachers are recruited on an ad-hoc basis, paid a pittance and are overworked. There is minimal support for original ideas and innovation. Many graduates do not apply for higher studies or research with just 0.4 % of graduates completing their PhDs Fake universities, colleges, journals etc are also causing a decline in quality. The curriculum is outdated and the employability of students coming out of colleges is very low.
Way Forward Overhaul regulatory framework and bring all forms of higher education including skill development under a single ministry Increase spending on education up to 6% of the GDP Promote quality in Pedagogy by offering lucrative salaries, incentives for original research etc. Diversify funding earmarked for research to include humanities and arts. Diversify sources of financing to include alumni funding, CSR funds etc. Create an institutionalised mechanism to review and update the curriculum after consultations with all stakeholders.
Private Schools in India The mushrooming of private schools in the country is a contentious issue. However, data available runs contrary to popular expectations about this issue. median ‘total course fee’ for 6-14-year-olds who attended private unaided schools in the country was ₹417 per month. only 3.6% of private unaided school attendees paid more than ₹2500 per month for ‘total course fee’ in 2014-15. Median fees were 6% of state per capita income, 43.4% of the per-pupil expenditure in government schools, and 9.7% of the annual minimum wage of daily wage labourers. Only 5.7% of private schools can be termed ‘elite’ in terms of tuition fees. (Source: District Information System for Education) There needs to be a wider debate about the use of school vouchers which gives parents more flexibility while choosing schools. We also need consultations regarding “public-funded” schools and its advantages and disadvantages in comparison with “public run” schools
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Foreign Universities and Private Universities in India Issue of Foreign Universities setting up campuses in India was a polarising issue. Many believed that foreign universities with better access to funds will be able to attract better faculty and facilities. This will lead to a concentration of quality within a few institutions. This puts at risk our Constitutional value of the equitable distribution of resources. While others believe that the higher education sector being opened up to private and foreign investments will infuse much-needed competition and will ultimately lead to an improvement in quality and standards.
2.6 Ethical Issues
There is an obsession with “showing off” educational degrees as status symbols The ultimate objective of education is to instill Empathy, compassion and a sense of Fraternity. However, education is now focussed on the ‘rat race’ called examinations. Values are being sacrificed at the altar of professional degrees and employment. Imparting vocational and skill-based education is a welcome move which will teach students the value of labour. However, there is a risk of a job being viewed as the ultimate objective of education. Dr. Ambedkar in one of his final messages asked the citizens to “Educate, agitate and organise”. Education should not be therefore seen in isolation. It is deeply linked to our political freedoms and rights. This aim of education to mould model citizens have taken a backseat in this hyper- consumerist society.
3. Gist of Reports
ASER Report The proportion of children (ages 6-14) who are not enrolled in school has fallen below 3% for the first time and stands at 2.8% in 2018. The overall proportion of girls in the 11 to 14 age group out of school has fallen to 4.1%. This figure is more than 5% in only 4 states. Further, ten years ago in 2008, nationally, more than 20% of girls in the 15 to 16 age group were not enrolled in school. In 2018, this figure has decreased to 13.5%. The difference between the number of girls and boys enrolled in schools has also come down. The percentage of children (age 6-14) enrolled in private school was 30.6% in 2016 and is almost unchanged at 30.9% in 2018. Additionally, there has been a decrease in private school enrolment in many states. Nationally, in 2018, 4 out of 10 government primary schools visited had less than 60 students enrolled. This number has increased every year over the last decade. It was 26.1% in 2009, 30% in 2011, 33.1% in 2013, 39.8% in 2016, and stands at 43.3% in 2018. At the all India level, no major change is seen in students' and teachers' attendance. Nationally, substantial improvements are visible over this 8-year period (2010-2018) in the availability of many school facilities mandated by RTE. The fraction of schools with usable girls' toilets doubled, reaching 66.4% in 2018. The proportion of schools with boundary walls increased by 13.4 percentage points, standing at 64.4% in 2018. The percentage of schools with a kitchen shed increased from 82.1% to 91%, and the proportion of schools with books other than textbooks available increased from 62.6% to 74.2% over the same period. However, stark differences exist between states. Slightly more than half (50.3%) of all children enrolled in Std V can read at least a Std II level text. Even though many states have shown improvement in the arithmetic skills of students, the overall national metric has not shown a significant rise. For the age group 14 to 16, the all India figure for the proportion of girls who can read at least an Std II level text is very similar to that of boys. In basic arithmetic, boys seem to hold a substantial advantage. Nationally, 50% of all boys in the age group 14 to 16 can correctly solve a division problem as compared to 44% of all girls.
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There is an increase in enrolments in private schools. Students of private schools fare relatively better in performance. However, this is a relative phenomenon and in absolute terms students of private schools also face the same learning challenges as in public schools.
Draft National Education Policy, 2019
Key observations and recommendations of the draft Policy include: School Education 1. Early Childhood Care and Education: the draft Policy recommends developing a two-part curriculum for early childhood care and education. This will consist of: (i) guidelines for up to three-year-old children (for parents and teachers), and (ii) educational framework for three to eight-year-old children. This would be implemented by improving and expanding the Anganwadi system and co-locating anganwadis with primary schools. 2. The Right to Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act): It recommends extending the ambit of the RTE Act to include early childhood education and secondary school education. 3. Curriculum framework: The current structure of school education must be restructured on the basis of the development needs of students. It recommends that the curriculum load in each subject should be reduced to its essential core content. This would make space for holistic, discussion and analysis-based learning. 4. Teacher management: For teacher training, the existing B.Ed. programme will be replaced by a four-year integrated B.Ed. program that combines high-quality content, pedagogy, and practical training. An integrated continuous professional development will also be developed for all subjects. Teachers will be required to complete a minimum of 50 hours of continuous professional development training every year. 5. The draft Policy recommends establishing a National Research Foundation, an autonomous body, for funding, mentoring and building the capacity for quality research in India. 6. Education Governance: It recommends the creation of a National Education Commission or Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog, as an apex body for education, to be headed by the Prime Minister. This body will be responsible for developing, implementing, evaluating, and revising the vision of education in the country on a continuous and sustained basis. It will oversee the implementation and functioning of several bodies. 7. Vocational Education: It recommends integrating vocational educational programmes in all educational institutions (schools, colleges and universities) in a phased manner over a period of 10 years. 8. Education and Indian Languages: it recommended that the medium of instruction must either be the home language/mother-tongue/local language till grade five and preferable until grade eight, wherever possible. The draft Policy recommended that this three language formula be continued and flexibility in the implementation of the formula should be provided.
Higher Education 1. Increase Gross Enrollment Ratio to 50% by 2035 from the current level of about 25.8% 2. It proposes setting up the National Higher Education Regulatory Authority (NHERA). This independent authority would replace the existing individual regulators in higher education, including professional and vocational education. 3. The role of the University Grants Commission (UGC) will be limited to providing grants to higher educational institutions. 4. The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) will be made independent from the UGC. NAAC will function as the top-level accreditor and will issue licenses to different accreditation institutions, who will assess higher educational institutions once every five to seven years. All existing higher education institutions should be accredited by 2030. 5. Newly constituted higher educational institutions must receive accreditation as mandated by NHERA within five years of establishment based on a set of transparent criteria set by NHERA. 6. Higher education institutions will be restructured into three types: (i) research universities focusing equally on research and teaching; (ii) teaching universities focusing primarily on teaching; and (iii) colleges focusing only on teaching at undergraduate levels. All such institutions will gradually move towards full autonomy - academic, administrative, and financial.
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7. The draft Policy recommends establishing a National Research Foundation, an autonomous body, for funding, mentoring and building the capacity for quality research in India. 8. Creation of a National Education Commission or Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog, as an apex body for education, to be headed by the Prime Minister. This body will be responsible for developing, implementing, evaluating, and revising the vision of education in the country on a continuous and sustained basis. It will oversee the implementation and functioning of several bodies including the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), the proposed National Higher Education Regulatory Authority, and the National Research Foundation. 9. National Mission on Education through information and communication technology: The Mission will encompass virtual laboratories that provide remote access to laboratories in various disciplines. A National Education Technology Forum will also be set up under the Mission, as an autonomous body, to facilitate decision making on the induction, deployment and use of technology. 10. The Draft Policy reaffirmed the commitment of spending 6% of GDP as public investment in education. The draft Policy seeks to double the public investment in education from the current 10% of total public expenditure to 20% in the next 10 years. 11. The Draft Policy recommends that all school students must receive vocational education in at least one vocation in grades nine to 12.
4. Thinkers
Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda is one of the foremost philosophers and thinkers of India. His views on education were a clear departure from the established Western perspective. He viewed education as a process of “Man making”. That is instilling the necessary values that enable a person to become self-aware of his own potential He opined that "The education that does not help the common mass of people to equip themselves for the struggle for life, which does not bring out the strength of character, a spirit of philanthropy and the courage of a lion - is it worth the name? He also emphasised a lot on creating the right environment for education and learning through experience. “The present system of education is all wrong. The mind is crammed with facts before it knows how to think.” - Swami Vivekananda. He believed that physical education is an important part of the learning process. He often quoted the phrase from the Upanishad, ‘Nayam Atma balahinena labhya’; which means the self cannot be realized by the physically weak. The focus of Swami Vivekananda’s vision on education was not short benefits in terms of jobs or money but the slow moulding of a human being into an ideal citizen with a strong cultural and moral foundation His vision is aligned with the Directive Principle of developing “ scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform”.”
Mahatma Gandhi Gandhiji realized that the social, moral and economic progress of a country ultimately depends on Education. He believed that "The end of all knowledge must be building up of character. " Gandhiji strongly believed that education is not an end in itself but it is the most powerful weapon which creates all persons of genuine characters. There is degeneration of education when the qualities of truthfulness, firmness, tolerance are absence from it. True education is a life process which helps in cultivating the spirit of cooperation, tolerance, public spirit and a sense of responsibility. He also emphasized the need for physical education and training in handicrafts. He aimed at raising the social status of the teachers
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The objectives of education according to him Formation of good character, To be ideal citizen, To have democratic ideals, Self-Reliance, All round development, Complete Development, Character formation etc.
5. Quotes
An investment in knowledge pays the best interest. – Benjamin Franklin “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.” - Chinese Proverb Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today. – Malcolm X The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet. – Aristotle “Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever.” ― Mahatma Gandhi “Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make a man a more clever devil.” ― C.S. Lewis “Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire.” ― W.B. Yeats Education is the premise of progress, in every society, in every family. – Kofi Annan Education is a better safeguard of liberty than a standing army. – Edward Everett “Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.” ― Aristotle
References 1. Ministry of Human resources and development. 2. District Information System for Education 3. ASER Centre - Pratham Education Foundation. 4. Various government websites.
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Agriculture 03
1. Previous Year Questions 3. Quotes 2. Agriculture 4. References
1. Previous Year Questions
Q. Farming has lost the ability to be a source of subsistence for the majority of farmers in India.
Introduction Highlighting the importance of agriculture, M. S Swaminathan-father of India's Green Revolution asserts that “The future belongs to countries with grains and not guns”. With a population of 1.3 billion, India is the world's second-most populous country. It is the seventh-largest country in the world with an area of 3.288 million sq km but has one of the highest percentages of arable land among larger countries. When we consider geographical and agro-climatic diversity, India is unique. It has 127 different agro-climatic zones (ICAR). India's climate varies from humid and dry tropical in the south to temperate alpine in the northern reaches and has a great agro-ecological diversity. India is the world's largest producer of pulses, milk and jute, and ranks as the second-largest producer of wheat, rice, sugarcane, groundnut, vegetables, fruit and cotton (country witnessed record food grain production in 2017-18). It is also one of the leading producers of spices, fish, poultry, livestock and plantation crops. Considering the sheer size of its arable land and human resources, India can not only feed her population but also has the potential of becoming the breadbasket of the world thereby reducing hunger and conflicts.
2. Agriculture
What is Agriculture The science, art, or practice of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock and in varying degrees the preparation and marketing of the resulting products. (As per Merriam- webster dictionary) Agriculture is defined as a primary economic activity. The impact of agriculture has been profound on humanity, be it social, political, cultural, ecological, environmental, security, or strategic. In fact, without agriculture, human civilisation cannot exist.
A brief history of agriculture and its impact on human civilisation: Humans were hunter-gatherers and lived a nomadic lifestyle before they started practising agriculture. Shifting from nomadic to farming was a gradual process that started in Neolithic Era probably in the Indus Valley, and possibly as a separate development in China along the Yangtze River, also in Mesopotamia, South America and sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of the world. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the world and included diverse tools, inputs and practices. It was so, not due to human differences from place to place, but due to differences in indigenous plants and animals and local climate and geography. The first crops
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were emmer wheat and barley and some wild cereals, which were high in protein and easy to domesticate. As time went on, humans became more and more sophisticated at breeding the plants and livestock that best suited the local climate. Today’s diverse and exotic crops are a result of thousands of years of human selection and breeding from original, wild forms. This breeding of plants and animals had significantly increased the availability of human consumable calories per unit area, thereby increasing the possibility of origins of permanent human settlements. To put this in perspective, experts believe that there were six to ten million people lived on Earth before the Neolithic era. In the next thousand year, the population multiplied many folds. In roughly 10, 000 to 15, 000 years, advances in agriculture have allowed the human population to become roughly 1000 times larger. Permanent homes, improved agricultural practices, agricultural societies were able to produce more food than hunter-foragers; and thereby saving enough time and energy to experiment with cultivating seeds and breeding animals without the risk of starvation while supporting denser populations. Since every moment no longer had to be spent on worrying about food, new crafts and professions, such as that of the potter, baker, metallurgist, and engineer started developing that further increased agricultural productivity and increased population density even more. As food was grown and stored more efficiently, populations increased and settlements grew larger, creating both the incentive and the means to produce even more food on more land. Having a large population nearby made it worthwhile as they could trade this surplus for other goods and services. For non-farmers, this meant that they could focus on making other goods and trading these goods for food and other things. Populations and food production kept increasing and so did technology, trade and exchanges of thought, expressions, beliefs and ideas. Thereby making the transformation of Homo Sapiens from merely an ‘animal’ to a ‘civilised human’.
Indian Agriculture
Agriculture during Colonial Times: India's land system underwent far-reaching changes under the impact of British rule. The agriculture sector was suffering from stagnation and constant degeneration due to following reasons.
Indian economy on the eve of independence The result of colonial policies was low productivity and high vulnerability of Indian agriculture to vagaries of rainfall.
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Political independence, although, did not change overnight the agrarian situation, it set in motion a process which through a planned economy and extensive state intervention intended to stimulate capital accumulation for capitalist development. The reversal of the colonial legacy of agricultural stagnation was the prime focus of government after independence this can be highlighted by the fact that Pt. Nehru, advocated that “Everything, except agriculture, can wait”. The objective of the first five-year plan was to achieve self-sufficiency in food production, so the highest preference was given to agriculture. It highlighted the need to combine simultaneously, investment in rural infrastructure, scientific agriculture and the transformation of the traditional hierarchy of interests in the land so as to enable the actual tillers of the soil to adopt new methods of production and, at the same time enhance their own well-being. The Land Reforms were thus accompanied with updated agricultural technology and huge investment in irrigation and other infrastructure as a part of the overall planned development. The Third Plan which aimed a 5% annual growth rate failed in its objective due to multiple reasons like wars, successive monsoon failures in 1965 and 1966 leading to burdened agriculture, high inflation in food prices and adverse balance of payment situation. This lead to increased reliance on foreign aid and food imports and made India vulnerable to situation wherein the USA which was the largest donor suspended its aid citing the Indo-Pak War and the PL-480 wheat loan was also not renewed on a long-term basis, in order to pressurise India to accept the World Bank-IMP policies to open its market to developed countries. A system of regulated marketing and a regime of administered prices was implemented to put an end to fraudulent marketing practices and to reduce the prices of food. Also, a comprehensive Intensive Agricultural Development Programme (IADP) which targeted a few districts and through extension services and intensive - input usage sought to generate growth impulses in the surrounding areas, employment generation programmes, cooperation, decentralisation, price and market regulations and credit policies. The 'New Agricultural Strategy' was introduced, which laid emphasis on the use of modern technology and inputs like High Yielding Variety (HYV) of seeds of wheat and rice combined with nitrogenous fertilisers and mechanisation in areas with assured irrigation and came to be called the 'Green Revolution'.
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The dissemination of 'Green Revolution' techniques as a consolidated package of subsidised inputs in areas with assured irrigation with the extension of cheap credit initiated from 1960 onwards aimed at giving an impetus to self-sufficiency in food grain production. The adoption of the New Agricultural Strategy witnessed the modernisation of agriculture and a significant rise in foodgrain production was achieved; thereby helping India to unilaterally terminate the PL480 agreement. Green Revolution (GR) also drastically altered the cropping pattern and the methods of production. And the Green revolution was restricted to only certain regions of the country. During the 1990s, the strong inflationary tendency acted as an exogenous influence on the agrarian sector and led to economic impoverishment.of the agricultural workers. India embarked on the path of neo-liberal economic policies leading to agriculture getting integrated into the global agricultural business. It is for the first time in the history of multilateral trade negotiations that agriculture has been brought under the purview of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1994. It aims at eliminating distortions in the global trade of agricultural by lowering domestic support to agriculture, export subsidies, eliminating non-tariff barriers, and so on. Contradictory to the belief that such an integration of agriculture with the global market would provide an opportunity of level playing to all the members of WTO. But that is not the case as the development stage, the sectoral composition of income and workforce, marketable surplus and competitive capability of the developed, the developing and the least developed countries are not the same. This is evident from the current challenges in Indian agriculture.
Indian agriculture- current situation Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is the largest source of livelihoods in India. 54.6% of the total workforce is engaged in agricultural and allied sector activities (Census 2011) and accounts for 17.1% of the country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) for the year 2017-18 (at current prices). (Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare). Agriculture Gross Value Added (GVA): As per the estimates of National Income released by the Central Statistics Office (CSO), Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, the agriculture and allied sectors contributed approximately 16.0% of India’s GVA at current prices during 2018-19.
Source: Central Statistics office, Ministry of statistics and programme implementation, Govt. of India There has been a continuous decline in the share of agriculture and allied sectors in the GVA from 18.2% in 2014-15 to 16.0% in 2018-19.
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As per the Land Use Statistics 2014- 15, the total geographical area of the country is 328.7 million hectares, of which 140.1 million hectares is the reported net sown area and 198.4 million hectares is the gross cropped area with a cropping intensity of 142%. The net area sown works out to be 43% of the total geographical area. The net irrigated area is 68.4 million hectares. With 82% of farmers being small and marginal.
Production Scenario 2017-18
India is the world's largest producer of milk, pulses and jute, and ranks as the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut, vegetables, fruit and cotton. It is also one of the leading producers of spices, fish, poultry, livestock and plantation crops.
TYPES OF FARMING Over these years, cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of the physical environment, technological know-how and socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from subsistence to commercial type. At present, in different parts of India, the following farming systems are practised.
1. Primitive Subsistence Farming: This type of farming is still practised in a few pockets of India (called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in
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Odisha, ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region) Primitive subsistence agriculture is practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour. This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown. Land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer does not use fertilisers or other modern inputs. It is known by different names in different parts of the country. 2. Intensive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production like Gangetic plains. 3. Commercial Farming The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one region to another. For example, rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.
3.1 Plantation: It is a type of commercial farming.
In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area. The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry. Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, usually with the help of migrant labourers. Since the production is mainly for the market, a well-developed network of transport and communication play an important role in the development of plantations. In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc are important plantation crops. Tea in Assam and North Bengal, coffee in Karnataka are some of the important plantation crops grown in these states.
CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA
Kharif (Kharif means autumn in Arabic) -grown with the onset of monsoon and these are harvested in September-October; i.e, Monsoon Crops Crops grown during this season: Paddy, maize, jawar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soybean. Some of the most important rice-growing regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra. RABI - Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Example: wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard. Zaid -Sowing between Kharif and Rabi. Requires warm & dry weather for growth and a longer day-length for flowering. Example: Seasonal fruits like watermelon, muskmelon, and vegetables.
AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES IN INDIA An “Agro-climatic zone” is a land unit in terms of major climates, suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars. The planning aims at scientific management of regional resources to meet the food, fibre, fodder and fuelwood without adversely affecting the status of natural resources and environment. Agro-climatic conditions mainly refer to soil types, rainfall, temperature and water availability which influence the type of vegetation.
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With the 329 million hectares of the geographical area, the country presents a large number of complex agro-climatic situations.
Source: Planning Commission
Problems faced by Indian agriculture: Low Productivity: Although India has attained self-sufficiency in food staples, the productivity of its farms is below that of Brazil, the United States, France and other nations. o Indian wheat farms, for example, produce about a third of the wheat per hectare per year compared to farms in France. Rice productivity in India was less than half that of China o Several studies suggest India could eradicate its hunger and malnutrition and be a major source of food for the world by achieving productivity comparable with other countries.
Reasons: 1. Rainfed agriculture and close to 53 per cent of the cropped area is water-stressed. 2. Monsoon vagaries. 3. Close of one-third of India’s soil has turned problematic. The organic matter content has been reduced to a critical level of 0.3% to 0.5%. 4. Unscientific use of fertilizers. 5. Use of low-quality seeds. 6. Low adoption of improved technology. 7. Knowledge deficit about improved agricultural practices. 8. Inefficient extension delivery systems have led to the presence of large yield gaps as well.
Infrastructure: 1. Poor forward and backward linkages in Agriculture with industry. 2. Lack of irrigation facility. 3. In the electricity sector, separate feeders for the supply of power to agriculture and domestic electrification have not been carried out in many states. 4. Poor post harvest mechanisms- like Transport, storage, price discovery mechanisms and so on. 5. Poor maintenance of rural roads is a major constraint as well. Linkages with local and feeder roads remain suboptimal.
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6. Existing marketing infrastructure suffers because of a lack of finances, manpower and proper facilities.
Structural problems: 1. Fragmented land holdings: Extremely fragmented landholding structure with an average farm size of 1.15 hectares and the predominance of small and marginal farmers, with those holding less than 2 hectares (accounting for 85% of agricultural households). 2. Tenancy laws. Institutional problems: 1. Credit: Despite the allocation of more than INR 11 lakh crore of commercial credit, access to institutional credit remains a constraint, especially in the case of tenant farmers. 2. Research and development 3. Agricultural extension. Agricultural trade: Exporters of agro-commodities are not successful in raising their share in global markets because of uncertainty in the foreign trade regime.
Water and Agriculture: Agriculture is the biggest user of water, accounting for about 80% of the water withdrawals. In India, according to the Asian Water Development Outlook, 2016, almost 89 per cent of groundwater extracted is for irrigation. There is a major concern whether the present practice of groundwater use can be sustained as the depth of the groundwater level continues to drop. By 2050, India will be in the global hot spot for ‘water insecurity ’. The cropping pattern in India is highly skewed towards crops that are water-intensive. The incentive structures like MSP, heavily subsidized electricity, water and fertilizers have played a significant role in the misalignment of crop patterns in the country. 'The water guzzlers, paddy and sugarcane, consume more than 60 per cent of irrigation water available in the country, thereby reducing water availability for other crops'. The use of flood irrigation, choice of crops that are water-intensive is placing a severe burden on our water resources. Groundwater is used to cultivate some of the most water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane in states like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Additionally, there is a concern described in the economic survey that we are exporting water- intensive crops, which in turn means that we are exporting water. State procurement policy, Minimum support price, free electricity for farming provide perverse incentives to the farmers to select water-intensive crops and use unscientific methods of irrigation. It is projected that availability of water for agricultural use in India may be reduced by 21% by 2020, resulting: in the drop of yields of irrigated crops, especially rice, thus price rise and withdrawal of food from poor masses. Policy reforms are needed from now to avoid the negative developments in the years to come. These reforms may include the establishment of secure water rights to users, the decentralization and privatization of water. management functions to appropriate levels, pricing reforms, markets in tradable property rights, and the introduction of appropriate water-saving technologies A combination of measures which suit the local agro-economic context needs to be applied to improve irrigation productivity in agriculture which will reflect sustainable water use in agriculture. In this regard, the focus in agriculture should shift from ‘land productivity’ to ‘irrigation water productivity’. Therefore, devising policies to incentivise farmers to adopt efficient ways of water use should become a national priority to avert the looming water crisis. Farmers should be given adequate incentives to switch to shift to crops like millets which require much less water and are climate-resilient. Secondly, the spread of drip and sprinkler irrigation systems should be increased rapidly with state support. Thirdly, new agronomic practices like
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sub-surface irrigation raised bead planting ridge-furrow method of sowing, and precision farming etc which have the potential to reduce water use in agriculture should also be adopted. The old culture in our society is that we own the water under our land. This has to change and governments have to come up with a plan to licence and regulate consumption. The needs of other sectors for water cannot be ignored. Therefore it is necessary that an integrated water use policy is formulated and judiciously implemented. Several international initiatives on this aspect have been taken in recent years like Pradhan Mantri Krishi Shichai Yojana, watershed development and so on. India should critically examine these initiatives and develop its country-specific system for judicious and integrated use and management of water. A national institution should be established to assess the various issues, regulatory concerns, water laws and legislations, research and technology development and dissemination, social mobilization and participatory and community involvement, including gender and equity concerns and economic aspects. This institution should function in a trusteeship mode and seen as the flagship of a national system for sustainable water security.
The agricultural price policy The Price Support Policy of the Government is directed at providing insurance to agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices.
Minimum Support Price (MSP) It is a form of market intervention by the Government of India to insure agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices. The minimum support prices are announced by the Government of India at the beginning of the sowing season for certain crops on the basis of the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP). MSP is price fixed by the Government of India to protect the producer - farmers - against excessive fall in price during bumper production years. The major objectives are to support the farmers from distress sales and to procure food grains for public distribution. In case the market price for the commodity falls below the announced minimum price due to bumper production and glut in the market, government agencies purchase from the farmers at the announced minimum price. The Commission takes into account, apart from a comprehensive view of the entire structure of the economy of a particular commodity or group of commodities which includes Cost of production, Changes in input prices, Input-output price parity, Effect on issue prices and implications for subsidy and so.
The agricultural price policy in India has succeeded in establishing certainty and confidence in respect of the prices of agricultural commodities through the fixation of minimum support prices. But there is some degree of uncertainty and instability in prices were experienced by the farmers due to Problems like delay in the setting up of procurement centres, exploitation by commission agents defeat the purpose of MSP. Issues of middlemen appear to be causing disparities in the price. Standards for Quality Check. Again raising the minimum support prices and procurement prices offered an incentive to the producers to increase their production but these benefits were mostly restricted to large farmers. A continuous increase in MSP of certain crops has resulted changed cropping pattern which might not be best suited as per geo-climatic conditions. Also, a negative aspect is that this has led to increasing the price of food grains resulting in hardships to the rural poor and landless labourers.
There is a need for proper information decimation about the announcement of MSP for various crops growers across the country; so that then they may have to take a call on what to grow.
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Also, the calculation of MSP needs to be based on considering not only economic aspects but it should also consider socio-environmental aspects as well.
Government Initiatives:
Doubling the income of farmers
The Government has set a target of doubling of farmers’ income by the year 2022. For the said purpose, the Government had constituted an Inter-Ministerial Committee to examine issues relating to Doubling of Farmers’ Income (DFI) and recommend strategies. The Committee has identified seven sources of income growth viz, 1. Improvement in crop productivity 2. Improvement in livestock productivity 3. Resource use efficiency or savings in the cost of production 4. Increase in the cropping intensity 5. Diversification towards high-value crops 6. Improvement in real prices received by farmers 7. Shift from farm to non-farm occupations.
Several initiatives have already been rolled out on the recommendations of DFI Committee which inter-alia include advocating progressive market reforms through the State Governments, like: 1. Encouraging contract farming through the State Governments by promulgating of the Model Contract Farming Act. 2. Up-gradation of Gramin Haats to work as centres of aggregation and for direct purchase of agricultural commodities from the farmers. 3. e-NAM to provide farmers with an electronic online trading platform. 4. Distribution of Soil Health Cards to farmers so that the use of fertilizers can be rationalized, Increase water efficiency through Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)-“ Per drop more crop”, 5. Better insurance coverage to crops for risk mitigation under Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), 6. providing total interest subvention up to 5 per cent (inclusive of 3 per cent prompt repayment incentive) on short-term crop loans up to R3 lakh, thus making loan available to farmers at a reduced rate of 4 per cent per annum and extended the facility of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) for animal husbandry and fisheries-related activities as well as Interest Subvention facilities to such categories of farmers. 7. Giving a major boost for the farmers’ income, the Government has approved the increase in the Minimum Support Price (MSPs) for all Kharif & Rabi crops for the 2018-19 season at a level of at least one and half times of the cost of production. 8. Further, with a view to providing a social security net for small and marginal farmers, the Government has decided to implement a new Central Sector Scheme for providing a pension of R3000/- to the eligible small and marginal farmers. 9. The Government has also constituted an Empowered Body for monitoring the implementation of the recommendations of the DFI Strategy. List of initiatives: Land and Soil o National Project on Soil Health and Fertility o National Action Programme to Combat Desertification o Soil Health Card. o Promotion of practices like Organic Farming and Zero Budget Natural Farming. Water and Irrigation o Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)
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o Watershed development programme. o Promotion of local, traditional irrigation practices like Johad, Bunds, Panlot etc. Seed and plant varieties: o National Seed Policy 2002 o The Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers RightAct, 2001 (PPVFR Act) o Sub-mission on Seeds and Planting material under National Mission on Agricultural Technology o The seeds Act o Seed Village Scheme o Establishment and maintenance of Seed Bank o Assistance for Boosting Seed Production in the Private Sector Fertilizers: o Revamping Urea Production o Neem Coating of Urea o DBT for Fertilizers Scientific Know-how and Human Resource Development (HRD) Support o National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET) o Use of ICT like app Pusa Krishi o Use of Mass Media o Model Training Courses (MTCs) o Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services for Input Dealers (DAESI) o National Gender Resource Centre in Agriculture (NGRCA) o Farmers’ Portal (www.farmer.gov.in) Agriculture Mechanization: o Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM) was launched in the year 2014-15 o The SAMPADA scheme Credit and financial inclusion: o Reforming Priority Sector Lending o Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana o Increased allocation in Budget o Interest Subvention Scheme o Kisan Credit Cards o Promotion of Farmers Cooperatives/SHGs o Promoting of Joint Liability Groups (JLGs) by Banks. Agricultural Marketing and Post-Harvest Mechanisms: o Integrated Scheme for Agricultural Marketing (ISAM). It aims to . promote agri-marketing through the creation of marketing and agribusiness infrastructure including storage, . incentivize agri-market reforms, . provide market linkages to farmers, . provide access to agri-market information and . Support quality certification of agriculture commodities. o National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) o Formulation of the Model Contract Farming (Promotion & Facilitation) Act, 2017 o 22, 000 Rural hats to be upgraded and turned into Gramin Agricultural Markets (GrAMs) - Budget 2018-19 o Also the promotion of value chain and supportive infrastructure in villages. o Encouragement to Organic farming by Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and Village Producers Organizations (VPOs) The Scheme For Agro-Marine Processing And Development Of Agro-Processing Clusters National e-Governance Plan– Agriculture (Centrally Sponsored Scheme) (NeGPA).
Gender Perspective in Agriculture/Feminization of Agriculture: The gender perspective in agriculture has also been witnessing changing trends. The increased feminisation of agriculture is mainly due to increased rural-urban migration by men, the rise of
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women-headed households and growth in the production of cash crops which are labour intensive in nature. Women play a significant and crucial role in agriculture including crop production, livestock production, horticulture, postharvest operations, agro/social forestry, fisheries, etc. The agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women comprising of 33% agricultural labour force and 48% of self-employed farmers in the country. Increase in the percentage of female operational holders during different Agriculture Censuses indicates the participation of more and more women in the operation and management of agricultural holdings in the country. The share of operational holdings cultivated by women has increased from 11.7 per cent in 2005- 06 to 13.9 per cent in 2015-16.
National Policy on Farmers 2007 has included “mainstreaming the human and gender dimensions in all farm policies and programmes as one of the major policy goals.” Accordingly, Gender Mainstreaming initiatives are being promoted by way of building their capacities and improving their access to inputs, technologies and other farming resources. Mainstreaming of gender concerns is being addressed by o Earmarking 30% of funds for women under various major schemes/programmes and development interventions; o Taking pro-women initiatives to help women derive the benefits of the beneficiary–oriented components of various programmes/ schemes and missions. o Focus is also being given on formation of women Self Help Groups (SHGs), capacity building interventions, linking them to microcredit, enhancing their access to information and ensuring their representation in decision making bodies at various levels. o The National Gender Resource Centre in Agriculture (NGRCA) of the Department of Agricultural Cooperation and Family Welfare (DAC&FW) is established in Extension Division. Realizing that it is ‘Gender’ that differentiates the roles, responsibilities, resources, constraints and opportunities of women and men in agriculture, precise gender information is the need of the hour. Incorporating gender into agricultural development will lead to: Building inherent strength of women and men to mutually learn; Overcoming gender-based prejudices; Articulating gender perspectives in development activities
Altogether this may not only enhance the production and productivity of the agricultural sector and improve overall national food security but would also smoothen the transition of women from being beneficiaries of the programmes & Schemes to their active participation in shaping the empowerment.
Climate change and its Impact on Agriculture: The official definition by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is that climate change is the change that can be attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
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Climate change - the increased frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods and storms is the most challenging issue of our age. Increase in aerosols, emission of greenhouse gases such as Carbon Dioxide due to burning of fossil fuels, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) etc., the “human hand” in deforestation in the form of forest fires and loss of wetlands are causal factors for weather extremes. The loss of forest cover, which normally intercepts rainfall and allows it to be absorbed by the soil, causes precipitation to reach across the land eroding topsoil and causes floods and droughts. The climate sensitivity of agriculture is uncertain, as there is regional variation in rainfall, temperature, crops and cropping systems, soils and management practices. Impact of climate change on agriculture will be one of the major deciding factors influencing the future food security of mankind on the earth. Agriculture is not only sensitive to climate change but also one of the major drivers for climate change.
Projected Impact Worst effect on rice and wheat yields worldwide and decreased yields could threaten the food security of 1.6 billion people in South Asia. The crop model indicates that in South Asia, average yields in 2050 for crops will decline from 2000 levels by about 50% for wheat, 17% for rice, and about 6% for maize because of climate change. In a no-climate change scenario, the number of malnourished children in South Asia would fall from 76 to 52 million between 2000 and 2050, and from 24 to 10 million in East Asia and the Pacific. Climate change will erase some of this progress, causing the number of malnourished children in 2050 to rise to 59 million in South Asia and to 14 million in East Asia and the Pacific, increasing the total number of malnourished children in Asia by about 11 million. Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, and Nepal are particularly vulnerable to declining crop yields due to glacial melting, floods, droughts, and erratic rainfall, among other factors. Asia is the most disaster-afflicted region in the world, accounting for about 89% of people affected by disasters worldwide. In India, as our economy is more dependent on Agriculture. Interestingly, weather extremes of the opposite in nature like cold and heat waves and floods and droughts are noticed within the same year over the same region or in different regions and likely to increase in ensuing decades.
Initiatives: India has in place a detailed policy, regulatory and legislative structure that relates strongly to GHG mitigation. The National Action Plan on Climate Change, representing multi-pronged, long-term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in the context of climate change with sub-mission National Water Mission and National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture.
Coping options for Farmers: Awareness on Climate Change: Farmers need to be sensitized on climate variability, climate change, its impact on crop production, and coping options. Agromet Advisories: Bulletins are prepared taking into account the prevailing weather, soil and crop condition and weather prediction along with measures/practices/ suggestions. An Insurance Product based on a Weather Index Contingency Planning: District-specific plan devised for an exceptional risk, which is impractical or impossible to avoid. The plan containing details on the crops and cultivation practices to be adopted in case of deficient or delay in monsoon, unseasonal rains, frosts or unusually high temperature, excessive rains etc Demonstration of Climate Resilient Technologies o Natural resource management: Interventions on in-situ moisture conservation, rainwater harvesting and recycling for supplemental irrigation, improved drainage in flood-prone areas, conservation tillage, groundwater recharge and water-saving irrigation methods etc.
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o Crop Production: Introducing drought/temperature tolerant varieties, paddy cultivation methods (SRI, aerobic, direct seeding), frost management in horticulture through fumigation, community nurseries for delayed monsoon, custom hiring centres for farm machinery for timely planting, location-specific intercropping systems with high sustainable yield index etc o Livestock and Fisheries: Augmentation of fodder production during droughts/floods, improving the productivity of Common Property Resources (CPRs), promotion of improved fodder/feed storage methods, preventive vaccination, improved shelters for reducing heat/cold stress, management of fish ponds/tanks during water scarcity and flooding etc. Institutional Interventions: Institutional interventions, either by strengthening the existing ones or initiating new ones, relating to the seed bank, fodder bank, custom hiring centre, collective marketing, and introduction of weather index-based insurance and climate literacy through a village level weather station.
Climate-smart agriculture- Way forward
CSA attempts to address three interconnected challenges: raising productivity and incomes, adapting to climate change and contributing to climate change mitigation. This, in turn, implies that farms have to become more efficient in their input use. CSA is not a ‘one-size fits all’ approach. Local factors must be considered when designing CSA initiatives. Farmers will need to be supported both technically and financially as they adopt CSA practices, relevant to their geography. For instance, Zero Budget Natural Farming is gaining some traction in India. This is an integrated farming system, which shuns the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in favour of locally available materials. Inherently sustainable in nature, this practice lends itself well in developing resilience and mitigating the influence of climate change.
The adverse impact of CC on the livelihood of farmers is tremendous. The whole climate change is associated with increasing greenhouse gases and human-induced aerosols and the imbalance between them may lead to uncertainty even in year-to-year monsoon behaviour over India. Therefore, there should be a determined effort from developed and developing countries to make industrialization environment-friendly by reducing greenhouse gases pumping into the atmosphere. In the same fashion, awareness programmes on climate change and its effects on various sectors viz., agriculture, health, infrastructure, water, forestry, fisheries, land and ocean biodiversity and sea level and the role played by human interventions in climate change need to be taken up on priority basis. In the process, lifestyles of people should also be changed so as not to harm the earth's atmosphere continuum by pumping greenhouse gases and CFCs.
Some success Stories/Best Practices: 1. Biodiversity: o Community Managed Food Forest of Khoskadampur village District Birbhum of West Bengal) o The Deccan Development Society (DDS), a grassroots volunteer organisation working in the rural areas of Medak District, since the last decade and a half, has been critically looking at the role of uncultivated foods, especially in improving the lives of the rural poor. 2. Soil conservation and Water o Conservation bench terracing for south-eastern Rajasthan to prevent damages from high intensity and erratic rains associated with poor soil permeability creates excessive runoff and severe erosion hazards. o Creation of Check dams under the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) o Panlot programme of ‘Paani Foundation’ in Maharashtra 3. Climate-Smart Agriculture o Zero Budget Natural Farming o Organic Farming o Integration of Paddy and aquaculture- Pokkali(Kerala) Paddy-Shrimp cultivation
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3. Quotes:
“Agriculture is civilization.” - E. Emmons “Since nature has the most sustainable ecosystem and since ultimately agriculture comes out of nature, our standard for a sustainable world should be nature’s own ecosystem”- Wes Jackson “Jai Jawan, Jai Vigyan, Jai Vigyan!” - Atal Bihari Vajpayee Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. “Agriculture is the foundation of civilization and any stable economy.” - Allan Savory “Agriculture is the most healthful, most useful and most Noble Employment of Man.” - George Washington “If agriculture fails, everything else will fail.” - M. S. Swaminathan “The discovery of agriculture was the first big step toward a civilized life.” - Arthur Keith
4. References:
1. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2. Economic Survey 3. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. 4. NITI Aayog 5. https://www.manage.gov.in/
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Governance 04
1. Previous Year Questions 7. Corruption and the need for ethics in 2. Brief Historical account Governance 3. The modern-day concept of Governance 8. E-governance 4. Reports: World Development Report: 9. Impact of Governance on Economic Governance and the Law 2017 Growth 5. Minimum Government and Maximum 10. Engendering Economic Governance Governance 11. Inclusive governance begets inclusive 6. Governance and Right to Information growth (RTI) 12. Quotes
1. Previous Years Questions:
Was it the policy paralysis or the paralysis of implementation which slowed the growth of our country? -2014 Need for transparency in public administration -1996 Role of media in good governance
Recently the terms "governance" and "good governance" are being increasingly used in development literature. Bad governance is being increasingly regarded as one of the root causes of all evil within our societies.
2. Brief Historical account
2.1 Governance in Ancient India
Ancient civilisations across the globe have seen many forms and principles of Governance. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power or verify performance. There was always a need for smooth administration and division of responsibilities. Since the population started to increase, people grew concerned about the welfare and able ruling. This led to the rise of an organizational structure that dealt with the nuances of firm ruling and governance.
The Harappa and the Mohenjo Daro perhaps had democratic government setup with no evidence of monarchy being found. The concept of Governance in ancient India finds mention in literary works like the Rig Veda and the Mahabharata, the Manu Smriti, the Artha Sastra of Kautilya, and the great Tamil classic, Thiru Kural, by Thiru Valluvar. The rudimentary administrative system headed by tribal chieftains was transformed by a number of regional republics or hereditary monarchies that devised ways to appropriate revenue through officials and to conscript labour for expanding the areas of settlement and agriculture farther east and south, beyond the Narmada River. By 600 B.C., sixteen such territorial powers--including the Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, and Gandhara-- stretched across the North Indian plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh.
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The Rig Veda period, two assemblies called sabha and Samiti formed an essential feature of government. Sabha denotes both “the people in conclave” and the “hall” which was the venue of their meeting. The Samiti was “a more comprehensive conference including not only the common people but also Brahmanas [read, learned men and women] and rich patrons”. Mahabharat is presumably the first Indian treatise on the science of governance. There is one huge Rajdharama section discussing various aspects of governance besides Sabhaparvam and Vanaparvam. o The lengthy discussions were on the functions, duties, role and characteristics of a good, popular and dutiful king. o For good governance, one may refer to the constitution of the Sabha and the qualifications of its members under Mahabharat. Qualifying criteria have been enumerated: restrained, pride- free, truthful, respectful to superiors, capable, soft-spoken, steady, well-to-do, heroic, pious, grateful, greed-free, contented, knowledgeable, learned, polite, upright, and so on. o Very interestingly, the following are forbidden from being present or participating at these meetings: a crooked person, not learned, impure [read dis-reputed], idiots, lunatics, a convicted person, and so on. Dharmashastras are a great source of information regarding the ancient Indian system of governance. Dharmashastra text describes the code of conduct for humankind. These codes are preserved primarily in “sutras” and “smritis” which are compiled in different time periods like Grihyasutras, Dharamasutras, Smritis and Arthashastra and so on. o Dharmashastra texts focus on three major topics . Aachar, rules are pertaining to daily rituals, life-cycle and other duties of four castes or varnas, . Vyavahar, rules are pertaining to the procedures for resolving doubts about dharma and rules of substantive law categorized according to the standard eighteen titles of Hindu law and . Prayascitta, rules are about expiation and penances for violations of rules of dharma o For governance or issues pertaining to governance, “Rajdharma”, “Nitishastra”, “Rajshastra” and “Dandaniti” terms have been used by the various authors of Dharmashastra. o Dharmashastra texts suggest seven tools which are known as seven angas of a state which are as follows: . Swamin ( ruler or sovereign) . Amatyas (minister) . Janapada (The territory and people) . Durga (Fortified city or capital) . Kosha (Treasury or accumulated wealth) . Danda (Army or Force) . Mitra ( Allies) . All these are the most essential elements for establishing good governance of any state. In Thiru Kural, we find some telling observations on the king and the importance of his advisors. Kautilya is even more explicit on governance. Kautilya demonstrated an extremely vital imperative of good administration i.e. governance, polity, politics and progress have to be linked to the welfare of the people. o Further, attainment of good governance entails that the objectives of the state are fulfilled and realized, which is possible only through properly organized and guided administration. This principle is relevant even today.
2.2 Governance during the Medieval Period - Delhi Sultanate & Mughal India
The medieval period saw the advent of Islam in India and the rule of absolute monarchy replaced all earlier forms of governance or government prevalent in ancient India. The Muslim rulers tried to enforce their laws and ideas on the general population and some of the features of their government are prevalent even today like taxation and land reforms.
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It is essential to keep in mind to the nature of Muslim religion for a clear understanding of Governance principles because Islam aimed at the realisation of the practice in the society where only laws of God prevailed. Alauddin Khilji made a significant contribution regarding Governance. He made far-reaching changes in the Administrative and Revenue reforms. Market control regulations were introduced and a lot of conquests took place during his reign. The Mughal Empire during Akbar's reign provided a system of government that shared many ideas with the Sultanate as well as bringing in some new ideas of its own. It also incorporated many Indian ideas as well. Whilst the Mughal Empire was able to once again provide an organized government to India, it failed to recapture the effectiveness and efficiency of those governments from the time of the Mauryas and Guptas. Hence they were able to unite India only under an empire, not under a government. This proved to be a serious fatal flaw because, after the decline of the greater Mughals, the already autonomous regions of the empire declared themselves independent. This presented a fractured and divided country to the Europeans, which made their task of conquering India a much simpler one. The principles of Mughal government, their policies, and rules of taxation, departmental arrangements and the very titles of their officials were imported, ready-made from outside of India. The existing Indian practices and a vast mass of Indian customary law were respected, as they did not run counter to the basic principles of all Islamic governments.
2.3 Governance structure during British Rule
Some of the important legislative instruments passed by British Parliament in the pre- independence period were the Indian Councils Act, 1909; Government of India Act, 1919; and Government of India Act, 1935. Most of the government policies and institutions were imperialist in nature.
2.4 Governance in Post-Independence India
The country became independent on 15 August 1947. The history of the Republic of India began on 26 January 1950 with the adaptation of the constitution. The Constitution provides for the basic structure of government under which the people are to be governed. It provides three main organs of government - the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. The Constitution not only defines the powers of each organ but also demarcates their responsibilities and regulates the relationship between various organs. As the Constitution is superior to all other laws of the country; every law enacted by the government has to be in conformity with the Constitution. The Constitution envisages - Democratic, Socialistic, and Secular India. It provides various rights and also spells out duties of citizens. After independence, India adopted a unique blend of capitalistic and socialistic model and began to plan carefully its needs and resources. Later, in 1991, blend of liberalization, privatisation and globalisation was pursued to achieve desired results. In the last few decades, the involvement and participation of the people at all stages and at all levels of planning, implementation and monitoring is a prerequisite for good Governance. With the advent of new technologies around the globe, Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) has taken a lead role and has become one of the most sought and used technologies in the life of citizens. During the last 3 decades of globalisation and liberalisation along with the revolution in ICT and knowledge-based environment, there is a change in thinking of definition and composition of the concept of Governance. With this, emerged e-Governance which uses ICTs to support or provide public services, government administration, democratic processes, and relationships among citizens, civil society, the private sector, and the State.
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E-Governance has been an emerging idea and is based on the rejection of bureaucratic governance that was not responsive to the imperatives of the knowledge society. It goes beyond just a website and digitisation of the service delivery mechanism and certainly broadened the engagement and depth of relationship that surrounds both the citizens and the government. Citizens are now looking for more trust, accountability, transparency and quick delivery of services in a time-bound manner.
3. The modern-day concept of Governance:
Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, media governance, environmental governance, international governance, national governance and local governance.
There is no single and exhaustive definition of governance nor is there a delimitation of its scope, that commands universal acceptance. The term is used with great flexibility.
But broadly there is a significant degree of consensus that good governance relates to political, institutional, and administrative processes and outcomes that are deemed necessary to achieve the goals of development.
So, Governance is the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority to manage a nation's affairs.
OR
As per UN-ESCAP Governance is the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented).
It is the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences.
Governance includes every institution and organization in society, from the family to the state and embraces all methods - good and bad - that societies use to distribute power and manage public resources and problems.
Government is one of the most important actors in governance. Depending on the level of government that is under discussion other actors involved may vary.
3.1 Difference between Governance and Government
Governance means ‘to steer’ and ‘pilot’ or ‘helmsman’. It is the process whereby an organization or a society steers itself, and the dynamics of communication and control are central to the process’. Whereas, Government describes a more rigid and narrower set of activities among a narrower set of participants (usually civil servants, elected politicians and some influential or privileged interests). At the national level, in addition, media, lobbyists, international organisations, diplomats, MNCs etc. may influence the decision-making process. In rural areas, other actors include rich farmers and farmer groups/organisations, cooperatives, NGOs, research institutes, religious leaders, finance institutions political parties, the military etc. All actors other than government, legislature, and the military are grouped together as part of the "civil society." In some countries, organized crime syndicates also influence decision-making, particularly in urban areas and at the national level. In urban areas, influential "land Mafia", businessmen and so on may influence decision-making. Also, in rural areas, locally powerful families may influence decision-making. Such informal decision-making often leads to corrupt practices.
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3.2 Good governance
Good governance is, therefore, a subset of governance, wherein public resources and problems are managed effectively, efficiently and in response to the critical needs of society.
Key attributes of good governance 1. Participatory: All groups, particularly those most vulnerable, have direct or representative access to the systems of government. This shows a strong civil society and citizens with the freedom of association and expression. 2. Consensus-oriented: Demonstrated by an agenda that seeks to mediate between the many different needs, perspectives, and expectations of a diverse citizenry. Decisions need to be made in a manner that reflects a deep understanding of the historical, cultural, and social context of the community. 3. Accountable: It being a key attribute of good governance, both governmental and the private sector must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. 4. An organization is accountable to its stakeholders and to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions. For enforcement of accountability transparency and the rule of law are must. 5. Transparent: Transparency means that decisions are taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to all those who will be affected by such decisions and enforcement. It also means that information which is provided, is in easily understandable forms and media. 6. Responsive: Simply involves that institutions respond to their stakeholders within a reasonable time frame. 7. Effective and efficient: Governance processes and institutions must produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources. In the context of good governance, the concept of efficiency also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment. 8. Equitable and inclusive: For the well being of society, there needs to be a feeling of belongingness among its members. They should have a stake in it and do not feel excluded. For this, all groups, particularly the most vulnerable, must have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being. 9. Follows the rule of law: For Good governance fair legal frameworks and their impartial enforcement is a must. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. It assures that corruption is minimized. 10. Strategic vision: Strategic vision: Good Governance must need to be responsive to the present and future needs of society with an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities.
3.3 Good governance and Human Rights:
Good governance and human rights are mutually reinforcing. Human rights principles provide a set of values like accountability, transparency to guide the work of governments and other political and social actors. Moreover, human rights principles inform the content of good governance efforts: they may inform the development of legislative frameworks, policies, programmes, budgetary allocations and other measures.
On the other hand, without good governance, human rights cannot be respected and protected in a sustainable manner. The implementation of human rights relies on a conducive and enabling environment. This includes appropriate legal frameworks and institutions as well as political, managerial and administrative processes responsible for responding to the rights and needs of the population.
The links between good governance and human rights can be organized around three areas: Democratic institutions o When led by human rights values, good governance reforms of democratic institutions create avenues for the public to participate in policymaking.
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o They also establish mechanisms for the inclusion of multiple social groups in decision- making processes, especially locally. o Finally, they may encourage civil society and local communities to formulate and express their positions on issues of importance to them. Service delivery o Good governance reforms advance human rights when they improve the state’s capacity to fulfil its responsibility to provide public goods which are essential for the protection of a number of human rights, such as the right to education, health and food. o Reform initiatives may include mechanisms of accountability and transparency, culturally sensitive policy tools to ensure that services are accessible and acceptable to all and paths for public participation in decision-making. Rule of law o When it comes to the rule of law, human rights-sensitive good governance initiatives reform legislation and assist institutions ranging from penal systems to courts and parliaments to better implement that legislation. o Good governance initiatives may include advocacy for legal reform, public awareness-raising on the national and international legal framework, and capacity-building or reform of institutions. o Anti-Corruption: In fighting corruption, good governance efforts rely on principles such as accountability, transparency and participation to shape anti-corruption measures. Initiatives may include establishing institutions such as anti-corruption commissions, creating mechanisms of information sharing, and monitoring governments’ use of public funds and implementation of policies.
Good governance, human rights and sustainable development: The interconnection between good governance, human rights and sustainable development has been made directly or indirectly by the international community in a number of declarations and other global conference documents. For example, the Declaration on the Right to Development proclaims that every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development” (article 1). In the Millennium Declaration, world leaders affirmed their commitment to promote democracy and strengthen the rule of law as well as to respect internationally recognized human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development.
4. World Development Report: Governance and the Law 2017
The 2017 World Development Report: Governance and the Law explores how unequal distribution of power in a society interferes with policies’ effectiveness. Power asymmetries help explain, for example, why model anti-corruption laws and agencies often fail to curb corruption, why decentralization does not always improve municipal services; or why well-crafted fiscal policies may not reduce volatility and generate long-term savings. The report notes that when policies and technical solutions fail to achieve intended outcomes, institutions often take the blame. However, it finds that countries and donors need to think more broadly to improve governance so that policies succeed. As the demand for effective service delivery, good infrastructure, and fair institutions continue to rise, it is vital that governments use scarce resources as efficiently and transparently as possible. Considering this, harnessing private sector expertise, working closely with civil society, and redoubling our efforts in the fight against corruption. Without better governance, our goals of ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity will be out of reach. It identifies three ingredients of effective policies: commitment, coordination, and cooperation. As three core functions to produce better governance outcomes, institutions need to: o Bolster commitment to policies in the face of changing circumstances. This would help, for example, in cases where decision-makers spend windfall revenues instead of saving them for the future, or when leaders renege on peacebuilding agreements in the absence of binding enforcement.
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o Enhance coordination to change expectations and elicit social desirable actions by all. Challenges occur in many contexts, from finance to industrial clusters and urban planning. Financial stability, for example, relies on beliefs about credibility. Just consider how despite the rationale for leaving their money in the bank during times of distress, the public may rush to withdraw their deposits if they believe that others will too – ultimately causing the banks to lose liquidity and crash. o Encourage cooperation: Effective policies help promote cooperation by limiting opportunistic behaviours such as tax evasion- often through credible mechanisms of rewards or penalties. Individuals may have incentives to behave opportunistically. Not paying taxes does not prevent them from enjoying public services that others are funding. The report finds that good policies are often difficult to introduce and implement because certain groups in society who gain from the status quo may be powerful enough to resist the reforms that are needed to break the political equilibrium. So report urges developing countries and international development agencies to rethink their approach to governance, as a key to overcoming challenges related to security, growth, and equity.
5 Minimum Government and Maximum Governance
Based on PIB release
With the aim to promote citizen-friendly and accountable administration, the government of India is focusing on the goal of Minimum Government and Maximum Governance. Minimum government means the reduction of govt role in many areas making it an enabler rather than a provider whereas maximum governance means to maximise public service delivery for the betterment of the people. These include simplification of procedures, identification and repeal of obsolete/archaic laws/rules, identification and shortening of various forms, leveraging technology to bring in transparency in public interface and a robust public grievance redress system.
In the last few years, the government has tried to implement this concept as exemplified by like: Doing away with the practice of submitting Affidavits for small level executive jobs in the Government and allowing Self-Certification of certificates for the reduction in time and effort on the part of both the citizen as well as the officials in many Government offices. To Leveraging the power of information technology brings with it the advantage of transparency and speed for the benefit of the citizens. In this regard, the Government has embarked upon a time-bound Digital India Plan. The Government of India has also taken a number of initiatives for improving ‘Ease of Doing Business’. The emphasis has been on simplification and rationalization of the existing rules and introduction of information technology to make governance more efficient and effective. One of the focus areas of Government is to reduce the decision making layers to the minimum while allowing for faster means of information sharing/dissemination. For this, the Government has launched a platform ‘mygov’ and india.gov.in for this purpose. This is a citizen-centric platform to empower people to connect with the Government and contribute towards good governance.
6. Governance and Right to Information (RTI)
RTI has been seen as the key to strengthening participatory democracy and ushering in people- centred governance. Access to information empowers the poor and the weaker sections of society. They can demand and get information about public policies and actions which can be used for their welfare. Without good governance, developmental schemes cannot bring improvements in the quality of life of the citizens. Good governance has four aspects - Transparency, accountability, predictability and participation.
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o Transparency refers to the availability and accessibility of information to the general public and clarity about the functioning of governmental institutions. o RTI opens up government’s records to public scrutiny, thereby arming citizens with a vital tool and thus making the government more accountable. o Transparency brings more objectivity in working of the government organisations thereby enhancing predictability. Information about the functioning of government also enables citizens to participate in the governance process effectively. In a fundamental sense, the right to information is a basic necessity of good governance. Thus by ensuring transparency, RTI has brought about greater accountability among public servants.
7. Corruption and the need for ethics in Governance:
Corruption is an important manifestation of the failure of ethics.
It is unfortunate that corruption has, for many, become a matter of habit, ranging from grand corruption involving people in high places to retail corruption touching the everyday life of common people.
Corruption is so deeply entrenched in the system that most people regard corruption as inevitable and any effort to fight it as futile. This cynicism is spreading so fast that it bodes ill for our democratic system itself.
There are two, somewhat contrary, approaches in dealing with corruption and abuse of office. 1. The first is an overemphasis on values and character. Many people lament the decline in values and the consequent rise in corruption. The implicit assumption is that until values are restored, nothing much can be done to improve the conduct of human beings. 2. The second approach is based on reward and punishment. If good behaviour is rewarded and bad behaviour is punished, then the bulk of the people tend to stray from the honourable path.
Second Administrative reforms commission -
1. Need for Ethics in governance:
Confucius described righteousness as the foundation of good governance and peace. Good governance must be founded on moral virtues ensuring stability and harmony.
The art of good governance simply lies in making things right and putting them in the right place. Confucius’s prescription for good governance is ideally suited for a country like India where many of our present-day players in governance do not adhere to any principle and ensure only their own interests. Confucius emphasizes the righteousness for life and character building. This is in conformity with Dharma or righteousness as taught by all religions in the world and preached in Buddhism very predominantly in its fourth noble truth. This is comparable with what Gandhiji said, “Be the change you wish to see in the world”.
In India, some recent anti-corruption initiatives are steps in the right direction. 1. The Supreme Court has ruled that candidates contesting elections should file details regarding their wealth, educational qualifications and criminal antecedents along with their nomination papers. 2. The Right to Information Act, which has recently been enacted, is a potent weapon to fight corruption. 3. The introduction of information communication technologies, e-governance initiatives and automation of corruption-prone processes in the administration have succeeded in reducing corruption. 4. Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 has been enacted to deal with prevention of corruption and for matters connected therewith.
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5. Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 is an Act of the Parliament of India that prohibits certain types of financial transactions and so on.
Much more remains to be done, however, and beyond the realm of existing regulation. We have to suitably strengthen the institutional framework for investigating corrupt practices and awarding exemplary punishment to the corrupt thereby raising the risk associated with corrupt behaviour.
8. E-governance:
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) revolution has brought a new era in good governance. E-Governance is in essence, the application of ICT to the government functioning in order to create a SMART i.e. ‘Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and Transparent’ governance. This new paradigm in governance would focus on the use of information technology to bring public services to the doorsteps of our citizens and businesses by bringing revolutionary changes in institutional structures, procedures, and practices that have transformed the relationships between three levels of government, our businesses and our citizens. E-Governance includes decisional processes and the use of ICT for wider participation in public affairs. The purpose of implementing e-Governance is to improve governance processes and outcomes with a view to improving the delivery of public services to citizens. Although there are many perspectives about the e-Governance, the objectives of governments are indisputable: maintaining collective security, administering justice, providing the institutional infrastructure of the economy and ensuring that vital social capital is enhanced through improvements in health and education and through strong families and communities (Dawes et al. 1999). India, being the largest democracy in the world, has much to gain from e-Governance, especially with citizen participation in governance.
Few important initiatives: o National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) 2.0. - To bring transformation in delivering all Government services electronically through integrated and interoperable systems, while ensuring efficiency, transparency, reliability and affordability of such services. (e-kranti) o Digital India - To ensure that the Government's services are made available to citizens electronically by improving online infrastructure and Internet connectivity. o MyGov- MyGov is a citizen engagement platform of GoI to promote the active participation of Indian citizens in their country's governance and development. o E-Sampark -It is a mechanism to connect the government directly with citizens across India by running mailer, outbound dialling and SMS campaigns o Digital locker-aimed at minimizing the usage of physical documents and enable sharing of e- documents across agencies. o PRAGATI (Pro-Active Governance And Timely Implementation)- aimed at addressing common man’s grievances, and simultaneously monitoring and reviewing important programmes and projects of the Government of India as well as projects flagged by State Governments. o National Optical Fibre Network with an aim to provide a minimum of 100 Mbit/s broadband connectivity to all 250, 000 gram-panchayats in the country.
9. Impact of Governance on Economic Growth
The multitude impact of governance on economic growth is still only partially understood. The control of corruption is a critical factor for economic growth, increases in control of corruption lead to an increase in economic growth.
Governance is a broad and multi-faceted concept covering all aspects of how a country is governed, including its economic policies, regulatory framework, and adherence to the rule of law. It describes
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the way that state power is exercised to manage its economic and social components (The World Bank, 1994). The manner in which the state exercises its power has a link to a set of institutions that engage as keys to economic growth. These institutions provide a conducive environment for stable and sustainable economic conditions.
Poor governance leads to greater opportunities for corruption—the abuse of public office for private gain. Corruption undermines the public’s trust in its government and also threatens market integrity, distorts competition, and endangers economic development. Poor governance, no doubt is detrimental to economic activity and welfare.
However, it is important to manage both corruption control and political stability and absence of violence/ terrorism effectively to achieve higher economic growth.
10. Engendering Economic Governance
Economic decision-makers must be aware of the need for and have the technical capacity to incorporate, a gender perspective into policy and programme analysis.
Active and empowered platforms must be created and strengthened among women (and men) to advocate and demand accountability from government and political leaders at the national and international levels for the impact of macroeconomic policy on women.
In a globalized world, linkages need to be built and/or strengthened between national and regional NGOs working on women in politics, women in media and women's human rights and those working on women and trade and women and macroeconomic policy issues.
The women's economic agenda must be generally understood by leaders and policymakers.
Sex-disaggregated data and gender statistics on the differential impact of macroeconomic policies on women particularly especially unpaid farm work, within the informal sector, on women's and men's differential contributions to the care economy through domestic work, childcare, family care and community activities also needs to be used for a informed policymaking for socio-economic empowerment of women.
Other actors, particularly key government economic agencies and international economic institutions, must also understand and accept the general validity of the conceptual basis of the women's economic agenda.
The institutions of economic governance must be engendered through advocacy and their active involvement in capacity building of women for a happy, vibrant, and prosperous society.
11. Inclusive governance begets inclusive growth:
Slow growth, higher unemployment and widening inequalities have placed inclusive growth at the heart of the policy debate in many national and international forums.
The ability of governments to put in place policies that deliver stronger economic growth together with better sharing of the benefits among social groups is the central theme of this debate. The various benefits of inclusive governance go beyond income to include inclusive outcomes across the different dimensions that matter for societal well-being. A more coordinated approach is needed to strengthen public governance in pursuit of Inclusive Growth objectives.
The multifaceted nature of inclusive growth calls for capacity to deal with complex problems and to ensure strong levels of policy coherence. This, in turn, requires new approaches to policymaking that enable the analysis of complementarities and trade-offs across departments, sectors and levels of government.
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Policymaking for Inclusive Growth needs aligned design, delivery and accountability for better and joined-up outcomes. o Well-being-based frameworks allow for policy objectives to be defined on the basis of the aspects of life that matter for people’s satisfaction, including income, jobs and health as well as social capital and participation in public life. o However, translating these multidimensional objectives into realities require collaborative efforts that cut across policy areas and also require the ability to deal with complexity and coordinate actions across administrative departments and levels of government. o New and innovative approaches to service delivery like social innovation, co-production or digital welfare, would help in attaining Inclusive Growth objectives and can be used more widely. o There needs to be better synergy between technology, human partnerships and innovation to work together, as well as to leverage the set of competencies required from the public sector. o Key competencies including strategic planning, partnership management, better data on access to services, and approaches are needed to ensure that partners remain accountable. Also, Inclusive institutions are essential for shaping Inclusive Growth policies and outcomes.
12. Quotes
"Good governance depends on the ability to take responsibility by both administrations as well as people" "Progress is more plausibly judged by the reduction of deprivation than by the further enrichment of the opulent" — AMARTYA SEN "The test of progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; It is whether we provide enough for those who have little" “Good governance is essential to the realization of all human rights, including the elimination of poverty and ensuring a satisfactory livelihood for all.” “Good governance is perhaps the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development.”- Mr.Kofi Annan, Ex•Secretary•General of the United Nations. “The punishment suffered by the wise who refuse to take part in government is to suffer under the government of bad men” - Plato “The purpose of a government is to make it easy for people to do good and difficult to do evil”. Gladstone Righteousness is the foundation of good governance and peace -Confucius
Reference: 1. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Development/GoodGovernance/Pages/GoodGovernanceI ndex.aspx 2. UN-ESCAP 3. World Bank -Good governance
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Vulnerable Communities 05
1. Previous Year Questions 5. International conventions 2. Basic Context and Definitions 6. National level interventions 3. Historical aspects 7. Thinkers 4. Analysis of various vulnerable groups 8. Quotes
1. Previous Year’s Questions
Reservation, politics and empowerment. -1999 Poverty anywhere is a threat to prosperity everywhere. -2018 Digital economy: A leveller or a source of economic inequality. -2016 Innovation is the key determinant of economic growth and social welfare. -2016 Economic growth without distributive justice is bound to breed violence. -1993 Lending hands to someone is better than giving a dole. -2015 Greater political power alone will not improve women’s plight. -1997 Women’s reservation bill would usher in empowerment for women in India. -2006 The new emerging women power: the ground realities. -1995 “Development, if not engendered, is endangered” - 2016 Fulfilment of ‘new woman’ in India is a myth. -2017 If development is not engendered, it is endangered. -2016 Whither women’s emancipation? -2004 Empowerment alone cannot help our women. -2001 Women empowerment: challenges and prospects. -1999
2. Basic background
Vulnerable sections are those sections of the society who require extra protection on account of the risks and challenges they face. The risks can be due to their ethnicity, caste, economic status, religion, region, nationality, race, gender or a combination of these factors. Vulnerable section faces discrimination, exclusion or deprivation due to the above-mentioned factors either in the policy process or from the society. In modern times another major issue in this context is the deprivation of citizenship which renders a person stateless.
3. Historical context
Women have been facing discrimination and exclusion due to patriarchy in society. Suffragette movement is also significant in this regard as it sought to ensure equal political representation for women. In India status of women deteriorated from the post-Vedic period. Women actively participated in sabhas, Samiti etc during Vedic times. But over the period of time, their representation reduced. Slowly, women were deprived of property rights, inheritance etc. Practices like dowry, child marriages, Sati etc took roots in society. Widows were not allowed to
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remarry and were seen as a symbol of bad luck and not allowed to take part in auspicious ceremonies. Casteism also has deep roots in Indian society. This practice started out as a vocation-based classification of the society or Chaturvarnya. Later casteism took a rigid form. Caste became an endogamous and hereditary institution. Instead of determining the caste of a person by his profession his caste became predetermined. People not part of the chaturvarnya system were ostracised and became “untouchable”. In the international context, anti-semitism with its most virulent form practised in Nazi Germany is the most glaring example.
4. Analysis of various vulnerable groups
4.1 Women and Children
Women Women were excluded from the political process from time immemorial. They were considered the weaker sex who was emotionally fragile and hence, unfit to take political decisions. In India menstruation is also considered a taboo. The superstitious belief links menstruation with impurity. They are forbidden from going out to work or share food with others during this period Women have the additional burden of fulfilling expectations based on gender stereotypes. This includes fetching water over large distances for the entire family. The entire burden of caring for and raising also false upon the women. Women receive less pay for the same work and they are often discriminated against when it comes to promotion, pay hike etc. They also have to face sexual harassment at workplace. Women face domestic violence and violent attacks due to the dowry system. Female infanticide, child marriage and female genital mutilation are other issues that plague the society
Children A study by the Ministry of Women and child development shows that two out of every three children were physically abused. Children are forced to work for very little or no pay. They are deprived of education or health facilities impacting their future. Girls are abandoned, deprived of a healthy diet or trafficked into life slavery or sexual exploitation.
4.2 Caste
Caste discrimination is prevalent in the social, economic and political sphere in India Certain castes are ostracised from villages for using common water wells or ponds. They are harassed for educating children or sharing food with members of other castes. According to the World Inequality Database, there is wide inequality in income between upper and lower castes. Top 10% owns almost 60 % of the total wealth. From the allocation of resources, opportunities and social capital, lower castes face discrimination constantly.
4.3 Lower Income Groups
Income inequality is one of the biggest challenges faced by the world population. This was highlighted by Economist Thomas Piketty in his work “Capital in the 21st Century” The world's top 1% owns more than 43% of the total wealth, while the bottom 50% owns only 1%. As per the Oxfam report, the top 1% owns 73% in India and this gap is widening. This seriously impeded the equitable transfer of resources and opportunities.
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4.4 Disabled / Divyang
Disabled people are treated as less than desirable by able-bodied men. They face significant hurdles in accessing public buildings and utilities and while trying to receive education and healthcare They also face discrimination in recruitment for a job. In popular culture, they are often portrayed in a dehumanising manner, receiving charity from society or trying to attract pity.
4.5 Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, Queer (LGBTQ)
Sexual minorities face discrimination for their sexual identity and for not conforming to the prevalent sexual orientation. The discussion about alternate sexualities itself is a taboo in many countries. They also face discrimination in issues related to marriages, adoption, employment, accommodation. They also face violent attacks or state-sanctioned punishment for their sexual identity
4.6 Refugees
Refugees are people who are forced to flee to other countries due to war, violence, natural disasters, etc. In recent times, climate refugees are also increasing due to extreme weather events. Every minute, an estimated 20 people are forcibly displaced due to conflict, persecution, or war according to the UN They often have to settle in unsafe and unsanitary settlements with no access to healthcare or other social protections. These problems are compounded by persistent xenophobia, fear-mongering and stereotyping of refugees.
4.7 Tribes
Tribal population face exclusion due to their ethnicity. They are culturally distinct, mostly isolated from the rest of the region and have limited access to resources. In many cases, they speak a distinct and unique language from the rest of the population making communication limited. They face challenges regarding land rights, access to resources, healthcare etc. They are often displaced from their own lands for development projects with very little efforts made to rehabilitate them.
5. International Conventions
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) o This document signed in 1948 declares that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”. o This right aims to preserve equality before the law, the dignity of individuals and other freedoms. o It also prohibits slavery and torture and upholds the right to seek asylum o This document is a historical charter that seeks to further human rights across the globe. o The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) was the first legal document protecting universal human rights. Together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the three instruments form the so-called International Bill of Human Rights.
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Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) o OHCHR has lead responsibility in the UN system for the promotion and protection of human rights. o The High Commissioner for Human Rights regularly comments on human rights situations in he world and has the authority to investigate situations and issue reports on them.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) o Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979. o It reaffirmed the fundamental principles of dignity and equal rights of men and women. o The convention examines the civil and legal rights of women. In addition, it also focuses on reproductive rights and the impact of cultural factors on gender relations. o Women are guaranteed the right to vote, to hold public office and to exercise public functions. The convention affirms women's rights to non-discrimination in education, employment and economic and social activities. It also states that "the role of women in procreation should not be a basis for discrimination". This is the only human rights convention that talks about reproductive health.
Convention on the Rights of the Child o It recognises that a child should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding, for the harmonious development of his or her personality. o Any person under the age of 18 years is considered a child. o It recognises that the child has a right to his own name and identity and recognises every child’s inherent right to life o It mandates that the child should not face any discrimination on account of the parents’ age, race, sex, political opinion etc. o The convention forbids capital punishment for children It promotes among its signatories, measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence. o It also provides guidelines regarding custody, adoption, foster care etc.
Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) o Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) is the committee that monitors the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. o The convention considers racial discrimination repugnant to the ideals of any society. It also observes that racism is an obstacle to friendly relations among nations. o CERD observed that casteism is also a form of discrimination based on descent. It stated that “discrimination based on ‘descent’ includes discrimination against members of communities based on forms of social stratification such as caste and analogous systems of inherited status which nullify or impair their equal enjoyment of human rights.”
Goal 10 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Reduce inequality within and among countries o UN observed that inequality is a roadblock to progress as it deprives people of many opportunities. o For example, people living in extreme poverty are less likely to complete even basic primary education. o Economic growth will not remove poverty if the growth is not inclusive. o Rising inequalities adversely impact human development. According to the inequality- adjusted Human Development Index (HDI), South Asia loses 33% of its HDI to inequality.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) o Convention recognises that people with disabilities have an inherent right to life on an equal basis with others.
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o It lays emphasis on children with disabilities. o It also discusses the rights of girls and women with disabilities. o It states that “Children with disabilities shall have equal rights, shall not be separated from their parents against their will, except when the authorities determine that this is in the child’s best interests”Additionally, it says that “in no case shall be separated from their parents on the basis of a disability of either the child or the parents”.
United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees o This Convention, also known as the 1951 convention, defines the term ‘refugee’ o It also sets guidelines about the responsibilities of the nations providing asylum and also elaborates on the rights enjoyed by the asylum seeker. o It is the most comprehensive international instrument available for the rights of refugees o The convention states that “ granting of a right to a refugee should not be subject to the granting of similar treatment by the refugee's country of nationality” o The convention also declares rights of refugees to follow their religion, elementary education and the respect and protection of artistic rights and industrial property.
The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families o Its primary objective is to protect migrant workers and their families from exploitation and the violation of their human rights. o The convention reaffirms their right to life and provides for their right to leave and enter the State of origin. Under this convention, a migrant worker is entitled to his or her honour and reputation and also to privacy, which extends to one's home, family and all communications. o The convention prohibits a cruel, inhuman or degrading form of punishment, slavery or forced labour.
The Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 o It is the only international convention dealing with this vulnerable section. o This convention recognises the aspirations of these peoples to exercise control over their own institutions, ways of life and economic development o The indigenous and Tribal Population also have a right to maintain and develop their identities, languages and religions, within the framework of the States in which they live. o A court in Chile, in 2009, used this ILO convention while ruling in favour of the tribal populations and granting them right over their water
6. National Interventions
Women o Fundamental Rights guarantees equality before the law (Article 14) and empowers the state to make special provisions for women and children (Article 15). Article 16 prohibits discrimination in public employment o Directive Principles of state policy secures “equal pay for equal work for both men and women” (Art 39) o The Government is also responsible for providing a safe and secure workplace for women. o Reservation of one-third seats in Local governments o National Commission for Women: In January 1992, the Government set-up this statutory body with a specific mandate to study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and legal safeguards provided for women, review the existing legislation to suggest amendments wherever necessary, etc. o The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 banned child marriages in India. Even child marriages that were solemnised before the Act came into force could be nullified if those persons, who were children at the time, opt for it. o The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 is a comprehensive Act that consolidates various other Dowry related Acts and provides a definition of dowry. It also imposes strict fines and jail time for people who give, receive or abets giving or receiving dowry.
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o Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994 was enacted in order to address the issue of skewed sex-ratio and rising female infanticide. o Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 guarantees the mother paid leave of absence for 26 weeks to take care of the child. o Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) is a government scheme that addresses the issue of malnourishment in pregnant women. This scheme tries to reduce Maternal and Infant mortality rate. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao is a government initiative for the Prevention of gender-biased sex selective elimination. This ensures the survival & protection of the girl child and promotes the education of the girl child. o SHG is a viable organized set up to disburse microcredit to rural women and encouraging them together into entrepreneurial activities.
Children o Right to Education is a fundamental right under Article 21A o Fundamental Right to be protected from any hazardous employment till the age of 14 years is guaranteed under Article 24. o Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is a unique scheme that seeks to address the challenge of providing pre-school education on one hand and breaking the vicious cycle of malnutrition, morbidity, reduced learning capacity and mortality, on the other. o National Commission for the Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) and Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) are institutional support available to protect and promote the rights of children. o Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act was enacted to protect children from sexual harassment. Recently amendments were approved by the Union cabinet which includes death penalty for sexual assault against minors and other severe o Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) like Bachpan Bachao Andolan led by Nobel- laureate Kailash Satyarthi aims to tackle the issue of child labour and create a society free from child exploitation.
Scheduled Caste o Provisions under Right to Equality act as protection against caste discrimination. o The National Commission for Scheduled Castes is an Indian constitutional body established with a view to providing safeguards against the exploitation of Scheduled Castes. It also promotes their social, educational, economic and cultural interests. o Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 establishes Special Courts for the trial of caste-based offences and for the relief and rehabilitation of the victims of such offences. The practice of untouchability in any form was made a cognisable offence. Denial of access to public tanks, water fountains etc, forced stripping, outraging modesty, sexual exploitation etc were also included under the definition ‘atrocity’ o Positive discrimination in the form of reservation in education and public employment is also an intervention aimed at increasing representation and providing equality of status and opportunity. o Constitution also provides for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha, State Legislatures and Local governments o The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013 prohibits the employment of manual scavengers and protects their dignity.
Lower Income Groups o Financial Inclusion measures like Jan Dhan Yojana creates a low barrier for entry to the unbanked into the formal financial sector. o Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Urban Livelihoods Mission is a government scheme which aims to reduce poverty and vulnerability of the urban poor households by enabling them to access gainful self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities. o National Food Security Act which ensures food security by providing Wheat and Rice at Rs. 2/ kg and Rs. 3/ kg respectively.
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o Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee scheme aims to tackle distress migration by creating employment to the poorest poor while creating capital assets in villages.
Persons with disabilities (Divyangjan) o The Constitution of India envisions an inclusive society for all. It ensures equality, freedom, justice and dignity of all individuals including persons with disabilities. o Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan) was created to give focussed attention to the policies related to Disabled or Divyangjan. o Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 provides provisions for prevention of disabilities by screening for ‘at risk’ children. It also promotes opportunities to the disabled by ensuring access to education, employment etc. The Act also aims to ensure that the divyangjan have access to public buildings, schools, colleges, toilets etc. o “Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan)” is a nation-wide flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility that will enable persons with disabilities to gain access for equal opportunity and live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life in an inclusive society. The campaign targets at enhancing the accessibility of built environment, transport system and Information & communication ecosystem.
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer community o The Supreme Court, in its landmark judgement decriminalising homosexuality, also directed the Government to give the police force periodic training to sensitise them about the issue. It also directed the government to take all measures to create public awareness and eliminate the stigma members of the LGBT community face. o In another judgement, the SC had observed that “Sex as it occurs in Article 15, is not merely restricted to the biological attributes of an individual, but also includes their ‘sexual identity and character’ ” o The Madras High Court ruled that the term "bride" under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 also included a transgender person. This gave legal protection to a marriage between a man and a transgender person. o The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill, 2019 was passed by the Lok Sabha recently. The bill defines the term ‘Transgender’ and prohibits discrimination against Transgender person in relation to education, health, employment, and protects their right to movement, right to reside, rent or occupy the property.
Refugees o India has been the home for a large number and variety of refugees throughout the past. However, we do not have a comprehensive law to protect the rights of refugees. o However, Right to equality (Article 14), Right to life and personal liberty (Article 21), Right to protection under arbitrary arrest (Article 22), etc are available to refugees as well as Indian citizens.
Tribes o Forest Right Act, 2006 recognised the rights of forest-dwelling communities to land and other resources, which were historically denied to them. o The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes has been set up to oversee the implementation of various safeguards provided to Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution. o Constitution also provides for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha, State Legislatures and Local governments. o There are special provisions under the Sixth schedule for Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram allowing for more devolution of legislative and executive powers. o After consultations with respective state governments, the Central government also selects certain groups as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTVG). PVTGs have some basic characteristics: they are mostly homogenous, with a small population, are relatively
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physically isolated, written language is mostly absent, and they use relatively simple technology. Schemes for housing, land distribution, land development, agricultural development, cattle development, social security etc are undertaken by the Central government. o Eklavya Model Residential Schools is a scheme for promoting education among the Tribals. o Van Dhan scheme to boost the economy related to Minor Forest Product, which is the source of 20 -40% of income for Tribals. o The Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India Limited (TRIFED) is engaged in the marketing development of tribal products and provides marketing support to the products made by tribals through a network of retail outlets.
7. Thinkers
Mahatma Gandhi o Gandhiji saw the Communal Award as an attack on Indian unity and nationalism. Once the depressed classes were treated as a separate political entity, he argued, the question of abolishing untouchability would get undermined, while separate electorates would ensure that the untouchables remained untouchables in perpetuity. o He had no objection to a wider electorate but wanted the depressed classes to be elected through a joint electorate under a system of universal adult franchise. He also did not oppose the idea of reserving seats for the depressed classes He demanded that the depressed classes be elected through joint and if possible a wider electorate through the universal franchise while expressing no objection to the demand for a larger number of reserved seats. o Mahatma Gandhi saw the national freedom movement as a vehicle to fight against discrimination against women and the untouchables. Untouchability “is in conflict with the fundamental precepts of Hinduism, ” he insisted. He believed that untouchability “is a sin, a great crime”. o He himself cleaned toilets to set an example for his followers. He also made many anti- discriminatory movements part of the freedom struggle. o He also mobilised women in the freedom struggle.
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar o Dr. Ambedkar worked tirelessly for the emancipation of the Dalits. He asked them to “Educate, Agitate, Organise”. o In his book “Annihilation of Caste” he details the inner workings of the caste system and how it is caste that is central to the debate about discrimination in India. o It was his vision that gave us a transformative Constitution, with provisions for the protection of Dalits and the Marginalised. o He said, “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” He identified the lack of education among women as the biggest problem facing the country. He made ample provisions for the development of women and their economic self-dependence in the Constitution. o He considered education as a means of building self-esteem and character. He had very early on grasped the problem of school dropouts and stressed on the need for increased spending in primary education. He also voiced his displeasure at the commercialisation of education. o He understood the interdependence of civic and political rights with social and economic rights. o He believed that “‘Discrimination is another menace which must be guarded against if the fundamental rights are to be real rights’.
8. Quotes
“Lost rights are never regained by appeals to the conscience of the usurpers, but by relentless struggle” - Dr. B. R Ambedkar “I want all people to be Indians first, Indian last and nothing else but Indians.” - Dr. B. R Ambedkar
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“Equality may be a fiction but nonetheless one must accept it as a governing principle.” - Dr. B. R Ambedkar “Slavery does not merely mean a legalised form of subjection. It means a state of society in which some men are forced to accept from others the purposes which control their conduct.” - Dr. B. R Ambedkar “A just society is that society in which ascending sense of reverence and descending sense of contempt is dissolved into the creation of a compassionate society” - Dr B. R Ambedkar “The only difference between man and man all the world over is one of degree, and not of kind, even as there is between trees of the same species. Where in is the cause for anger, envy or discrimination?”― Mahatma Gandhi “Equality is the moral principle that individuals should not be judged or constrained by the average properties of their group.” - Steven Pinker I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character- Martin Luther King Jr. “No one is born hating another person because of the colour of his skin, or his background or his religion. People learn to hate, and if they can learn to hate, they can be taught to love, for love comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite.” –Nelson Mandela “Anger and intolerance are the enemies of correct understanding.” –Mahatma Gandhi “If tolerance, respect and equity permeate family life, they will translate into values that shape societies, nations and the world.” –Kofi Annan “Our true nationality is mankind.” –H.G. Wells “Defeating racism, tribalism, intolerance and all forms of discrimination will liberate us all, victim and perpetrator alike.” –Ban Ki-moon “When you discriminate against anyone, you discriminate against everyone.” –Alan Dershowitz
References 1. The United Nations 2. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) 3. Various websites of the government of India
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Security 06
1. Context 10. Left Wing Extremism 2. Previous Year Questions 11. Communal Violence 3. Introduction 12. Phenomenon of Reactionary 4. Historical Perspective of Security status in Fundamentalism and Lynching the sub-continent 13. Fundamentalism and Growth of 5. Post Independent India and Changing Terrorism Security Paradigm 14. Cyber Security 6. External Security 15. Organised Crime 7. Internal Security 16. Changing Security Paradigm and the Way 8. Punjab and the Khalistan Movement Forward 9. Jammu and Kashmir
1. Context:
External: Renewed hostilities with Pakistan Cross border infiltration of miscreants through Myanmar creating disturbance in North-East The threat of infiltration through the long Coastal Boundary Building of Chinese Infrastructure in the conflicted Doklam region. Porous borders through Nepal and Bangladesh giving a free run to smugglers and drug traffickers.
Internal: The security situation in J&K post 2016. UN- INCB Report 2018 - Indicating India to be one of the biggest hubs of illicit Drug trade. Increased cases of radicalisation in Punjab with a purpose to revive Khalistan movement.
2. Previous Year Questions:
Terrorism and world peace (2005) Management of Indian border dispute is a complex task. -2018 Good fences make good neighbours -2009 Is autonomy the best answer to combat balkanization? -2007 Terrorism and world peace -2005 In the Indian context, both human intelligence and technical intelligence are crucial in combating terrorism -2011
3. Introduction
One of the most prerequisite conditions for the growth of an individual is his sense of safety for himself and his cared ecosystem thereby eliminating any threat perceptions. This gets exacerbated at a societal and national level to give a feeling of collaborative safety net which can broadly be termed as Security.
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Security and its effects can be used to explain the eventual thriving of an economy and nation building. Requirements in order to achieve a complete sense of safety and security for its citizens.
4. Historical Perspective of Security status in the sub-continent:
Indian subcontinent since time immemorial has been termed as a melting pot of civilizations. This has from time and again raised uneasy but important questions regarding internal strife as well as danger of intruders from abroad. There are a few reasons for this perpetual issue of internal and external threat perceptions. They are: Indian sub-continent being a land of rich produce and plentiful resources have always been the envy of intruders. o Examples of perpetual threat of Huns during the medieval ages can be cited which led to creation of borderline frontier chain of Sunam, Samana and Bhatinda forts. o The concept of natural frontiers can be explained from a historical perspective formed by river Indus and the mountain ranges. o The evolution of this natural frontier concept during the Mughals to the British colonial period to the Amu-Darya and the Syr Darya rivers thus securing the frontiers from Central Asian invasions.
Internal: Inequality has always been persistent in the subcontinent since the vedic ages and the age of janapadas creating an ideal scenario for internal revolt and collusion. o Examples can be cited of how the once mighty Mauryan Empire faced a revolt in its frontier regions. o Example of constant strife which persisted resulting in subsequent growth of kingdoms leading to appointment of spies or barids in the sultanate period to the department becoming one of the most powerful in later periods till the time of the Raj o Princely states had changing loyalties often threatening the growth of a single national feeling.
5. Post-Independent India and Changing Security Paradigm:
The newly formed nation since its very inception had to face a multiplicity of challenges and tribulations from greedy intruders and opportunistic insiders. This posed a grave danger to the very existence of the nation state and threatened near balkanisation of the country. Immediate attack on the north- west frontier by pashtuns and a war initiated by pakistan had to be repulsed. North eastern India had not fully come to terms with the new union and sought an independent state. This was initially launched by Phizo in Nagaland and gradually spread in forms and organizations in other parts of North east. Princely state of Hyderabad was unwilling to join the union creating an immediate post independent internal security nightmare.
6. External Security:
India has a very long indented borderline of more than 22 thousand kilometres expanding from land borders to coastal borders to island territories. This creates a scenario where the security needs to be diversified into different paradigms from protecting glacial regions in the north to marshes in the east and west to deserts in the west. Accordingly the challenges and perspectives need to be diversified into Land, coastal and the newly added frontier of space.
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6.1 Land Security:
6.1.1 Western Border (Pakistan):
The western border is as diverse as can be from the marshes in Sir Creek to vast salt pans in the Gujarat sector, The Great Thar Desert in Rajasthan Sector to mountainous and glacial features in the Jammu and Kashmir Sector. This sector sharing a border with Pakistan makes it one of the heavily guarded regions in the world. The geographical diversity makes it vulnerable to many threats and challenges. Some of them being: Intruders: Pakistan as a state policy has been sending armed intruders and mujahideens with an aim to cause maximum damage to the Indian state through terrorist activities. Drug Traffickers: remoteness of the areas of Rajasthan and Punjab makes it an ideal hunting ground for international drug traffickers who smuggle in vast quantities of contraband materials which then operate in the underground economy and generate black money. Conventional Threat: Presence of the ever adventurous Pakistani army on the other side poses a perpetual threat to the security apparatus to not only be ready to intercept these threats but also to counter it. Fishing Grounds: Rann of Kutch being an ideal fishing ground and the absence of any demarcated border leads to the situation where fishermen from one area venture into the other country’s border and pose a threat to india’s overall security apparatus. Different Borders: The western sector is divided into different sectors on the basis of their international cognizance. They are: IB or International Border and LoC or Line of Control. This leads to an issue of different agencies manning different stretches of the border leading to operational inefficiencies and gaps. Geography: The border has many unconventional areas like dense forests and deep ravines which are difficult to fence. This creates a nightmarish situation for the security forces to control the movement across those areas.
Government’s Approach and Measures: The government’s measures and directives to control the situation at the western border has been an ever evolving one in order to meet the latest threats and challenges. Some of them being: Comprehensive Integrated Border Management: This is a complete and a holistic approach to border management which includes various parameters like: o Floodlighting the vulnerable areas o Fencing the entire stretch of the border o Laser Detection at nallas and ravines which are difficult to fence o Frequent Patrolling o Deployment of motion detectors across the border Use of Technological Interventions: Night Vision Devices, Hand Held Thermal Imagers, battleField Surveillance Radars, Direction Finders, Unattended Ground Sensors, High Powered Telescope etc have been deployed as force multipliers in these areas. Monitoring of tunnels: Presence of tunnels and passages are being regularly monitored with the help of space technology to keep a tab on drug traffickers and intruders. Confidence of People: People at the border regions are the first line of defence and can easily point to any lapses in security and presence of intruders in an area as in the case of Kargil. Development of Critical Infrastructure: The border areas being in sensitive regions are often subject to neglect and administrative lapses leading to inefficient infrastructure. This creates an issue not only in the movement of security forces but also the civilians. The government under its various initiatives like HIMANK has started the development of critical infrastructures in the area. Space Technology: With launching of satellites like Cartosat the agencies have made a vital breakthrough in detecting any misadventure from the side of the enemy in advance and giving adequate reply. Intelligence Network: The government has been working on improving its intelligence infrastructure on the border areas to keep itself updated to the latest threats.
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6.1.2 Northern Border:
India shares its northern border with countries like china, nepal and bhutan and since most of them lie in the lap of the himalayas it becomes difficult to monitor leaving large swathes open to manipulation and subsequent claims being made. Some of the issues on the northern borders are: Inhospitable Terrain: The inaccessible terrain for most parts make it impossible to fence. This leaves those areas open to incursion through land and air routes as these mountain passes are a blind spot to most radar technologies. Unclear Boundary: With majority of the boundary under dispute with both China and India having their own versions of the border, it leads to misunderstandings and aggressive patrolling with the possibility of skirmishes on the anvil. Open border with Nepal and Bhutan: The open border policy with Nepal and Bhutan has been historically used by miscreants to smuggle arms, drugs etc through the borders of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh which are impossible to detect. Most of the insurgent operations of the LWE areas received constant men and material support through this route. Aggressive China: The new century has witnessed the coming of age of a belligerent and aggressive neighbour in the form of China. China on its part continues with its muscle flexing in order to exert control over large parts of disputed border in Aksai Chin and North Eastern Sector. The recent Doklam Incident was one such example. Different sectors, different forces: As in the case of western border the northern borders are also manned by different security forces like ITBP and SSB. Absence of synergy among the forces leaves the field open for operational gaps and lacunae.
Government’s Approaches: The government has adopted a multi pronged approach to solve the issue of northern volatile border areas. Some of the measures are: Border Dispute Mechanism: This has been initiated with China to resolve the disputed borders and also to capitalise on low hanging fruits by finalising the cartographic details of the areas which are out of the ambit of dispute. Restrain By Security Forces: The security forces on both sides of the border have exhibited tremendous restraint on their part especially on the border with china with not a single shot being fired in anger since 1987 keeping the volatile situation in control Military Exchanges: Regular exercises like Hand - in - Hand and exchange of military personnel on both sides of the border has largely helped the two militaries in keeping the situation in check and both sides understanding each other more and more. Development of Infrastructure: Infrastructure on the mountainous tracts are in a poor state. The government has recognised such strategic areas and deficiencies and has accelerated the construction of essential roads and bridges in these areas to facilitate the movement of troops as well as helping in the developmental process of the locals. Administrative Efficiency: Large swathes being empty and barren made it easy for the other country to stake a claim. With Programmes like BADP, the border areas after a long time are witnessing growth and made suitable for habitation thus checking claims of our neighbours and maintaining territorial integrity Manning of border with Nepal: The Indo - Nepal Border has witnessed increase in the number of checkposts and also increased patrolling by security forces thus plugging the erstwhile unmanned borders. Technological Interventions: Increased reliance is being placed on technological initiatives like placing of radars in mountainous regions to remove the blind spots as much as possible.
6.1.3 Eastern Borders:
India’s eastern borders are shared by the countries of Myanmar and Bangladesh with Bangladesh having the longest border spreading from the marshes of sundarbans to the eastern himalayas of myanmar border. The challenges being faced by the forces on the eastern side are different. Some of the issues being:
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Porous border: The border areas with bangladesh and myanmar are still largely unfenced and are hence open to exploitation by smugglers, drug traffickers and arms dealers. This also helped many insurgents in the north east to continue their movements through the border and escape the clutches of the security forces for a long time. The case of Bodoland movement in Assam and NSCN in case of Myanmar prove the point. Demographic Similarity: With the demography on both sides of the border areas being similar it makes it very hard even for the local populace to detect any threats from the other side giving a free reign to miscreants. Free Movement: Citizens on both sides of the border in case of Myanmar have the facility to travel through the border without any documents through traditional routes. This makes the area prone to exploitation. Inhumane Boundary: The International boundary in case of Bangladesh has an inhumane aspect attached to it with cases where it passes through the middle of villages and in some cases through the households of undivided families. This makes monitoring of the border areas a difficult preposition. Vested Interests: Politics plays its own part in making this border area a highway for people from the other side of the border in order to cater to their own vote banks leading to an impossible situation for the maintenance of security in the region. Refugee Crisis: This region has been witness to the influx of refugees in large numbers since the time of East Pakistan to the recent case of Rohingyas. This creates an open door for those who want to create an atmosphere of instability deep inside the territory of India.
Government’s Approaches: Government’s approach on the eastern front has been a measured one with the approach being different with the case of Myanmar and Bangladesh. In the case of Bangladesh some of the measures being: Government to Government: The government to government relations have been improved vastly giving rise to increased cooperation on both sides of the security apparatus. People to People: Improved people to people contacts have reduced the areas of vulnerability and have helped in confidence building on both sides. Fencing of Border: The border areas have been strengthened and the fencing and other critical infrastructure including floodlighting which has improved the maintenance of security structure. Establishment of Border checkposts: bIncreased number of border checkposts have been established on the border areas in eastern sector in order to facilitate trade and hence giving a boost to economic activities on both sides of the border thus enabling prosperity in the border regions. Strengthening of Intelligence Network: Intelligence sharing and intelligence network have been greatly improved with the neighbouring countries thus enabling the security forces to nab dreaded terrorists and insurgents in advance.
6.2 Coastal Security:
Apart from the long land boundary, India has a coastal boundary of more than 7 thousand kilometres making the task of protecting those boundaries a challenging one. Some of the challenges of the long coastline are:
Militant attack: The long coastline has made it into a difficult to monitor situation with many blind spots open for underwater attacks on vital military infrastructure as well as militant attacks on the mainland like Mumbai, 2008. Ingress of fishermen: Lack of clear demarcation in waters leads to ingression by fishermen into Indian water which leads to security threats in the form of a deliberate terrorist plot. Smuggling activities: These waters are also heavily patrolled by smugglers who are in a lookout for opportunities to sneak into the country. Human trafficking: These areas are also dens of human trafficking with illegal influx of refugees by agents and trafickers on an intermittent basis making them harder to track.
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Conventional threats: With a volatile neighbourhood there is an ever-persistent threat of an attack from the sea frontier by Pakistan. Also there have been increased sightings of Chinese submarines in the region making it a chink in the armour for India’s overall security.
Government was spruced up into action post Mumbai attacks to bolster its security infrastructure on the coastal front including the island territories of Andaman and Lakshadweep. Some of the measures are:
Increased surveillance: This has been achieved through an increased level of periodic surveillance with the help of dorniers and FPVs( Fast Patrol Vehicles) throughout the vulnerable points of the coastline. Technological Interventions: Usage of satellite data and radar technologies like revathi helps in maintaining a real time picture of things happening on the indian coasts. Underwater radar technology has been used and installed in areas of vital naval installations with the help of Israel thus helping secure its assets. Unified control: The navy has established a unified control system centre in Gurgaon where data from all the big and small radar systems are assimilated thus helping in forming a threat perception and an easily detectable and communicable command structure thus streamlining the operational process. Newer Equipments and Platforms: Acquisition of newer platforms for the coast guard and the navy has vastly helped in control of the security situation with new stealth frigates and destroyers patrolling the Indian borders. Also induction of MR-SAM systems like Barak have improved the Indian hand in case of incoming aerial threats from a hostile neighbour. Andamans and a Unified Command: India has established its first unified theatre command in the strategically important andaman islands making it India’s ‘Permanent Aircraft Carrier’. This has changed the security paradigm of the region making it easy to keep tabs on chinese naval assets which enter the area through the nearby Malacca strait.
7. Internal Security:
"The Convention is further supplemented by three Protocols, which target specific areas and manifestations of organized crime:" However one of the most violent insurgencies grew under the demand of a separate Bodoland which was to be carved from the state of Assam.
Few Organisations leading these insurgent groups in North east were: National Liberation Council of Taniland - Arunachal Pradesh United Liberation Front of Assam - Assam National Democratic Front for Bodoland - Assam Karbi Longri N.C Liberation Front - Assam Kamtapur Liberation Organisation - Assam National Liberation Front of Tripura - Tripura All Tripura Tiger Force- Tripura National Socialist Council Of Nagaland - Nagaland This eventually split into NSCN(K) and NSCN(IM) The formation of strong sense of sub-nationalism in the region and emergence of so many insurgent groups can be linked to the economic deprivation and lack of proper democratic process in the region. There were however many other factors at play which made the north east a hotbed for growth of separatist organisations. Some of them are: Chicken Corridor - The connectivity with the mainland always being an issue it helped fuel the idea of an independent state amongst the minds of the people. Economy - With the majority of people belonging to tribal origin they depended on the produce of the land and hence felt no need to accede to the Union. Tribal Heads - Most of the tribes had an unflinching loyalty to their tribal heads and followed the path laid out by them without question.
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External influence - Agencies of hostile countries played their part in fanning the sense of discontent amongst the masses and remunerating the leaders of these movements. Pakistan’s ISI was involved in Naga unrest since as early as 1956. China’s PLA armed these insurgents with latest arms and equipments and also provided them with the latest training in gorilla warfare thus causing heavy damage to the security forces. Porous Borders - The geographical spread and remoteness of the area made manning the borders a tedious task for an emergent country. This helped the people associated with spreading violence escape the hands of law by moving into Myanmar and East Pakistan. Cultural Pride - With the populace doubting the intentions of the Indian state as an agent for destruction of their cultural heritage they vehemently opposed any government intervention in their day to day life thus delaying the much needed developmental process. Poor state of Infrastructure - Lack of critical infrastructure in the region like communication infrastructure and roads and bridges has made the process of enforcement of law and order an impossible process. Lack of Development - The region had been ignored for quite some time and faced government’s apathy as proper planning process lacked momentum.
8. Punjab and the Khalistan Movement:
Its idea was quite old and the seeds were sown that the Sikhs deserved a separate country of their own and hence germinated the plan for Khalistan. The reasons for its growth were however fanned by a multitude of factors: External Factors - It was continuously being supported by Pakistan and its military apparatus and also the Sikh fraternity settled abroad. Grievance - A sense of grievance was persistent in the minds of those settled post partition as they had left their economic and cultural wealth behind and hence dreamt of a united Punjab which would eventually bring a sense of justice. Political appeasement - The government of the time followed a policy of appeasement for the radical elements in the political system of punjab to counter the strength of Akalis. This worsened the condition on the ground with each parties competing to be more radical than the other. Extreme sub nationalism - The growth of extreme pride in the culture crossed the threshold of sensibility and people of other states were thrown out or shot by the radical elements while they roamed free with impunity. Economic Factor - The self sustenance of the punjabi economy post green revolution gave the belief that they no longer needed the Indian government and that they would be better off on their own.
Effects: The Indian armed forces had to finally storm the sacred space of Akal Takht by armoured vehicles and tanks which greatly harmed the beliefs and sentiments of the whole populace of Sikh community. This further alienated the next generation of sikhs to the whole process of normalization. The trauma that they faced was in many ways worse than the trauma faced during the partition years and the situation remained explosive for many years and people’s movements were closely monitored. The repression by the state was so severe that it turned the wheat bowl of India into a curfew state. The effects of these were quite severe not only in Punjab but the ripples were felt worldwide. Independent India lost its first female prime minister at the hands of her own Sikh bodyguards.This eventually turned the rest of the country against the sikh community and the period saw one of the largest mass ethnic cleansing that modern India ever witnessed. Families lost their homes and livelihood and the effect on the confidence of the people in each other was particularly crippling and hence unravelled the wounds of a painful past.
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The global community of Sikhs abroad were also particularly enraged and this also saw one of the worst terrorist attacks on an Indian airline in the infamous Kanishka bombings which didn’t do any favours to the reputation of Indian community abroad.
9. Jammu and Kashmir:
The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was a bone of contention between the newly independent nations of India and Pakistan. Being a Muslim majority state it was seen as a natural part by Pakistan which thought of it as an unsolved issue of partition and hence waged a war with the help of pashtun fighters in the hope of inciting the local people to rebel against the Maharaja. The maharaja in a state of panic, hurriedly signed an accession agreement with the Indian State. The Indian government brought the matter to the notice of the international community to highlight the atrocities committed by the fighters and the suffering of the local populace. The Indian constitution was amended and an article 370 was added which provided autonomy and a separate constituent assembly for the state. Operation Gibralter launched by pakistan led to further militarization of the state as the neighbouring country tried to fan out discontent amongst the masses. Political maneuvering and deceit by the politicians in the valley made the situation very volatile. The elections of 1987 and manipulation of the democratic process was the inflexion point in the state’s history. This disillusioned the masses and acted as a conduit for spreading anti-India feelings. Many erstwhile peace knicks like Syed Salahuddin immediately left the system and eventually declared a war on India through various Jihadi Tanzeems estabilished on pakistani soil. 1989 was another turning point as influenced by ideologies from across the border the radicals started a mass ethnic cleansing of minorities in the valley as a result of which thousands of Kashmiri Pandits had to leave everything overnight and became a refugee in their own country. The 90s saw a reduction in insurgent violence in the state and a heavy handedness of the state with certain infamous incidents like Hashimpora alienating the populace and the hostility touched a new high. The new millenia came with the Vajpayee touch in the approach of the state with the phrase “Kashmiriyat, Jamhooriyat and Insaniyat“ catching the imagination of the otherwise secluded masses. 2008-09 saw a new trend of stone pelting and protests based on proposal for land transfer for Amarnath Shrine board. This saw heavy casualties of civilians and many were arrested under the archaic Public Safety Act. Post 2016 saw a surge in the stone throwing incidents again after the encounter of a famous local terrorist of Hizbul Mujahideen. Recently amidst heavy clampdown, Article 370 was abrogated by the Indian Government which has made the already volatile situation in the valley more incendiary.
Reasons for Continuing insurgency: External Factor: The ever arching presence of Pakistan and its heavy involvement in the valley has turned it into an unsolvable problem and has made every effort of the Indian government a futile exercise. Religious Factor: Being the only muslim majority in the country has led the insurgents to demand a rule of sharia in the state and made the people extra apprehensive of the government’s intentions. Economic Factor: With most of the valley being in a state of perpetual economic deprivation and large number of youth being unemployed, disillusionment was always on the cards. Political Factors: Since the time of independence the valley has been an ideal case of political manipulations and dynasty politics with political representations limited to a few families. This has made the grassroot populace follow a herd mentality with most getting their views through friday sermons.
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Governance Factors: Absolute lack of governance in the valley has left many developmental gaps in the region which has exacerbated the issue of economic hardship and also delayed the vital connectivity issue with the rest of the country.
10. Left Wing Extremism:
The growth of communist ideology in the country can be traced to pre independence days and was basically against the oppression meted out by the feudal class of the society. This gained momentum in Naxalbari in West Bengal Post Independence and was also influenced by the Cultural Revolution taking place in neighbouring country of China and the wave of anti-establishment movements across South Asia. Land policies of British India was one of the main factors which made the tribals and the original land owners of the country tenants in their own lands. Even Mughals did not transfer the ownership of the land but merely controlled the revenue collected. Independent India saw many zamindars expanding their fiefdoms by money and muscle power depriving the masses of their ancestral rights. Under the leadership of Charu Mazumdar the principle of “snatching away of land” came into existence. The nexus between the landed aristocracy, their lathaits and darogas gave the movement an anti- establishment turn. The idea that a few landless peasants could rise against the establishment caught the imagination of the masses and the movement soon spread like wildfire. University students from erstwhile Calcutta and Delhi Universities jumped into this movement in a big way. Biggest example being that of Anuradha Ghandy. With most of Eastern and South-Eastern India being tribal dominated this soon led to the formation of a Red Corridor spanning across the length and breadth of the country. The traditional primary sectors like bidi workers and forest dwellers suffered in a big way at the hands of middlemen creating an ideal recruiting cadre. This has manifested itself into modern forms of rebellion in the form of Patthalgadhi movement in the hinterlands of Jharkhand and Chattisgarh.
The movement though on the decline had at one point been the leading cause of casualties amongst the security forces of the country with the situation being that the former prime minister Dr. Manmohan Singh stating that naxalism and not Pakistan posed the biggest threat to India. However the spread was helped by certain factors such as: Geography - With the whole belt being covered by dense vegetation and interspersed with hill ranges it made the security scenario and policing a virtual nightmare. One could easily commit a crime and escape into another jurisdiction hence rendering the security agencies a discouraging blow. Exploitation - With the tribals and landless being deprived of their rights and being paid a meagre compensation, most were forced into choosing this path out of sheer desperation and penury. Absence of Governance - Many areas in the hinterland like Bastar till 1982 had not seen the Indian flag and many thought the national flag to be that of a hammer and a sickle i.e flag of the communist party ( Hello Bastar by Khobad Ghandy). Such was the absence of government machinery in the region that people did not at any point had any glimmer of basic amenities like roads or school or even basic hospitals. In such a scenario they had no idea of what the new country was all about and most thought that one oppressor ( Indian Govt) had replaced another ( British Raj). Oppressive Policing - Due to inefficiencies in the basic law and order maintenance, the police hunted down the villagers and tribals wherever they could be found and they were subjected to torture. This made them disillusioned with the already non- existent state. Inter- state Jurisdiction - With the corridor spreading through various states, this helped the insurgents cross the border into geographically contiguous neighbouring state and hence escape the clutches of law as they always had jurisdictional limitations.
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International Support System - The movement gained momentum and received the much needed oxygen for its survival through international support in men, materials and ideology. Most of the armaments were received through the porous borders of Nepal and had the markings of PLA of China. Training Grounds were opened across the border away from the reach of the Indian agencies and propaganda materials arrived from as far as Latin America. Cultural Aspect - With most of the tribes being in minority they held their customs and traditions at a primordial importance. The perceived loss of their century old tradition made them jump into the movement in a big way. Historical Icons - The leaders of the movement successfully linked the movement with their past icons like Bhagwan Birsa and Sido and Kanhu which provided the people with motivation to fight the so called oppressors with greater vigour.
Government’s Approach in Controlling Insurgency: The government of India since independence has been fighting with this menace incessantly. The approach used has evolved from a unidirectional to a multi-pronged one over time and has slowly reached maturity which involves an amalgamation of government programmes along with galvanizing the security apparatus. Some aspects of this strategy are: Anthropological or Human Aspect - Policies directed towards emancipation of the peasantry was formed so that they benefit from these policies and are eventually taken out of the vicious cycle of oppression, penury and violence. Governance - Most of the insurgency affected areas are areas of perpetual neglect and hence the government has taken steps to address the issues with programmes of special funding and granting of special status to most of the north eastern states and J&K and also allocating additional resources from the central pool of funds to the LWE affected areas. Economic livelihood - Government through its various policies has ensured that people get a sustainable means of livelihood and are not pulled into the trap of violence. Some of the steps include special livelihood schemes for people of north east as well as announcing Minimum Assured prices for forest produce for helping out the tribals. Infrastructure - Lack of basic infrastructure in many areas like hospitals and schools made the people lag behind on vital social parameters like Health, Nutrition, Education and Life expectancy. Opening of Primary health centres in these areas has helped the local populace and hence weaned them away in a big way. Introduction of free primary school education has also helped the mainstreaming of young kids and hence reduced the potential disillusionment in the near future. Sealing Of Borders - Regular patrolling and sealing of borders in J&K and with Myanmar has helped in a big way to get the situation in control. Creation of Specialized forces - Special operational forces like the CoBRA commandos and deployment of central forces in the affected areas lent a heavy blow to the morale of the insurgents as these forces were given special training and expertise in gorilla warfare techniques and equipped with the latest machinery. This also includes specialized programmes like SAMADHAN for a comprehensive security outlook. Inter-State coordination - Inter state cooperation and intelligence sharing has greatly improved the law and order situation across the spectrum and has helped the security forces improve their overall success rate.
11. Communal Violence:
As a phenomenon communal violence is something whose precedent can’t be found in the early and middle ages. It was greatly fuelled by the British policy of divide and rule and subsequently given fuel by the fundamentalists on both sides of the spectrum. 20th century saw this take an ugly turn with the idea of religiosity gaining particular traction in areas of the country which were prone to religious politics with south India being the only novel exception.
The two nation theory propounded by Muhammad Ali Jinnah was the final nail in the coffin which ensured that people lived and died with the idea that two religions cannot co-survive. This also led to
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the creation of separate pockets of influence throughout the country with certain volatile regions in north India which have since then bore the brunt of this menace.
This violence has assumed various proportions in the years since independence from large scale riots to ghettoisation of minorities in a particular region. Few salient features exhibited by this scourge to society are: Ingraining of ideas of superiority and inferiority complex in the sections of society. The ideas of revenge and seeking of justice for past wrongs are usually the major factors in accumulation of the feeling of hatred amongst the common people. Indoctrination by the religious leaders plays the role of adding fuel to the fire and creates a situation which is difficult to control. Political motives for vote bank politics are often seen as contributing factors with one side feeling grievances and eventually taking the situation in their own hands. Collusion with the people in power most of the times gives criminals a free pass which further alienates the other community and hence creates a hostile society. Ghettoisation of the minority community takes place due to the unfriendly environment created which harms the whole generation and generates a feeling of victimhood and mental trauma which are impossible to heal. National events like Babri Masjid demolition and the subsequent Bombay blasts act as a source of propaganda for the next generation who see these events as a wrong that has been done to their community rather than a crime against society. The new millennium has seen the growth of social media as a new Frankenstein's monster and hence has started an era of rumours and false propaganda.
12. The phenomenon of Reactionary Fundamentalism and Lynching:
The areas of heightened communal tensions generally witness growth of reactionary communal movement in the neighbouring districts or states. Certain examples like Kishanganj district of Bihar and the surrounding areas, Malda in West Bengal, Khokhrajar in Assam etc are too prominent. This also serves as a recruiting ground for the various criminal and terrorist activities. The role of social media cannot be ignored in this play as now the phenomenon is not only limited to neighbouring districts but spreads to the whole nation in the blink of an eye. Videos and photos of far off lands are circulated within minutes and the whole scenario is polarised to the detriment of the society.
The failure of law and order situation and the delayed judicial proceedings lead to further deterioration of the faith of people in the system which makes them take matters in their own hands. This has led to the principle of instant justice gaining prominence amongst masses. This instant justice has various manifestations like: Setting ablaze of vehicles and destruction of state property by the masses. Lynching in the name of cow protection which has gained traction in recent times. Celebrity status of otherwise criminal elements in the name of justice being done.
Reasons for such mob tendancies such as lynching are: Rise of majoritarian tendencies: A section of society has cultivated a twisted idea of democracy where consideration of the aspiration of minority communities is viewed as being undemocratic. They have also successfully converted the deep fissures in the society along caste/religious lines and the economic resentment into personal victimhood and hate against a specific community Silence or complicity of the political class: Political class has not taken a leadership position on this issue. At times, the issue of lynching is electorally favourable and hence they remain silent. Many times polarisation in the society based on hate helps them build their political capital. Lack of an intellectual or cultural movement: A mass movement to explain and provide solution to mob lynching has not come up. Silence of the middle class: A large section of the society is callous or indifferent to these acts of violence. Lack of strict legislations that address the issue of hate crimes
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Social media: Whatsapp facebook etc makes the spread of unverified news and hate speech very easy.
Government Measures: Government of the day, tasked with the job of controlling and maintaining law and order generally follows few Standard Operating Procedures to bring the situation in control. Some of the steps taken by the state are: Prevention of rumour mongering and falsehoods being spread are initially targeted by a clampdown on internet and media. Section 144 is immediately imposed in order to prevent masses from congregating at any particular place at a single point in time. Flag marches by security forces are organised by security forces which act as a detriment to criminal mindsets and also as a confidence building measure for the aggrieved community. Mediation by community elders is organised at a district level so that no untoward incidents are in the offing.
13. Fundamentalism and Growth of Terrorism
Terrorism drives from the French word “terrorisme”, which is initially referred to State terrorism as implemented by the Government of France, at the time of “region of terror” during the period of the years of 1793-1794.Terrorism is an invisible enemy that every post modern society is suffering from and is yet to find a solution to. India is no exception to the menace and has suffered from it since the days of Khalistan movement in various forms from lone wolf attacks to mass shootings.
Terrorism can be classified into various forms such as: Bioterrorism: In this type of terrorism, the biological toxins are used to hurt and frighten innocent citizens. The U.S. Center for Disease Control has categorized the viruses, bacteria and toxins that could be used in an attack. They are: o Anthrax o Botulism o The Plague o Smallpox o Tularemia Cyber terrorism: In this type of terrorism, the terrorists utilize information technology to affect public at large and get attention to their aim. This may mean that they use information technology, like telecommunications, computers and internet, as a tool to organize a conventional attack Nuclear terrorism: Nuclear terrorism means different type of use of nuclear material by the terrorists. It includes attacking nuclear facilities, preparing nuclear weapons or purchasing nuclear weapons, or finding ways to scatter radioactive materials or preparing a ‘Dirty Bomb’. State sponsored terrorism: In this type of terrorism, the government supports groups which are engaged in violent activities. It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism referred as terrorist acts executed or supported by governments for their political objectives or as their foreign policy. Example of multiple attacks like Mumbai bomb blasts 2008, parliament attack 2001 etc are case in point of pakistan supported terrorism. Right-wing terrorism: This type of terrorism is inspired by ideologies and beliefs like communism, fascism, Nazism, Racism, chauvinism and opposition to immigration. Right Wing terrorists are racially motivated and they aim to suppress minorities within the country. They are also due to the reaction of terrorism caused by some groups belonging to the minority community. Mecca Masjid blasts and Samjhauta Express blasts can be cited as examples. Special interest terrorism, also called single-issue terrorism: This type of terrorism is special subject oriented, also called single-issue terrorism. The ideology of this type of terrorist groups to resolve explicit issues, rather than to extensive political change. Example can be cited of Post Babri Masjid inspired Bombay serial blasts, Fatal Suicide attack on Rajiv Gandhi on the Eelam issue.
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Reasons for rise and growth of terrorism in the society can be contributed to: Ethno-nationalism: The desire of group of persons in the society to separate from the existing government and to form their new nation can cause the creation of terrorist organizations. Example: ULFA and NSCN attacks in North East; LTTE in Sri Lanka etc. Alienation or Discrimination: The minority community, due to various factors such as unfair incarceration, delayed justice, unjust legistations etc often nurse a feeling of victimhood and alienation which leads to formation of organisations like Indian Mujahideen and SIMI which give way to terrorist acts. Poverty and Economic Problems: Economic deprivations often lead to disillusionment amongst the youth who eventually follow a path of violence and acts against the state. External Factors: In case of India this is a major factor as the neighbouring country of pakistan constantly pushes groups and jihadis under its policy to ‘Bleed India Through 1000 cuts’.
Government’s measures to counter terrorism: Government has had to evolve its method of countering terrorism since the days of khalistani terrorism to terrorists pushed by pakistan to the rising threats by international organisations like AQIS, ISIS etc. Some of the measures which have been taken and those realised by the state for future steps are: Soft Approach: The state needs to adopt a policy of care and concern towards those affected by fundamentalism in the country rather than leaving them incarcerated for decades. Intelligence Upgradation: The intelligence network has been spruced up with deep assets being created to get a pre-emptive idea of terrorist attacks and hence take preventive measures. Rehabilitation: Lately government has come up with a doctrine where those affected by fundamentalist ideals and turning towards the path of terrorism are quietly handed back to the community to enable their assimilation back to the society. Law and Order: Law and order approach has been humanised with training provided to police officials to handle these cases with a humane touch.
14. Cyber Security
Cyber security is the technique of protecting computers, networks, programs, data and identity from unauthorized access or attacks that are aimed for exploitation. India ranks 3rd in terms of the highest number of internet users in the world after the USA and China. India secures a spot amongst the top 10 spam-sending countries in the world alongside USA. Moreover, India has been ranked amongst the top 5 countries to be affected by cybercrime, according to a report by online security firm ”Symantec Corp”. As per a report by Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In), more than 53, 000 cyber security incidents took place in India in 2017 alone. India ranked 23rd out of 165 nations in the second Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI)
Cyber threats Cyber threats can be classified, based on the actors and their targets, into a few categories. They are: 1. Cyber espionage: Gathering of big data and eventual data theft. Examples - Titan Rain, Moonlight Maze etc. 2. Cyber warfare: It includes a state sponsored attack to cripple or hack another nation's computers or information networks. 3. Cyber terrorism: It is premeditated, politically motivated and a specific attack against information, computer systems and data which results in damage to the target’s critical infrastructure 4. Cybercrime: It is any criminal activity that involves a computer, networked device or a network at a personalised or a local level.
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Government’s Approach to cybersecurity: Information Technology act 2000. It defines and elaborates on different definition of Hacking, Phishing etc and deals with the various aspects of violation of privacy and Identity theft. National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: This was keeping in mind with the new challenges and hence the policy provides the vision and strategic direction to protect the national cyberspace. The major objectives of the policy are: To create a safe and secure ecosystem for cyberspace and enable adequate trust and confidence in electronic transactions and also guiding stakeholder’s actions for the protection of cyberspace. To create an assurance framework for the design of security policies and enable actions for compliance with global standards. To substantially improve and strengthen the required regulatory framework for the same. To develop suitable indigenous technologies in ICT sector. To increase the visibility of integrity of ICT products by establishing infrastructure for testing and validation of security of such products.
Institutions National Cyber Security Coordination Centre (NCCC): NCCC performs real-time threat assessment and disseminate awareness about potential cyber threats to the country. National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): Created under section 70A of the IT Act and designated as nodal agency for critical information infrastructure protection. The CERT-In (Cyber Emergency Response Team - India) CERT-In is national nodal agency which responds to cyber security incidents as and when they occur. National Technical Research Organization Technical intelligence agency under National Security Adviser in the Prime Minister's Office, India. It also includes National Institute of Cryptology Research and Development (NICRD) Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): The Union Government decided to set up I4C. It will be apex coordination centre to deal with cybercrimes based in New Delhi. It will coordinate with the respective State government and closely monitor cyberspace and social media with due emphasis on vernacular content.
Initiatives: Cyber Swachhta Kendra: It provides a platform for users to analyse and clean their systems of various viruses, bots/ malware, Trojans, etc. Cyber Surakshit Bharat: o Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), launched the Cyber Surakshit Bharat to spread awareness about cybercrime and building capacity for safety measures for Chief Information Security Officers (CISOs) and frontline IT staff across all government departments. The Cyber Warrior Police Force: o The CWPF is likely to operate under National Information Security Policy and Guidelines wing of MHA’s CIS division. It is proposed to be raised on lines of Central Armed Police Force (CAPF).
Major Committees and recommendations Gulshan Rai Committee The Committee in its report made the following recommendations: Establishment of a new Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre which would be linked to NATGRID and Crime and Criminal Tracking Network system (CCTNS). An advanced app for Social Media Analytics to monitor social media platforms activities related to Ministries of Home, External Affairs, Defence and other government organizations Reduce the Government’s dependence on foreign servers and ensure one dedicated secure gateway for all government communication.
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Establish a separate agency for online cybercrime registration, monitoring and integration of CCTNS data with the same.
International Conventions: Budapest convention - Provides for the criminalisation of conduct, ranging from illegal access to computer related fraud and child pornography. International coordination on cybercrime and e-evidence.
15. Organised Crime:
Organized crime is highly centralized enterprises run by criminals with an objective to get pecuniary benefits, or gaining an undue advantage for himself or others. Due to their fluid structure, law enforcement agencies are frequently bamboozled by them. They operate at local, regional, national and international level. Similar to climate change organised crime also affects humanity as a whole.
Types of organized crimes: Contract Killings Kidnapping for Ransom Smuggling Drug Abuse and Drug Trafficking Money Laundering & Hawala Terrorism Illegal Immigration
Laws of the land for organised crime: Law and order being a state subject different states have come up with their version of preventive and punishable laws such as: Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act - Maharashtra Karnataka Control of Organised Crime Act - Karnataka
However, there are a couple of national preventive laws that have been made in order to strike at the heart of organised crime in terms of prevention of smuggling and illicit substances which form the backbone of supply ecosystem of organised crime and the much needed financing of these gangs. They are: National Security Act 1980 The Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act 1988
Reasons for Its growth: Judicial lacunae: Most of the undertrials face unnecessary incarcerations which brings them in contact with hardened criminals and creates an ecosystem for further recruitment. Economic Aspect: Unemployment and lack of economic opportunities lures many people into the path of easy money provided by these rings. Political Nexus: The rise of the role of money power in politics has made political nexus in hawala rings and smuggling gangs a common phenomenon. This provides the much needed political impunity for these gangs. External Factors: The existence of international gangs and support from legally safe havens provides the much needed material and financial support for these people to operate. Example - Proximity to the Golden Triangle and the Golden Crescent
International Conventions: The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: Adopted by the General Assembly resolution on 15 November 2000, is the main international instrument in the fight against transnational organized crime signed in Palermo, Italy. States ratifying the instrument commit themselves to take measures to deter transnational organized crime
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The Convention is further supplemented by three Protocols, which target specific areas and manifestations of organized crime: The Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, their Parts and Components and Ammunition The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children The Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air Financial Action Task Force: It is an inter- governmental organisation formed in 1989 to set standards and promote effective implementation of legal, regulatory and operational measures to combat money laundering, terrorist financing and other related threats to the integrity of the international financial system.
16. Changing Security Paradigm and the way forward:
With the scenario of provision of security changing with time and evolution of threat perceptions taking place simultaneously the need of the hour is for the government and the security forces to evolve themselves accordingly and counter them in a whole new way. This can be done both domestically and through certain international efforts by working with likeminded countries. Few coordinated efforts to counter the menace: Law and Order and Policing: Most of the issues from drug cartels to insurgency has a link coming back to some sort of grievances nurtured by the people due to the heavy handedness of the law enforcing agencies. Justice not only needs to be done but also perceived to be done. Police Reforms: Law and order is a state subject and the burden of maintaining law and order in a state falls on the state police force. So it is very important to modernise the police force. Modern policing requires state-of-the-art weapons, safe communication network and a high degree of mobility. But CAG report and the BPRD highlight inadequate infrastructure and support systems which acts as stumbling block for modern policing. Parliament has passed Model Police Act, 2006 which mentions various provisions related to recruitment, infrastructure, accountability etc. Supreme Court has also issued directions for the effective functioning of the police to the state and center in the Prakash Singh vs Union of India 2006. Judicial Reforms: With the judiciary already under heavy stress of litigations, undertrials are incarcerated in cases which often turn out to be malicious or prejudiced. This leads to a creation of victimhood at the hands of the state. The delayed proceedings also erode people’s faith in the justice system encouraging many to take matters in their own hands. Economic Reforms: Most of the economic policies of the government are still cornered around the archaic ‘top-down’ approach which increases the inequalities and the gulf between the rich and the poor of the society. This feeling is one of the main factors in the development of hostility in the society and it eventually manifests itself in various ugly forms Legislative Reforms: Most of the laws like MCOCA, AFSPA, Public Safety Act, create more long term damage than good. Reforms in this regard are of primordial importance in order to assuage the sense of suffering in the masses which are bound to be exploited by various vested groups. Intelligence Network: Intelligence network and agencies need to be overhauled and specialised only then can they target the new and emerging threats of fundamentalism and imported terrorism like growth of ISIS. Day to day events need to be carefully monitored and countered in a humane way. Threats need to be transferred in a coordinated way to implementing agencies. Security Reforms: The security forces need to evolve themselves to fight the new urban warfare be it in terms of communal riots or lone wolf attacks by terrorists and international best practices need to be inculcated in a dynamic way. The security apparatus needs to be upgraded in terms of equipment and training methods to enable them to take on challenges in a pro -active way rather than a reactionary response. International efforts: Multi-pronged approach is needed to tackle the menace of growing fundamentalism, terrorism, organised crime and trafficking at international forums. These can include efforts at UN like CCIT for rising terrorism, isolation of perpetrating nations, strengthening of multilateral forums like the FATF etc. Soft Touch: The policies of the government need to be people centric and aimed at the emancipation of the masses rather than projecting an image of a police state. The situation should
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be created where the citizenry has faith in the rule of law and a sense of belongingness to the land. Fraternity and brotherhood promotion should be matters of prime importance at mohalla level so that the community as a whole responds to issues at hand rather than being a passive force.
Conclusion: The security paradigm of a country is the prima donna as far the very survival of the nation is concerned. No civilization can thrive without its citizenry living in a sense of a safe and secure environment. This bestows upon the nation and its policy makers to achieve a state which justifies the famous phrase of Tagore - “Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high”. No issue of security is an isolated one and hence cannot be approached in a canisterised vision. We need to look at overall well being of the populace which shall not only eliminate the immediate security threats but also ameliorate the grievances of the people leading to the creation of a fabian society.
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Women 07
1. Previous Year Essay Topics 9. Modern Day Challenges 2. Introduction 10. Government Initiatives after 3. Women in Ancient India Independence 4. Position of Women in Medieval Period 11. Initiatives by civil society 5. Position of women during British Rule 12. Reports and General Facts 6. Role of Women 13. Case Studies 7. Constitutional safeguards 14. Quotes 8. Position of Women in the 21st Century
1. Previous Year Essay Topics:
Men have failed: let women take over. -1993 The new emerging women power: the ground realities. -1995 Greater political power alone will not improve women’s plight. -1997 Woman is god’s best creation. -1998 Women empowerment: challenges and prospects. -1999 Empowerment alone cannot help our women. -2001 Whither women’s emancipation? -2004 If women ruled the world -2005 Women’s reservation bill would usher in empowerment for women in India. -2006 Managing work and home – is the Indian working woman getting a fair deal ?-2012 If development is not engendered, it is endangered. -2016 Fulfilment of ‘new woman’ in India is a myth. -2017
2. Introduction
Women are considered as the goddess in Indian society since ancient times. However, it is also true that they are being treated miserably and are subjected to some of the worst forms of exploitation. They have been ill-treated since centuries and used as mere objects to fulfil the wishes of men. Considering them as a goddess is not enough to ameliorate their issues and provide true form of empowerment. It needs positive continuous effort and participation of both men and women to really bring women empowerment.
3. Women in Ancient India
3.1 Position of Women in Pre-Vedic Period
Nothing much is known about the true role played by women in IVC but in Harappa, numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. Probably the image represents the goddess of earth which suggests that the women was worshipped at that time and her status were held high. Specific public activities played by women, at that time, has been famously depicted in the bronze statuette ‘The Dancing Girl’.
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3.2 Position of women in Vedic Age
Society: o The Rig Vedic society though being a patriarchal one, women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. The institution of marriage was established although symbols of primitive practices survived. o We have some indications of polyandry with a clear mention of Rodasi hence exhibiting the level of empowerment. o We have a few instances of sons being named after their mother, as in the case of Mamateya. o The practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. There are no examples of child marriage. o The condition of the Vedic Woman was good. In the Rig Veda, no desire is expressed for daughters, though the desire for children and cattle is a recurrent theme in the hymns. Education: o Education was not denied to the women. We have an instance of five women who composed hymns although the later text mention 20 such women. o Women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period are well known. Politics: o Even in politics, the position of women was good. Women could attend the popular assemblies. They attended the ‘sabha’ and ‘vidatha’ in Rig vedic times.
3.3 Position of Women in later Vedic Period
There was no improvement in the status of women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
Educational status of women in ancient India There was a gradual degeneration in the status of women in India after the Vedic age. Caste system and ritualism began to take a deep root in the lives of the common man. Patriarchal social order backed with religious sanctions nurtured gender discrimination in the economic, political and social life of traditional communities in India. Child marriage and Sati became popular. Buddhism and Jainism emerged as alternative religious orders devoid of caste-based social order. These new religions professed equality between men and women but had little impact on rural masses. Among the intellectuals, they appeared as strong countercurrents for caste-ridden Hindu society. Till the arrival of the Muslims, the Hindu philosophy was the guiding force for the masses in India. Education of women, which was an accepted norm during the Vedic period, slowly began to be neglected and later on, girls were totally denied any access to education. Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony, which was performed to initiate a person into the Vedic studies, was prohibited for women and Shudras by the Manu codes thus closing the doors for any formal education for women. Thus there existed no system of education for them, as they had no Upanayana Sanskar. By circa 8th century, the marriageable age for girls was lowered to 9 or 10 years, which not only dealt a final blow to any efforts at educating women but also encouraged the sinister practice of pre-puberty marriages. The situation of widows was very pathetic in the later Vedic era.
4. Position of Women in Medieval Period
Unlike in the ancient Indian period, the position and status of women in the Medieval period was not high. Purdah and child marriage had become common. Except those amongst the lower classes, women in the Mughal period did not move out of their houses.
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The birth of a daughter was considered inauspicious, while that of a son was an occasion for celebration. On account of early marriage, there were many widows in our society. Generally, women in the Mughal Period were not allowed to remarry. Polygamy was common among rich society. Divorce was not common among the Hindus, while it was permitted both for Muslim men and woman. Instead of all these religious restrictions, women at that time actively participated in the social, political, educational and religious field like Raziya Sultan who was first lady Monarch of Delhi, Chand Bibi who had defeated Akbar etc. In this period, bhakti moment had played a very important role for improvement of the status of women. The movement saw many women saint poets liek Andal, Mirabai, Karikal Ammaiyar etc. These were the movement which tried to give equal status to women in society at that time. The best example, who preached the equality of men and women at that time, was Guru Nanak. He advocated equality of women in each sector that is religious, political, educational and cultural.
5. Position of women during British Rule
Women were generally accorded a low status and were considered to be inferior adjuncts to men, with no identity of their own. They enjoyed no scope of giving expression to their talents as they were suppressed by practices such as purdah, early marriage, a ban on widow-marriage, sati, etc. Both Hindu and Muslim women were economically and socially dependent on male relatives, while education was generally denied to them. The Hindu women did not enjoy the right to inherit property or to terminate an undesirable marriage. Muslim women could inherit property but only half as much as men could, while in matters of divorce there was no equality between men and women. Among Hindus and Muslims, polygamy was prevalent. The only way in which society recognised the contribution of women was their glorification as wives and mothers was as members of society. Women were not active in politics either till the later part of the 19th century when Kadambini Ganguly became the first woman to address the annual Congress session. The advent of the 20th century however brought women to the forefront of the nationalist movement with leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Annie Beasant, Sucheta kriplani, Usha mehta and others holding fort.
5.1 Reforms for Women Empowerment during the colonial period
Raja Ram Mohan Roy launched a frontal attack on the practice of sati and it was because of his efforts that the government declared the practice of sati illegal and punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide. The regulation of 1829 (Regulation XVII, A.D. 1829 of the Bengal Code) was applicable in the first instance to Bengal Presidency alone but was extended in slightly modified forms to Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830. The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of widow remarriage high on its agenda but it was mainly due to the efforts of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91), the principal of Sanskrit College, Calcutta, that the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, was passed; it legalised marriage of widows and declared issues from such marriages as legitimate. Vedic texts were cited by Vidyasagar to prove that the Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage. The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act), 1872, Age of Consent Act (1891), The Sarda Act (1930) are some of the efforts which prohibited child marriage. Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar worked in the field of women's education along with others. Many important steps were taken to educate women like The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune. Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854) laid great stress on the need for female education. Health facilities began to be provided to women with the opening of Dufferin Hospitals in the 1880s.
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Many women also came forward and took the charge to empower women. For example, in 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the first meeting of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Allahabad which is considered as the first major Indian women’s organisation set up by a woman. Ramabai Ranade and Pandita Ramabai Saraswati are other major names.
5.2 Role of women in the National movement
With the advent of the 20th century, women participation in the political movements increased manifold. Participation in the swadeshi and anti-partition and the Home Rule movements during the opening decades of the twentieth century was a major liberating experience for the otherwise home-centred Indian women. After 1918, they faced lathis and bullets and were jailed during political processions, picketing, etc. They actively participated in trade union and Kisan movements, or revolutionary movements. They voted in, stood for and got elected to various legislatures and local bodies. Sarojini Naidu went on to become the president of the Indian National Congress (1925) and later the governor of the United Provinces (1947-49). After 1920, aware and self-confident women led a women’s movement. Many organisations and institutions such as the All India Women’s Conference (established in 1927) came up. Women participated in huge numbers in the National Movement, especially after the advent of Gandhiji. Many women also participated in revolutionary activities during the freedom struggle. Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutt, Santi Ghosh and Suniti Chandheri, and Bina Das are some of the examples.
6. Role of Women:
Women play myriad roles in the social fabric of the nation thereby strengthening it immeasurably. Their multifarious contributions can be listed in different fields such as:
Society o Women play an important role in society. They constitute about 50% of our population and can contribute immensely to the society if given proper opportunities. o As a mother, their role is crucial for the future of every nation. Mother is the first teacher of any child and if she doesn’t perform her role then we as individuals may lack certain moral and ethical values which are essential for the society to run. o In the Indian context, they have a huge role in the wellbeing of the family. They take care of the nutrition of the family and especially the education of the family. She is the backbone of the family. o Women's education is important as by educating her we educate the whole family. o Women also play an important role in preserving our rich culture and passing it through the generations. Economy o Most of the women are involved in household work, for which they are not paid. If women are provided with proper education and skills then they can contribute immensely in the economy. o If all women start working then social indicators associated with them will improve immensely and it will boost our economy. At the same time, many social evils will reduce as economic empowerment will lead to the real women empowerment. Economic empowerment will liberate the women and will allow them to live their life independently. o At the village level also, the majority of women work as farm labourers and hence play an important role. o IMF research has shown that raising women's participation in the workforce to the level of men can boost Indian economy by 27%, says IMF chief Christine Lagarde.
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Politics o Women participation in politics is important. It is important because without which policies catering to the women's issues will not be able to fully incorporate the women problem. o Political involvement of women encourages society to be more sympathetic to women's issues. Environment o Women have a crucial role to play in managing natural resources at the family and community level and are most affected by environmental degradation. o In communities around the world, women manage water, sources of fuel, and food, as well as both forests and agricultural terrain. o 60 to 80 per cent of food in developing countries is produced by Women, while inheritance laws and local customs often prevent them from owning or leasing land and securing loans or insurance. o From the high level to the grassroots, the 1992 UN Earth Summit, India’s Chipko movement and Kenya’s Green Belt Movement all highlighted the role of women’s participation for sustainable development. Science o Like every other field, this field of science is also male-dominated in India but despite this women have contributed a lot in the field of science since ages. Kadambini (Basu) Ganguly, Anandi Gopal Joshi, Anna Mani are few pre-independence names which have a significant role in the science. o In Modern India also women are playing a great role. The recent example being the Ritu Karidhal Srivastava, the mission director of Chandrayaan-2. Sports o It appears that women were not much active in the field of sports during ancient and medieval India and was restricted to dancing or singing only. o But the women participation in sports has increased dramatically from the last century onwards. o They are not only proving themselves but also making the country proud. o Sania Mirza, Saina Nehwal, PV Sindhu, Diana Edulji, Mithali Raj, Mary Kom, Deepika Kumari are some of the examples which have not only made the country proud but also have turned out to be role models for girls and have provided a boost to women empowerment.
7. Constitutional safeguards
The Constitution of India not only grants equality to women but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women for neutralizing the cumulative socio- economic, education and political disadvantages faced by them.
Equality before the law for women (Article 14) The State not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them (Article 15 (i)) The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children (Article 15 (3)) Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State (Article 16) The State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women equally the right to an adequate means of livelihood (Article 39(a)); and equal pay for equal work for both men and women (Article 39(d)) The State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief (Article 42) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)) Not less than one-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Panchayat to be reserved for women (Article 243 D(3))
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Not less than one-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality to be reserved for women (Article 243 T(3))
8. Position of Women in the 21st Century
A lot has changed with time for the women. Today, a majority of women are involved in household works but no one can deny that the situation has improved since the earlier times. Women participation in India is increasing in all spheres of life. They are joining the universities and colleges in large numbers. Women, who now represent approximately half of the population, are getting access to education, and then employment. Dropout rates for girls have fallen. Various programs like ‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’ and ‘Saakshar Bharat Mission for Female Literacy’ has increased the literacy rates today. Today we have many female role models who are role models not only for women but also for men. Kiran Mazumdar Shaw, Saina Nehwal, Sania Mirza, Chanda Kochar are some of the examples. Even they are getting recognized in politics. In the field of Politics, from Indira Gandhi to Sheila Dixit, Sushma Swaraj today, women are making their presence felt. Even after the tremendous increase in the women empowerment, social evils like dowry, crimes like rape, sexual harassment at workplace and public places, and molestation, eve-teasing etc. are still prevalent, which is the shameful side of our country.
9. Modern Day Challenges
Violence Against Women o Rampant domestic violence against women in India is a reality. According to the National Family Health Survey-4 (2015-16), 27 per cent of women have experienced physical violence since the age of 15 in India. This is more common in rural areas than among women in urban areas. o Dowry is still one of the main reasons for violence against women. Patriarchy is another major issue as men feel that they have control over the body of their wives. o Women reported Domestic violence cases (physical abuse cases) in rural and urban areas, were at 29 per cent and 23 per cent, respectively. The perpetrators of this violence have mostly been the husbands. o For Indian women sexual rights are still a serious concern. Validating this concern, six per cent of women in India and reported to have experienced sexual violence in their lifetime. o Among married women who were victims of sexual violence, over 83% reported their present husband and 9% report a former husband as the perpetrators. The form of sexual violence most commonly reported by women was that their husband used physical force to have sexual intercourse when they did not want to (5.4%). Health o Although a lot has improved in the field of the health sector and various indicators related to women’s health has improved but a lot needs to be done. o Gender-based discrimination is having a negative impact on women's health in India, according to a joint study conducted by researchers at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), the Indian Statistical Institute, Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council, and Harvard University. o The research found only 37% of women got access to health care, as compared to 67% of men. o A huge disparity in the availability of healthcare resources continues to exist in India. The rural-urban divide is considerable when it comes to healthcare access. Fairly-developed states like Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have brought down their TFR and MMR rates and states like Assam, Jharkhand continues to grapple with these issues even today. Economic o This is one of the major challenges which can act as a catalyst to solve the other problems related to women.
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o Still many women in India, especially in rural areas, are economically dependent on their male counterparts. This economic dependence leaves no option for them to take their own decisions. It is also a reason why many women tolerate domestic violence. o Pay Parity is another issue. Women are paid the most unequally in India, compared to men, when it comes to hourly wages for labour. On average, women are paid 34 per cent less than men, according to the Global Wage Report 2018-19 by the International Labour Organization (ILO). o According to Female labor force participation rates, India ranks 120 among 131 countries Despite inadequate job creation, household incomes did rise, and it resulted in reduced women’s participation in labour force. o A lot of women in the rural area are working as a daily wage labourer at a very low wage and those who are doing farming are unable to access the loan as they have nothing to offer as collateral. Political o The main reasons that prevented them from entering politics are factors such as domestic responsibilities, prevailing cultural attitudes regarding the roles of women in society and lack of support from family. o Despite having 49% of the population in the country, the participation of women in politics is less than 15%. o The Economic survey highlighted quoting an Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) and UN Women report -- Women in Politics 2017, Lok Sabha had 64 (11.8 percent of 542 MPs) and Rajya Sabha 27 (11 percent of 245 MPs) women MPs. Environmental o Women are one of the vulnerable sections of Indian society. Many women, especially in rural areas are more economically dependent on men and have less socioeconomic power than men, making recovery from extreme weather events more difficult. o We are already facing water crisis and it will severely affect the rural women as women across the country from the Western Ghats and the mountainous north-east to the arid desert state of Rajasthan, act as water collectors. And this gender-specific role impact on every aspect of their lives, from health and social life to education and their ability to have a meaningful impact in the community. o Also, women are more likely to feel health hazards due to climate change. Education o Still a large section of uneducated women are married off before the age of 18. Families are required to supply a chaste daughter to the family of her future husband. Lack of good paying jobs for women discourages parents to spend money on girls’ education. According to statistics close to 245 million Indian women lack the basic capability to read and write. Society o The patriarchal mindset of society is one major challenge. The son preference is still strong in India which is the main cause of discrimination towards girls. o India has 63 million “missing women.” These are the girls and women who would be alive today if parents were not aborting female foetuses. o According to the Economic Survey (2018) India has twenty-one million “unwanted girls”. These are the girls who are born but not treated well. Safety o Acoording to the The philanthropic arm of Reuters media company ‘The Thomson Reuters Foundation’ India is the most dangerous place because of its high incidences of sexual violence, lack of access to justice in rape cases, child marriage, female feticide and human trafficking. Even Syria and Afghanistan are ranked second and third that are currently at war.
10. Government Initiatives after Independence
To uphold the Constitutional mandate, the State has enacted various legislative measures intended to ensure equal rights, to counter social discrimination and various forms of violence and atrocities and to provide support services, especially to working women. 'Crime against Women' are broadly classified under two categories.
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o The Crimes Identified Under the Indian Penal Code like Rape, Kidnapping & Abduction (iii) Homicide for Dowry, Dowry Deaths or their attempts, Torture, both mental and physical, Molestation, Sexual Harassment, Importation of girls (up to 21 years of age). o The Crimes identified under the Special Laws (SLL) Although all laws are not gender- specific, the provisions of law affecting women significantly have been reviewed periodically and amendments carried out to keep pace with the emerging requirements. Some acts have special provisions to safeguard women and their interests like o The Family Courts Act, 1954 o The Special Marriage Act, 1954 o The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 o The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 amended in 2005 o Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 o The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 o Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 o The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 o Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994
Women Empowerment Schemes Beti Bachao Beti Padhao initiative: The objectives of this initiative are Prevention of gender-biased sex selective elimination, ii) ensuring survival & protection of the girl child and iii) Ensuring education and participation of the girl child. One-Stop Centre: These Centres will be established across the country to provide integrated support and assistance under one roof to women affected by violence, both in private and public spaces in a phased manner. In the first phase, one Centre shall be established in every State/UT on a pilot basis. UJJAWALA: A Comprehensive Scheme for Prevention of Trafficking and Rescue, Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking for Commercial Sexual Exploitation. Prime Minister Ujjwala Yojana: It is a scheme of the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas for providing LPG connections to women from Below Poverty Line (BPL) households. Working Women Hostel Ministry approves new projects under Ujjawala Scheme and continues existing projects SWADHAR Greh (A Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances) Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP) Mahila E-Haat Mahila Shakti Kendras (MSK) NIRBHAYA Mahila police Volunteers
SPECIAL INITIATIVES FOR WOMEN National Commission for Women: In January 1992, the Government set-up this statutory body with a specific mandate to study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and legal safeguards provided for women, review the existing legislation to suggest amendments wherever necessary, etc. Reservation for Women in Local Self -Government: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-third of the total seats for women in all elected offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas. The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000): The plan of Action is to ensure survival, protection and development of the girl child with the ultimate objective of building up a better future for the girl child. The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001: The Department of Women & Child Development in the Ministry of Human Resource Development has prepared a “National Policy for the Empowerment of Women” in the year 2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment of women. The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2016 is under the draft stage.
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11. Initiatives by civil society
NGOs play a very significant role in strengthening the women. Since independence many organisations have been working for the women’s cause. Their role becomes even more important as resources of the Government is limited and approach of government schemes is general whereas NGOs can modify their strategy. NGOs like ‘CARE’, ‘Save the Children’ are a few examples which are empowering the women of India. Self Help Groups: o In recent years, SHGs have become a significant movement in India. Women and SHGs in many parts of the country have achieved success in bringing the women to the mainstream. It is informal and homogenous group of not more than twenty members. o SHG is a viable organized set up to disburse microcredit to rural women and encouraging them together into entrepreneurial activities. To alleviate poverty and to empower the women, the micro-finance, Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and credit management groups have also started in India. #METOO Movement: Recently we saw the rise of the #MeToo movement in India. Inspired by a global campaign against sexual harassment and assault, women across the spectrum opened up and shared their stories about abuse by men in positions of power. The aim was to encourage the women to speak up as in our society women are usually afraid of speaking about it. This type of movements provides confidence to women.
12. Reports and General Facts
Following facts has been taken from Women and Men in India (A statistical compilation of Gender-related Indicators in India) 2018 released by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. o As per Census 2011, the population of India is more than 121 Crore with 48.5% females, 949 female to 1000 males in rural India against 929 females to 1000 males in urban India. o As per NSS 71st Round, the rural literacy rate for females is 56.8 as compared to 72.3 for males. For the urban population, the literacy rate for females was 74.8 as compared to 83.7 for males. o As per Census 2011, the workforce participation rate for females is 25.51% against 53.26% for males. The rural sector has a better female workforce participation rate of 30.02% compared with 53.03% for males, whereas for the urban sector. o There are 3 women judges out of 31 judges in the Supreme Court and there were 73 women judges out of 689 judges in different High Courts with maximum 33% in Sikkim High Court and no women judge in 7 High Courts. o IN 2016, the total crime rate against women per lakh women is the highest reported for Delhi at 160.4 followed by Assam at 131.3. The lowest total crime against women was reported in Nagaland (9.2%) followed by Puducherry (12.8%) and Tamil Nadu (12.9% o Women’s mean age at marriage at all India level in 2016 is at 22.2 years and the same in rural and urban areas is 21.7 years and 23.1 years respectively. The women’s mean age at marriage has shown an increasing trend in all the major States and at all India level it has increased from 21.1 to 22.2 years during 2012 to 2016. The same is highest in Jammu & Kashmir (24.8 years) and lowest in West Bengal (21 years). o The maternal mortality rate (MMR), according to the sample registration system (SRS) data declined to 130 in 2014-16 from 167 in 2011-13. o Global Nutrition Report 2017 place India at the bottom of the table with the maximum number of women impacted with anaemia in the world, followed by China, Pakistan, Nigeria and Indonesia. In India, more than half (51%) of all women of reproductive age have anaemia, whereas more than one in five (22%) of adult women are overweight.
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12.1 The Global Gender Gap Report 2018
The Global Gender Gap Report is released by the World Economic Forum (WEF)which benchmarks 149 countries on their progress towards gender parity across four thematic dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment. In addition, this year’s edition studies skills gender gaps related to Artificial Intelligence (AI). India made no improvement in the overall gender gap ranking by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in 2018, compared to 2017. It stood at a low 108 out of the 149 countries in 2018, the same as in 2017. India ranked lower on all segments - economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival ranking, and political empowerment. Interestingly, India has the second-largest artificial intelligence (AI) workforce, but one of the largest AI gender gaps, with only 22 percent of roles filled by women.
12.2 Supreme Court Judgements
Vishaka Vs State of Rajasthan: On August 13, 1997, the Supreme Court commissioned the Vishaka guidelines that defined sexual harassment and put the onus on the employers to provide a safe working environment for women. Danamma v. Amar (Succession): the Supreme Court of India (“SC”) upheld the right of a daughter to be entitled to an equal share as a son in an ancestral property, including daughters who were born before the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 (“HSA”) came into force. The judgement was delivered by Justice A.K. Sikri and Justice Ashok Bhushan on February 1st, 2018 in the matter of Danamma v. Amar. Sabarimala Judgement: The Supreme Court struck down a rule that disallowed girls and women in the 10-50 age group from entering the Sabarimala temple in Kerala. SC said the temple rule violated their right to equality and right to worship. Shayara Bano Vs Union of India & Ors. (Triple Talaq): The Supreme Court on Thursday agreed to hear a plea filed by a Muslim woman against the talaq (divorce) given by her husband by sending triple talaq notices. Instant triple talaq was declared unconstitutional by the apex court in its judgment dated 17 August, 2017 in the case of Shayara Bano Vs Union of India & Ors.
13. Case Studies
Kudumbashree Kudumbashree was set up in 1997. Kudumbashree is the poverty eradication and women empowerment programme implemented by the State Poverty Eradication Mission (SPEM) of the Government of Kerala. Kudumbashree is essentially a community network that covers the entire State of Kerala. It consists of a three-tier structure with Neighbourhood Groups (NHGs) as primary level units, Area Development Societies (ADS) at the ward level, and Community Development Societies (CDS) at the local government level. It is arguably one of the largest women’s networks in the world. While the community network is formed around the central themes of poverty eradication and women empowerment, its main features include democratic leadership, and support structures formed from the ‘Kudumbashree family’. Success Story: Coconut consumption is very high in Kerala. A few years back Kerala Government realized the shortage of climbers to pluck the coconut and realised the want of climbers could slowly be fulfilled by opening the job market to (whom else) women. Women from districts like Kozhikode, Thrissur, and Malappuram were trained to climb the trees with the help of a device and also given subsidised two-wheelers and mobiles. These devices prevent chest pains and scars usually associated with climbing trees sans any help. Many women in the district now earn up to Rs. 650 a day by climbing coconut trees – something no one would have imagined possible just a few decades ago.
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It organizes poor women at the grass-root level and enhances their socioeconomic standing through micro-credit and women empowerment initiatives via vocational training, education and healthcare. Its innovative poverty reduction approach is implemented through local self- government (LSGs). It has transformed the lives of millions of women of Kerala.
Self Employed Women’s Association Of the female labour force in India, more than 94% are in the unorganised sector. However their work is not counted and hence remains invisible. They are unprotected labour force of our country. Constituting 93% of the labour force, these are workers of the unorganised sector. SEWA is a trade union registered in 1972. It is an organisation of poor, self-employed women workers. These are women who earn a living through their own labour or small businesses. They do not obtain regular salaried employment with welfare benefits like workers in the organised sector. Success Story: In order to provide equal access to formal financial institutions, SEWA Bharat has partnered with the State Bank of India to provide banking solutions for remote communities in Uttarakhand. SEWA’s Business Correspondents model provides communities with door-to-door services on behalf of the State Bank of India. Additionally, this contributes to an employment opportunity for women in the area to serve as business correspondents, who provide financial services and information to their communities. Over 2 million self-employed women across multiple industries have coalesced to form the SEWA to dismantle the economic and societal barriers that have placed women on the periphery of society. By coming together they have transformed not only their lives but the lives of millions more by inducing policy changes, not at the grassroots level but also at state and national level.
14. Quotes
“To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is a man's injustice to woman. If by strength it is meant moral power then woman is immeasurably man's superior. Has she not more self-sacrificing, has she not great powers of endurance, has she not greater courage? Without her man could not be. If non- violence is the law of our being, the future is with women.” - Gandhi ji Women are the largest untapped reservoir of talent in the world - Hillary Clinton. Woman is the companion of man, gifted with equal mental capacity - Mahatma Gandhi. The difference between a broken community and a thriving one is the presence of women who are valued - Michelle Obama. “If you educate a man, you educate an individual. But if you educate a woman, you educate a nation.” “We cannot all succeed when half of us are held back.” — Malala Yousafzai.
References: India’s Ancient Past, RS Sharma A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES OF WOMEN IN INDIA (Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation) Indian Express important constitutional and legal provisions for women in india (Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation) VIKASPEDIA Kudumbashree.org, Govt.of Kerala
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Health 08
1. Previous Years Questions 4. Universal Health Coverage (UHC) 2. Introduction 5. Quotes 3. Health care in India
1. Previous Years Questions.
Q. The modern doctor and his patients. -1997
2. Introduction:
Human happiness and well-being depend on good health. Healthy populations live longer and are more creative and productive, thereby contributing to the economic growth of the country. Many factors like size of economy, development stage, literacy rates, nature of society etc. influence overall health status and a country’s ability to provide quality health services to its people. The government agencies, private organizations, civil society groups and civil society communities play a crucial role in providing effective health service.
Health is not merely the absence of disease or infirmity but a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. (WHO) Ancient Indian texts defined health as defined as physical, mental, emotional, spiritual and social wellbeing of an individual. In Ayurveda, Shushruta advocates that for “swasthya vritta” (positive health) one needs to follow - “dincharya” (daily routine), “ritucharya” (seasonal routine), diet, exercise and virtuous conduct. Along with this many other texts like Atharvaveda, Charaka-Samhita and Sushruta-Samhita by Charaka also mention various aspects of health and many times both preventive and curative remedies for diseases as well. These traditions of nature-based medicine practices, processes and lifestyles continued and enriched for hundreds of years. The various practices like Yoga, Meditation, Ayurveda, Siddha developed and were practised by many around the country. With the coming of Turkic and Pashtun (Afghan) to India, they bought Unani or Unani medicine practice/traditions used in Persian-Arabic regions. Unani medicine has also been influenced by Indian and Chinese traditional systems. The royal patronage led to the development of Unani in India and also the creation of Unani literature.
3. Health care in India:
With the advent of the British in India, they brought European Allopathic medicine system. With the British patronage, allopathy became the primary health practice in India. The British established the following institution for health care in India: 1664- The madras general hospital is the first hospital opened in India 1707-The presidency general hospital is formed(Calcutta)
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1802- A superintendent general of the vaccine in India is appointed after the discovery of the smallpox vaccine. 1823- ‘Ecole de Medicine de Pondicherry’ established by the French Government. It is the oldest institution to teach European medicine in Asia. Today (known as Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER)) is considered an institute of national importance. 1835- Calcutta Medical College was established. 1870- The central sanitary department is formed. 1925-The National Institute of Mental Health and Neuroscience is established (Bangalore). 1933-The medical council of India is formed with the purpose of establishing a uniform and high standard of medical education in India.
Indian Health Care after independence
Indian Constitution provides numerous provisions especially in the Directive Principle of State Policy like Article 38, 39, 41, 42, 47, 48(a) and put the onus on government to incorporate these principles while formulating state policies. Judiciary has widely interpreted the scope of Right to Health under Article 21 (Right to life) and has thus established the right to health as an implied fundamental right. Not only article 21 but also other articles under Part-III like Articles 23 and 24 have been linked to Right to Health. Further, the Hon'ble Supreme Court has provided certain directions such as the provision of adequate health facilities at public health centres, Up-gradation of hospitals to make them capable of treating patients, to ensure the availability of bed for an emergency. In an important judgement, Supreme Court in the case of Parmanand Katara v Union of India said that every doctor employed at a government hospital or otherwise has the professional obligation to extend his services with due expertise for protecting the life of a patient.
3.1 Some of India’s achievements in providing health care:
India has shown noteworthy improvements in health indicators such as infant mortality rate (IMR), life expectancy, and maternal mortality rate (MMR) and so; which is a result of increased penetration of healthcare services across the country, extensive health campaigns, sanitation drives, an increase in the number of government and private hospitals India, improved immunisation, growing literacy and increased food security etc. India’s accounts for close to 10% of the global pharmaceutical industry in terms of volume. This number goes to 20% for generic-drug exports by volume. India is known worldwide for Cost-effective solutions and medical tourism. Initiatives such as Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram, Janani Suraksha Yojana, Reproductive, Maternal, New-borns, Child and Adolescent Health Services and national programmes to curb incidences of diseases such as polio, Human Immunodeficiency viruses, Tuberculosis, leprosy etc have played pivotal roles in improving India’s health indicators.
Despite so many provisions and various government initiatives, the Indian health care system has numerous challenges. While we celebrate Yoga day to commemorate the rich contribution of India in Health and well-being of an individual, India is touted as “disease capital of the World”.
3.2 India’s disease burden:
When it comes to disease burden, India suffers a lot. India is undergoing an epidemiological transition --the non-communicable diseases dominate over communicable in the total disease burden of the country. In a report titled India: Health of the Nation’s States: The India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative(2017), it is observed that the disease burden as measured using Disability-adjusted life years(DALYs), dropped from 61 per cent to 33 per cent between 1990 and 2016.
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In the same period, disease burden from non-communicable diseases increased from 30 per cent to 55 per cent. When it comes to the epidemiological transition, there is high variation among Indian states: 48% to 75% for non-communicable diseases, 14% to 43% for infectious and associated diseases, and 9% to 14% for injuries.
3.3 Health Status Indicators - Some important facts/stats:
Various health indicators provide an insight into the overall picture. When indicators are tracked over time, they allow us to see how the health of the population is changing. Below are some facts/stats about Health in India which provides a broad overview of the sex ratio, birth rate, death rate, Maternal mortality ratio, incidence and prevalence of common communicable and non-communicable diseases. 1. As per Census 2011, the total population of India is 1.21 billion with a decadal growth rate of 17.7%. 2. The Sex Ratio (defined as the number of females per 1000 males) in India has improved from 933 in 2001 to 943 in 2011 and the sex ratio has increased from 946 to 949 in the rural areas. 3. While 28.5% of the population of India lies between the 0-14 age group, only 8.3% are above the age of 60 years. 4. Estimated birth rate, death rate and natural growth rate are showing a declining trend. . The estimated birth rate declined from 25.8 to 20.4, the death rate declined from 8.5 to 6.4 per 1000 population between 2000 to 2016. . Along with the decline in natural growth rate from 17.3 in 2000 to 14 in 2016. 5. The Maternal Mortality Ratio decreased by 11 points during 2010-12 to 2011-13. According to the latest data available, maternal mortality ratio is highest for Assam i.e. 300 per 1, 00, 000 live births and lowest for Kerala i.e. 61 per 1, 00, 000 live births in 2011-13. . The SRS (2016) report shows that the Total Fertility Rate( defined as the average number of children that will be born to a woman during her lifetime) in 12 States has fallen below 2 children per woman. . TFR has also shown a declining trend in most of the states as well. Fertility is declining rapidly, including among the poor and illiterate. 6. Infant mortality rate (IMR) has declined considerably to 37 per 1000 live births in 2015; however, there is a huge gap between rural IMR (41 per 1000 live births) and urban (25 per 1000 live births). . As per WHO 2012 estimates, the major causes of Child Mortality in the age group 0-5 years in India are Pneumonia, respiratory infections, diarrhoeal disease, Measles, Injuries etc. . ICDS 2015 found that around 19.8 million children below the age of 6 in India are undernourished. . Around 9.6% of children between 6-23 months in the country receive an adequate diet (NFHS 4, 2015-16). 7. There is a huge disparity in the availability of healthcare resources across India; which is especially evident from the rural-urban divide when it comes to healthcare access. 8. Fairly-developed states like Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have brought down their IMR, TFR and MMR rates and states like Assam, Jharkhand continue to grapple with these issues even today. 9. Immunization: India has attained significant progress in achieving immunization coverage through the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP). 10. Mission Indradhanush: Immunise those children by 2020 who are either unvaccinated or partially vaccinated against vaccine-preventable diseases. India has come a long way in immunisation but has miles to go before achieving universal immunisation. 11. Communicable Diseases: Infectious diseases that are transmissible from person to person. These diseases are transmitted to human hosts via an infectious agent (a pathogenic micro- organism) directly or through an intermediate host called vector. . Malaria: Malaria has been a problem in India for centuries.
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o Once a rural disease, it diversified under the pressure of developments into various ecotypes. o With the decline in the number of cases by 3 million in 2017, as compared to 2016, India is no longer among the top three countries with the highest malaria burden . Kala-azar: o It is the second-largest parasitic killer in the world. o In India, it is caused by Leishmania Donovani parasite. o Bihar accounts for most of the cases. . Dengue and Chikungunya: o Dengue and Chikungunya transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes are a cause of great concern to public health in India. o Dengue outbreaks have continued since the 1950s but the severity of the disease has increased in the last two decades. . Encephalitis: Recently in June 2019, an outbreak of acute encephalitis syndrome occurred in Muzaffarpur and the adjoining districts in the state of Bihar caused more than 100 deaths. . HIV: New HIV infections decreased by 27% between 2010 and 2017, and AIDS-related deaths have decreased by 56%. Still, Indin has one of the highest AIDS burden. . TB: India is the country with the highest-burden of TB as per the World Health Organisation (WHO) TB report. 12. Non-communicable diseases or chronic diseases: are diseases of long duration and generally show slow progression. Cardiovascular diseases (like heart attacks and stroke), cancer, chronic respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma) and diabetes are four main types of noncommunicable diseases. . The decline in morbidity and mortality from communicable diseases have been accompanied by a gradual shift to an accelerated rise in the prevalence of chronic non- communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cancers, mental health disorders and injuries. . Among NCDs Diabetes, Hypertension, Cardiovascular diseases, Stroke and Common Cancers. . Also, accidents and suicides are important issues in India. In India, there is a significant increase in suicides specially in young adults including male, female & transgender with the maximum number of suicide cases reported between the age group 30-45 Years.
3.4 Challenges:
Infrastructure A. Weak primary health care sector i. India’s doctor to population ratio remains dismal at less than 1 doctor per 1, 000 population in-spite of being a hub for medical tourism and an exporter of healthcare experts. ii. There is also an inter-regional gap in the distribution of public health care facilities. There is one government hospital bed for every 614 people in Goa compared with one government hospital bed for every 8789 people in Bihar.
B. Fragmented health information systems i. The systems of collecting data have many weaknesses like incomplete data gathering and non- inclusion of the private sector in it means excluding the major health provider in India. C. Allied Health Services shortages: There are also severe shortages in the category of allied health Services (AHPs) including medical lab, optometrists and radiologists and so on. D. Shortage of emergency ambulance services especially in rural and remote areas.
Human Resource Development: A. Inadequate Healthcare Personnel and Infrastructure . India has one of the lowest doctors to population ratio which is far less than the recommended 1:1000 by WHO.
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. The current nurse-population ratio is 1:588. . As far as specialists are concerned, a large number of posts are vacant all over the country. According to estimates, India needs close to 0.5 million additional specialists. Ayushman Bharat has triggered the need for even more human resources for health (HRH). . Moreover, the distribution of doctors and nurses across the country is uneven. Urban areas have four times as many doctors and three times as many nurses as compared to rural areas. . In addition, there is a clear regional divide, gender-divide and also economic divide regarding healthcare facilities. B. Allied Health Services shortages: . There are also severe shortages in the category of allied health professionals (AHPs) including medical lab technicians, optometrists and radiologists. C. Medical Education: . The poor plight of medical education is due to various reasons like nepotism, capitation fees, weak regulatory structure etc. Apart from these national exams like NEET have failed to take variation according to the state into account. . There is also an acute shortage of medical faculty. . There is an inadequate capacity to train doctors, especially specialists and super-specialists.
Governance and structural issues: A. Weak Regulatory Framework and Private Sector . India’s regulatory framework for health remains in shambles. The nodal agency i.e. Medical Council of India (MCI) has been marked by corruption, nepotism and favouritism. The recently enacted act paves the way for the establishment of the country’s new regulator of medical education and certification replacing MCI. . Apart from this, the recent cases of Fortis charging exuberant, Muzaffarabad encephalitis deaths, Gorakhpur hospital tragedy etc. only reflect on the dismal regulatory framework. B. Weak Governance and accountability: As ‘Health’ is a state subject, no uniformity in the laws and enforcement of various legal safeguards available.
Health Financing
A. Inadequate Financing: . Government spending on healthcare in India remains at a dismal 1.28% of GDP . Apart from this, the funding pattern is skewed i.e. in favour of curative and communicable diseases. This despite the well-established fact that expenditure on preventive healthcare is more favourable and non-communicable diseases form 60% of India’s health burden.
Access to health: “Of all the forms of inequality, injustice in health care is the most shocking and inhumane.” — Dr Martin Luther King, Jr. A. Out of Pocket expenditure: . An overwhelming 70% of healthcare expenses in India are met by out of the pocket expenditure. . Many spend all of their savings to pay for health care. . As per a report, around 5 crore Indians are pushed into poverty because of healthcare expenses. B. Inequity in Healthcare: The divide between the rich and poor in terms of health is wide in terms of access, distribution and services C. Socio-cultural Barriers: Religious, superstitious, cultural and gender-based issues also affect the access to healthcare.
3.5 Steps taken by Government to Improve health care in India
National Health Policy (NHP) 2017: o The primary aim of the NHP, 2017 is to provide the highest possible level of health and wellbeing for all at all ages, through a preventive and promotive health care orientation, by strengthening and prioritizing the role of the Government in shaping health systems.
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o It focuses on dimensions such as investments in health, organization of healthcare services, and prevention of diseases and promotion of good health o It focuses on various aspects of health care such as cross-sectorial actions, access to technologies, developing human resources, encouraging medical pluralism, building a knowledge base, developing better financial protection strategies, strengthening regulation and health assurance. o It aims to raise public healthcare expenditure to 2.5% of GDP by 2025. o The policy also seeks to achieve and maintain the elimination of leprosy by 2018, and to achieve ‘90:90:90’ global HIV target by 2020. National Health Mission: With two Sub-Missions, the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the newly launched National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) envisages the achievement of universal, equitable, affordable & quality health care services. Ayushman Bharat(National Health Protection Scheme): It provides for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization to 10 crore poor and vulnerable families (approximately 50 crore beneficiaries) providing coverage up to 5 lakh rupees per family per year identified based Socio- Economic Caste Census (SECC) 2011. Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA) (2016): To improve the quality and coverage of diagnostics and counselling services for Antenatal Care as part of RMNCH+A (the Reproductive Maternal Neonatal Child and Adolescent Health) Strategy; with focus on reducing the number of maternal and neonatal deaths in our country. Intensified Mission Indradhanush: immunisation programme for children under two years of age and all those pregnant women who have been left uncovered under the routine immunisation. Government of India has set the target of working towards the elimination of Tuberculosis by 2025. To give impetus to the indigenous healthcare system, the Government has launched the AYUSH Mission and Yoga day has been officially declared as a global annual exercise. The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 passed by the government takes a rights-based approach to all aspects of mental healthcare. Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke (NPCDCS) (2010): To prevent and control these diseases through awareness generation, behaviour and lifestyle changes, early diagnosis of persons with high levels of risk factors. National Nutrition Mission, Poshan Abhiyan, Mid-Day meal scheme for reducing hunger and malnourishment. Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM): It aims to accelerate the efforts to achieve universal sanitation coverage in India and promote access to safe sanitation. Fit India Movement for a healthier India and for reducing the incidence of lifestyle-induced diseases.
3.6 Initiatives by Non-Governmental Organisations:
The primary focus of NGOs in the health sector are: establishing healthcare institutions, fulfilling the health and social needs of groups like women, elderly and vulnerable local communities, dealing with specific health issues such as alcoholism, promoting health rights, performing preventive health programs, and Managing health finance and administration. Help Age India: One of the largest largest mobile healthcare programs across India, providing free healthcare services to destitute elders. CRY: Child Rights and You: Works towards several causes for children, survival, protection, development, and nutrition. Smile Foundation: To provide quality healthcare services within easy access of the needy and also raise health awareness.
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Anandwan: Provide holistic healthcare to the people affected by leprosy, has today, expanded into a large-scale project providing healthcare to all the marginalized sections of society. International organisations such as Bill and Melinda Gates are contributing to enhancing healthcare and reducing extreme poverty. The health of the population significantly affects both social development and economic progress. Given the relevance of health for human wellbeing and social welfare, it is important to ensure equitable access to health care services by identifying priority areas and ensuring improvements in the quality of healthcare services.
4. Universal Health Coverage (UHC)
Basic definition According to the World Health Organisation, “Universal health coverage means that all people have access to the health services they need (prevention, promotion, treatment, rehabilitation and palliative care) without the risk of financial hardship when paying for them.”
Objectives of UHC The system of UHC is built on three pillars 1. Equity: this means that any person who requires medical service should receive one, irrespective of his/her economic status, social or cultural background. 2. Quality: The health service provided must be of assured quality and should improve the health standards of those seeking it. 3. Risk protection: People should not be put under financial risk by using the health service. It must be accountable and affordable.
History of UHC The concept of Universal Health coverage started to develop as a part of Bismarck’s reforms in 1833. Since then many European countries started experimenting with various models of universal health coverage. In 1948 the UK started its National Health Service based on the Beveridge Report. WHO constitution declared health a fundamental human right in its constitution in 1948 Alma Ata Declaration of 1978 also reasserted the concept of “healthcare for all”
Various models of UHC There are three basic models of Universal healthcare followed across the globe. The Beveridge Model: In this model, the government pays for healthcare through its taxes the same way it funds the Police. There may be private doctors but they receive their fees from the government. The patient never pays for anything from his pocket. Examples of this model can be found in the United Kingdom, Spain, New Zealand etc. The Bismarck model: In this model, there is a mandated insurance scheme covering healthcare risk. Every citizen is required to join health insurance which can be public or private. Insurance companies have to cover everybody and special regulations are available for the elderly, children etc. This model is found in Germany, Japan, Netherlands etc. National Health Insurance Model: It’s a combination of both models. There are private healthcare providers but they are paid from a government-run insurance programme that everybody pays for. Examples for this system are found in Canada, South Korea, etc.
Advantages of a Universal Healthcare system A study by Lancet showed that a UHC system provided better healthcare especially to the poor and vulnerable due to improved access and progress in the overall health of the population. Due to economy of scale, the total healthcare cost of a country comes down. Administrative costs also come down considerably. The reduced healthcare costs allow countries to allocate more resources for other developmental projects.
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In addition, due to the pooling of healthcare risks, more people have access to affordable healthcare. This reduces the financial burden on families as their Out Of Pocket (OOP) expenditure. The “network effect” of improved healthcare will reduce the need for spending on health services further. UHC promotes timely medical interventions as people do not have to fear any financial burden. This reduces future healthcare costs incurred as an adult. UHC promotes preventive care and early detection of diseases. This reduces the cost of emergency care. UHC reduces economic and social inequalities and promotes equity.
India and Universal Healthcare NITI Aayog in its ‘Strategy for New India’ states the following objectives for Universal Healthcare. o Attain a coverage of at least 75 percent of the population with publicly financed health insurance (covering most secondary and tertiary care procedures) by 2022-23. o Reduce by 50 per cent, the proportion of households facing catastrophic health expenditure from the current levels India: Current situation o The quality of public sector health facilities has suffered because of a shortage of personnel and lack of necessary supplies. o There is a shortage of Primary Health centres by 20% and Community Health Centres by 32 % in rural India. o Data from the National Sample Survey Organisation’s 71st Round (January-June 2014) shows that only 28 per cent and 21 percent of patients in rural and urban areas respectively use outpatient care. o As per the NSSO 71st Round, out of the total OOPE, 63.5 percent is on outpatient care. Of this, the largest expenditure (71 per cent) is on medicines. o Health system, therefore, remains largely dominated by the private sector, which provides services at widely varying costs and quality levels. India: Challenges faced o The focus has been on speciality and super-speciality hospitals and Primary and secondary health care do not receive the required attention. o There are many schemes running in parallel at various levels. This fragments the population. In effect, the price of insurance per capita increases, affecting its viability and sustainability and reduces access to millions. o There is a shortage of healthcare professionals and this, in turn, is a symptom of an inadequate medical education system. o Drugs are costly and constitute a major portion of the OOP expenditure. In addition, most of the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (API) are imported. o Cost of diagnostics and medical devices are also high. Way Forward o Establish the Ayushman Bharat -National Health Agency at the central level and counterpart institutions at the state and district levels for management of the Pradhan Mantri-Jan Arogya Yojana.
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o Develop a robust and scalable IT platform that can reduce administrative and transaction costs. o Develop standard guidelines for health care costs and quality. o Use IT services to monitor and analyse healthcare systems. o Using Jan Aushadhi stores, Tamil Nadu model of drug procurement etc. reduce the price of drugs. o Dovetail make in India and electronics manufacturing policy to reduce costs of medical devices. o Strengthen medical research infrastructure by building an ecosystem of medical colleges, research centres, rural and urban monitoring stations etc. o Identify research in traditional medicinal systems which will further reduce healthcare costs. o Promote education about sanitation, healthy diets and other best practices using mass media and social media.
5. Quotes:
“It is health that is real wealth and not pieces of gold and silver” - Mahatma Gandhi “To keep the body in good health is a duty, Otherwise, we shall not be able to keep our mind strong and clear” - Gautam Buddha “Good health and good sense are two of life's greatest blessings” - Publilius Syrus “Healthy citizens are the greatest asset any country can have” -Winston S. Churchill “If Wealth Is Lost, Nothing Is Lost; If Health Is Lost, Something Is Lost” - French Proverb “Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah, Sarve Santu Niramayah” – It means “May All become Happy, May All be Healthy” - Upanishads “Of all the forms of inequality, injustice in health care is the most shocking and inhumane.” — Dr.Martin Luther King, Jr.
References: 1. National Health Profile: https://www.cbhidghs.nic.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=2&sublinkid=88&lid=1138 2. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 3. http://vikaspedia.in 4. NITI Aayog 5. World Health Organisation.
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Disaster Management 09
1. Context 8. Disaster Management 2. Previous Year Question 9. Institutional and Constitutional 3. Introduction Framework 4. Historical Aspect 10. Role of NGOs 5. Aspects in Disaster and their 11. The role of corporate sector Classification 12. International Conventions 6. Causes and reasons leading to disasters 13. Evolution of Disaster Management: From in India seekers to helpers 7. Impacts of a disaster 14. Way Forward
1. Context
With climate change no longer being a theory, occurrence of natural Disasters is on the rise. Rise in the number of conflict zones and the world being plunged into a state of turmoil, incidences of social strife and humanitarian crises like refugees and their status can also be witnessed on a global scale as well as at a localized level. The new era of involving an aspect of disaster management in the developmental process itself shifts focus once again on understanding the problem better.
2. Previous Year Question:
The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India's preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects. (UPSC 2015)
How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management. As an administrator, what are the key areas that you would focus in a disaster management. (UPSC 2013)
3. Introduction:
Disaster is a sudden event of calamity bringing large scale damage, loss and destruction and devastation to life and property. WHO defines it as "any occurrence that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area”.
The damage caused by disasters is unquantifiable and depends on the geographical location, climate, nature of the calamity and the type of the earth surface facing the brunt of the disaster. The degree of vulnerability on the other hand depends on anthropological aspects like population density, patterns of settlement, quality of infrastructure etc.
4. HIstorical Aspect:
Indian subcontinent has been an area of great flux with the problem of dealing with disasters dominating the discourse since before the Vedic ages.
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There are evidences which point to large scale destruction during the Indus Valley Civilization with certain historians suggesting that being the root cause for sudden disappearance of the whole settlement. Unprecedented scale of destruction was witnessed due to numerous wars waged since the time of formation of the Mahajanapadas with the famous kalinga war during the mauryas claiming hundreds of thousands of lives. The subcontinent has also been witness to numerous natural disasters ranging from large scale flooding during the early onset of civilization in magadha as mentioned in jataka tales to geographical evidence of tsunamis and earthquakes ravaging the country. Modern India has bore the brunt of some of the worst cases of famines with millions perishing within a span of couple of years with instances happening every quarter of a century with the last major famine of 1943 claiming millions.
5. Aspects in Disaster and their Classification:
Disaster in itself is a very wide concept encapsulating many aspects depending upon the type of disaster which strikes. Thus a disaster may have the following main features: Unpredictability Unfamiliarity Speed Uncertainty
It is a combination of these factors in totality which creates a total helpless scenario for the masses leading to massive casualties.
Broadly disasters can be classified into natural and man-made. Natural disasters are the ones which are caused due to the wrath of natural forces like tsunamis, earthquakes, floods, famines, cyclones, storm surges, landslides, cloudbursts, lightning strikes, avalanches etc. Man-made disasters on the other hand include anthropological suffering caused due to events like war, ethnic cleansing, riots, include road, rail, and air accidents, industrial accidents, strikes, civil violence.
New man-made disaster threats that have developed, particularly since World War II are far more destructive in their potential than the traditional threats. Increased social violence including trans- border terrorism has drastically affected many nations and communities. Threats from industrial accidents, such as the Bhopal gas leakage in 1984, production, transportation and dumping of hazardous materials and substances endanger unprotected and unaware people.
Incidents like Chernobyl nuclear disaster affect the normal lives for generations with crippling effects felt on the ecosystem and planet for decades if not for centuries.
6. Causes and reasons leading to disasters in India:
The geographical location of the Indian Subcontinent makes it vulnerable to a gamut of disasters and calamities. Some of the contributing factors are: Unstable plates: The confluence of the Indian and the Eurasian plates in the northern region makes most of the northern areas prone to high intensity earthquakes with many areas of the floodplains lying in Seismic Zone 4. Tropical Location: The tropical location of the area has exposed the area to wraths of some of the fiercest cyclones in the region. Glacial Rivers: Presence of perennial glacial rivers also has its drawbacks. In the monsoon months these rivers easily overflow its basins causing large scale floods in the region affecting millions. Variable Rainfall Patterns: Due to climate change the rainfall pattern all over the world has been sent in a topsy turvy curve with most of India experiencing more than 80% of rains in the short duration of 3 months. This either brings flash floods to the region or exposes most of the areas to prolonged conditions of droughts.
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Closeness to faultlines in the Indian Ocean: Any earthquake in the region creates a possibility of tsunamis along the eastern coastline of the country exposing millions to the danger. Young fold mountains: The Himalayas being one of the youngest mountains in the world are still in an unstable condition with unconsolidated rocks littering its slopes. This leaves the area prone to landslides and avalanches.
Any natural calamity in itself is not a disaster till it has an anthropological aspect attached to it. This makes certain reasons as contributory factors to the apocalyptic condition caused by these disasters. Some of the exacerbating factors for increased effects felt by disasters are:
Poverty - Any disaster whether natural or man made has immediate victims in the form of poor people as they have limited capacity to withstand the aftermath of these disasters. Terrain - The terrain of settlement also determines the effect of the damage done. Kedarnath landslides being a case in point, destroying everything in its path. Pattern of Settlement - The kind of residential buildings and its closeness to points of calamity is also a big determinant in the quantum of loss suffered. For example - Urban slums like those in Yamuna floodplains in Delhi has many unauthorised multi-storeyed buildings making them vulnerable to events like earthquakes. Readiness or preparedness of the people - This is one of the most important factors in determining the impact of disasters as those who are aware of the kind of dangers they are exposed to react in a much better way. For example - Cyclone Fani despite being of a high intensity did not create a scenario of disaster as the whole machinery and community was well prepared. Melting Pot of Cultures - India being a land of amalgamation of different cultures and religions has been exposed to divisive politics post British Rule. This has led to pattern of communal clashes and riots in different parts of the country due to various factors like influx of refugees in Assam etc.
7. Impacts of a Disaster:
A disaster not only destroys a human life or that of a community but also has far reaching effects on the future rehabilitation of the people and continuance of their lives as they knew it before. It has effects in various dimensions. Some of them being: Physical: Many natural disasters like floods and avalanches destroy everything in their paths, which sometimes leads to crippling of vital infrastructure and bringing life to a standstill. Some man made disasters like wars also lead to the same outcome and lead to large scale desertion of once populous cities and towns. Social: Many man-made disasters like civil wars, riots etc have the capability to totally pulverize the existing social order. The society at large suffers from this and it remains in the collective memory of the people for a long time making them vulnerable to trauma, isolation and other forms of personal issues. Psychological: One phenomenon which is very common to both natural as well as man made disaster is its sudden onset and its property to destroy. This catches a person unawares and the experience of going through a disaster or losing a loved one can have long lasting effects on a person. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is one of the most common outcomes of this and an individual slowly starts to deteriorate in health and other cognitive abilities as he faces difficulty in adapting to the new normal. Socio -Demographic: Few disasters have the unfortunate ability to hamper the social structure and alter the demographic characteristics of a society. On one hand where incidents such as ethnic cleansing and riots threaten to eliminate a certain community from the demographic map, the influx of large scale refugees into any particular region also change the ethno-regional demography of the nation. Socio- Economic: These incidents destroy the local community and the economy dependent on it. It also damages many traditional economic activities of the region which lends a heavy blow to livelihood issues and casts a serious doubt on the future of many.
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Political: Many events be it accidents or wars or civil wars or riots have many political manifestations and its implications on the politics of the region can be long lasting. For example, the influx of refugees on a mass scale in Assam has defined its politics for the past few decades.
8. Disaster Management:
Management of a disaster has various components from information delivery to mitigation to eventual rehabilitation of the affected individuals. Unless all the aspects of handling it are taken in synergy, events in isolation are rendered useless and without much effect. The various aspects of managing a disaster are: Mitigation: It is the most important aspect of disaster management as it is this step which determines the utility of other steps. It refers to the steps taken at the prevention stage and can include certain steps from strengthening of levees and bunds to improvement of information infrastructure to development of resilient safety nets with an approach to save lives. Preparedness: This stage involves preparing the society and the region facing a disaster and taking necessary steps to counter the effects of the impending calamity.
In case of man-made events it can include Deployment of additional forces Strengthening of institutional framework from intelligence to law and order Protection of socially vulnerable groups like women, children and adults Taking adequate measures for supply of food and rations. Taking stock of events on a day to day basis. Keeping sufficient stock of medicines and first aid kits.
In case of natural disasters this can involve various things like Using scientific data to predict the exact advent of Tsunamis or cyclones. Keeping disaster resilient relief shelters ready to move people in a quick time. Mass level announcements on PA systems and getting the fishermen folks in case of coastal landforms back safely. Use of space technology to monitor the progress and vulnerability of the affected region. Maintaining stocks of ration, medicines and other essentialities.
Response: Onset of any disaster man made or natural makes the next few hours extremely crucial and that defines the ability to save crucial lives and bring about the much needed transition from chaos to organised safety. Few features of this stage to be followed up are: o Maintenance and establishment of the much needed communication link to the affected region. o Evacuation of the affected people on an immediate basis. o Identifying areas of extreme vulnerability and assessing the condition of survivors. o Making immediate rescue efforts and maintaining a strict vigil over the developing scenario. o Identification and deployment of the required counter - measures based on the type of disaster. Recovery: The advent and onset of a disaster is something that lasts for a few moments but its effects can be felt for a long time, from days in case of storms to generations in case of industrial and nuclear disasters. Some of the things which should be kept in mind to enhance the recovery process are: o Being cognisant of the needs and the trauma of the affected individuals. o Proper medical treatment of those injured or nursing crippling disabilities. o Establishment of centres for proper information should be set up for details of the missing and those who could not be saved. o Revitalizing neighbourhoods and rebuilding of society based on the system of natural justice rather than a haphazard set up.
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9. Institutional and Constitutional Framework:
Despite its importance, the subject of management of disaster does not find any mention in any of the three lists included in the 7th Schedule of the Constitution of India. List I: the Union list, List II: the State List, and List III: the Concurrent List. Hence, as per Entry 97 of the Union List, the Union government should deal with this subject. However, in practice, it is a state subject. In view of this dichotomy, a lot of confusion exists when it comes to pinpointing specific responsibilities for dealing with various problems. Recently, the Constitutional Review Committee has recommended that disaster management be included in the Concurrent List of the Constitution.
What we have is an assortment of several projects and programmes that aim at reducing the vulnerability of people to disasters. Some of those programmes are: Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Flood Control Programmes, National Afforestation and Eco-development Programme (NA&ED), and Disaster Risk Management Programme.
Since the formation of the second finance commission the approach and the source of funding for disaster relief and rescue has evolved. It underwent maturity with the passing of Disaster Management Act 2005 which was in line with the global standards and gave the much needed policy backing to the actions and intentions of the government.
Establishment of certain institutions has streamlined the process of disaster relief and rescue and has given the whole method a scientific and desired level of response. These institutions have been established at national, state and district levels. Some of them are:
9.1 National Level:
Some of the national level interventions that have happened since the eleventh finance commission is the formation of a specialised force of trained volunteers who have gained expertise in the relief and rescue operation and are sort of first responders to any scenario of a disaster. Some of the interventions created are:
NDRF: The Disaster Management Act 2005 envisaged the establishment of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), chaired by the Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, as the apex body for disaster management in the country. Established with personnel from the Para military forces for strengthening preparedness and emergency response in the country. Eight battalions of the NDRF have been setup and deployed in strategic locations in the country and the NDRF personnel are being trained and equipped with state-of-the-art life saving equipment, search and rescue equipment, inflatable boats, etc. The NDRF personnel are also being trained for preparing and responding to chemical, Biological, radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) emergencies. Since their inception, NDRF personnel have been deployed in many natural disaster situations to assist the local administration. During the Kosi floods in Bihar in 2008, the NDRF personnel evacuated more than 100, 000 people from the flood-affected villages through the sustained effort of NDRF search and rescue teams using inflatable boats, and local country boats.
NIDM: The National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM) has been established as the apex training institute for disaster management in India. NIDM coordinates the capacity building efforts for disaster management faculty in State Training Institutes and is in collaboration with the World Bank Institute.
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NCMC: Establishment of a National Crisis Management Committee(NCMC) headed by the chief secretary to meet with exigencies posed during a disaster.
PMNRF: The Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund (PMNRF) was established in January, 1948, with public contributions to assist displaced persons from Pakistan. The resources of the PMNRF are used mainly to render much needed relief to families of those killed in natural calamities like floods, cyclones and earthquakes, etc. and to the victims of the major accidents and riots. The fund consists entirely of public contributions and does not get any budgetary support.
State Level:
SDRF: It was constituted based on the recommendations of the 13th Finance Commission. Every State Government shall establish a State Disaster Management Authority for the State with such name as may be specified in the notification of the State Government. A State Authority shall consist of a Chairperson and such number of other members, not exceeding nine, as may be prescribed by the State Government.
9.2 District level:
As the disaster strikes mostly at a localised level, this stage is one of the most important as first responders and also help save the crucial hours post disaster which can help save thousands. It is this step which malfunctions leading to a calamity being converted to a disaster. The Disaster Management Act 2005 also envisages the establishment of a District Disaster Management Authority. The collector or district Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner, as the case may be, of the district shall be Chairperson, ex officio.
10. Role of NGOs:
Government has a limited reach at the time of a disaster which is when the role of the civil society and NGOs gain paramount importance. They with their active and trained volunteers and huge experience in handling such situations triumph the adversity which is too complex for governmental machinery to handle. The delivery of medicines and much needed food and water packets in a decentralized manner can’t be overemphasized. For example - Role of Red Cross Society in case of Bhuj Earthquakes is something which cant be ignored. The survivors got first aid care at these centres which was not possible at already broken down government health centres. They through their dedicated local representatives often know the outlines of the local area better than the central forces which are mostly airlifted. Examples can be cited of Patanjali and its huge corps of volunteers during the Kedarnath disaster. The disaster left rescue agencies almost clueless with the relief materials reaching the remote area in a decomposed state. It was these volunteer corps who reached there with their trained physicians and food packets and water bottles which saved crucial thousands.
11. The role of corporate sector:
As the scale and frequency of disasters is rising rapidly, government alone might not be able to handle disaster management. In this context, the role of the private sector becomes very crucial. Using its funds earmarked for Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), it can sponsor knowledge sharing and training programmes for disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
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They can help in the development of on-site and off-site disaster management plans as per the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forest. They can use their expertise in logistics and supply chain management to deliver relief materials. Corporates also have considerable expertise in mass communication. This can be utilised in spreading awareness about disaster management.
12. International Conventions:
The international community as a whole is not isolated to the qualms of disasters. From world wars to the recent Fukushima nuclear disaster the scourge of disaster leaves no one behind. This led to a growing demand for an International effort in order to deal with the issue and come up with a universal framework to be followed by the people.
The UN General Assembly declared the decade spanning 1990-1999 as the International decade for disaster reduction.
UNDRR ( United Nations Disaster Risk Reduction) was established in 1999 as a dedicated secretariat to facilitate the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR).It is mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to serve as the focal point in the United Nations system for the coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure synergies among the disaster reduction activities of the United Nations system and regional organizations and activities in socio‐economic and humanitarian fields.
In 2000, the UN General Assembly founded the ISDR (International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) which is basically a coalition of governments, UN agencies, regional organizations and civil society organizations.
Hyogo Framework for action 2005-2015:
Hyogo Framework for action was adopted to help in building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters to substantially reduce disaster losses, in terms of lives, socio-economic and environmental property. It has the following strategic goals: The integration of disaster risk reduction into eventual sustainable development policies and the planning process. Meaningful development and strengthening of institutions, evolution of a standard operating mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards. A systematic incorporation of risk-reduction approaches into the implementation of emergency preparedness, mitigation, response and recovery programmes. To ensure that disaster risk reduction is nothing less than a national and local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation giving it a permanent structure rather being on an ad-hoc basis. Risk identification being given its due importance as the process to identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning systems. Use of knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels.
Sendai Framework: It is a successor instrument to the Hyogo framework and was implemented in 2015 under the aegis of the UN. It is the outcome of stakeholder consultations initiated in March 2012 and inter-governmental negotiations held from July 2014 to March 2015. It identified four action areas to be accorded a priority: Understanding disaster risk Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience
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Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction
The Sendai Framework also gives a 7 point global targets to be achieved till 2030. These cover a wide gamut of targets from lowering the average global mortality to reduction of danger posed to critical infrastructure. One of the major focus issues of the framework has been the importance attached to the economic aspect of the disaster and its linkage to the losses caused to the GDP. This is one such area which quantifies the losses attached and has the potential to galvanise countries into action immediately.
13. Evolution of Disaster Management in India: From seekers to helpers
The onset of the new millennium has brought about a new level of awareness and hence an increased level of professionalism in the process of dealing with disasters. The evolution can clearly be seen between the way the cyclone of 1999 wrecked havoc in the coast of orissa to the latest cases of Fani and Titli and how they have been handled with limited loss of life and property.
Another aspect of this evolution has been at a global level. On one hand where Bhuj earthquake and the 2004 tsunamis called for global help to the country’s shore, India now is self sufficient and a willing partner in ameliorating the suffering of other nations.
Operation Rahat undertaken by the country was one of the largest humanitarian evacuation from a war-torn yemen with countries like US and Uk asking its citizens to contact the Indian forces and India successfully rescuing people from more than 25 countries. The earthquakes in Nepal being another case in point strengthened India’s case as a mature nation in dealing with disasters as Indian NDRF under the aegis of Operation Maitri were the first responders and within hours had reached kathmandu. Operation Nistar showed a level of proficiency by the Indian Naval forces in rescuing people from the island of Socotra to save them from the onslaught of cyclone Mekenu.
With an evolving doctrine and an experienced force Indian rescue efforts are being hailed globally and has successfully transitioned India’s image from that of a seeker to a helper force.
14. Way Forward:
The new volatile global scenario and the ever deteriorating climate change phenomenon calls for newer ways to tackle the disasters and ensure that not a single life is wasted due to mismanagement. Some of the points which could be followed are:
Zero casualty approach: The disaster management process has to take each loss of life as a failure in its method. The mitigation and preparedness should be created to account for every living soul. Better to be safe than sorry: The response to a disaster should take extra precautionary measures like deployment of additional forces and rescue officials. The coastal and communities most vulnerable to natural disasters should be transferred enmasse to safe shelters rather than a piecemeal approach. Use of Technology: Advances in technology should be used to the maximum from space technology to geo-tagging of affected areas for better identification of vulnerable regions. This shall lead to better direction of resources and utilization of time. Prediction over Peril: It's always better to predict the calamity from natural to man-made with calculation of its implications figuring out in the rescue efforts. The main focus here needs to improve the prediction simulations and advanced warnings at the local level so that time is available for rescue. Comprehensive understanding of the scale of disaster: Nothing can be more damaging than under-estimating the scale of the disaster. The example of Kedarnath on a national level and
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Chernobyl at a global level are the prominent ones where tens of thousands could be saved had the scale of disaster been known. Be Ready Anytime Anywhere: Disaster can strike at the most unexpected moments. This calls for regular drills and mock exercises which can help people to respond in a more sensible way in case of fire and earthquakes. Humane approach for Humanity: The response to a disaster should be beyond narrow domestic considerations and should cater to the safety of humanity. National politics, communal interests should not come in the way of helping people in distress. Example can be cited of Russian Submarine disaster.
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Environment 10
1. Previous year questions: 7. List of laws regarding environmental 2. Introduction protection 3. Historical Perspective 8. The National Green Tribunal 4. Modern Age: The Age of natural 9. Role of civil society or social movements exploitation 10. International conventions 5. Causes for worry: Environment and the 11. India: The Paris agreement and SDGs danger posed 12. Conclusion and way forward 6. Impacts of Environmental Degradation 13. Quotes
1. Previous year questions
• Alternative technologies for a climate change resilient India. -2018 • Should a moratorium be imposed on all fresh mining in tribal areas of the country? • Urbanisation and its hazards -2008 • Protection of ecology and environment is essential for sustained economic development. -2006 • Urbanization is a blessing in disguise. -1997 • Ecological considerations need not hamper development. -1993
2. Introduction
The word environment is derived from the french word ‘environ’ meaning surrounding. Mankind from the very beginning has been very fascinated by the environment surrounding him. The ever bountiful nature and its pristine state has been looked upon with reverence since time immemorial. Environment in its present context is generally referred to as natural surroundings of a human being. But in its wide implication it can also refer to the society, culture, family and the ecosystem that a person is exposed to.
3. Historical Perspective
India being one of the earliest cradles of civilization has been a witness to the symbiotic relationship between man and environment and the transcendental position attached to it in the Indian culture and the traditional values of society. . Indus Valley Civilization bears testimony to nature worship in the form of mother goddess. . Other seals and tablets of the period also show reverence to trees and animals of the period. . Evolution of the country into the Epic Age also saw this tradition being followed in the form of these natural forces being given the status of gods and being worshipped in the form of Agni, Varuna, Marut etc. • The indigenous tribes have long been a worshipper of nature in the form of Sacred Groves and also animals like snakes and cows. • In an era where the rest of the world demonized nature worship as paganism, India as a civilization celebrated its bountiful environment and made it a point to be grateful to its resources.
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• Communities like Bishnois have always considered animals like deer, tigers etc. , as members of their own ecosystem. • The Indian mythology is laced with references of humanised form of rivers and the sun and expresses the need to co-exist without damaging each other. • Most of the religions originating in the subcontinent also pay due homage to nature with Jainism identifying the need to protect even the microorganisms in our surroundings. • Buddhism also signifies this symbiotic relationship in the form of sutta pitaka declaring cattle as the source of annada, vannada and sukhada.
4. Modern Age: The age of Natural exploitation
Modern age of the world signified the onset of an era of economic profit at any cost. This involved clearing large swathes of forest land for fuel and Industry. This puts unprecedented pressure on the natural ecosystem leading to imbalance being spread into other areas of life. India, which had traditionally followed a culture of coexistence, wasn't untouched by this phenomenon. • Clearing of the ecologically sensitive Terai belt for timber industry saw mass level migration of faunal resources. • Reclamation of land on the coastal front also endangered the vulnerable ecosystem surviving in the region. • The traditional system of celebrating and paying gratitude to nature took a backseat. • Mahatma Gandhi was someone who always expressed deep anguish over the materialistic attitude adopted by man and the degradational state of natural resources.
5. Causes for worry: Environment and the Danger Posed
The new millennium and the neo exploitative lifestyle of the people has increased the threats posed to the environment and environmental resources. Our surroundings have never been so threatened and so vulnerable in its billion year long history. Few of the major causes of concern for the well-being of the environment are: • Climate change: Climate change is real and is happening at an accelerated pace in the past couple of centuries. This coincides with the tremendous growth of economies world over and promotion of cut throat model of economic survival. This climate change leads to destruction of environment at an accelerated pace and the vicious cycle goes on. This change has two facets attached to it: o Natural: Earth in itself is going through its natural heating cycle which repeats itself after every few millions of years. This has led to a natural increase of temperature and melting of icecaps leading to unseasonal rains and destroying the crop cycles and hence detrimental to the biodiversity. Phenomenon like desertification are on the rise and the areas hitherto covered in large swathes of greenery are now an endless spread of sandy deserts or barren lands. o Anthropological: Human activities like emission of greenhouse gases and lumbering have definitely accelerated the process of heating of the atmosphere posing greater threats to the critical ecosystems like coastal and island ecosystems and a larger damage to the whole planet. • Economic Exploitation: Most of the anthropological exploitations are economic in character and are for the survival of humankind. It is their unsustainable nature which poses a calamitous threat to the environment. The exploitation has various aspects attached to it like: o Forests: These are called as the natural lungs or breathing systems of the planet and generate the much needed oxygen for the survival of all living beings. These forests are being cut down at an increased pace due to the advent of mechanization in the lumbering activities. The exploitation of mineral resources also leads to wide scale clearing of forests thereby increasing its vulnerability. o Soil: It is a major resource which takes around thousands of years to form but the importance of which is seldom realised. The modern economy has exploited soil to the fullest in the form of building materials, and pollution of soil is taking place at an unprecedented pace. o Water: Water constitutes about 71% of earth’s surface and is exposed to one of the most brutal forms of exploitation. The water pollution has spread to subterranean levels as well, leading
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to groundwater pollution and depletion causing incalculable damage to human health as well as to those organisms who depend on water as a life source like riverine fishes and marine flora and fauna. • Burgeoning Population: The population of humans on earth has virtually exploded with the advent of new technologies and lifesaving methods. The population which is virtually doubling in number every century poses immense stress to the environment and leads to destruction of the natural balance that survived for millennia. This has certain aspects attached to it: o Diminishing Habitats: As humans compete for their own living space it generally pushes out the natural habitants of the area including flora and fauna. This has put immense stress on the environment and the natural features are restricted within the confines of parks and Sanctuaries. o Decreasing Resources: The population stress also leads to a lessened amount of food and forage resources for many animals and also factors which lead to regeneration of natural resources like groundwater. • Urbanisation: The rapid increase in population and its concentration in centres of production is a phenomenon which started post Industrial revolution. This led to creation of urbanisation and conurbation leading to large scale destruction of natural resources. This factor has a few facets in which it manifests and some of them are: o Infrastructure: The growth of urban centres has created the need for creation of modern infrastructure like highways and expressways which pass through dense jungles. These lead to cutting down of trees on a large scale and also threatens the critical pathways which animals use leading to their unnatural deaths. o Slums: The economic opportunities offered have lured people of all classes to come to the cities where they settle on the outskirts. These areas are often on the hillslopes and threshold of forests leading to air pollution as well as increased cases of man - animal conflicts threatening the already endangered wildlife. The dense population also poses a huge burden on the water resources and increases water pollution. o Heat Islands: These urban centres have created urban heat islands which have substantially increased the amount of heating of the atmosphere and its implicated effects on the global climate. o Lights: The urban centres have led to increased light pollution which affects the animals who used natural lights for movement and navigation leading to their increased vulnerability. • Lack of Awareness: Majority of the populace is generally not aware of the amount of threat that these natural ecosystems face and continue the exploitative process regardless of the consequences with a mindset that their single effort is too less to affect the whole ecosystem. This makes them lead unsustainable lifestyles which at a larger level acts as a detriment to the environment. Leading exponents of this phenomenon like Donald Trump in the US shape policies of leading environmental emitter nations thus increasing the overall threat to the planet. • Philosophy of Materialism: This philosophy supports the idea that environment and its bountiful resources are present for exploitation of humans. This advocates it's unsustainable use and extraction and creates a culture of irresponsibility to natural resources and thereby threatens the very existence of a natural balance on the planet. This idea finds its roots in ancient orthodox Christianity which dismisses the idea of natural ecosystems having a soul. • Cultural Aspects: Certain tribal traditions like Jhum Farming leads to large scale destruction of forest resources. The continuance of rural traditions like burning of stubbles leads to air pollution and damage to the environment at large.
6. Impacts of Environmental Degradation
Environmental damage and degradation leads to multifarious implications and not only a destruction of immediate ecosystem but affects the lifestyle and cultural aspects of the future generations. Some of these are:
• Social: The impact of any ecological damage is felt by the society at large and is not a person or community specific. However the society is affected in more ways than one and the very fabric of social harmony and existence is put to danger. Few aspects are:
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o Vulnerable Sections: Vulnerable sections including women and disabled are most affected by threats to the environment. In case of areas with depleted groundwater levels, women have to travel larger distances to reach water sources thus increasing their day to day difficulty level. o Tribals: Tribals are particularly exposed to difficulties faced due to damage in the environmental ecosystem as they are mostly dependent on the produce of the land and natural bounties. o Impoverished Masses: Degeneration of the environment harms the poor the most. With most of them living near water channels or hill slopes, environmental damage imposes a direct threat to their lives through a threat of floods, landslides etc. o Environmental Refugees: Increased cases of refugees rendered homeless due to environmental degradation have come to light in recent years which has led to strife and resource stress in many areas. o Conflict zones: There is a direct correlation between climate change (Partially accelerated due to environmental degradation) and an increase in the number of conflict zones around the world as recently pointed out by UNESCO. This has the potential to not only destroy societies en masse, but put the whole nation under stress. • Economy: Recent studies have pointed out the real tangible losses that an economy faces due to the degradational processes that it forces its environment to go through. It is no longer a notional issue but an issue involving real gains to be had and losses to be curbed if we as a nation pay heed to ecological concerns. Some of the data points supporting the argument are: o Total damage to India because of environmental degradation is US $ 80 billion, says first such national-level economic evaluation made by World Bank. This is equivalent to 5. 7 per cent of the country’s GDP. o According to the environment ministry study Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought (DLDD) cost India about 2. 54 per cent of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2014-15. o According to the International Labour Organization, the loss in productivity by 2030 because of heat stress could be the equivalent of India losing 34 million full-time jobs (up from 15 million in 1995) —the highest in the world. o Introducing policy interventions such as environmental taxes could potentially be used to yield positive net environmental benefits with minimal economic costs for India. According to a new World Bank report - India could realize an additional benefit of around US $59 billion with a PM10 tax. o Vulnerable sections who depend on nature like the fishermen and farmers are exposed to the biggest threats to their livelihoods due to the endangered ecology of production. . Fishermen: With increased cases of marine pollution and increasing areas of dead zones in the oceans, the hitherto fishing paradises are slowly giving poor returns leading to a more aggressive fishing activities. This makes regeneration of these fisheries a difficult task leading to sustained damage. . Farmers: Unsustained exploitation of resources has led to a situation where groundwater in most areas are depleting at an unprecedented rate leading to drying of wells and deeper drilling for tubewells leading to an increased cost on the farmers. Cases of underground pollution has also thrown in some disturbing facts to light like the presence of traces of Uranium in groundwater in Punjab. • Climate change: Climate change while affecting the environment is also a result of damage caused to the environment by man completing a dangerous vicious cycle. o Black Carbon: Increased emissions of black carbon by humankind has greatly accelerated the process of global warming. These particles have also been found on the mountain tops leading to melting of ice caps at an unprecedented rate leading to overall heating of the atmosphere. o Trees for Money: Forests are being cleared at an unprecedented rate in countries like Indonesia for palm plantations and paper and pulp industries leading to increased emissions and loss of oxygen generators. o Water loss: The loss of forests and the top vegetation cover has made the task of retention of water that much difficult leading to increased cases of droughts. This alters the weather cycle of a place affecting the whole ecosystem.
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• Increased Frequency of Disaster Occurrence: Mindless and unidirectional ecological exploitation has led to a situation where the climate is getting affected and also the once mild disasters strike with a greater wrath and intensity. Some examples of the same are: o Hill Slopes: Unscientific construction of infrastructure on the unconsolidated rocks of northern himalayas has made the area prone to landslides and avalanches like never before. o Forest Fires: With plantation of commercial trees like Eucalyptus on a mass scale in the forests of Uttarakhand is leading to cases of uncontrolled forest fires never heard in the region which was used to traditional forests and forest dwelling communities. o River Valleys: Increased damming of rivers at regular intervals has led to increased silting of these rivers. This then creates a scenario of floods at every occurance of unseasonal rain event. • Political Outcome: The environmental degradation is no longer limited to areas of the scientific community but has spilled over to national and international political sphere having very wide ramifications. This can be explained as: o Domestic Polity: Unsustainable use and exploitation of resources like water has increased the conflicts amongst states like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for sharing of river water. This leads to wide scale protests and has also started dominating the discourse during elections leading to accentuation of bitterness amongst the states. o Stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana creates an air pollution nightmare in the areas of the National Capital Region. This has in recent times led to increased blame game between the respective governments rather than solving the issue in a comprehensive way. o International Polity: Environmental exploitation has led to a scenario where these issues are now a major sticking point between governments. Examples can be cited of the ongoing Indus water issue on the western border with Pakistan and the evergreen issue of Teesta water sharing with bangladesh. This slowly gets converted into an issue of national pride while the issue of sustainable water sharing takes a backseat. Conventions regarding conservation of environment and related factors have become a prestige issue for nations with groupings of nations trying to forward their own agenda as could be clearly seen in the case of the US withdrawing from Paris Agreement and Japan withdrawing from the International Whaling Commission. • Security: The damage that is caused to our surroundings is also a major cause of worry to the net security of the individual and the society. The different aspects of this are: o Food Security: The stress on ecological factors and rapid urbanization at the cost of the environment has led to a decrease of productive land available for food production throughout the world. As per World Bank the total percentage of agricultural land to total land has witnessed a reduction of almost 2 percentage points. o Water Security: The provision of clean drinking water is the prerogative of every government for the well-being of its citizenry. The degradational attitude towards environment has led to large scale pollution of underground and river water resources while being a source of diseases and deformities for the users. o National Security: Environmental degradation and the subsequent inflow of refugees inside the border areas of a country poses immense national security challenges both in the form of internal societal challenges and increased possibility of terrorist activities.
Government measures to fight environmental degradation: The government from time to time has taken various measures to curb air pollution, water pollution, and land degradation, deforestation through legislation, rules and policies. Some of these policies which are vital in controlling degradation and exploitation to environment are:
7. List of laws regarding environmental protection
• The Wildlife (Protection ) Act 1972, amended 1993, 2002, and 2006 • The water (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974, amended 1988 • The water (prevention and control of pollution ) cess Act, 1977, amended 1992 and 2003 • The Air (prevention and control of pollution ) Act 1981, amended 1987 • The Environment (protection) Act, 1986, amended 1991
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• The Indian Forest Act, 1927 • The forest (conservation) Act, 1980, amended1988 • The scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of forest rights ) Act, 2006 • Biological diversity Act 2002 • National green tribunal Act 2010 • The prevention of cruelty to animals Act 1960 8. The National Green Tribunal
• This court puts India in a different league as it is only the third country after Australia and New Zealand to have such a system. • It is a specialized tribunal equipped with the prerequisite expertise to handle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues. The Tribunal is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, but is guided by principles of natural justice. • The Tribunal's specialised jurisdiction in matters related to the environment provides speedy environmental justice and help reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts.
Recent judgement and directives given by the NGT: • The NGT appointed a committee to assess the damage caused to the Yamuna floodplain in Delhi where the World Culture Festival was held, and has found that the event has extensively damaged the Yamuna floodplain. • In a landmark judgement, the Kochi circuit bench of the NGT banned all diesel vehicles more than 10 years old from operating in six cities in Kerala. • In 2012, POSCO, a steelmaker company, signed an MoU with the Odisha government to set up a steel project. NGT suspended the order and this was considered a radical step in favour of the local communities and forests. • The NGT has also passed various prohibitory orders against sand mining in riverbeds that are being done without environmental clearance. • It has imposed a no-construction zone of 75 metres around lakes and rajakaluves (storm water drains) in Bengaluru. • Overriding the central government decision to the clearance of coal block in Hasdee-Arand forest, NGT cancelled that decision. • The NGT has directed the Centre and the Delhi government to provide alternative modes of cremation of human death bodies to reduce emissions from the traditional method of burning wood. • The tribunal in 2019 ordered the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC) to shut down dairy units in Delhi for flouting environmental norms and creating health hazards. The dairies have been allegedly dumping waste (solid, liquid and gaseous) into the drains which are meeting the river Yamuna, resulting in contamination of river water.
Initiatives in renewable sector by the government:
Government initiative in promotion of Electric vehicle: • National Electric mobility mission plan 2020 • Faster adoption and manufacturing of electric vehicles (FAME) scheme in 2015 • FAME india phase II in 2019 • National mission on transformative mobility and battery storage • Ministry of Power has issued a policy on charging infrastructure • ISRO has commercialized indigenously developed lithium ion-battery technology. • The Ministry of Urban Development launched the Green Urban Transport Scheme (GUTS) with the aim to reduce carbon emissions from the public transport vehicles in the country.
Government initiative in promotion of renewable energy: • The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has targeted to achieve 10% blending of Ethanol in petrol by 2022. • The government has set a new target of 100 GW of solar power by 2022.
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• Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana has been launched as a programme initiative to create potential for biofuels in the country and attract investments in this new sector. • Indian government is also promoting methanol as a fuel.
About International International Solar Alliance: • It is an initiative jointly launched by India and France in 2015 on the sidelines of COP-21 of UNFCCC in Paris. • It was officially established on 6 December 2017, on the entry into force of the Framework Agreement. It is the first treaty based international intergovernmental organization headquartered in India (Gurugram, Haryana). • The membership which was initially limited to countries lying between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn has been opened for all countries.
Through this initiative, the countries aim for: • To address the obstacles that stand in the way of rapid deployment scale-up of solar energy at a large scale. • To undertake efforts in an innovative and concerted manner for reducing the cost of finance and cost of technology for immediate deployment of competitive solar generation. • To mobilise more than 1 trillion US Dollars of investments by 2030. • Accelerate the development and deployment of over 1, 000GW of solar generation capacity in member countries.
Role of NGO and civil society in environmental conservation: NGOs as private organizations pursue activities to protect the environment and create awareness about the need for protection and sustainability amongst the masses. Most of the times they play an active role in attracting attention of the authorities towards environmental exigencies like industrial pollution and deteriorating state of the environment.
Some Environmental NGO in India: There are NGOs working in the field of environmental protection at national and local levels. These organizations use various means to achieve their objective. • Assam science society: Through various journals and periodicals it helps garner attention towards problems of pollution. • Bombay Natural History Society: It is one of the oldest organisations catering to wildlife conservation and raising awareness about the issue of conservation. • Centre for Environmental Education: It is a premier organisation established as a centre of excellence for training of professionals and forming research groups on the matter. • Centre for Science and Environment: It provides the much needed support in formation of policies and guiding of governmental attention towards the cause of conservation. • The World Wide Fund for Nature India (WWF-India): It is a frontline organisation when it comes to conservation of the faunal assets and launching various programmes in coordination with the government for the conservation of different species. • The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI): It is an organisation which works towards policy research in the field of environment, energy and sustainable development. It also works towards efficient utilization of resources and making activities like agriculture more productive. • People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA India): It is an organisation which aims at making people aware of the plight of the animals and thereby reducing the crimes committed against them.
Some of the works of environmental NGOs: • The NGOs conduct campaigns across the country to create awareness among people about the depleting natural resources.
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• NGOs for environment in India have helped reduce deforestation, soil erosion and they educate the people on the significance of segregating waste material into biodegradable waste. • NGOs for environment in India, take steps to educate people and make them aware of the perishing environment. There are NGOs in India that help in preserving the environment. • They conduct participatory rural appraisal at regular intervals for protection of natural resources and entrusting the equitable use of resources amongst the people. • Data acquisition and generation on availability of natural resources and analysis and monitoring of environmental quality. It also includes transferring and propagation of information through newsletters, brochures, articles, audio visuals, pamphlets etc. • Organizing policy based research seminars, lectures and group discussion for promotion of environmental awareness.
9. Role of civil society or social movement in environmental protection
The green politics or green movement or environmental movement can be defined as a social movement for the conservation of the environment. These movements aimed to pressure the government to adopt environmental friendly policy and dropping the policy that is detrimental to the environment and society. Some of social environmental movements in India • Bishnoi movement (Rajasthan in 18th century): this movement by the bishnoi tribal community to protect the forests from the maharaja of Jodhpur. Movement was headed by Amrita Devi. • Chipko movement in 1973 (uttarakhand): This movement was launched from Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. The aim of the movement was to prevent illegal cutting of trees in the Garhwal region of uttarakhand. The leaders of the movement were Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt. The most notable and distinguishable characteristic of this movement was the involvement of women. • Appiko movement in 1983 (karnataka): Its main objectives were afforestation as well as development, conservation and proper utilization of forests in the best manner. The word “appiko” in its implication is to express one's affection for a tree by embracing it. • Silent valley movement in1970s (Kerala): Environmentalists and the local people strongly objected to construction hydel power project being set up in the midst of tropical forest here in 1973. Under strong objection from the people the government had to declare it a national reserve forests in 1985. • Jungle bachao andolan in 1982 (Jharkhand): The tribal community of Singhbhum district of Jharkhand agitated against the forest policy of the Government in 1982. The Government of the day wanted to replace the natural forests of the region with high-priced teak. This movement has rightly been claimed by many environmentalists as “Greed Game Political Populism”. • Narmada bachao andolan (since 1985): Environmentalists and the local people started to protest against the building of Dams on the Narmada for the production of hydro-electricity since 1985 which was popularly known as Narmada Bachao Aandolan. This movement or andolan was spearheaded by Medha Patkar who has been one of the pioneers of this aandolan and eventually got support from prominent names like Arundhati Roy, Baba Amte and Aamir Khan. . • Plachimada agitation (2000 -’04): Environmental protests broke out after it was found that Coca- Cola company was exploiting water resources and causing water pollution. The matter was brought before the judiciary and it was discussed in the Parliament as well. The plant shut down its operations in 2004.
10. International conventions
On Climate protection • 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution • 1992 Rio Summit and convening of UNFCCC • 1997 Kyoto Protocol • 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone • 2016 The Paris Agreement
On Ozone layer protection:
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• Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) • Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) • Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Kigali amendment, 2016)
On Marine, water and environmental protection: • Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (UNECE Water Convention, 1992) • Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (IMO, London Convention 1972) • Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991) • Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic (2016)
Waste management • Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989)
Prevention of environmental damage caused by chemicals: • Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (PIC Convention, 1998) • Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs Convention, 2001) • Minamata Convention on Mercury, 2017
Protection of flora and fauna and biological diversity: • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Biodiversity Convention, 1992) o Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (Nagoya Protocol, 2010) o Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000) o Nagoya – Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2010) • International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946) • Statutes of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN, 1948) • Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention, 1971) • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES Convention, 1973) • Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS Convention or Bonn Convention, 1979)
Significance of Paris agreement: Paris Agreement has been one of the most comprehensive agreements signed with all the stakeholders coming together to realise the importance of saving the planet from the dangers of climate change. Some of the aims are: • Limit the global temperature rise in this century to well below 2 degrees Celsius Above the pre- industrial level. • Take the efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1. 5 degrees Celsius. It is taken after consideration of the demands of small island nations since rising global temperature is an existential threat to these countries. • Paris agreement strengthens the ability, capacity and infrastructure of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change
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• It also mentions a framework to review each country’s contribution to cutting emissions every five years to bring in accountability. It also envisages a global stocktake every five years to assess collective progress towards long-term goals. • It advocates the idea that rich countries should help the poorer nations by providing “climate finance” to the tune of 100bn $ starting 2020 to adapt to climate change and switch to renewable energy. • It has a ‘bottom up’ approach in contrast to most international environmental laws and treaties which follow a ‘top down' approach. • The agreement is binding in some of the aspects like reporting needs, while some of the other aspects such as the setting of emission targets for any individual country is non-binding. • The Paris agreement emphasizes the need for differentiation in efforts of parties between developed and developing countries as well as for financial resources to support ambitious efforts. • The Paris agreement put a robust transparency framework to ensure the delivery. States will provide information on the implementation of their contributions, which is then subject to a technical expert review process. • The Paris agreement in calculating the global stocktake will also take into account “equity” — thus paving the way for conversation on burden-sharing between nations.
11. India: The Paris agreement and SDGs
India being a nation surrounded by critical biomes this agreement has severe impact on India. Since India is a party to the convention, India is now required to periodically report on its targets and performance under the Agreement, and update its Nationally Determined Contributions by 2020. • To achieve set targets centre needs the active involvement of all States and wide consultations — more so for the 175 gigawatt renewables revolution, including 100 GW from solar, to meet the 2022 target. • To achieve these targets we need to guide our policy towards enacting a strong climate change law that harmonises policies nationally, starting with energy, buildings, transport, water, agriculture and urban development and lifestyle pattern. It is very important in India's case since adaptation to climate change and addressing loss and damage looms large for India, given the regular cycles of crippling droughts, devastating flooding and lost livelihoods.
Success of the paris agreement is road to achieve SDG 2030: Climate change poses the single biggest threat to attainment of sustainable development everywhere and its widespread, unprecedented impacts disproportionately burden the poorest and most vulnerable. Urgent action to limit climate change and deal with its impacts is integral to successfully achieving all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). • Collectively, the three post-2015 agendas for action – the Paris Agreement, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction - provide the foundation for sustainable, low-carbon and resilient development under a changing climate. • The Paris Agreement initiated by the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, bringing all nations into a common cause to reduce greenhouse gas emissions rapidly and to strengthen the ability of countries to build resilience, mitigation and adapt to the impacts of climate change, including ensuring adequate support for developing countries. • The early entry into force of the Paris Agreement and successful operationalization through achievement of the Katowice Climate Package, the world has entered a new era in our collective efforts on climate change, focusing us on urgently increasing ambition and implementation at all levels of government, business and civil society. • Pursuing climate action and sustainable development in an integrated and coherent way offers the strongest approach to enable countries to achieve their objectives efficiently and quickly under the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
Some of the SDG goals with implications on environment:
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• Goal 1: No Poverty- Presently the severity of poverty and inequality increased particularly in the developing countries due to climate change. Particularly in india rising temperature and unsesonal rain decreased the crop yield and frequent draught and rain threatned livelihoods of farmer, and it resulted into the rural poverty and farmer suicide in india . for example : Marthawada region of maharashtra. • Goal 2: Zero Hunger- According to a report by FAO, by 2050 crop yield will decrease by 25% if we don’t address climate change. Desertification and drought are damaging food production throughout the globe. Agriculture needs to become climate smart so that we can achieve zero hunger. • Goal 3: Good Health and Well-being- The unregulated urbanization and use of fossil fuels and natural fuel woods increased particulate matter in air and Indoor Household Pollution which results in numerous respiratory related diseases. The death caused by air pollution in India is higher than by any other natural calamity. • Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation- water scarcity affects more than 40 percent of people, more and more countries are experiencing water stress, due to increasing drought and desertification. safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030 requires we invest in adequate infrastructure, provide sanitation facilities, and encourage hygiene. Protecting and restoring water related ecosystems is essential. • Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy- Ensuring clean and affordable energy requires reducing the consumption of conventional fossil fuels and adapting the rooftop solar energy, wind and tidal energy. • Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities- Presently our cities face problems of Heat island, large generation of solid waste and its disposal, water crisis. Cities release more emissions which causes global warming. These acts make our cities unlivable. • Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production- The changing climate and adaptation to these climate changes by the people, countries and economic sectors have the possibility to limit the growth. So adopting the mitigation measures required to reduce, if not arrest global warming and to move towards low-carbon economies have far-reaching implications for economic and social • Development, for production and consumption patterns and, naturally, for employment, productivity and incomes. • Goal 13: Climate Action- Greenhouse gas emission are more than 50 percent higher than in 1990. Global warming causing long lasting changes to our climate system. Which threatens our livelihoods survival if we fail to act. • Goal 14: Life Below Water- Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods. However we are seeing 30percent of the world’s fish stocks overexploited, 26 percent rise in ocean acidification since the beginning of the industrial revolution and also an average of 13000pieces of plastic litter to be found on every square kilometre of ocean. Enhancing conservation and the sustainable use of ocean based is need of the hour. • Goal 15: Life On Land- plant life provides 80percent of human diet, forest cover 30percent of earth’s surface, provides vital habitats for millions of species, and important sources for clean water, air. Every year 13 million hectares of forest are lost, while the persistent degradation of forest led to 3. 6 billion hectares of land desertification.
The amazon fire: causes and its effects: The Amazon rainforest, the largest of its kind in the world, is ablaze with over 9500 distinct fires burning through its main basin since august 15. Overall, Brazil has seen more than 76000fires ravage the amazon in 2019, of which around 10000 have been started in the past few weeks, mainly by loggers and farmers, as they do during the summer months, to clear vast tracts for agricultural or industrial use. However, this annual exercise of planned deforestation appears to have crossed a tipping point this year. There has been an increase of at least 80%in nth number of recorded fires compared to the same period in 2018, according to Brazil's national institute for space research.
Significance of amazon forest: • More than 20% of the world’s oxygen is produced in the Amazon rainforest. which accommodate over 60 percent of the world's remaining rainforests. More than half of this forest lies in Brazil.
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• Through transpiration, the Amazon rainforest is responsible for creating 50-75 percent of its own precipitation. But its impact extends well beyond the Amazon Basin, with Amazon rainfall and rivers feeding regions that generate 70 percent of South America's GDP. Models indicate that moisture from the Amazon influences rainfall as far away as the Western United States and Central America • The 390 billion trees across the Amazon rainforest locks up massive amounts of carbon in their leaves, branches, and trunks. A 2007 study published in Global Change Biology estimated the forest stores some 86 billion tons of carbon or more than a third of all carbon stored by tropical forests worldwide. • The Amazon is home to more species of plants and animals than any other terrestrial ecosystem on the planet — perhaps 30 percent of the world's species are found there. Besides their intrinsic value as living organisms, these species have potential value to humans in the form of medicine, food, and other products.
Negative effects of amazon forest fire: • It will release vast amounts of carbon dioxide, a prime source of global warming. • It will affect the rainfall patterns in South America. • When deforestation increases, we often see epidemics like dengue, malaria etc.
12. Conclusion and Way Forward
Unlike social crime like theft, murder that is visible, environmental degradation isn't what the general public will simply see or feel in their everyday lives. If we don't wake up now, we have to be prepared to face the consequences of nature wreaking great havoc on humanity. Environmental degradation is not just about losing trees and wildlife, it means losing our future and losing our food security, water security and clean
Environment. The loss is going to be borne by the same humans who wrecked the environment. To avoid the sinking of coastal land and the spread of new diseases and depletion of ozone, we need to act responsibly in our everyday life.
The protection of the environment is not the duty of any one country or any individual; it needs cooperation between international governments and the world's civil society. To make our cities liveable we need to create a working ground for soft-fencing, urban master plans must recognise land use at forest fringes, according to ESZ guidelines. In addition, cities should secure wildlife corridors and ‘green belts’. Integrating forests with urban planning and governance provides an opportunity to shape cities that not only cater to citizens, but also have the citizens actively involved in shaping the city’s future.
Rural areas today are in the clutches of unseasonal rain, drought, decreased productivity, fast desertification and soil degradation and increasing global warming. Government and civil society organisations need to propagate modern technology to fight low productivity and soil degradation. Apart from that, establishing sustainable agricultural practices like zero budget natural farming and organic farming has to be an integral part of policy formulation.
13. Quotes on environment
• The Earth is what we all have in common.”—Wendell Berry • “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.” - Mahatma Gandhi • “What we are doing to the forests of the world is but a mirror reflection of what we are doing to ourselves and to one another. ” ― Chris Maser, • “A nation that destroys its soil destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the air and giving fresh strength to our people. ” ― Franklin D. Roosevelt • No Plan B because there's no Planet B': UN chief Ban ki moon
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Reference • Newspapers including The Hindu, The Livemint • United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) • Down to earth • National Green Tribunal (NGT)
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Space: A New Frontier 11
1. Previous year questions 3. Space as a Global Common 2. Space: Various Aspects 4. Quotes
1. Previous year questions
Q. The lure of space. -2004
2. Space: Various Aspects
2.1 Why Space?
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on why Space, Humanity's interest in the heavens has been universal and enduring. Humans are driven to explore the unknown, discover new worlds, push the boundaries of our scientific and technical limits, and then push further. The intangible desire to explore and challenge the boundaries of what we know and where we have been - had provided benefits to our society for centuries. Human space exploration helps to address fundamental questions about our place in the Universe and the history of our solar system. Through addressing the challenges related to human space exploration we expand technology, create new industries, and help to foster a peaceful connection with other nations.
2.2 Space a new frontier for human endeavor
From time immemorial, space has been a part of human civilization, be it in theology or in spirituality or in philosophy, and had always enchanted, eluded and enticed humans. The ancient Indian ideas of physics, astrology, astrophysics, are mentioned in a variety of sources like Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas. Indian astronomers/physicists propounded theories to unify space, time, matter, and consciousness; argued for the relativity of space and time, cyclic and recursively defined universes, and a non-anthropocentric view of the universe. The flights of imagination of ancient Indians are to be traced to more than a straightforward generalization of the motions of planets into a cyclic universe. They must be viewed in the background of an amazingly sophisticated tradition of cognitive and analytical perspectives. These are a testimony to India's contribution to science and technology of the world
2.3 History of Space technology
History of rockets can be traced to the 6th century AD when Chinese had an elementary version used as a part of fireworks. In 1782, Tipu Sultan in India deployed rockets as a weapon to fight with the British Army in Shrirangapattanam. From there it found its way to Europe and other parts of the world. Early 20th century has seen the development of rocket systems in a more professional way in Russia and America.
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It was the demand for war machinery that had driven the development of rocket systems to a level of perfection. The V2 rockets developed by Germans were a nightmare for the allied forces. After the world war, the rocket technologists from Germany were grabbed by the USA on one side and the USSR on the other. The greed for military supremacy had led to fierce competition between the superpowers. A man-made object can be placed as an artificial satellite around the earth was demonstrated by Russia with the launch of Sputnik on 4th Oct 1957. This was soon followed by the USA through the launch of the Gemini capsule. Manned missions to space and the moon landing were other major developments. Other countries also started their space research and development programmes.
Space: definition There are many modern-day definitions of Space: A common definition of space is known as the Karma n Line, an imaginary boundary 100 kilometres (62 miles) above mean sea level. Or space begins when Earth’s atmosphere ends.
2.4 Humble Beginnings of Indian Space Programme
The space research activities were initiated in India during the early 1960s. As a first step, the Department of Atomic Energy formed the INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research) under the leadership of Dr.Vikram Sarabhai and Dr.Ramanathan in 1962. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was later formed on August 15, 1969, with the prime objective of developing space technology and its applications, to cater to various national needs. The Department of Space (DOS) and the Space Commission were set up in 1972 and ISRO was brought under DOS on June 1, 1972.
ISRO’s Vision Harness space technology for national development, while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration.
2.5 Major milestones in Indian Space Programme
India is the only country which embarked upon the development of space programme in a civilian domain. The visionary scientist Dr.Vikram Sarabhai had not only seen the potential of space technology but also the application of such advanced technology for the benefit of the common man. In the late sixties, he chalked out a vision for the space programme in the country.
Indian Space Programme began at Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) located at Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram. Thumba was selected for being a rocket launching station because geomagnetic equator of the earth passes over Thumba. 1. On November 21, 1963, the first sounding rocket was launched from TERLS. A sounding rocket is a rocket, which is intended for assessing the physical parameters of the upper atmosphere. 2. India’s first indigenous sounding rocket, RH-75, was launched on November 20, 1967. 3. Aryabhata - First Indian Satellite was launched on April 19, 1975. It was launched from the former Soviet Union. U.S.S.R also provided India with basic satellite technology and designing. 4. Bhaskara-I - an experimental satellite for earth observations was launched on June 7, 1979. 5. First Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload onboard (August 10, 1979). The satellite could not be placed in orbit. Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) is the first launch vehicle of India. 6. Indian National Satellite System system (INSAT)-1A was launched on April 10, 1982. This system was for communication, broadcasting and meteorology. 7. On April 2, 1984, the first Indo-Soviet manned space mission was launched. Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to go into space. He flew aboard the Soviet rocket Soyuz T-11, as part of a three-member Soviet-Indian crew. 8. The first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A was launched on March 17, 1988.
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9. Second developmental launch of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) with IRS-P2, onboard took place on October 15, 1994. Thereafter, PSLV went on to become a favoured carrier for satellites of various countries due to its reliability and cost-efficiency, thus promoting unprecedented international collaboration. 10. The first developmental launch of Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)-D1 with GSAT-1 onboard took off from Sriharikota on April 18, 2001. It was developed keeping in mind the heavier and more demanding geosynchronous communication satellites. 11. PSLV-C11 successfully launched CHANDRAYAAN-1 from Sriharikota on October 22, 2008. 12. November 5, 2013 - PSLV - C25 successfully launched Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) Spacecraft from Sriharikota. 13. India created history by successfully launching 104 satellites on a single mission (PSLV-C37) on 15th Feb 2017. 14. India's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, in its forty-third flight (PSLV-C41), launched IRNSS-1I Satellite. The IRNSS-1I is the eighth satellite to join the NavIC navigation satellite constellation and was launched on April 12, 2018. 15. PSLV-C43 lifted off on November 29, 2018, from the First Launch Pad (FLP) of Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota and successfully launched India’s Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS) and 30 international co-passenger satellites. 16. India’s next-generation high throughput and heaviest satellite communication satellite, GSAT-11 was successfully launched on December 05, 2018 from Kourou launch base, French Guiana by Ariane-5 VA-246. 17. Gaganyaan Programme - Cabinet has approved Indian Human Spaceflight Initiative - Gaganyaan Programme. Two unmanned & one manned flight has been planned. Gaganyaan Programme will establish a broader framework for collaboration between ISRO, academia, industry, national agencies and other scientific organizations. 18. India’s telecommunication satellite, GSAT-31 was successfully launched on February 06, 2019 from Kourou launch base, French Guiana by Ariane-5 VA-247. 19. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV MkIII-M1 rocket, carrying Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh on July 22, 2019. Chandrayaan-2 is India's second mission to the moon. It comprises a fully indigenous Orbiter, Lander (Vikram) and Rover (Pragyan). The Rover Pragyan is housed inside Vikram lander. Chandrayaan-2 has several science payloads to facilitate a more detailed understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon.
Indian Spacecrafts Communication Satellite Supports telecommunication, television broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, societal applications, weather forecasting, early warning systems and Search and Rescue operation services. Scientific Spacecraft Spacecraft for research in areas like astronomy, astrophysics, planetary and earth sciences, atmospheric sciences and theoretical physics. Navigation Satellites For navigation services to meet the emerging demands of the Civil Aviation and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite navigation system. For example- GAGAN, IRNSS (NAVIC) Experimental Satellites A host of small satellites mainly for experimental purposes. These experiments include Remote Sensing, Atmospheric Studies, Payload Development, Orbit Controls, recovery technology etc.
Indian Space Launch Vehicles Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space. India has two operational launchers: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
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GSLV with indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage has enabled the launching of up to 2 tonne class of communication satellites. The next variant of GSLV is GSLV Mk III, with indigenous high thrust cryogenic engine and stage, having the capability of launching 4 tonne class of communication satellites. In order to achieve high accuracy in placing satellites into their orbits, a combination of precision, efficiency, power and immaculate planning are required. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle: It was developed to launch Low Earth Orbit satellites into Polar and Sun Synchronous Orbits. It has since proved its versatility by launching Geosynchronous, Lunar and Interplanetary spacecraft successfully. Sounding Rockets: ISRO launches smaller rockets from the Rohini series on suborbital and atmospheric flights for aeronomy and meteorological studies. ATV, ISRO's heaviest sounding rocket, is used for microgravity experiments and for precursor experiments to characterise new technologies.
2.6 Indian Space Programme: Applications
The hallmark of the Indian space programme is the application-oriented focus with an emphasis on the active participation of user-community from Government, Academia and Industry. ISRO works closely with Central & State Government departments/ ministries, Industry and Academia in ensuring the best of solutions for optimal management of Natural Resources, support services for good governance and societal development. Through a well-coordinated effort, this system has been able to provide several important applications that are becoming people-centric today.
Earth Observation Applications Some of the important missions of ISRO, in terms of IRS series of satellites, that has enabled unique applications of space-based imaging are, Cartosat-1 & 2, Resourcesat-1 & 2, Oceansat-1 & 2, Risat-1, Megha-Tropiques, SARAL, Scatsat, INSAT series, and a host of other satellites. The societal services offered by Earth Observation, SATCOM and the recent NavIC constellation of satellites in various areas of national development, including tele-education and telemedicine, are standing examples of the applications-oriented space programme of India. During the past many years, Indian Remote Sensing Satellite constellation has taken giant strides in ensuring many areas of application, operational. Some of the most prominent ones are Agricultural Crops Inventory, Water Resources Information System, Ground Water Prospects, Forest Working Plans, Biodiversity and Coral Mapping, Potential Fishing Zones, Ocean State Forecasts, Rural Development, Urban Development, Inventory & Monitoring of Glacial Lakes / Water Bodies, Location-based Services using NavIC constellation, Disaster Management Support
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Programme (Cyclone and Floods Mapping & Monitoring, Landslide Mapping & Monitoring, Agricultural Drought, Forest Fire, Earthquakes, Extreme Weather Monitoring and experimental Forecasts and so on). Geospatial technologies, remote sensing, satellite communication and navigation systems are providing many new ways for effective management of natural resources. Web Geoportals and mobile technologies (Bhuvan Geoportal) are the other popular platforms, being used by Governments, to provide information services and solutions at all levels, which are proving to be effective. The primal threats to our civilization, global climate change and space weather can be understood and dealt with by using the global perspective of observations from space.
Satellite Communication Satellite Communication utilisation has become widespread and ubiquitous throughout the country for its diverse applications like Television, DTH Broadcasting, DSNG and VSAT to exploit the unique capabilities in terms of coverage and outreach. The potential of the technology for societal applications continue to fascinate ISRO and efforts are on to leverage the benefits of technology to the betterment of mankind. Important initiatives pursued by ISRO towards societal development include Tele-education, Tele-medicine, Village Resource Centre (VRC) and Disaster Management System (DMS) Programmes.
Disaster Management India is prone to many natural disasters like floods, landslides, cyclones, forest fires, earthquakes, drought, etc. Satellites provide synoptic observations of the natural disasters at regular intervals that help in better planning and management of disasters. In order to better understand the risks due to such disasters, it is necessary to integrate satellite and field-based observations and to work towards risk reduction principles. Satellite communication and navigation systems also play an important role in disaster management with improved technological options. Disaster Management Support (DMS) Programme, comprehensively addresses various aspects of natural disasters in the country, using space-based inputs. ISRO disseminates relevant information in the interactive geospatial domain through various geo-portals like Bhuvan, National Database for Emergency Management and MOSDAC for the administrators to better understand the impact and for improved decision support. ISRO provides the satellite-based near real-time information support to Central Ministries /Departments and State Ministries / Departments, prior, during and after major natural disasters. ISRO is actively involved with various other countries with regard to disaster management, through international frameworks, such as the International Charter ‘Space & Major Disasters, Sentinel Asia, UNESCAP and so on.
Applications in Governance and Development The specific initiative was taken in terms of the development of methodology, web & mobile applications, online and offline geo-spatial database creation, training and execution of work.
Some of the significant outcomes are: 1. The inventory of orchards in more than 160 districts under the Horticulture Development and Management project (CHAMAN), 2. Geotagging of more than 2.38 crore assets under GeoMGNREGA, 3. assessment of renewable energy potential of solar, wind and wave energy towards its enhanced utilisation, 4. Geospatially enabled monitoring of IWMP watersheds (more than 10 lakh field photographs depicting watershed development interventions on Bhuvan portal) 5. Monitoring the stage of construction of beneficiary houses under PMAY (Urban) (about 5.6 lakh houses have been monitored so far).
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Space Science and Planetary Research Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), which is India's first interplanetary spacecraft mission, has successfully completed three years in its orbit around Mars and still continues to provide vital information on Mars on a regular basis. The current space science missions of ISRO includes Chandrayaan-2, a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-1, with an Orbiter, Lander and Rover as a next step in the exploration of the Moon, which was launched onboard GSLV flight. Aditya-L1, a scientific mission for solar studies, carrying seven payloads including a Coronagraph and the XPoSat mission (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite), a dedicated mission for polarisation studies, are also planned subsequently. Aditya-L1 is planned to be placed into a halo orbit around the L1 Lagrangian point. AstroSat, the first Indian Multi-wavelength space astronomy mission which completed two years in orbit on September 28, 2017. A unique feature of the AstroSat mission is that it enables simultaneous multi-wavelength observations (optical, UV and X-rays) of various astronomical objects with a single satellite.
3 Space as a Global Commons
We are a society rife with strife, often rooted in our past. We are also a society in denial about how fragile is our civilization on our insignificant planet in the backwater of the cosmos, whether due to our own misconduct or some cosmic event. We need to pursue policies and practices that ensure that civil space can be the guide that leads us safely past the vulnerabilities of our planet, offers opportunities to improve the well being of our people, and points the way toward a future in which we are a space-faring civilization secure and prosperous. Considering this, the civil space programs of the world must provide the knowledge required for the survival of our civilization. Considering the centrality of space for the future of our civilisation, we thus need to recognize, encourage, and enable space as a global commons. There were two approaches which emerged with respect to global commons: o Res Nullius: The idea of treating outer space as “unclaimed territory” that belonged to no one, but was available for conquest. In such a scenario, the powerful States, which have all means would have conquered and claimed ownership of the celestial bodies. o Res communis: On the other hand, res communis implies that all entities, individual or corporate and States will have common and open access to the resources contained in outer space.
The idea of res nullius was rejected by many States collectively and instead, it was declared that outer space should be considered as res communis. Many nations of the world view space as a global commons, a resource not owned by any one nation but crucial to the future of all humankind.
The militarization of space The militarization of space involves the placement and development of weaponry in space. During the Cold War, the world's two great superpowers—the USSR and the USA—spent large proportions of their GDP on developing space technologies. As the Cold War ended with the implosion of the Soviet Union the space race between the two superpowers also ended. The USA was left as the only superpower with a large concentration of the world's wealth and technological advancement. Despite the USA' new status in the world, the monopoly over space militarization is in no way certain. Countries such as China, Japan, India and the European Union have begun their own space programmes.
The emergence of counter-space: A new frontier? The new measure of space supremacy lurks in counter-space now, and not so much in planetary excursions and astronauts’ outings.
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Russia, the U.S., and China have been relentlessly pursuing for decades activities to become space superpower and to rule space militarily, for offence or defence purposes.
Counter-space capabilities and Space espionage: According to academic reports, policymakers and those tracking the military space, for several years now, the space between 600 km and 36, 000 km above the earth has been the playground for such secret activities. Around the time Mission Shakti took place, the Center for Strategic and International Studies based in Washington, D.C. came out with reports detailing about the counter-space capabilities that different countries possess and their sense of threat to space assets. Satellites with robotic arms or handles have touched or nudged other satellites in orbit. Mother (or nesting) spacecraft have gone up to put spy satellites in orbit. Satellites which tries to see, overhear and sense all that happens in space and on the ground already have been developed. The main intent of counter-space is thus surveillance and espionage. In times of war, these satellites are strategic to capture or disable a rival’s space assets in orbit. Many countries openly or otherwise, have developed deadly armouries that can be either unleashed into or from space. The probable motive could be to inspect and assess the target’s nature, eavesdrop on it, or even subvert its function and in extreme cases, the target may even be ‘abducted’ or taken control of.
Other issues like Space debris Since the Sputnik was launched in 1957, more than 8, 000 artificial satellites/man-made orbiting objects have been launched, of which about 5, 000 remain in orbit; and more than half are non- functional. As of now as per an estimate, more than 50 countries own/operate the nearly 2, 000 functional satellites in orbit. o Of these 2, 000 satellites, it is believed that over 300 are dedicated military satellites. o Once again, the U.S. has the biggest share here, with nearly 140, followed by Russia with nearly 90 and China with nearly 40. o India has two dedicated satellites, one each for the Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force. o Our defence forces also use the civilian satellites extensively for communications, remote sensing, and location accuracy and meteorology. Approximately 20, 000 objects of debris of size of golf balls while those of smaller size run into hundreds of thousands, totalling nearly 6, 000 tonnes are orbiting. Experts fear that growing amounts of space debris poses a real risk to satellites and spacecraft.
The Risk of a Space Pearl Harbour: Satellites of each of the countries such as Russia, the U.S., and China have been caught loitering in orbit at different times, and the victims have cried foul. U.S. policymakers Jim Cooper says, “Every nation’s satellites face increasing threats… The risk of a space Pearl Harbour is growing every day.” Today countries depend so much on their satellites that “cripple satellites and you cripple a country”. Possibility of space debris and defunct satellites colliding with orbiting satellites.
Is India entering into an arms race in outer space?
Recently, India carried out an anti-satellite (ASAT) test using an interceptor missile (as a kinetic kill vehicle) to neutralise a target satellite (possibly the Microsat-R launched in January this year) at an altitude of around 300 km (in Low Earth Orbit (LEO)). Many countries raised concerns over ASAT. India has always maintained that space must be used only for peaceful purposes and that She has no intention of entering into an arms race in outer space. India strongly opposes weaponization of Outer Space and supports international efforts to reinforce the safety and security of space-based assets.
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India's stand is that space is the common heritage of humankind and it is the responsibility of all space powers to preserve and promote the benefits of advances made in space technology and its applications for all. India is a party to all the major international treaties and already implements a number of Transparency and Confidence Building Measures (TCBMs) – like registering space objects with the UN register, launch notifications, participation in Inter-Agency space debris management, undertaking Space Object Proximity Awareness and Collision Avoidance activities and so on. Analysis and numerous international cooperation activities, including hosting the UN-affiliated Centre for Space and Science Technology Education in Asia and Pacific. India participates actively in proceedings of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses Space and supported UNGA resolution No First Placement of Weapons in Outer Space (69/32). India argues that no placement of weapons in space is only an interim step to frame/establish legal measures to ensure the prevention of an arms race in outer space, which should continue to be a priority for the international community. India supports the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS) in the Conference on Disarmament. Many Countries are developing non-kinetic, electronics and cyber-based, and in some cases non- digital methods to prevent from cyber-attacks can destroy, steal or distort other satellites or ground stations.
Therefore, there is a clear need for a legally binding instrument to prevent an arms race and fill existing legal gaps. Such an instrument should have a comprehensive scope that includes four prohibitions: the placement of any weapons, defensive or offensive; armed attacks against satellites or any outer space assets; intentional, harmful interference that interrupts the normal functioning of such assets; and developing, testing and stockpiling weapons designed to attack outer space assets. (UN)
Can India afford spending a fortune on Space Missions? Many argue that the country still has large numbers of poor people, children remain stunted, wasted and underweight due to malnutrition. Issues of hunger and impure drinking water, inadequate toilet and sanitation facilities are still prevalent. But instead of addressing these issues India spends disproportionately on the space programme. But most space programmes are designed to get satellites into Earth’s orbit for the sake of better communications, mapping, weather observation or military capacity at home. These bring direct benefits to ordinary people. Take one recent example: a fierce cyclone that hit India’s east coast a few months back killed few, whereas a similar-strength one in the same spot, a decade ago could have killed over 10, 000. Of many one reason for the improvement was due to Indian weather satellites that helped to make possible for more accurate predictions of where and when the storm would hit. Improved data from satellites on monsoon rains, breaks, or shifting weather patterns, can help even the farmers have a better idea of when to plant crops. There are many other applications (written above) can be cited to show how space research is of immense importance for India.
The application-oriented focus with an emphasis on the active participation of user-community from Government, Academia and Industry is the hallmark of the Indian space programme.
ISRO works closely with Central & State Government departments/ ministries, Industry and Academia in ensuring the best of solutions for optimal management of Natural Resources, support services for good governance and societal development.
Space for All More countries than ever are establishing new space agencies, and hundreds of start-ups are entering the market. But still, millions of people lack access to even basic benefits of space technologies.
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Access to Space for All initiative includes a range of activities like satellite development, in-orbit research, applications development and so. There is a need for collaborative works to provide Access to Space for all; to connect established and emerging space actors; to provide countries with the instruments to achieve the SDGs; and to ensure that the benefits of space are made available to everyone, everywhere. To achieve the goal of access to Space for All, communities from all over the world, with special focus on non-space faring and emerging space-faring nations to work together to use and benefit from space technologies and applications.
Conclusion Outer space is a shared heritage owned equally by all the peoples of the world and a common asset for humanity. Taking into consideration the extreme fragility and volatility of the outer space environment, it must not be allowed to turn into another battlefield or a scene for military conflicts that could have catastrophic implications. Space needs to be utilised for the expansion of humanity into the solar system and promote the utilization of the vast resources in space to dramatically improve the life on Earth. The vast energy resources and opportunities space provide, will not only meet humanity's growing hunger for electrical power, especially in underdeveloped regions but largely eliminate the generation of greenhouse gases in the process. Thereby achieving sustainable development goals.
4. Quotes
“Men who have worked together to reach the stars are not likely to descend together into the depths of war and desolation.” Sen. Lyndon Johnson, We are extending the human presence, whether through robotic spacecraft or eventually with humans, throughout our solar system. And we have a commitment as a civilization to behave responsibly in this endeavour. To protect the environments we will explore, and protect ourselves against any contamination of our planet that results from this exploration. “All of time and space, everything that ever happened or ever will - where do you want to start?” Doctor Who Many years ago the great British explorer George Mallory, who was to die on Mount Everest, was asked why did he want to climb it. He said, “Because it is there.” Well, space is there, and we’re going to climb it, and the moon and the planets are there, and new hopes for knowledge and peace are there. And, therefore, as we set sail we ask God’s blessing on the most hazardous and dangerous and greatest adventure on which man has ever embarked. We set sail on this new sea because there is new knowledge to be gained, and new rights to be won, and they must be won and used for the progress of all people.
References 1. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 2. Indian Space Research Organisation 3. UNSPACE 4. The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) 5. www.unoosa.org
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Water 12
1. Context 4. Gist of Reports 2. Previous Years Questions 5. Case Studies 3. Water: Various Perspectives 6. Quotes
1. Context
Day Zero in Johannesburg, Chennai etc. NITI Aayog report about water scarcity. Frequent drought and floods.
2. Previous Years Questions
Water disputes between states in Federal India (2016) Water resources should be under the control of the central government (2004)
3. Water: Various Perspectives
3.1 Water in our History
Water was considered one of the five basic elements or panchabhoota. It was denoted as the source of life in Rigveda. Pure water was called divyajal due to its properties of sheetam (cold to touch), suchihi (clean), shivam (replete with useful minerals and elements), Ishtam (transparent) and vimalam Lahu shadgunam (acidic balance should not exceed normal limits). Native American cultures, ancient Irish Mythology, Ancient Greeks, Japanese etc had a culture of deifying or worshipping water. Water was also seen as being imperative to good health. For example, it is considered polite in Chinese culture to offer a guest hot/boiling water. Rivers are the cradle of civilizations. Cultures flourished and were nourished on the banks of rivers like Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Indus etc. Rivers like Ganga are worshipped as a goddess.
3.2 Water and Society
Rise in Population and water demand The world’s population is expected to increase to nearly 10 billion people by 2050, with two- thirds of them living in cities. The global demand for water has been increasing at a rate of about 1% per year over the past decades as a function of population growth, economic development and changing consumption patterns as per the World Water report 2018. The International Water Management Institute estimates that total demand could increase from 680 billion cubic metres (BCM) to 833 BCM by 2025 and to 900 BCM by 2050.
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Health and water Water is crucial for a healthy life. Lack of water causes diseases ranging from dehydration to kidney failure. Six hundred million people are dealing with high to extreme water shortage as per NITI Aayog. An average of 200, 000 Indian lives is lost every year due to inadequate supply or contamination of water. India does not have an adequate number of sewage treatment plants, so untreated urban wastewater is often added to water flowing downstream -- the same contaminated water used in rural areas for drinking. According to NITI Aayog, 75 % of the Indian population is affected by contaminated water. It also that there is a correlation between 20% of the country's disease burden and contaminated water.
Women and water Women bear the brunt of water scarcity the most. According to UN Women around the world will spend a collective 200 million hours collecting water. In Asia and Africa, women walk an average of 3.7 miles per day collecting water according to UNICEF. This translates to a significant opportunity cost. They could have made a real contribution to the economy and society had they been freed from this burden. Walking to collect water and carrying heavy vessels of water can be dangerous for a pregnant woman. Further, the consumption of unsafe water can be harmful to the health of both mom and her baby. From maintaining a healthy pregnancy to nourishing a newborn child, women need safe water at home. 60% of children support the collection of wood and water, in some countries spending up to11.3 hours per week.
Other Social aspects of Water In India, access to water has a caste angle. People from the Dalit background are more vulnerable during a water crisis due to the concept of “pollution” There are tribes who consider water as a “community resource” with no one “owning” or “controlling” water.
3.3 Water and Economy
Water and its relationship with various developmental projects Hydel projects have been the dynamo of our energy sector. They have the potential to meet peak demand without causing air pollution. However, the issue of major hydro-projects is a matter of contention. Hydel projects require huge capital and they submerge huge tracts of land. These projects impact the flow of the river and thus create permanent changes to the river ecology. India faces the twin problems of both drought and deluge. To address this issue we have invested a lot of capital in irrigation projects. Indira Gandhi canal is the most famous among them in this regard. A significant pillar of our green revolution was an improvement in irrigation capacity including groundwater extraction using tubewells. However, it is to be noted that India’s annual agricultural water withdrawal is the highest in the world followed by China and the United States. China, which has a larger area equipped for irrigation (69 million hectares) than India (67 million hectares), withdraws much less water for agricultural purposes. This is clearly inefficient and off course unsustainable.
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National River interlinking scheme is an ambitious scheme aimed at linking the Himalayan river system of the north with the Peninsular river system of the south. This aims to control floods by transferring excess water from the north to the southern rivers while also promoting inland navigation.
National waterways are going to be a gamechanger in logistics by offering cheap, noise-free, pollution-free transport with considerable fuel savings. Inland water system also has the potential to cater to remote areas, while generating employment opportunities
Water and its pricing Pricing of water is a contentious political issue but a crucial economic issue. Pricing of water might make water unaffordable to the marginalised. However, it will also disincentive wastage of water. Lifeline pricing is a judicious balance between the need for democratic access to water and using price as a barrier to reduce wastage. Lifeline pricing involves providing some basic quantity of water to be provided at a nominal cost with a prohibitive price being passed on to the consumer if he uses beyond a limit.
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3.4 Water and Constitutional, Legal, and Governance perspectives
International perspective United Nations General Assembly has explicitly recognized the human right to water and sanitation and acknowledged that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to the realisation of all human rights. Water treaty with Pakistan which was negotiated by World Bank is one of the most successful treaties that India has entered into. Its future is uncertain as India has started exploring options to stop water to Pakistan as a retaliation. The glaciers of Himalaya are known as the Third Pole because of the magnitude of water stored there.
National perspective Even though water is not mentioned in a fundamental right, The Supreme Court in while dealing with Article 21 of the Constitution has held that the need for a decent and civilized life includes the right to food, water and a decent environment. Water is a state subject but the Union government has jurisdiction on inter-state river systems. Local government (Urban Local Bodies) is in charge of operation and maintenance. Archaic, colonial laws still govern issues related to water. In India, most of the water legislations are a complex web of state and national laws. In addition, the colonial laws mostly deal with irrigation and exploitation of water as a resource. When such laws are superimposed over the complex state and central jurisdictions, water management and sharing become difficult. Conflicts over water will increase. In addition, the water under a private land belongs to the owner of the land. He is free to extract as much water as he pleases. This excess commodification of water will increase its exploitation.
Water and Local Government Lack of financial and technological prowess is causing the urban water infrastructure to crumble. According to the Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) report released by the Niti Aayog in 2018, 21 major cities (Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad and others) are racing to reach zero groundwater levels by 2020, affecting access for 100 million people. However, 12 % of India’s population is already living the 'Day Zero' scenario, thanks to excessive groundwater pumping, an inefficient and wasteful water management system and years of deficient rains. Lakes, streams and rivers near cities constant care and vigilance. Lake and river desilting, riverbank restoration and maintenance, creation of bunds and check dams to ensure proper flow, protection of mangroves etc require funds and technical competence. Short term benefits of constructing houses and commercial buildings outweigh the long term benefits of maintaining water resources. This skewed priority makes water a scarce resource. Ironically, these misplaced priorities also cause severe flooding during even normal rains as witnessed by Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai etc.
Organisations and Initiatives with respect to Water governance Central water commission, National Groundwater Bureau, Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), Dam Safety Organisation etc are working in silos. Hence there is mismanagement of floods and droughts. In addition, dam administration is disconnected from the local or district administration. Inter-State disputes over river resources are also becoming more intense and widespread. We might need to look into the possibility of adding “Water” as a subject in the concurrent list. It is in this context that Mihir Shah Committee recommended the constitution of a National Water Commission that can coordinate between various states at various levels with continuous and reliable data. The Union government recently formed a new Jal Shakti (water) ministry, which aims at tackling water issues with a holistic and integrated perspective on the subject. The ministry has announced an ambitious plan to provide piped water connections to every household in India by 2024 under “Har nal se Jal” scheme.
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PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana has two objectives: 1. Har Khet Ko Pani (Water supply to every farm) and 2. Per Drop-More Crop Neeranchal, a World Bank-funded Government of India scheme, supported both the conservation and production outcomes including the availability of water in the rainfed areas, catering to the needs of small and marginal farmers as well as asset-less, including women. Mission Kakatiya in Telangana aims to restore traditional irrigation tanks
Water and Agriculture The use of flood irrigation, choice of crops that are water-intensive is placing a severe burden on our water resources. Groundwater is used to cultivate some of the most water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane in states like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Rice, which is India’s main food crop consumes about 3, 500 litres of water for a kilogram of grain produced. Additionally, there is a concern described in the economic survey that we are exporting water- intensive crops, which in turn means that we are exporting water. State procurement policy, Minimum support price, free electricity for farming provide perverse incentives to the farmers to select water-intensive crops and use unscientific methods of irrigation. The unscientific proliferation of tubewells and high powered pumps have depleted groundwater resources. This has caused the water table to drop considerably low. In coastal areas, this constant pumping of water has caused saltwater intrusion. The northwestern and central part of the country which is severely water-stressed should stop producing water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane. Farmers should be given adequate incentives to switch to shift to crops like millets which require much less water and are climate- resilient. Secondly, the spread of drip and sprinkler irrigation systems should be increased rapidly with state support. Thirdly, new agronomic practices like sub-surface irrigation raised bead planting ridge-furrow method of sowing, and precision farming etc which have the potential to reduce water use in agriculture should also be adopted. The old culture in our society is that we own the water under our land. This has to change and governments have to come up with a plan to licence and regulate consumption.
3.5 Water and Ecology
Basic Background Approximately 71 % of the earth’s surface is covered with it but freshwater constitutes only about 3 % of the total water. In fact, a very small proportion of freshwater is effectively available for human use. India accounts for about 4 % of the world's total water resources of which only 60% can be put to beneficial use. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the country is only 1, 122 cubic km. Rivers are the arteries of life, which supports a variety of plant and animal life along its path. We have explored more about space than about the ocean. The oceans support a plethora of species and play a crucial in sustaining life on land as well.
Challenges faced Industrial and domestic demand for water will increase much faster. An estimated 80% of industrial and municipal wastewater is released without any prior treatment, with harmful impacts on human health and ecosystems. In the Indian context, the challenge due to pollution is more complicated. Textiles and leather sectors which provide the maximum employment in the country are one of the biggest consumers and polluters of water. Ecosystem degradation is a leading cause of increasing water resources management challenges. Urbanisation, deforestation, intensification of agriculture has further added to the existing water challenges. Climate change is causing the sea waters to warm which is affecting the sea currents. There is also a concern of carbonification of water and coral bleaching.
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Pollution is choking our water sources. Untreated industrial sludge is dumped into our waters. In addition, microplastics are now spreading in epidemic proportions Acid rain is another issue that highlights the issue of pollution. The water table has dropped considerably low. This has caused water to be mixed with toxic chemicals including Arsenic. This Arsenic poisoning is a serious issue, that puts people who are already fighting water shortages under a health risk. As in the case of Flint, Michigan, there is an added risk of Lead poisoning in piped water India also faces major threats to its water security, with most water bodies near urban centres heavily polluted. A Central Pollution Control Board report indicates that almost half of India’s inter-State rivers are polluted. It is a great irony that the river Ganga, which is believed to have powers to purify any man of all their sins, is in a highly polluted stated due to industrial effluents and other wastes being dumped into it. In theory, India receives enough rain every year to meet the needs of over a billion people. According to the country’s Central Water Commission, it requires at most 3, 000 billion cubic meters of water annually and receives 4, 000 billion cubic meters of rain.
Water and Climate Change Due to climate change, the pattern of rainfall has undergone a sea change. The rainfall is of shorter duration and higher intensity and often accompanied by a cyclone or other extreme weather events. After the 2017 monsoon was over it became obvious that the country had received below-normal monsoon that year. The monsoon season had ended with about 5.2% deficit. About 50% of the districts received normal rains while more than a third, i.e., about 215 districts had deficient rainfall. An important issue was that during the first half of the monsoon (June to July 2017) the rainfall was surplus by about 2.5%. But during August and September, there was a deficiency to the extent of 12.5% Climate change is also causing large scale glacier melt and rising sea levels. This is having a grave impact on the ecosystem, deluging coastal areas and causing a shortage of water. Additionally, the global water cycle is intensifying due to climate change, with wetter regions generally becoming wetter and drier regions becoming even drier. This means that water is retained for a much shorter duration before the runoff reaches the sea. In urban areas in India, it has been shown that rainwater reached the sea within 22 hours. This has been a cause of flash floods in cities. Cooling requirements, especially in cities in the tropic region, is bound to rise due to global warming. However, air conditioning solutions at present waste a lot of water. This is made complicated due to the fact that 40 % of thermal power plants in India are located in water-scarce areas. So water scarcity will have a direct impact on power generation even when the consumption is bound to rise. Ocean water desalination, reverse osmosis etc are the technological interventions that are being implemented to ensure drinking water supply. But the cost is prohibitive. In addition, the RO process removes essential minerals which are necessary for our body. Interlinking of rivers, though necessary to control cyclical droughts and floods in the country might cause unintended imbalances in the riverine ecosystem.
UN World Water Development Report: Nature-based solutions (NBS) Nature-based solutions (NBS) are inspired and supported by nature and use, or emulate, natural processes to contribute to the improved management of water. An NBS can involve conserving or rehabilitating natural ecosystems and/or the enhancement or creation of natural processes in modified or artificial ecosystems. Upscaling NBS will be central to achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. NBS support a circular economy that is restorative and regenerative by design and promotes greater resource productivity. NBS aims to reduce waste and avoid pollution, including through reuse and recycling. NBS also supports the concepts of green growth or the green economy,
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which promote sustainable natural resource use and harness natural processes to underpin economies. Different types of Nature-based solutions (NBS) o Watershed management, recharging rivers by connecting its flood plains, afforestation to ensure that more water percolates down to the earth o In agriculture using methods like biological pest control, growing legumes, mulching etc o Wetlands, both natural and man-made, managed to treat waste-water is an energy-efficient method. o Watershed management in addition to regenerating both ground and surface water, recharges the economy, provides raw-material for agriculture (fodder, manure) and provides employment opportunities o Water availability within urban areas is a very crucial issue in NBS. Concept of “city sponges”, green areas within city limits etc are important solutions for conserving water in urban areas. o Green infrastructure, recycling of water within urban boundaries, creating catchment areas outside urban areas are other NBS Traditional water conservation techniques are now gaining acceptance as “ natural-based systems” to recharge, replenish and sustain our water sources. Baolis, temple tanks, recharge of rivers, rainwater harvesting etc are now being popularised world over.
3.6 Water and Ethics The question of the commodification of water has ramifications beyond economics. Water is not a commodity in the normal sense. It is a natural resource that sustains life. Consumption of water as a normal consumer gives rise to ethical concerns. Selling mineral water as a luxury commodity creates an unhealthy obsession over a resource that sustains life. It promotes and justifies the exploitation of water as long as the consequences of exploitation are glossed over. Giving access to water to only those who can afford it might look pragmatic at the surface. However, it gives rise to a lot of ethical concerns. A small group of people will exert undue influence over the society due to their vice-like grip over water resources. Rajendra Singh, also known as the “waterman of India” has stated that the third world war will be over water. History of the world is replete with instances where minor skirmishes over water rights, for example in the Arabian peninsula, has escalated into a full-blown war. As the water crisis aggravates tensions across national boundaries we might witness wars in future fought for water.
4. Gist of Reports
4.1 NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index
The National Institute for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog has developed the Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) to enable effective water management in Indian states in the face of this growing crisis. Objectives of this index (1) establish a clear baseline and benchmark for state-level performance on key water indicators; (2) uncover and explain how states have progressed on water issues over time, including identifying high-performers and under-performers, thereby inculcating a culture of constructive competition among states; and, (3) identify areas for deeper engagement and investment on the part of the states. Data systems related to water in the country are limited in their coverage, robustness, reliability and efficiency. There is also an opportunity to improve centre-state and inter-state cooperation across the broader water ecosystem. Water management is often currently viewed as a zero-sum game by states due to limited frameworks for inter-state and national management. This has resulted in seven major disputes regarding the country’s rivers, involving 11 states, as well as limited policy
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coordination on issues like agricultural incentives, pump electricity pricing, etc. These issues can be addressed by boosting cooperation at a federal and inter-state level. The Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) is a major step towards creating a culture of data based decision-making for water in India, which can encourage ‘competitive and cooperative federalism’ in the country’s water governance and management. Several water-scarce states are the leaders in Index performance. Several of the high and medium performers - Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana - are states that have suffered from severe droughts in recent years. The action taken by these states, and their subsequent good performance on the Index, are likely driven by necessity in the face of looming water shortages.
Water management has improved across the board. Most gains have been led by improvements in restoration of surface water bodies, watershed development activities, and rural water supply provision. However, the country faces significant risks as the low performers on the Water Index are home to ~50% of the country’s population and its agricultural baskets. The low performers are, worryingly, comprised of the populous northern states of UP, Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana, and others, and are home to over 600 million people. The poor performance of these states on the Index highlights a significant water management risk for the country going forward. Further, these states also account for 20-30% of India’s agricultural output. Given the combination of rapidly declining groundwater levels and limited policy action, this is also likely to be a significant food security risk for the country going forward. Significant improvements are required in key areas o Source augmentation and restoration of water bodies o Source augmentation of Groundwater o Major and medium irrigation—Supply-side management o Watershed development—Supply-side management, o Participatory irrigation practices—Demand-side management o Sustainable on-farm water use practices—Demand-side management o Rural drinking water o Urban water supply and sanitation, and o Policy and governance
4.2 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2019: Leaving no one behind
Water use has been increasing worldwide by about 1% per year since the 1980s, driven by a combination of population growth, socio-economic development and changing consumption patterns Global water demand is expected to continue increasing at a similar rate until 2050, accounting for an increase of 20 to 30% above the current level of water use, mainly due to rising demand in the industrial and domestic sectors. Three out of ten people do not have access to safe drinking water. Global cost–benefit studies have demonstrated that water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services provide good social and economic returns when compared with their costs.
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‘Leaving no one behind’ is at the heart of the commitment of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Sustainable Development Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. There are multiple prohibitive grounds of discrimination, but poverty usually figures quite prominently. Other forms of discrimination includes discrimination against Ethnic and other minorities, including indigenous peoples, migrants and refugees, and people of certain ancestries (e.g. castes), religious and linguistic minorities. Disability, age and health status can also be a factor that determines discrimination Persons with physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments are disproportionately represented among those who lack access to safe drinking water and sanitation. Differences in property, tenure, residence, and economic and social status can lead to discrimination as well. Less costly decentralized water supply and sanitation systems have been shown to be successful solutions. The criteria of ‘best fit’ is more important than that of ‘best practice’. A certain proportion of the investment gap could be overcome through increased system efficiency, which uses already available finances more effectively and can significantly reduce overall costs. However, targeted subsidies for vulnerable groups and equitable tariff structures will remain an important source of funding and cost recovery. The support of the international donor community will remain critical in the developing world but cannot be the main source of funding. Official development assistance (ODA) is particularly helpful in mobilizing investments from other sources, such as commercial and blended finance, including from the private sector. However, it will be incumbent upon national governments to dramatically increase the amount of public funding made available for the expansion of WASH services. Subsidies must be appropriately designed, transparent and targeted, and tariff structures need to be designed and implemented with the objectives of achieving equity, affordability and the appropriate level of service for each targeted group Scientific research, development and innovation are essential to support informed decision- making. Community-based action is critical in addressing the root causes of ‘leaving people behind’ with respect to water and sanitation. Good governance seeks to move away from hierarchical power structures while embracing concepts of accountability, transparency, legitimacy, public participation, justice and efficiency. NGOs and international organizations can play an important role in service provision and need to ensure substantive equality and accountability in such endeavours. All actors involved in the realization of the human rights to water and sanitation on a non- discriminatory and equal basis hold specific obligations and responsibilities.
5. Case Studies
Paani Foundation was set up with an idea that in order to make Maharashtra drought-free, the power of communication has to be utilized effectively. The team of Satyamev Jayate researched the issue of water and found that the crisis of drought is largely a man-made disaster. The scientific solution of decentralised watershed management was ineffective due to social fracture and lack of public participation. So Paani Foundation aims to create a people’s movement for water conservation. Through a holistic, experiential training programme, the foundation equips villagers with both technical know-how as well as leadership skills to tackle the issue of drought in their villages. Paani Foundation created simple training films, an Android App as well as training manuals for this purpose, and teams working across the state imparts this knowledge. Every year, to incentivise this programme, a competition called the Satyamev Jayate Water Cup, is conducted, in which villages compete to win prizes for the best watershed management work.
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Rajendra Singh, known as the waterman of India, has been instrumental in democratising water conservation measures. Using tiny earth dams, check dams and rainwater harvesting techniques he has regenerated rivers and replenished the groundwater at many places in India. Water was brought back to a 1, 000 villages across the State; fisheries re-established in the regenerated lakes and rivers; groundwater levels have risen significantly. His methods have gained international recognition and the successful projects in Rajasthan have been mentioned as a case study in ‘The World Water Report’
6. Quotes
“Anyone who can solve the problems of water will be worthy of two Nobel prizes – one for peace and one for science.” - John F. Kennedy “Whiskey Is for Drinking; Water Is for Fighting Over” - Mark Twain “A drop of water, if it could write out its own history, would explain the universe to us.” – Lucy Larcom “When the well’s dry, we know the worth of water.” – Benjamin Franklin “Thousands have lived without love, not one without water.”― W. H. Auden “Water is the mother of the vine, the nurse and fountain of fecundity, the adorner and refresher of the world.” – Charles Mackay “Water is the lifeblood of our bodies, our economy, our nation and our well-being.” – Stephen Johnson “Pure water is the world’s first and foremost medicine.” – Slovakian Proverb “Water is the driving force in nature.” ― Leonardo da Vinci “No water, no life. No blue, no green.” – Sylvia Earle
References 1. UN-Water 2. NITI Aayog 3. Yojana
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India – 5 Trillion Economy 13
1. Context 8. Other Areas of Importance 2. Previous Years Questions 9. What is the meaning of becoming a $5- 3. India and its economic History trillion economy? 4. 5 Trillion-dollar economy: A dream or 10. Are Indians the sixth-richest people in the reality? world? 5. What do the statistics say? 11. How will GDP per capita change when 6. What does India need to do? India hits the $5-trillion mark? 7. Challenges
1. Context
Recently the government spelt out its key priorities in the budget which was focused on laying the foundation for making India a USD 5 trillion economy and doubling farmers' income. PM Narendra Modi in his Independence Day speech highlighted that India can be a 5-trillion economy. NITI Aayog’s expert panel for macroeconomics and employment has come out with suggestions to achieve a $5-trillion economy target.
2. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION (Economy related)
Economic growth without distributive justice is bound to breed violence. -1993 Resource management in the Indian context. -1999 GDP (Gross Domestic Product) along with GDH (Gross Domestic Happiness) would be the right indices for judging the wellbeing of a country-2013 Was it the policy paralysis or the paralysis of implementation which slowed the growth of our country? -2014 Crisis faced in India – moral or economic. -2015 Can capitalism bring inclusive growth? -2015 Digital economy: A leveller or a source of economic inequality. -2016 Innovation is the key determinant of economic growth and social welfare. -2016 Near jobless growth in India: An anomaly or an outcome of economic reforms. -2016 Poverty anywhere is a threat to prosperity everywhere. -2018
3. India and its economic History
3.1 Before Colonization
Indus valley civilization IVC flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, and had an advanced and flourishing economic system. The Indus valley people practised agriculture, domesticated animals, made tools and weapons from copper, bronze and tin and even traded with some Middle East countries.
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Ancient and Medieval Period Agriculture was the main economic activity of the people in the Vedic age but with the second urbanization, a number of urban centres grew in North India. This gave a major fillip to trade and commerce. The ancient Indians had trade contacts with far off lands like the Middle East, the Roman Empire and South East Asia. Many Indian trading colonies were settled in other countries. Hinduism was the most prominent religion which had a great influence on the economy of that period. The caste barrier resulted in an economic barrier also. Since this time casteism had started in India and the Indian economy was also started to depend on this casteism and the effect was not very healthy for the development of the whole country. Most of the towns grew up because these were either religious places like Puri, Banaras, Gaya, Allahabad, Nasik etc or the seats of power like Bijapore, Golkonda etc or trading and commerce centres like Mirjapor etc Along with the Joint family business, ancient India also possessed a number of privately owned or individually owned business, including the gana, pani, vrata, sangha, sreni, nigama, and puga, Nigama, pani and sreni refer most often to the economic organization of merchants, craftsmen and etc. Sreni was similar to that of Modem Corporation which was being used in India from 8th century B.C. to 10 century A.D.
Mauryan Empire The Indian economy had gone into a vast change during the Mauryan Empire (321 - 185 B.C.) It was at that time India was unified under one ruler. The improved infrastructure security and usage of coins were increased which enhanced trade. The building of roads, throughout India, flourishes the transporting business. Trade route became secured, which reduced the risk associated with the transportation of goods. The belief that India had never been an industrial country is incorrect It was true that agriculture was the dominant occupation of her people, but the products of Indian industries enjoyed a worldwide reputation. India exported several manufactured goods like Muslin of Dacca, Calicos of Bengal, Shawls of Kashmir, Sarees of Benaras, Steel and iron, silk and other agricultural products like pepper, cinnamon, opium and indigo, along with textile and handicrafts goods to Europe, Middle East and South-East Asian countries, in return for which they import gold and silver. Indian Muslim was used in Egypt to wrap the mummies at 2000 B.C. India had the world’s largest economy in the 1st century and 11th century which was mentioned by an economic historian Angus Maddison in his book, “The World Economy; A Millennial Perspective”. The percentage of growth defined, with 32.9% in the 1st century to 28.9% in the 10th century and in 17 AD with 24.5%.
Mughal Rule The gross domestic product of India in 1600 A.D was about 22.6% of the world economy. In between 1700-1725 the decline of the Mughal Empire and political chaos in India resulted in a decline in the economic situation. By 1700 the Mughal Empire expanded to almost 1000 million acres which meant 90% of South Asia and a unified custom and tax administration system was enforced. Annual revenue reported by the emperor Aurangzeb 100 million in 1700 which was twice than that of Europe. Therefore India emerged as the world’s largest economy followed Ming China and Western Europe.
3.2 After Colonization
Colonial Period During those days, the main motive of the British regime was to transform the Indian economy as a primary producing country, concentrating on the production of raw materials and to create a potential market in India for the sale of their industrial finished goods.
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They established a developed system of railways, telegraphs and legal system. The British did not want the Indian economy, trade and commerce and industrialization to flourish, and made it stagnant in the developmental process. Illiteracy was another factor, which resulted in the economic backwardness in India. They introduced a new land revenue system in India. The companies rule resulted in a total drain on the economic system of India. The British rule resulted in the Decline of Handicrafts industry, unemployment, rural distress, poverty, famines etc. India's share of the world economy declined from 24.4% in 1700 to 4.2% in 1950. And its share of global industrial output declined from 25% in 1750 to 2% in 1900.
3.3 Post Independence Era
Before 1991 India’s independence was in itself a turning point in its economic history. The country was hopelessly poor as a result of steady deindustrialization by Britain. Less than a sixth of Indians were literate. The abject poverty and sharp social differences had cast doubts on India’s survival as one nation. Cambridge historian Angus Maddison’s work shows that India’s share of world income shrank from 22.6% in 1700—almost equal to Europe’s share of 23.3%—to 3.8% in 1952. Former prime minister, Manmohan Singh aptly put it: “The brightest jewel in the British Crown" was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income at the beginning of the 20th century. Newly independent India sought an alternative to the extreme versions of capitalism and socialism. In this view, India would be a socialist society with a strong public sector but also with private property and democracy; the government would plan for the economy with the private sector being encouraged to be part of the planning effort. The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 and the Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution reflected this outlook. In 1950, the Planning Commission was set up with the Prime Minister as its Chairperson. The era of five-year plans had begun.
Five year plans and their role in Economy: The goals of the five-year plans are growth, modernization, self-reliance and equity. India’s first five-year plan, launched in 1951, focused on agriculture and irrigation to boost farm output as India was losing precious foreign reserves on foodgrain imports. It was based on the Harrod-Domar model that sought to boost economic growth through higher savings and investments. The plan was a success, with the economy growing at an annualized rate of 3.6%, beating the target of 2.1%. The second five-year plan (1956-61) laid the foundation for economic modernization to better serve India’s long-term growth imperatives. Launched in 1956, it was based on the Mahalanobis model that advocated rapid industrialization with a focus on heavy industries and capital goods. The second five-year Plan and the Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 (long considered the economic constitution of India) paved the way for the development of the public sector and ushered in the licence Raj. India suspended five-year plans briefly, drawing up annual plans between 1966 and 1969 instead. This was done as the country was not in a position to commit resources over a longer period. The war with China and Pakistan, the below-par growth outcomes of the third Plan, had left the economy in a severely weakened state. The weak monsoon rains during the 1966-67 season created food shortages and a sharp spike in inflation. The constant need to import food grains or seek foreign aid also posed a serious risk to India’s political economy. India launched the Green Revolution to tackle the food shortage. Following this, India turned its attention to the dairy sector and launched the White Revolution. Self-sufficiency in the dairy sector was achieved entirely through the cooperative movement, which has spread to more than 12 million dairy farmers across the country.
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Former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalized 14 private banks on 20 July 1969. The main aim of the move was to accelerate bank lending to agriculture at a time when big businesses cornered large chunks of the credit flow. Bank nationalization helped boost farm credit and lending to other priority sectors. Financial savings jumped as banks were made to open branches in rural areas. On 6 June 1966, Indira Gandhi took the drastic step of devaluing the Indian rupee. This was done to counter India’s significant balance of payments crisis. The country’s apathy to foreign investments and neglect of the exports sector meant that it ran constant trade deficits. The devaluation aimed to boost exports amid limited access to foreign exchange. Instead, it accelerated inflation and drew wide criticism. India’s move had implications for other countries as well. In 1975 Industrial Licensing policy was introduced. It delicensed few countries and allowed unlimited expansion. In continuation to this one, a new policy Industrial Licensing policy 1980 was introduced which further liberalised the economy. In 1982 certain modifications were made in the previous policy. Few industries were exempted from Monopolistic and Restrictive Trade Practice under MRTP Act, 1969. Certain provisions were also made to allow foreign investments. Again a new policy was introduced in 1985. Industrial Policy 1985 introduced many positive changes. The policy was framed on the lines of liberalization. In this policy also certain industries were delicensed and foreign investments were encouraged.
1991 Crisis The signs pointing to India’s 1991 economic crisis, its worst ever, were long evident. The country, for the first time, had to sell 20 tonnes of gold to investment bank UBS on 30 May. It pledged gold three more times after that sale. All this gold was repurchased by December that year. The Narasimha Rao-led government with Manmohan Singh as finance minister took over on 21 June 1991 and launched a raft of economic reforms, including the dismantling of the Licence Raj. On 1 July 1991, the Reserve Bank of India lowered the value of the currency by 9%, and then by 11% just two days later. This was when the economy was facing its worst crisis, and the country’s foreign exchange reserves could pay for only three weeks of imports. India approached the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), part of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and received $7 billion as a loan to manage the crisis. For availing the loan, these international agencies expected India to liberalise and open up the economy by removing restrictions on the private sector, reduce the role of the government in many areas and remove trade restrictions between India and other countries. The government initiated a variety of policies which fall under three heads viz., liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation. Liberalization includes Deregulation of Industrial Sector, Financial Sector Reforms, Tax Reforms, Foreign Exchange Reforms, Trade and Investment Policy Reforms. Privatisation of the public sector enterprises by selling off part of the equity of PSEs to the public is known as disinvestment. The purpose of the sale, according to the government, was mainly to improve financial discipline and facilitate modernization.
India after LPG reforms The post–1991 India witnessed a rapid growth in GDP on a continuous basis for two decades. The growth of GDP increased from 5.6 per cent in 1980–91 to 8.2 percent in 2007–12. During the reform period, the growth of agriculture has declined. While the industrial sector reported fluctuation, the growth of the service sector shot up. The opening of the economy has led to a rapid increase in foreign direct investment and foreign exchange reserves. There has been an increase in the foreign exchange reserves from about US $ 6 billion in 1990-91 to about US $430.572 billion in 2019. On the other hand, the reform process has been widely criticised for not being able to address some of the basic problems facing our economy, especially in the areas of employment, agriculture, industry, infrastructure development and fiscal management.
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4. 5 Trillion-dollar economy: A dream or reality?
The target of 5 trillion economy is in terms of the dollar, so there are two major variables which can impact India's growth towards achieving this target:
1. Inflation rate An increase in inflation means that there has been a general increase in prices. With an increase in inflation, there is a decline in the purchasing power of money, which reduces consumption and therefore negatively impacts GDP growth. India's inflation (consumer price index) has been under check and has been continuously hovering below 4 per cent level since August 2018 and recorded the inflation rate of 3.05 per cent in August 2019. Inflation rate in India is largely under control and global inflation is also not showing any increase. Therefore the target of 5 trillion dollars is achievable.
2. Rupee-dollar exchange rate Similarly, the rupee-dollar exchange rate also needs to be in check to make India reach the desired target of $5 trillion. If rupee depreciates further, it will adversely affect India's GDP growth in dollar terms and if the rupee starts appreciating against the dollar, it makes it easier to reach the target. The Indian economy is on the right track. India's nominal GDP in dollar terms was around $388 billion in 1996, more than doubled in the next ten years to reach $920 billion in 2006. It again more than doubled to $2.3 trillion in 2016, within a decade. Therefore, making India a $5 trillion economy is not an uphill task. India is already growing at a rate faster than the rate required to hit the $5 trillion mark.
(Source: Business Today, July 13, 2019)
Irrespective of anything else, and barring unforeseen shocks to the economy like demonetisation, India will likely achieve the $5 trillion GDP target by every growth parameter (between 11 and 12 per cent per annum) by 2025, provided the Rupee-Dollar rate hovers around Rs 70. Back then, in January 2018, it meant doubling the economy in 7 years. Today it means growing by another 85 per cent - fairly achievable, given the prevailing rates of growth.
5. What do the statistics say?
GDP in Dollar terms is measured by the IMF/World Bank. They calculate nominal GDP, derived from India's GDP at current prices. At Rs 190 lakh crore, India's 2018-19 GDP at current prices translates into a $2.71 trillion economy (at an average Rs 70/$). Between 2011-12 and 2016-17, India's GDP at current prices has already grown at a compound annual growth rate of 11.79 per cent-way higher than the 11 per cent that is required to hit the $5 trillion mark by 2025. In fact, it had seen better days at 13.8 percent in 2012-13, 14.4 percent in
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2011-12 and 19.9 percent in 2010-11. It has slowed down to 11.2 per cent in 2018-19 and 11.3 percent a year earlier but still enough to hit the mark. India will be a $5.08 trillion economy by 2024-25 at 11 percent nominal GDP growth per annum; $5.15 trillion at 11.25 per cent per annum; $5.22 trillion at 11.5 per cent per annum and $5.36 trillion at 12 percent per annum.
(Source: Business Today, July 13, 2019)
The World Bank's Nominal GDP/Current prices are calculated by adding annual inflation with GDP at Constant Prices. Hence, if India achieves an average real GDP growth rate of 7-7.5 per cent per annum until 2025 and inflation stays in the 4 per cent range, India's $5 trillion target will be achievable.
6. What does India need to do?
Here are five major points from the Economic Survey 2019 that could help India achieve the $5- trillion economy status.
Investment: o India must ensure that the real GDP growth stays closer to 8 per cent mark by reviving consumption which will in turn trigger the private investment cycle. According to the Economic Survey 2019, private Investment is the key driver of growth, jobs, exports and demand. o It can be done by encouraging greenfield investments in areas such as defence manufacturing which practically do not exist in the country. It could help trigger a revival in the investment cycle. Government's aim to encourage mega manufacturing plants in greenfield areas such as chip manufacturing, lithium-ion battery plants is a move in the right direction. o Growth in investment, which had slowed in many years, has bottomed out and has started to recover since 2017-18. Growth in fixed investments picked up from 8.3 per cent in 2016-17 to 9.3 per cent in 2017-18 and further 10 per cent in 2018-19, the survey said. o Since the clouds of recession is looming, The government recently decided to relax norms for Foreign Direct Investment in several sectors including single brand retail, digital media and the manufacturing sector as part of an all-out effort to boost the flagging economy. The steps include investor-friendly policies like 30 per cent sourcing from India for single brand retailers, and legalisation of contract manufacturing to allow 100 per cent investment. o Government is also considering a plan to meet companies between August 26 and September 5 to suggest the best investment zones for their operations. State governments will also participate. This will encourage the companies to locate their industries in India in such specific zones as their cost efficiency will increase. o The latest move is to promote investments and make India a manufacturing hub which will in next few years help Indian Economy to become 5-trillion economy.
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Jobs: The survey says job creation is mandatory to achieve the $5 trillion economy status. It says that unshackling of the MSMEs could help to achieve greater profits, job creation and enhanced productivity. This can be done via sunset clause of fewer than 10 years, with necessary grand- fathering, for all size-based incentives; and deregulating labour law restrictions to create significantly more jobs, it adds. Transitioning from diversification to specialization in production: Specialization allowed the middle-income Asian countries to reap economies of scale and offset the cost of disadvantages associated with higher wages (E.g. Electronics industry in South Korea). Developing good social- safety nets and skill-retraining programs can ease the restructuring process that accompanies specialization. Savings: Jobs that pay meaningful wages become crucial in driving the savings rate in the economy. Savings are important because higher savings preclude domestic consumption as the driver of final demand. Demographic phase: The Economic Survey 2019 has predicted a slowdown in population growth in the next two decades. "Working-age population would grow by roughly 9.7 million (97 lakh) per year during 2021-31 and 4.2 (42 lakh) million per year during 2031-41. This could be ideal for India to propel its economy, " Energy conservation: Enabling inclusive growth through affordable, reliable and sustainable energy is another step to make India a $5-trillion economy. The survey has suggested that a 2.5 times increase in per capita energy consumption is needed for India to increase its real per capita GDP by $5000 (at 2010 prices), and enter the upper-middle-income group. And, four times increase in per capita energy consumption can achieve 0.8 Human Development Index score. Solving NPAs: Effective restructuring, regulating, and supervision of the financial sector must be ensured so that the present NPA crisis can be effectively handled. If the NPA problem persists it will affect the investment. Changing the orientation of social programmes that target the middle class besides poorer sections of the society which would propel the demand-driven growth. E.g. low-cost housing for first-time homebuyers in cities, programs to ensure that recent graduates get suitable employment opportunities, paying more attention to public goods like safety, urban transport, and green spaces etc. Investment in innovation: Innovation is a key factor which will boost economic growth and help India become a USD 5 trillion economy by 2024-25. Innovation can act as a catalyst in the inclusive development of India through which we can reach unserved regions and include them in the development process. It can also help us in providing better governance to the masses.
7. Challenges
Economic Slowdown: o All the big sectors of the economy like manufacturing, agriculture, and financial services are grappling with the effects of a severe slowdown. o The commerce and industry ministry recently came out with data that showed that growth in the eight core sectors of the economy had shrunk to 0.2 per cent, the slowest in 50 months. o The IIP data for the month of June made equally dismal reading: growth in factory output had tumbled to 2 per cent. Demand and GDP: o Corporate earnings in the April-June quarter have been dismal; rural demand for goods and services has evaporated; high borrowing costs have put a firm lid on private investments, and consumption in the overall economy has remained weak. o Both the International Monetary Fund and the Asian Development Bank have cut India’s growth forecast in 2019 to 7 per cent. o Rating and analytical firm, Crisil, has cut its forecast for this year to 6.9 per cent, adding that it does not believe India will reclaim its 14-year average growth rate of 7 per cent. o In May, the Central Statistics Office had cut the growth estimate for 2018-19 to 6.8 per cent, one of the lowest rates in the past five years.
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Unemployment: The ministry of statistics revealed that the unemployment rate in the country had soared to 6.1 per cent, the worst in the past 45 years. With the economic slowdown, it will worsen. The government needs to create more employment, otherwise it will not only affect our 5 trillion dollar dream but also the society. Global Environment: The bruising trade war between the United States of America and China will have ramifications for the whole world; the uncertainties around Brexit bring with it their own problems; the sanctions against Iran and the impact on oil prices will hurt India more than any other nation. Foreign investors have already started to pull money out of all emerging markets including India. All these events will cloud India’s growth prospects. Efficient financial intermediation: o Governance reforms in public sector banks require, apart from the establishment of independent and commercially driven bank boards, performance assessment of executives and increased flexibility in human resources policy. o NPAs are a big burden on the banks which affect their credit creation function. If India wants to become a 5-trillion economy then this must be solved quickly. Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code is a major step in this direction. Infrastructure: Developing modern infrastructure will aid in nearly doubling the size of the Indian economy to USD 5 trillion in the next five years. The country needs to spend at least 7-8 percent of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on infrastructure if it wants to dream of becoming a $5 trillion economy within 5 years. Right now, India has been able to do about half of it. This spending also spurs demand cycle of the economy and is the only thing pushing the economy in the current cycle. Exports: o While it is true that world trade is currently facing some disruptions, India’s share in global exports is so low that it should focus on market share and capturing new untamed markets. One could even argue that the current disruptions provide an opportunity for India to insert itself into global supply chains. o The High-Level Advisory Group, chaired by Dr Surjit Bhalla, submitted its report in June 2019 on how India can enhance its exports. Its recommendations need to be studied and implemented where possible. Exports and manufacturing must ideally be focused as part of the growth model to sustain GDP at 8 per cent rate. Macroeconomic stability through prudent fiscal and monetary policies: o Fiscal Deficit is one major issue. The government has targeted a gradual lowering of the government debt-to-GDP ratio (As per N K Singh Committee recommendations). It will help reduce the relatively high-interest cost burden on the government budget, bringing the size of India’s government debt closer to that of other emerging market economies, and improve the availability of credit for the private sector in the financial markets. o But even as lowering of debt and limiting fiscal deficit are important, the government should be flexible in its approach towards setting annual targets based on prevailing economic conditions. Climate Change: Climate change is another big challenge as it will change the way the economy runs. Every development plan, including infrastructure, health etc, should be climate-resilient. If we fail to take climate change into consideration then we will end up in wasting our valuable resources. Its implications in the field of agriculture can already be felt and the issue needs to be dealt with utmost urgency. Utilizing Data and Blockchain Technology: In the future Data is the key. The government holds a vast repository of data which can be utilized for better planning and targeting of schemes which will save valuable resources which can be used for some other productive work. As per NITI aayog, use of blockchain technology in financial sector will make it more resilient and spur new avenues for growth of the otherwise nascent sector of fintech.
8. Other Areas of Importance
To reach 5T, we need to shift our perspective from policy to projects. Select sectoral initiatives can be converted into 100 projects. Each to be led by a competent leader with proven skills. They must report
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to the PM. The regular bureaucracy would facilitate the job of the project leader, who will be free to choose their own team. Following initiatives can be taken:
8.1 Farm Sector
Strengthening the farm sector with an enabling investment package (both public and private) is critical for India to reach the target. The wave of investment should touch segments such as agro-processing, and exports, agri- startups and agri-tourism, where the potential for job creation is more and capacity utilisation is far less. Integrating the existing tourism circuit with a relatively new area of agri-tourism (as a hub-and-spoke model) would help in boosting the investment cycle and generate in-situ employment. Given that India has the highest livestock population in the world, investment should be made to utilise this surplus by employing next-generation livestock technology. Investment in renewable energy generation (using small wind mill and solar pumps) on fallow farmland and in hilly terrain would help reduce the burden of debt-ridden electricity distribution companies and State governments, besides enabling energy security in rural areas. A farm business organisation is another source of routing private investment to agriculture. Linking these organisations with commodity exchanges would provide agriculture commodities more space on international trading platforms and reduce the burden of markets in a glut season, with certain policy/procedural modifications. Finally, data is the key driver of modern agriculture which in turn can power artificial intelligence-led agriculture, e-markets, soil mapping and others.
8.2 Manufacturing ecosystem
Transform manufacturing: With a trade war-like situation emerging between the US and China, and MNCs looking for alternative manufacturing locations, there is no better time for India to give a big push to manufacturing. To get there, India has to focus on setting a manufacturing ecosystem for the four product groups. 1. Machinery that makes the products. 2. Speciality materials, biologics, nanotechnology, integrated circuits, embedded systems, medical imaging devices. 3. Computers, TVs, mobile phones, and telecom equipment. 4. Auto components, toys, furniture, footwear, and apparel. This skill and labour-intensive products group can absorb part of the surplus people from the agriculture or informal sector. Successful operations would require sector-specific policies and inviting an anchor firm for each major product group. Flexible labour laws are an essential precondition for large-scale manufacturing. Over 70 per cent of India’s exports come from the manufacturing sector. New manufacturing operations will allow India to become part of a few global value chains and help in raising exports to a trillion-dollar mark.
8.3 Transform services
As over 50 per cent of IT revenues come from the US, the future looks challenging with Trump at the helm. Also, as over 40 per cent of the IT jobs in India are threatened due to automation, the sector needs to develop expertise in IoT, AI, and their applications. Travel and tourism, health, and professional services can be the other star service sectors. Better delivery of infrastructure, education and essential services would also create a large number of jobs and growth. The travel and tourism sector created 40 million jobs and contributed a significant 10 per cent to GDP. Considering the variety of experiences India offers, the sector can grow manifold with project-driven investments in budget hotels, medical tourism, tourist safety, and top 100 attractions.
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India can emerge as a global healthcare jobs provider. Global healthcare and wellness is an $8 trillion industry, which would require over 100 million health workers in the next 15 years. We should convert India’s 600 district hospitals as medical nursing and paramedical schools to train 5 million doctors, nurses, and paramedics to meet the global requirements. They can remit about $100 billion of foreign currency every year. The construction sector’s potential is largely untapped. It is the largest job-generating sector after Agriculture. The sector lacks transparency, and millions of buyers stand cheated in the hands of builders every year. Ensuring transparency and ease will revive the sector attracting FDI and create millions of new jobs.
9. What is the meaning of becoming a $5-trillion economy?
The GDP of an economy is the total monetary value of all goods and services produced in an economy within a year. In 2014, India’s GDP was $1.85 trillion. Today it is $2.7 trillion and India is the sixth-largest economy in the world. Essentially the reference is to the size of an economy as measured by the annual gross domestic product or GDP. As a thumb rule, the bigger the size of the economy, the more prosperous it can be expected to be. But GDP does not necessarily reflect the development of all sections of the society as the income might be held by a few individuals only. Also, it is more important that the development happens in all categories, especially education, health etc and not only in specific sectors like defence. Also, the calculations do not take into consideration, negative externalities.
10. Are Indians the sixth-richest people in the world?
No. That India is the sixth-largest economy does not necessarily imply that Indians are the sixth- richest people on the planet. The GDP is the first and most rudimentary way to keep score among economies. If one wants to better understand the wellbeing of the people in an economy, one should look at GDP per capita. In other words, GDP divided by the total population. This gives a better sense of how an average resident of an economy might be fairing.
11. How will GDP per capita change when India hits the $5-trillion mark?
If by 2024 India’s GDP is $5.33 trillion and India’s population is 1.43 billion (according to UN population projection), India’s per capita GDP would be $3, 727. While this would be considerably more than what it is today, it will be lower than Indonesia’s GDP per capita in 2018. Hence we need to focus on a more equitable model for redistribution of resources so that the rising levels of inequalities can be kept in check.
Conclusion Finally, an economy, whatever its size, cannot be meaningfully evaluated independently of the extent of presence in it of natural capital. Till now, by referring to the imperative for growth, to eradicate poverty, any effort to conserve nature has not just been ignored but treated with derision, by both the Right and Left. This is no longer a credible political stance. Two-thirds of the world’s most polluted cities are in India. This implies that any improvement in the life of the majority would require a re-alignment of the growth process so that it is less damaging. This would very likely require that we have slower growth but the process can be configured to channel more of it towards poorer groups. We may end up in a situation of less tangible goods in the aggregate than otherwise but one in which more people are happier than in the past. Such an economy is more valuable.
Reference: 1. NITI Aayog 2. Various Government of India ministry websites 3. The Hindu Businessline
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Sports 14
1. Context 9. Post 90s change in India and Indian Sports 2. Previous Years Questions 10. 21st Century and commercialization of 3. Introduction sports in India 4. Historical perspectives in the Indian 11. Importance of sports for India context 12. Internationalism and its promotionalism 5. The medieval and modern period 13. Government’s efforts towards the 6. Institutions in Independent India promotion of sports 7. Post-Colonial India and Sports 14. Way forward. 8. The threshold of the 80s 15. Quotes
1. Context:
Upcoming Tokyo summer Olympics Stress of Government through various schemes like Target Olympic Podium and Khelo India Increasing participation and glories of Indian athletes in recently held Asian and commonwealth games Recently launched Fit India Programme of the government of India
2. Previous Year Questions:
Fifty Golds in Olympics: Can this be a reality for India? -2014
3. Introduction:
Sports in itself is a wide arena which encompasses recreation to well - being to the overall happiness quotient of an individual We can start with the role of sports in society since the earliest cradles of civilization came into being. Indus valley civilization artefacts had evidence of various games and sports including board games showing their importance in day to day life of the populace. Origin of Olympics and hence an avenue for cultural bonhomie and generation of a culture of sports arenas and their effects on societies’ happiness coefficient.
4. Historical Perspective in the Indian context:
Sports is not a modern after-thought but a custom which has been present in the country since millennia. It was widely followed not only by kings and nobility but evidence suggests it’s widespread prevalence in society. Rig Veda mentions about Rajasuya yajna which basically was a chariot race Archery and horse riding came into prominence in the Vedic and epic age Yoga mentioned in Patanjali's school of philosophy, for the first time, described the various scientific benefits that accrue to the human body through physical training and exercise thus adding a different aspect to the already expanding field.
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Wrestling in its various forms developed simultaneously in different parts of the country now forming a part of traditional sports in India. Various other games like pachisi and chopar also came into recreational arenas. Mallakhamb during the age of Chalukyas gained particular prominence
5. The medieval and modern period
The medieval period saw a constant influx of people and rulers from distant lands into this melting pot that is India. Rather than choking the pre-existing sporting culture in the country they brought with them new sports which immediately became popular. They also served as a much-needed source of entertainment to otherwise strife-torn land. Chaugan or polo was particularly enjoyed by kings and the nobility. Historical evidence points to Jehangir promoting boat racing within the premises of Agra Fort. Vivekananda in the 19th century was the first to point out the role of physical fitness in the emergence of confidence amongst the general class of Indians. This led to the opening of Gymnasiums throughout the country and enrollment of people on a large scale. Gandhi in South Africa used to visit football matches and saw that team sport as an ideal avenue for the growth of fraternity and social harmony. Princely states on their part encouraged participation in sports in various forms with the example of Maharaja of Patiala being the prominent one who went on to captain the colonial Indian cricket team. The emergence of akharas in different parts of the country which promoted fitness through various drills like wrestling etc.
Institutions in the 20th Century British India
They Institutionshelped inculcate the habit of physical fitness and sports amongst the populace. The people got an avenue to express themselves more openly and thronged to this new opportunity presented to them. Some such institutions are: YMCA College of Physical Education was established in 1920 in Chennai Government College of Physical education was established in 1931 which saw the participation of people from all backgrounds. Christian college of Physical education was established in Lucknow in 1938 which coincided with the opening of training institute in Kandivali in Mumbai. Organization of All India physical education Conference in 1946 under the presidentship of Sharat Chandra Bose
6. Institutions in independent India:
Independent India lost no time in realising the importance of sports for its people and immediately went ahead with forming institutions to guide policies and principles to govern this unorganized sector into meaningful bodies. They were: Central Advisory Board of Physical education and recreation was established in 1950 All India Council of Sports was formed in 1954 Sports Authority Of India was established in 1961
7. Post-colonial India and sports:
Post-independence, India had one of the lowest per capita income in the region and had to face all the difficulties of a poor nation. Sports was something which had not caught the imagination of the masses and was the last thing in the mind of the policymakers as well as people looking for ways to fill their bellies. Some features of this period were: Being a commonwealth country, natural fascination came for cricket, football and hockey
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Hockey being most prominent due to role models like Maj. Dhyaan Chand gained immediate popularity. The country being impoverished beyond measure was reflected in the choice of sports. Athletics remained ignored for a long time because: o Absence of training facilities in the country o Lack of expertise in terms of Diet and training facilities reflected in the amateur level of players o Lack of role models in the field played a role in the lack of motivation amongst budding athletes.
8. The threshold of the 80s:
The 1980s turned out to be the inflexion point in the growth of sports in India with few events galvanizing the gentry into preparing for the next phase of an emerging economy and an ambitious nation. Some such events were: India hosted the Asian Games of 1982 with an Indian athlete PT Usha winning 5 medals which caught the imagination of the masses and for the first time infusing the confidence that we can compete with the world. India winning the Prudential Cricket World Cup in 1983 provided a fillip to the next generation of sportsmen and impregnating the idea of Indians being World beaters. Many other games like Tennis and football still remained ignored and sports other than cricket failed to take off in a big way: o Bread-earner psychology of the impoverished masses still persisted. o Lack of proper remuneration at different levels of sports acted as a detriment to more people joining in. o It coincided with the economic hardship of the country with most people concentrating on the well being of their immediate vicinity and family. o The prohibitive cost involved in becoming a professional inhibited the people of normal backgrounds from joining in.
9. Post 90s change in India and Indian Sports
1990 coincided with the emergence of the Indian economy from the long slump and shedding the much tabooed Hindu rate of growth and India adopting sports in a very open way with sportsmen no longer being seen as rare species. Sports entered our dining room conversations and global stars got recognition in a country which till now had grappled with its own myriad issues. Few characteristics of the period are: India post-liberalization emerged more confident about themselves and became more expressive. 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta acted as a threshold for individual events with Leander Paes winning a Medal. The now confident country started bidding for hosting of more and more sports events with the millenials now holding the mantle bright and strong. Increased participation of people in wrestling, shooting and other events propelled the younger generation to be more daring regarding career choices.
10. 21st Century and commercialization of Sports in India:
The advent of the new millennia brought in a new life in sports in India. It saw the emergence of sporting legends in the fields of Hockey, Table Tennis, Badminton, Athletics and Cricket. It also gave rise to a new phenomenon of rising of small-town stars thus ending the monopoly of metro cities. The emergence of greats like Dhanraj Pillay, Sunil Chhetri, MS Dhoni etc bear a shouting testimony to the above theorem. Few characteristics of this period are: This period saw the advent of sponsors and broadcasters in the hitherto untapped field of sports other than cricket in a big way.
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Sports other than cricket saw the rise of talent from small towns and scouts going to every nook and corner of the country. National Games and other sporting events were being taken seriously and athletes emerging from those held their mantle in international events. Assurance of a well-paying government job acted as the much required lure for the common people.
Challenges which inhibit the growth of sports: Despite the increased focus on various agendas involving sports there has been a snail-paced growth in participation by the masses who are still a bit reluctant. This, when complemented with a lack of support structures at ground level, creates an abysmal scenario for the future of sports development and penetration in society. Few reasons for the same being: Grassroot level involvement remains limited to urban centres of prominent states. Lack of understanding regarding various requirements to be a professional in case of training and dietary regimes still persist. Absence of proper training and guiding mentors at a decentralized level makes most of the athletes turn to other areas of livelihood. Private participation at the grassroot level creates a paucity of funds at District and Suburban level. Sports governing bodies show characteristics of Nepotism and Favouritism acting as a detriment to budding sportspersons. Cases of corruption in bodies like AIFF and SAI leads to mismanagement of funds and hence inadequate infrastructure for athletes. Babudom has plagued most of the governing councils leading to inefficiencies and bottlenecks. Prevalence and continuance of bread-earner psychology amongst the masses with common proverbs like “Padhoge likhoge banoge Nawab, Kheloge Koodoge Banoge Kharab” being prevalent, it still makes sports an elitist endeavour. Increasing commercialization of sports post-2000s has brought in unwanted attention to glamour, doping and unethical lifestyle of the sportspersons making traditional households a bit wary in letting their kids pursue this path.
11. Importance of Sports for India:
Sports not only aims at creating well-being for an individual per se but acts at a societal and pan- national level as well. Other than teaching us important virtues like team-work and never-say-die spirit, sports as a secular field has a lot to contribute to a nation like India. Some salient benefits are: With more than 65% of the populace being less than 35 promotion of sports as a daily habit can lead to creation of a more productive demography. With attention being paid to preventive healthcare sports plays an important role in ensuring overall well-being and hence reducing the ever-burdening of health bills. Sports also plays an important role in maintaining and promoting social harmony in strife ridden areas like Jammu and Kashmir. Emergence of role models in arenas of sports helps youngsters with a variety of options rather than being an academic focussed development of the individual. Sports and its growth in a country brings together possibilities on the economic front as well with examples galore : o Commonwealth Games in Delhi 2009, brought with it development and plugging of critical infrastructural gaps thus boosting the local and allied sectors in tertiary segment in a big way. o Advent of global sports like Formula 1 in India substantially increased the tourist footfalls in the country and provided much needed growth in the sector.
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12. Internationalism and its promotion:
Being a secular sector, sports have an unprecedented role in shaping up international diplomacy and bridging up trust deficits amongst nations as sportsmen do not belong to one community but they woo the global audience with their talent. Some examples of the same are: Cricket Diplomacy : The term gained prevalence post India - Pakistan choosing to play against each other bringing their often bad blooded conflict to an end on the sporting arena and subsequent emergence of greats. It also provides greater maneuverability to the diplomats and the governments in resolving conflicts. Cold War saw a regular exchange of sporting events amongst the USA and erstwhile USSR thus giving a lifeline to peace efforts often challenged by hostilities.
13. Government’s efforts towards the promotion of sports:
Government on its part plays the much needed part in providing life to this sector knowing the benefits and the implications that it can have on shaping the youth as well as the national pride. Few of the steps taken by the government are:
Khelo India Programme for promoting sports at school level giving encouragement to the budding sportsmen. Fit India Programme has been launched to promote the culture of sports and fitness as a way of life. Target Olympic Podium programme provides a time-bound, goal- based approach to the sector which shall eventually make the sector more professional and talent-based. National Sports Development Fund has been created which is a pool of both governmental and non- governmental funds leading to better utilization of resources. Promotion of Sports amongst People With Disabilities is a programme that has been launched to provide better opportunities to otherwise ignored section of society leading to better performance of the country in Paralympic Games. Assistance for Anti Doping Activities is a holistic approach to rid this novel sector of this curse which has taken the whole world by storm. Governmental efforts in identifying 21st June as International Yoga Day has once again brought to light the benefits of leading a balanced lifestyle focussed to physical exercise bringing in the ancient tradition of yoga in vogue. Identification of Tribal Sports by SAI and its integration into revamped Khelo India programme has provided immense and much needed boost to traditional sports which were close to being lost in memories. It has also provided an opportunity to people of vulnerable societies to excel without the need to go to expensive sports academies. National Sports Talent Contest organised by SAI looks into talent identification in the age group of 8-14 years at 10 identified centres. Awards : Different awards are being given in areas of sports providing much needed recognition to the talent and encouragement to better oneself to the rest thus promoting a sense of competition.
14. Way Forward:
The new age has brought with itself a new format of playing sports where it is being intermixed with audience involvement and the necessity to succeed at all costs. This has created new challenges for the authorities as well as people aiming to make it a profession. This needs to be catered in an evolving methodology while taking care that it reaches till the grassroots bringing about a change in thinking of the individual and the community. Few things which can be looked into are: Scouts and talent hunt can be made more professional to look into the ever-expanding populace with attention being given to sub urban centres.
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Anti Doping laws can be followed more strictly from an early age so that ethical practices are being inculcated into a professional from a young age. Agencies should also keep themselves aware of new techniques like genetic doping which are hard to catch. A fund can be created to look into the needs of retired sportspeople to provide them with much- needed care post their short active life.
Conclusion: 21st century has brought with itself a myriad set of problems and a labyrinth of complexities into people’s lives. Sports is one such activity which once inculcated into the lifestyle of an individual brings about not only growth at a personal level but also at a national level. From health to the economy it is one such area which can augur well for all sectors. India as a country would do well to diversify itself into all the arenas of sports rather than restricting itself to a mindset of sports being an elitist pastime.
15. Quotes
Importance of Physical fitness: Mundaka Upanishad: Nayam atma balahinena labhya — this Self is not to be attained by the weak.
Vivekananda: You will be nearer to heaven through football than through the study of Gita.
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