The Health Benefits of Traditional Chinese Plant Medicines: Weighing the Scientific Evidence

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The Health Benefits of Traditional Chinese Plant Medicines: Weighing the scientific evidence

A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

by Graeme E. Thomson

February 2007

RIRDC Publication No 06/128 RIRDC Project No DAV-227A

ISBN 1 74151 391 X ISSN 1440-6845

The Health Benefits of Traditional Chinese Plant Medicines: Weighing the scienfitic evidence

Publication No. 06/128 Project No.DAV-227A

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable industries. The information should not be relied upon for the purpose of a particular matter. Specialist and/or appropriate legal advice should be obtained before any action or decision is taken on the basis of any material in this document. The Commonwealth of Australia, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, the authors or contributors do not assume liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from any person's use or reliance upon the content of this document.

This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

Researcher Contact Details Graeme Thomson Department of Primary Industries, Victoria 621 Burwood Highway, Knoxfield

Phone: 03 9210 9222 Fax: 03 9800 3521 Email: [email protected]

In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.

RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6272 4819 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected]. Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in February 2007 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

Foreword

Over the past decade, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation has strongly supported research focussed on ‘Asian foods’ and ‘new plant products’. Within these programs, Asian vegetables and to a lesser extent, medicinal herbs, have been of major interest. It seems logical then that this new report should amalgamate some of this existing knowledge and explore new opportunities in Chinese medicinal plants.

Plants were originally the basis of all human health care and Chinese traditional medicine has used hundreds of species for over 2,000 years. In addition to their potential to alleviate chronic disease in Australia, medicinal herbs offer us more opportunities than most horticultural crops in their potential for development as value-added products. This report explores options for new medicinal plants through an examination of evidence-based medical efficacy.

RIRDC invests in new and emerging industries on behalf of government and industry stakeholders. New industries provide opportunities to be captured by investors and rural producers, and provide avenues for farmers to manage change and diversify. The establishment of new industries contributes to regional development and community resilience.

This project was funded from RIRDC Core Funds (which are provided by the Australian Government) and by the Department of Primary Industries, Victoria.

This report, an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1600 research publications, forms part of our Asian Foods R&D program, which aims to foster new Australian industries producing innovative, high quality foods and consumable products with Asian origins.

Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/index.html • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

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Acknowledgments

Jingye Zhang, Slobodan Vujovic, Murat Top, Jane Parker

Contents

Foreword...... iii Acknowledgments...... iv Executive Summary ...... vi 1. Introduction & Objectives...... 1 2. Methodology ...... 4 Species review - boundaries of the investigation ...... 4 The search ...... 4 What constitutes good evidence ? ...... 5 3. Results ...... 8 General observations ...... 8 4. Species review ...... 10 5. Discussion...... 134

Executive Summary

What the report is about There is growing public utilisation of complementary medicines in Australia, of which herbal medicines are a major component. The projected value of the global herbal medicine industry is expected to reach $USD 5 trillion annually by the year 2050. As part of the process for Australian producers to benefit from this developing industry, a clear picture of the current Australian industry is required so that a strategic approach can be developed. This project provides an important source of information for current and future industry investors and is designed to fill a knowledge gap on the current status of research and make recommendations for future research. The aim has been to critically examine the all the current science-based medical evidence supporting the use of Chinese medicinal plants. It has been designed to present results from a comprehensive, up-to-date literature review. This review targeted those Chinese medicinal plant species that have been documented to possess curative, preventive or palliative functions relevant to important chronic ailments in Australia. The study predominantly focussed on plants used in Chinese medicine and on plants with their genetic origins in Asia. Asian plants used in non-Chinese folk medicine were sometimes included when relevant.

Who is the report targeted at? This report is aimed at growers, researchers and investors as a reference of supporting science-based medical evidence on a range of medicinal plants.

Background Plants have always been a source of medicine and a major resource for human health care. Chinese traditional medicine has documented the use of botanicals for over 2,000 years. Natural products and mainly plants (greater than 80%) are the basis of traditional Chinese medicine. About 500 species are commonly prescribed by Chinese medical practitioners but up to 2,000 plants have a history of recorded use. The scientific study of substances used medicinally by different ethnic or cultural groups is viewed by researchers as an increasingly relevant and important source of new medicinal products. Chinese medicinal herbals make up a large proportion of the over US$15 billion annual worldwide sales of natural medicines.

Chinese medicines have been developed to treat all important diseases including chronic ailments. In Australia the most important of these include coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, dementia and respiratory disease (including asthma). Total health expenditure (around 10% of gross domestic product) is an increasing burden on the Australian economy and one that continues to increase with pressure from an ageing population.

Studies show that 60% of Australian consumers have spent some of their health dollars on supplements and natural remedies. In 2004, Australians spent AU$1.8 billion on complementary medicines and therapies. There is a willingness to believe that some of these ‘alternative remedies’ may be effective options to mainstream Western treatments.

Methods used All the screened literature pertaining to human health effects was science-based and published either in recognised science and medical journals, or review text books. Scientific and medical data were primarily sourced from the PubMed electronic database which also covers relevant Chinese journals. Results from human trials were given most weight in evaluation.

The study considered around 500 Asian medicinal plant species and directly reviewed and documented information on over 400 with links to some of Australia’s chronic diseases. Ninety-eight percent of these were higher plants (ie. angiosperms and gymnosperms). Over 3,500 scientific reference items were reviewed and over 1,000 of these were directly referenced in species summaries. There were more species (around 165) associated with anticancer effects than any other chronic disease, suggesting that if Asian and in particular Chinese medicinal species are to make new impacts on human health in Australia, there is a strong chance that this will be as anticancer agents.

Results There is a general lack of human efficacy testing associated with the use of most Asian medicinal plants. Conclusive positive human results from randomised, double blind, placebo-controlled experiments were only available for a limited number of crops. Table 1. below lists existing Australian commercial crops that are important Chinese medicinal plants with strong support from medical efficacy trials. Many are relatively small, new crops in Australia. However, given the strength of their efficacy data and the considerable recent Australian investment (research and economic) that most of these plants have attracted, there are good opportunities to develop these into much more important commercial crops.

Table 1: Existing Australian commercial crops with supporting medical efficacy trial data

Common name Scientific name Used for…. Garlic Allium sativum Cholesterol control, anti-cancer properties Ginger Zingiber officinale Pain & inflammation control, nausea prevention Tumeric Curcuma longa Anti-inflammatory & rheumatoid arthritis control Green tea Camellia sinensis Anti-cancer properties, antioxidant Ginseng Panax ginseng Anti-fatigue properties, improve mental reactions, anti-cancer, antihypertension Flat stem milk vetch Astragalus membranaceus Reducing blood pressure Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Disease prevention – Alzheimer’s, hearing loss and strokes

Recommendations 1) There is a need to keep surveying the medical literature with the view of capturing the latest research into a single easily accessible source for the benefit of the developing Australian industry. The beneficiaries of this would be producers, researchers, and investors looking to capture a sector of the growing herbal market that is expected to reach $USD 5 trillion in 2050. 2) One of the outputs of this project is a database, and it is recommended that this should be maintained for public access. Beneficiaries of this information should be encouraged to contribute financially towards the updating and maintenance of this database. 3) During the compilation of the database, a number of crops were identified that are recommended for further research. These crops were considered to be close to commercial exploitation in Australia but in need of some further research into health related data or economic production systems. In the following tables (2,3,4,5), these crops are collated under headings that indicate the level of available efficacy data and production taking place in Australia.

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Table 2: Existing crops that require human trial testing

Common name Scientific name Used for….. Fenugreek Trigonella foenum- Glucose tolerance properties graecum Shiitake mushroom Lentinus edodes Anti-cancer properties Lotus Nelumbo nucifera Antihypertensive with potential antiobesity properties Peach Prunus persica Cough and asthma treatment Litchi Litchi chinensis Anti-cancer and antioxidant properties Pointed pepper Piper sarmentosum Anti malaria, hypoglycaemic effect, antioxidant activity Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana Bactericide, anti-cancer properties Indian pennywort Centella asiatica Wound healing properties Houttuynia Houttuynia cordata Anti viral, antiinflammatory properties Holy basil Ocimum tenuiflorum Antiinflammatory, bactericide, diabetes treatment Longan Dimocarpus longan Antimutagens Perilla Perilla frutescens Anti-cancer

Table 3. Current ornamentals grown in Australia that could be developed for medicinal properties

Common name Scientific name Used for….. Madagascar Catharanthus roseus Antidiabetic, anti-cancer, anti-malaria properties periwinkle Gardenia Gardenia jasmoides Antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, hypotensive, laxative, sedative properties Mondograss Ophiopogon japonicus Cardioprotective properties Common garden Paeonia lactiflora Antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antihepatic, peony immunoregulatory properties Mountain peony Paeonia suffruticosa Antioxidant, antimutagenic, antiproliferative properties Chinese foxglove Rehmannia glutinosa Hypoglaecimic properties, neuroprotective actions

Table 4: Potential ‘new’ commercial crops for Australian producers that are supported by good efficacy data

Common name Scientific name Used for……. Dogbane Apocynum venetum Antioxidant, antihypertension, anticholerssterol Bellflower Codonopsis pilosula Dementia Chinese knotweed Fallopia multiflora Anticholesterol, antidementia Toothed club moss Huerzia serrata Antidementia Wolfberries Lycium barbarum Anticholesterol, antidiabetic, anti-cancer, cardiovascular properties Chinese boxthorn Lycium chinense Liver function properties Stephania Stephania tetrandra Antiarthritic, cardiovascular properties Chinese cucumber Trichosnathes kirilowii Anti-cancer, antiinflammatory, osteoarthritis, cardiovascular, HIV effective properties Korean mistletoe Viscum coloratum Antihypertensive, anti-cancer properties Chinese dodder Cuscuta chinensis Antitumour, immune enhancement properties Red yeast Monascus purpureus Anticholesterol properties

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Table 5: Australian indigenous species with potential medicinal properties

Common name Scientific name Used for……. Bacopa Bacopa monnieri Nootropic action Java brucea Brucea javanica Anti-cancer properties Noni Morinda citrifolia Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antitumour, antihelmin, analgesic, hypotensive, antiinflammatory, immune enhancing properties Chinese celery Oenanthe javanica Hypoglycaemic, hypotriglyceride, heart health properties Java tea Orthosiphon aristatus Antibacterial, antihypertensive properties

1. Introduction & Objectives

Plants have been a source of medicine and a major resource for health care since ancient times, with some traditional herbal medicines having been in use for more than 2,000 years. Currently, the modern pharmaceutical industry is paying more and more attention to plants as scientists re-discover that plant life is an almost infinite resource for medicine development. One fourth of the modern medicines that are available on prescription today owe their origins of raw material to higher plants of tropical forests (1). Out of these, 74% are derived from plants that have some related use in traditional herbal medicine (1).

Phytochemicals that improve human health can be consumed as fresh plant products like fruits and vegetables, or at the other extreme as highly value-added processed forms (eg. extracts/powders/pills). Where plant materials are concerned, it may be difficult to draw a sharp distinction between ‘nutraceuticals’, ‘herbal medicines’, ‘functional foods’ and ‘drugs’, as they all can contain bioactive ingredients. However, they have in common the potential to enhance human health beyond the simple supply of fuel for metabolic processes. In the 1990s the sale of health-promoting chemical compounds extracted from food and plants increased dramatically in many countries (1). This was because pharmaceutical companies began to produce nutraceuticals and they were commonly sold in pharmacies (1).

Many foods consumed in Asia have been traditionally used to cure specific human ailments and the philosophy behind Chinese medicine often reflects these usages. However, in the West where the potential value of functional foods (and herbal medicines) has only recently captured the imagination, these links to traditional uses remain largely unexplored.

Natural products and mainly plants (greater than 80%) are the basis of traditional Chinese medicine (2). Approximately 5,000 plant species used in traditional Chinese medicine are believed to have therapeutic qualities (2). About 500 plants are commonly prescribed by doctors of Chinese medicine as Chinese Materia Medica, or traditional drugs, and these can be available in raw and processed or concentrated form (2). Hundreds of years of practical application and experience have gone into classifying the therapeutic use of ‘herbs’ and their associated properties. Chinese medicine has over 2,000 years of written history. Chinese medicinal herbals make up a large proportion of the over US$15 billion annual worldwide sales of natural medicines (2)

Medical practice has taught us to understand that ethnopharmacological data is an important source of new drugs. About 140 new drugs have originated directly or indirectly from Chinese medicinal plants by means of modern scientific methods, confirming that these plants are an important resource (3). Increasing emphasis on the use of medicinal plants in searching for new drugs is undoubtedly a correct strategy (3).

In 2002–03, Australian expenditure on pharmaceuticals was approximately AU$10 billion (14% of total health spending) (4). There is a huge market for plant products, especially those that may be effective in treating our chronic diseases. Chinese medicines have been developed to treat all important diseases.

Chronic diseases now affect one in four Australians which is partly due to the fact that more people are living to older ages (4). By their very definition, chronic diseases are those involving a long course in their development or their symptoms. They are a major health problem in all developed countries, accounting for a high proportion of deaths, disability and illness (4). Yet many of these diseases are preventable, or their onset can be delayed, by relatively simple measures. Most chronic diseases do not resolve spontaneously and are generally not cured completely. Some can be immediately life- threatening, such as heart attack and stroke, others are often serious, including various cancers, depression and diabetes. However, they all tend to persist in an individual through life but are not always the cause of death.

In addition to illness, pain and disability, chronic diseases are also a significant economic burden, both on those who suffer from them and for the wider community. In Australia, spending on health represents a large component of the economy; around AU$70 billion or approximately 10% of gross domestic product (2002-03) (4). Chronic diseases account for around 20% of the total allocated expenditure (4). Approximately 20% of our national health budget is spent in the Department of Health and Aging Portfolio (2004-05) (4).

The top ten causes of disease burden in Australia are chronic diseases (4). These include coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, dementia, diabetes, asthma and osteoarthritis. In 2003, the top underlying causes of death in Australians were coronary heart disease followed by stroke (4). Cancer has now become the leading cause of death in Victoria (5). Around one million Australians are estimated to have diabetes with the number expecting to increase over the coming decade (4,6). Diabetes mellitus is predicted to soon become the biggest global epidemic in human history.

The majority of plant materials used in traditional Chinese medicine have not yet been clinically evaluated in randomised, double-blind studies, and consequently Western medicine has not generally accepted the efficacy or safety of Chinese treatments (7). Also, up until the turn of this century, data about the safety and efficacy of medicinal herbs tended to be limited in a number of ways with the best data often years old, limited to in vitro or animal studies, and/or only available in non-English language journals (8). However, many of the old ‘mysteries’ of Chinese medicine are now being elucidated on a biochemical basis with high quality ‘evidence-based’ scientific trials on plant materials being undertaken both in the East and West. Nonetheless, only a handful of Chinese herbal products have been widely adopted by Australians without a Chinese background.

This project aimed to conduct a comprehensive, up-to-date literature review which critically examined the evidence-based health benefits to consumers of plant products used in traditional Chinese medicine, and where relevant, plants from other Asian folk medicines. The focus has been on plant products with the potential to bring preventative, palliative and curative benefits to sufferers of chronic diseases in Australia.

Practically all of the plant material used in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine in Australia is imported from China. Since many of the imported Chinese medicinal plant species are produced in environments similar to those found in Australia, there is potential for domestic production and supply. Domestic production of these botanicals would help ensure the safety, freshness and quality of the material. In addition, China only cultivates about 100 species of its medicinal plants (9), so there is potential to develop environmentally sustainable industries that could export.

Outcomes of this research include recommendations for new plant products that could bring both economic benefits to Australian industries, and improved human health. Up-to-date medical verification has been summarised so that effective identification and development of new products aimed at the Australian (and other Western markets) can confidently proceed.

The Australian horticultural sector has developed strong capabilities in Asian vegetable production in the past ten years but this review has encompassed additional products including other plant derived materials like fruit, grains and oils. As a consequence, introducing new plants as sources of phytochemicals could have a broad impact over several agricultural sectors.

Introduction references 1. Samy, J., Sugumaran, M. & Lee, K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed. K.M. Wong, Pub. Times Editions - Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp.

2. Huo-Hsiung Lee, Hideji Itokawa & Mutsuo Kozuka (2005) Asian Herbal Products: The basis for development of high-quality dietary supplements and new medicines, pp 21-72. In, Shi, J., Ho, C.T. & F. Shahidi (Eds.) ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp.

3. Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv, Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv, Z. & Bachrach, U. (Eds.), ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press - Haworth Press, 500 pp.

4. Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare website, www.aihw.gov.au/

5. The Victorian Burden of Disease Study 2005, www.dhs.vic.gov.au/health/healthstatus/

6. Causes of Death Australia 2002. ABS Cat. No. 3303.0. Canberra: ABS.

7. Craker, L.E. & Giblette, J. (2002) Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. pp. 491-496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

8. O’Hara, M., Kiefer, D., Farrell, K. & Kemper, K. (1998) A review of 12 commonly used medicinal herbs. Arch Fam Med., 7: 523-536.

9. Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv, Z. & Bachrach, U. (Eds.), ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp.

2. Methodology Species review - boundaries of the investigation This review has targeted those Chinese medicinal plant species (and their derived products) that have been documented to possess curative, preventive or palliative functions relevant to important chronic ailments in Australia, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, dementia and asthma.

In addition, because they are important and topical, some plant treatments relevant to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), liver protection, ‘golden staph’ (Staphylococcus aureus) and malaria were also included. There is growing importance in the search for antimalarial plants because malaria, particularly cerebral malaria, is on the increase (1). Climate change and rising sea levels may promote the spread of this disease in northern Australia in the future.

The study has predominantly focussed on plants used in Chinese medicine and on plants with their genetic origins in Asia. However, because the aim was to find new health promoters for Australians, Asian plants used in non-Chinese folk medicine were sometimes included when relevant. Often these were from countries that are near neighbours to China but frequently these plant species range over the geographic borders of the region. These additional species typically derived from Indian, Japanese, Myanmar and Malaysian folk medicine. In particular ‘Ayurveda’, the ancient Indian medical science has employed many phytochemical based treatments.

For each pertinent plant, a summary profile was developed that generally included: • botanical and common/vernacular names • traditional ailments addressed • biochemical basis for efficacy - active compounds • scientific verification of disease control and healing - evidence of the plant product’s effects.

For the species that were evaluated to have the best potential in Australia, additional information is sometimes provided, such as - • plant parts used • preparation and administration (dosage - oral, topical etc.) • growing regions and brief outline of agronomy.

It should be noted that while Chinese medicinal plants are often tagged ‘herbs’ or ‘herbals’ these descriptions simply refer to the fact that the materials are plant-based in origin. These terms do not necessarily mean that the species is a herbaceous ie. a non-woody, higher plant. In fact, many of the plants used in Chinese (and Asian) folk medicines derive from shrub or tree species.

The search Chinese medicinal plants are often used as ‘medicines’ that are mixtures of more than one plant (2) and sometimes non-plant materials. The literature review focussed on research that investigated the separate efficacy of each target species, and in so doing has generally avoided the issue of which component(s) in a concocted medicine are responsible for effects, or if all the herbs in the formula are essential. The focus was on data from trials of single plants and their derivatives (ie. monopreparations). Only rarely was a medicinal mix of herbs reviewed and only when all the herbal components carried efficacy weight and the literature featured human trials.

For this report, all the screened literature pertaining to human health effects was science-based and published either in recognised science and medical journals, or review text books by experts in the field. No website information for efficacy data was used unless it represented papers from on-line scientific journals or was affiliated with Australian research institutions. Product efficacy claims made by website promotors and purveyors were not considered, and leaflet literature popularly used to promote retailed ‘health’ products was similarly ignored.

Particular care has been taken to verify the correct genus and species names for investigated plants. These scientific names were verified for up-to-date accuracy on the Germplasm Resources Information 4

Network (GRIN). GRIN taxonomic data provide the structure and nomenclature for accessions of the National Plant Germplasm System, part of the National Genetic Resources Program of the United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service. In GRIN Taxonomy all families and genera of vascular plants and over 40,000 species from throughout the world are represented.

The GRIN website is http://www.ars-grin.gov and has been cited as: USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Only very rarely was an attempt made to classify below the species level to eg. subspecies or variety. Nonetheless, anyone interested in pursuing business interests in this field should be well aware that active breeding for varieties (cultivars) or simple selection of localised ecotypes can lead to large variance in phytochemical yields, and thus the medical functionality of the material can vary. In the majority of cases, relevant literature did not classify plants below species level.

The presence of plant species in Australia was verified when necessary with the Australian Plant Name Index (APNI). http://www.anbg.gov.au/cgi-bin/apninames

Scientific and medical data were primarily (but not exclusively) sourced from the PubMed electronic database (which also covers relevant Chinese journals) from inception to May 2006. PubMed is a service of the United States National Library of Medicine that includes over 16 million citations from MEDLINE and other life science journals for biomedical articles back to the 1950s. PubMed includes links to full text articles and other related resources. Pubmed website- http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi

PubMed searches were initiated with an up-to-date plant species name and the search further refined when necessary by considering name synonyms, only the most recent publications (typically 2002 to 2005) and human trials. Chinese language electronic databases were also screened for results from human trials.

Typically the extraction of data was based on abstracts alone. Given the vast bulk of material that required evaluation, multiple assessments of summarised abstract material were considered a superior yield of overview information than detailed focus on a lesser number of full papers.

What constitutes good evidence ? In theory, the most trustworthy evidence for herbal efficacy/causality should come from trials on humans. However, the unique structure and experimental design of particular human trials still dictates the reliability of derived data.

Human trials can take various forms – • observational studies (also called epidemiological or population studies) • controlled studies using an untreated group • single-blind study • double-blind comparative trial • randomised, double blind, placebo-controlled (RDBPC) experiments.

RDBPC experiments are the best in terms of scientific design and rigour, and guarantee the most dependable results. Their drawback can be considerable expense in both establishment (eg. sourcing appropriate numbers of human subjects that meet required profile) and on-going evaluation (eg. logistics of maintaining trials during prolonged, sometimes years of experimental conditions) to meet stringent requirements of experimental plans and statistical analysis. There are also considerable

investments, and sometimes complicated procedural methods, needed to keep participants ‘blind’, thereby protecting the validity of findings.

The processs of identifying potential drugs is very long, and the US National Cancer Institute estimates that for every 10,000 plant extracts screened, less than 10 will reach the stage of clinical testing (3). The time taken for the entire process of drug development including human trials can be from 7 to 12 years, at a cost ranging from US$350 to US$500 million (3).

While RDBPC trials with humans are considered the most appropriate to prove causality, many claims are made on lesser research. Often ‘health’ products available commercially over-the-counter have not undergone evaluation in RDBPC trials, and may not have been evaluated scientifically in any type of human trial to substantiate effects.

Other than well planned trials with human subjects, some support for efficacy of botanical products can be derived from animal (usually mammal) trials where the testing takes place in live (ie. ‘in vivo’), anatomically complete individuals. But because animals may process herbal products differently from humans, results are not completely reliable. Nevertheless, animal testing is a very commonly taken approach. For example, relatively recent testing of tea tree oil for antiinflammatory effects was examined using mice (4).

Less reliable again is ‘test-tube’ testing using human cell-lines (sometimes tissues) derived from humans and grown under controlled conditions in culture (ie. ‘in vitro’). However, such studies are often only regarded as spurs for further research, they do not prove that a treatment is effective in real life. A herbal product taken by mouth must be absorbed into the bloodstream, survive processing by the liver and still manage to be effective when diluted by body fluids. It is a long step from in vitro results to a treatment for humans that actually works. Nonetheless, in vitro testing is a considerably cheaper alternative to in vivo testing either in humans or animals.

In vitro trials based on animal cell-lines and tissues can provide data but are at the limit of what can be regarded as medically useful.

It is not always essential for a particular plant species to be directly investigated for it to obtain support for causality. Often the positive benefits of consumption of particular plant chemical compounds (eg. carotenoids, cumarins) have been proven and prospecting for new medicinal plant species is often systematically undertaken using knowledge of chemotaxonomy (3). Many of these compounds tend to occur within distinct plant families, so that when a phytochemical is newly shown to occur in a previously uninvestigated species, inferences are made as to possible efficacy. These are sometimes termed ‘linked’ or ‘unsubstantiated’ claims.

There is one increasingly popular argument that suggests if a herb or herbal product has medical efficacy data from human cell-line and animal studies and is safe to consume, it should be incorporated into the diet, even without human testing. This thinking suggests that the expense involved in RDBPC (and other human) testing and a lack of commercial incentive may prohibit human trials on many species ever taking place. Medical ‘proof’ may well come too late for many sufferers of terminal diseases for which there is currently no reliable ‘non-herbal’ cure in conventional medicine.

Increasingly, traditional and folk use of a species is viewed as positive evidence of non-experimental efficacy. It is now understood that ethnopharmacological data is important in developing new drugs (5). Since medicinal plants have been used for centuries and tested by billions of people, there has been ample opportunity to find satisfactory medicinal agents and to solve problems of toxicity and side-effects (5).

To some extent the evidence constituting efficacy is a matter of consumer opinion. This is well demonstrated by the large proportion of the population that is prepared to invest in herbal medicines (not just Chinese) and dietary supplements without positive evidence from human data; consider the monetary value of sales for unverified medicines. At the extreme, some medicines/supplements still have a considerable consumer base even after they have been tested and the best available analysis of 6

their efficacy suggests that they are ineffective. Compare the situation to consumption of fatty processed foods; human testing has proven that they are detrimental to health but consumer purchasing remains strong.

A recent published review points to modernisation and internationalisation as key issues in progression of traditional Chinese medicine (6). Development of Chinese medicine needs to depend more on use of international standardised scientific evaluation. This 2005 review found that less than 30% of papers in traditional Chinese medicine journals had used randomised controlled trials (6).

Methodology references 1. Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp.

2. Blumenthal, M. (1999) Medical Journals Report on Herbal and Alternative Medicine: Articles in AMA Journals Contrast with NEJM. HerbalGram., 46: 29-35,51,52.

3. Samy, J., Sugumaran, M. & Lee, K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- Wong, K.M., Pub.- Times Editions - Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp.

4. Finlay-Jones, J., Hart, P., Riley, T. & Carson, C. (2002) The anti-inflammatory and anti-itch properties of tea tree oil- in vivo studies. RIRDC publication No. 02/053, 24 pp.

5. Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv, Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp 61-96. In, Yaniv, Z. & Bachrach, U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press - Haworth Press, 500 pp.

6. Li, T.Q., Wang, G., Wang, L. & Mao, B. (2005) Clinical trials of traditional Chinese medicine in China: status and evaluation. Chinese J of Evidence-based Medicine, 5(6): 431-437.

3. Results General observations The following information pertaining to Chinese medicinal plants was established in the review process -

• Not all plant species used in Chinese medicine are indigenous to China

• Traditional usage of a particular species may differ from the modern usage

• Modern Chinese medicine may use plant species that were not traditionally utilised

• Western medicine sometimes uses plants from traditional Chinese medicine but not necessarily for a purpose in common with the Chinese use

• Often Chinese traditional medicines are a combination of various herbs and while efficacy data may exist for a particular concoction, the role of individual herbal components in contributing to medical benefits will not be clear unless additional testing of the separate plant species has taken place

• Some Chinese medicinal plants are indigenous to Australia

• It would be fair to suggest that the curative powers ascribed to particular plant species has contracted in recent times as more evidence-based evaluation for efficacy reduces the incidence of broad spectrum claims and panaceas. However, lists have also added more modern pandemic ailments like heart disease, obesity, elevated cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and diabetes

• A vast array of plant types are used in Chinese medicine but overall numbers tend to be increased by nomenclature duplicities surrounding the use of synonyms, varieties/cultivars/selections and regional variants/genotypes. A large proportion of the species presented here had name synonyms and there were also points of confusion regarding the appropriate spelling of names

• It was established that species with efficacy credibility tend to have a very recent history of strong scientific investigation. Those plant species that were investigated in the 1950s, 60s, 70s, 80s and not more recently, tended not to have support from rigorous scientific trials.

Species review - Background The following list of plant species is arranged alphabetically and based on binomial, scientific names. The name that appears within round ( ) brackets is the typical Mandarin-Chinese ‘common’ or ‘vernacular’ name for the species. These Chinese common names tend to vary as do Western common names, as opposed to scientific names. However, this issue is further complicated by the Anglified- Westernised translation of the Chinese common names. Names that follow brackets are alternative (often Western but sometimes non-Chinese Asian) common names. Not all common names have necessarily been listed.

When the species is used in Asian medicine other than Chinese, the predominant common name appears in square [ ] brackets with the linked country preceding the name. These species may be used in multiple countries but no attempt has been made to document more than one common name from a relevant source and region.

Sometimes the scientific name in referenced abstracts is different from that used in the species summary. The summaries have used up-to-date GRIN (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory) names. Plant scientific name changes are relatively common and many plants in the review list have been the subject of relatively recent change. Although references may be recent, some persist in use of obsolete names.

The code ‘R’ in brace { } brackets refers to the number of references considered in reviewing the species. Supporting references presented in each species summary tend to be key or representative information pertaining to that plant.

An attempt has not been made to determine if each species is currently extant in Australia. Nonetheless, some effort has been made to establish if the species with best efficacy data are grown in Australia and whether they are current commercial crops, ‘fledgling’ crops or proposed options. Of course, any favoured species not currently in Australia could be imported subject to quarantine procedures and evaluation to eliminate potential disease/weed threats.

Where a species is a current commercial crop in Australia, the medical evidence has not always been fully reviewed, and consequently the reference review number {R} is not presented. The focus was generally on potential new crops.

NOTE: Not all precautions, toxicities and contraindications have been documented here. It is wise to use herbs carefully and seek professional opinions before use.

4. Species review

Achyranthes bidentata (NIU XI) two tooth achyranthes or chaff flower {R14} Studies on rodents have demonstrated antitumour activity (1), antiinflammatory action (2), antiasthma (3) and cognition-enhancing/antiamnesic effects (4). 1.Yu S. & Zhang Y. (1995) Effect of Achyranthes bidentata polysaccharides (ABP) on antitumor activity and immune function of S180-bearing mice. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi., 17(4): 275-278. 2.Lu T., Mao C., Zhang L. & Xu, W. (1997) The research on analgestic and anti-inflammatory action of different processed products of Achyranthes bidentata. Zhong Yao Cai., 20(10): 507-509. 3.Li C.C., Hu X.G., Zhang W.X., Xie L.W., Zhang H.Y., Dong L., Cai X.H., Wu R.X., Zhang Z.X. & He Q.S. (2003) Eosinophils apoptosis, fas mRNA and bcl-2 mRNA expressions in asthma model of young rat and effects of Achyranthes bidentata polysaccharides. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi., 41(9): 657-660. 4.Lin Y.C., Wu C.R., Lin C.J. & Hsieh M.T. (2003) The ameliorating effects of cognition-enhancing Chinese herbs on scopolamine- and MK-801-induced amnesia in rats. Am J Chin Med., 31(4): 543-549.

Aconitum brachypodum (YI XHI GAO or YI ZHI HAU) {R3} Traditionally used in Chinese folk medicine to relieve arthritic pain (1). No efficacy data could be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Aconitum carmichaeli (CHUAN WU) Japanese aconite or Sichuan aconite {R5} The root/tuber of Aconitum carmichaeli is believed to possess antiinflammatory, analgesic and cardiotonic effects and has been used in Chinese materia medica mainly for the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders including joint pain in rheumatic and rheumatoid arthritis (1,2). However, it contains highly toxic diterpenoid alkaloids (3). After ingestion, patients may present with signs and symptoms that are typical of aconitine poisoning (4). Death may occur from ventricular arrhythmias. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Chang, J.G., Shih P.P., Chang C.P., Chang J.M., Wang F.Y. & Tseng J.(1994) The stimulating effect of Radix aconiti extract on cytokines secretion by human mononuclear cells. Planta Medica., 60: 576-578. 3.Chan T.Y., Tomlinson B., Tse L.K., Chan J.C., Chan W.W. & Critchley J.A. (1994) Aconitine poisoning due to Chinese herbal medicines: a review. Vet Hum Toxicol., 36(5): 452-455. 4.Chan T.Y., Chan J.C., Tomlinson B., Critchley J.A. (1994) Poisoning by Chinese herbal medicines in Hong Kong: a hospital-based study. Vet Hum Toxicol., 36(6): 546-547.

Acorus tararinowii (SHI CHANG PU) {R5} The root/rhizome of Acorus tararinowii is traditionally used to treat mental disturbance, arthralgia and general musculoskeletal problems (1). However, there is little support from scientific literature. Note: this scientific name is under review. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Actaea cimicifuga (SHENG MA) Chinese cimicifuga, bugbane or foetid bugbane {R5} Compounds from the aerial parts have demonstrated cytotoxicity against various cancer cell-lines (1). 1.Tian Z., Pan R.L., Si J. & Xiao P.G.(2006) Cytotoxicity of cycloartane triterpenoids from aerial part of Cimicifuga foetida. Fitoterapia, 77(1): 39-42.

Actaea dahurica (SHENG MA) {R7} Isoferulic acid extracted from the rhizome of Actaea dahurica had antihyperglycaemic activity in spontaneously diabetic rats (1). A recent study using cancer cell-lines examined the cytotoxicity of three cycloartane triterpenoids isolated from the aerial parts and concluded that the compounds possessed potential antitumour activity (2). 1.Liu I.M., Chi T.C., Hsu F.L., Chen C.F. & Cheng J.T. (1999) Isoferulic acid as active principle from the rhizoma of Cimicifuga dahurica to lower plasma glucose in diabetic rats. Planta Med., 65(8): 712-714. 2.Tian Z., Yang M., Huang F., Li K., Si J., Shi L., Chen S. & Xiao P. (2005) Cytotoxicity of three cycloartane triterpenoids from Cimicifuga dahurica. Cancer Lett., 226(1): 65-75.

Actaea heracleifolia (SHENG MA) {R6} Actaea heracleifolia is used in traditional medicine for treating inflammation. These antiinflammatory effects can probably be attributed to ‘ferulic acid’ and ‘isoferulic acid’, which are the main active components of the rhizome (1). ‘Sodium ferulate’ is another of this plant’s active principles and it has been approved by the State Drugs Administration of China for treatment of cardiovascular and 10

cerebrovascular diseases (2). Sodium ferulate has been widely used for several decades in Chinese medicine to treat these diseases. A recent review article concluded that sodium ferulate has antithrombotic, platelet aggregation inhibitory activity (an important factor in lowering the risk for coronary artery disease) and antioxidant activities in animals and humans (2). Clinical results have been obtained for sodium ferulate use in coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, pulmonary heart disease and thrombosis (2). Its safety and efficacy have been demonstrated in clinical practice, and in vitro and in vivo data support the view that sodium ferulate is a useful drug for treatment of cardiovascular diseases (2). 1.Sakai S., Kawamata H., Kogure T., Mantani N., Terasawa K., Umatake M. & Ochiai H. (1999) Inhibitory effect of ferulic acid and isoferulic acid on the production of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 in response to respiratory syncytial virus infection in RAW264.7 cells. Mediators Inflamm., 8(3):173-175. 2.Wang B.H. & Ou-Yang J.P. (2005) Pharmacological actions of sodium ferulate in cardiovascular system. Cardiovasc Drug Rev., 23(2): 161-172.

Adenophora triphylla (NAN SHA SHEN or SHA SENG) ladybell or bellfower {R5} Extracts from Adenophora triphylla displayed tumouricidal effects in vitro (human Jurkat T cells) and in vivo (rats), suggesting that this plant could yield chemopreventive agents against gastric cancer (1). More supportive results from additional research required. 1.Lee I.S., Yang E.J., Kim H.S., Chung S.K., Furukawa F. & Nishikawa A. (2000) Suppressive effects of Adenophora triphylla extracts on in vitro tumor cell growth and in vivo gastric epithelial proliferation. Anticancer Res., 20(5A): 3227-3231.

Adhatoda vasica [Myanmar- MUYAR-GYI] Malabar tree {R10} The roots and leaves are traditionally used to treat asthma (1). No efficacy data could be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe, T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp.

Adina rubella (SHEI YIANG MEI GEN) {R4} This herb is said to possess anticancer activity (1) but no relevant material could be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Adonis amurensis (PIN LIANG HUA or FU SHE TSAO) adonis or Korean adonis {R4} Traditionally believed to dilate coronary blood vessels and increase blood flow (1). Like other Adonis species, may contain cardioactive glycosides (2) but possibly offers no special advantage over Digitalis (3). ‘Cymarin’ and ‘cymarol’ from the methanol extract exhibited potent cytotoxicity against human solid tumour cell-line A549 (lung carcinoma), while being inactive on mouse leukaemic cells (4). 1.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 2.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 4.You Y.J., Kim Y., Nam N.H. & Ahn B.Z. (2003) Inhibitory effect of Adonis amurensis components on tube- like formation of human umbilical venous cells. Phytother Res., 17(5): 568-70.

Adonis chrysocyathus (FU SHOU CAO or BING LIAN HUA) {R3} This herb exhibits a digitalis-like action on the heart muscle (1). Like other Adonis species, may contain cardioactive glycosides (2) but possibly offers no special advantage over Digitalis (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp.

Aegle marmelos [Myanmar- OKE-SHIT] bael tree, Bengal quince, golden apple or Indian quince {R11} Traditionally used for heart palpitations, asthma, diabetes and arthritis (1). A methanolic extract of Aegle marmelos reduced blood sugar in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (2). Extracts also inhibited in vitro proliferation of human tumour cells (3,4). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Sabu M.C. & Kuttan R. (2004) Antidiabetic activity of Aegle marmelos and its relationship with its antioxidant properties. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol., 48(1): 81-88. 3.Lambertini E., Piva R., Khan M.T., Lampronti I., Bianchi N., Borgatti M. & Gambari R. (2004) Effects of extracts from Bangladeshi medicinal plants on in vitro proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines and expression of estrogen receptor alpha gene. Int J Oncol., 24(2): 419-423. 4.Lampronti I., Martello D., Bianchi N., Borgatti M., Lambertini E., Piva R., Jabbar S., Choudhuri M.S., Khan M.T. & Gambari R. (2003) In vitro antiproliferative effects on human tumor cell lines of extracts from the Bangladeshi medicinal plant Aegle marmelos Correa. Phytomedicine, 10(4): 300-308.

Aesculus chinensis (SUO LOU ZI) Chinese horse chestnut, seven leaves tree or monkey chestnut {R9} Saponins from the seeds showed inhibitory activity towards human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease (1), and antiinflammatory activity in mice (2). 1.Yang X.W., Zhao J., Cui Y.X., Liu X.H., Ma C.M., Hattori M. & Zhang L.H. (1999) Anti-HIV-1 protease triterpenoid saponins from the seeds of Aesculus chinensis. J Nat Prod., 62(11): 1510-1513. 2.Wei F., Ma L.Y., Jin W.T., Ma S.C., Han G.Z., Khan I.A. & Lin R.C. (2004) Antiinflammatory triterpenoid saponins from the seeds of Aesculus chinensis. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 52(10): 1246-1248.

Aesculus hippocastanum (SUO LOU ZI) horse chestnut {R14} This species is native to Europe but widely cultivated elsewhere (including Australia) and used by Chinese medical practitioners (1,2). Valued for venous disorders such as varicose veins with efficacy supported by good evidence (3,4,5,6,7). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 4.Dickson S., Gallagher J., McIntyre L., Suter A. & Tan J. (2004) An open study to assess the safety and efficacy of Aesculus hippocastanum tablets (Aesculaforce 50 mg) in the treatment of chronic venous insufficiency. J Herb Pharmacother., 4(2): 19-32. 5.Pittler M.H. & Ernst E. (2004) Horse chestnut seed extract for chronic venous insufficiency. Cochrane Database Syst Rev., 2: CD003230. 6.Ottillinger B. & Greeske K. (2001) Rational therapy of chronic venous insufficiency-chances and limits of the therapeutic use of horse-chestnut seeds extract. BMC Cardiovasc Disord., 1: 5. 7.Sirtori C.R. (2001) Aescin: pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic profile. Pharmacol Res., 44(3): 183-193.

Agastache rugosa (HUO XIANG) agastache, Korean mint, Chinese giant hyssop or giant wrinkled hyssop {R2} Lignan compounds from Agastache rugosa inhibited etoposide-induced apoptosis in U937 cells (1). A diterpenoid quinone isolated from the roots showed non-specific cytotoxic activities against several human cancer cell-lines (2). In other work, an aqueous methanolic extract of the roots exhibited significant activity against human immunodeficiency virus integrase (3).

Adhesion molecules such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 play an important role during the early stages of atherogenesis. A. rugosa extract had an antiatherogenic effect in low density lipoprotein receptor mice (4). 1.Lee C., Kim H. & Kho Y.(2002) Agastinol and agastenol, novel lignans from Agastache rugosa and their evaluation in an apoptosis inhibition assay. J Nat Prod. 65(3): 414-416. 2.Lee H.K., Oh S.R., Kim J.I., Kim J.W. & Lee C.O. (1995) Agastaquinone, a new cytotoxic diterpenoid quinone from Agastache rugosa. J Nat Prod., 58(11): 1718-1721. 3.Kim H.K., Lee H.K., Shin C.G. & Huh H. (1999) HIV integrase inhibitory activity of Agastache rugosa. Arch Pharm Res., 22(5): 520-523. 4.Hong J.H., Choi J.H., Oh S.R., Lee H.K., Park J.H., Lee K.Y., Kim J.J., Jeong T.S. & Oh G.T. (2001) Inhibition of cytokine-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression; possible mechanism for antiatherogenic effect of Agastache rugosa. FEBS Lett., 495(3): 142-147. 12

Agrimonia pilosa (XIAN HE CAO) agrimonia herb {R17} A whole plant methanol extract of Agrimonia pilosa demonstrated in vitro anti-human immunodeficiency virus type-1 activity (1). Investigation of an aqueous extract of the roots found hepatoprotective activity in vitro for chemically induced cytotoxicity in human and rat liver cells (2). Mouse trials indicated that the roots contain some antitumour constituents (3). ‘Agrimoniin’ from A. pilosa is reported as a potent antitumour tannin with effects possibly due to enhancement of immune response in host animals (4,5). 1.Min B.S., Kim Y.H., Tomiyama M., Nakamura N., Miyashiro H., Otake T. & Hattori M. (2001) Inhibitory effects of Korean plants on HIV-1 activities. Phytother Res., 15(6): 481-486. 2.Park E.J., Oh H., Kang T.H., Sohn D.H. & Kim Y.C. (2004) An isocoumarin with hepatoprotective activity in Hep G2 and primary hepatocytes from Agrimonia pilosa. Arch Pharm Res., 27(9): 944-946. 3.Koshiura R., Miyamoto K., Ikeya Y. & Taguchi H. (1985) Antitumor activity of methanol extract from roots of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. Jpn J Pharmacol., 38(1): 9-16. 4.Miyamoto K., Kishi N., & Koshiura R. (1987) Antitumor effect of agrimoniin, a tannin of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb., on transplantable rodent tumors. Jpn J Pharmacol., 43(2): 187-195. 5.Murayama T., Kishi N., Koshiura R., Takagi K., Furukawa T. & Miyamoto K. (1992) Agrimoniin, an antitumor tannin of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb., induces interleukin-1. Anticancer Res., 12(5): 1471-1474.

Ailanthus altissima (CHUN PI) Chinese sumach bark, Ailanthus, China-sumac, Chinese tree-of- heaven, stinktree, varnishtree, hemelboom or tree-of-heaven {R9} Ailanthus altissima was evaluated for its cytotoxic and antiproliferative activities by a bioassay- oriented study (1). Cytotoxicity was observed in HeLa cells and possible apoptotic effect was evaluated by monitoring the presence of hypodiploid elements in HeLa cells as well as in SAOS, U87MG and U-937 tumour cell-lines. Cells incubated for different times with A. altissima active extract, fraction and pure alkaloid showed remarkable increase in apoptosis (1). Three new quassinoids (ailantinol E, ailantinol F, and ailantinol G), and related compounds were isolated from A. altissima grown in Taiwan and evaluated for antitumour promoting effects against Epstein-Barr virus early antigen activation introduced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in Raji cells (2). The new quassinoids were found to show potent activity without showing any cytotoxicity.

In order to find novel anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) agents from natural products, 80 methanol extracts of Korean plants were applied to a syncytia formation inhibition assay, which is based on the interaction between the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120/41 and the cellular membrane protein CD4 of T lymphocytes (3). The most potent HIV-1 fusion inhibition was shown by the stem bark of A. altissima. In up-to-date work, it was reported that fruit extracts showed in vitro antimicrobial activity (4).

Cultivated or naturalised in Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, United States, Canada, Mexico, South America, Azores and Hawaii (5). A noxious weed in Australia (5). 1.De Feo V., Martino L.D., Santoro A., Leone A., Pizza C., Franceschelli S. & Pascale M. (2005) Antiproliferative effects of tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima Swingle). Phytother Res., 19(3): 226-230. 2.Tamura S., Fukamiya N., Okano M., Koyama J., Koike K., Tokuda H., Aoi W., Takayasu J., Kuchide M. & Nishino, H. (2003) Three new quassinoids, ailantinol E, F, and G, from Ailanthus altissima. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo)., 51(4): 385-389. 3.Chang Y.S. & Woo E.R. (2003) Korean medicinal plants inhibiting to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) fusion. Phytother Res., 17(4): 426-429. 4.Zhao C.C., Shao J.H., Li X., Xu J. & Zhang P. (2005) Antimicrobial constituents from fruits of Ailanthus altissima SWINGLE. Arch Pharm Res., 28(10): 1147-1151. 5.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Akebia quinata (YU ZHI ZI) five leaf akebia or chocolate vine {R6} The stem of Akebia quinata has been used to treat urinary tract inflammatory disease. Saponins in medicinal plants may act as bioactive components after biodegradation to sapogenins in the gastrointestinal tract. Results from testing on rats suggested that observed antinociceptive and antiinflammatory properties of the stem of A. quinata can be attributed to the sapogenins ‘oleanolic acid’ and ‘hederagenin’ (1). Saponins from A. quinata have also shown nitric oxide inhibition and cytotoxicity against cancer cells in vitro (2) 1.Choi J., Jung H.J., Lee K.T. & Park H.J. (2005) Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the saponin and sapogenins obtained from the stem of Akebia quinata. J Med Food., 8(1): 78-85. 13

2.Jung, H.J., Lee C.O., Lee K.T., Choi J. & Park H.J. (2004) Structure-activity relationship of oleanane disaccharides isolated from Akebia quinata versus cytotoxicity against cancer cells and NO inhibition. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(5): 744-747.

Akebia trifoliata (YU ZHI ZI) three leaf akebia or chocolate vine {R4} Traditionally used to promote blood circulation for relief of pain (1). Good yields of saponins (2) which may act as bioactive components, possibly with antinociceptive and antiinflammatory activity. Little direct evidence for efficacy. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Mimaki Y., Kuroda M., Yokosuka A., Harada H., Fukushima M. & Sashida Y. (2003) Triterpenes and triterpene saponins from the stems of Akebia trifoliata. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 51(8): 960-965.

Albizia julibrissin (HE HUAN PI) silktree, silk tree albizia or mimosa {R13} Stem bark of Albizia julibrissin is specified in Chinese pharmacopoeia as a traditional medicine used to relieve melancholia and uneasiness of body and mind (1), invigorate blood circulation (1) and stimulate memory (2). The flowers contain flavonol glycosides and investigation of their sedative activity showed increased sleeping time in mice (3). Compounds isolated from the stem bark have demonstrated radical scavenging activity (4,5). Saponins from A. julibrissin showed marked cytotoxic activity against cancer cell-lines (6,7,8). 1.Yu D.H., Qiao S.Y. & Zhao Y.M. (2004) Advances in study on bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(7): 619-624. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Kang T.H., Jeong S.J., Kim N.Y., Higuchi R. & Kim Y.C. (2000) Sedative activity of two flavonol glycosides isolated from the flowers of Albizzia julibrissin Durazz.. J Ethnopharmacol. , 71(1-2): 321-323. 4.Jung M.J., Kang S.S., Jung H.A., Kim G.J. & Choi J.S. (2004) Isolation of flavonoids and a cerebroside from the stem bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Arch Pharm Res., 27(6): 593-599. 5.Jung M.J., Kang S.S., Jung Y.J. & Choi J.S. (2004) Phenolic glycosides from the stem bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 52(12): 1501-1503. 6.Zou K., Tong W.Y., Liang H., Cui J.R., Tu G.Z., Zhao Y.Y. & Zhang R.Y. (2005) Diastereoisomeric saponins from Albizia julibrissin. Carbohydr Res., 340(7): 1329-1334. 7.Zou K., Cui J.R., Wang B., Zhao Y.Y. & Zhang R.Y. (2005) A pair of isomeric saponins with cytotoxicity from Albizzia julibrissin. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 7(6): 783-789. 8.Zheng L., Zheng J., Zhao Y., Wang B., Wu L. & Liang H. (2006) Three anti-tumor saponins from Albizia julibrissin. Bioorg Med Chem Lett., 16(10): 2765-2768.

Albizia lebbeck [India- PIT SHIRISH SHIRISHA, Myanmar- KOKKO] East Indian walnut, frywood, koko, lebbek, siristree, women's tongue tree, lebbekboom or parrot tree {R10} This species is traditionally used to treat asthma (1,2). In an uncontrolled clinical study of 60 patients with asthma it was found that response to Albizia lebbeck depended on the duration of the disease (2). Response was excellent for asthma of recent onset (less than two years) but results were less predictable in older cases. Results from a study of rats showed that A. lebbeck appeared to inhibit the early processes of sensitisation and synthesis of reaginic-type antibodies (3). If A. lebbeck was given during the first week of sensitisation it markedly inhibited the early sensitising processes, while if given during the second week it suppressed antibody production during the period of drug administration. The active ingredients of the bark were heat-stable and water-soluble.

In more recent work, the effect of saponin containing, n-butanolic fraction, extracted from dried leaves of A. lebbeck, was studied on cognitive behaviour (learning and memory) and anxiety in mice (4,5). Results showed significant improvement in the retention ability of the normal and amnesic mice as compared to their respective controls. Data emanating from the study suggested involvement of gamma-aminobutyric acid/monoamine neurotransmitters in the nootropic and anxiolytic activity of saponins obtained from A. lebbeck (4,5). Potential for production in Australia (6). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe, T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 3.Tripathi R.M., Sen P.C. & Das P.K. (1979) Studies on the mechanism of action of Albizzia lebbeck, an Indian indigenous drug used in the treatment of atopic allergy. J Ethnopharmacol., 1(4): 385-396. 4.Une H.D., Sarveiya V.P., Pal S.C., Kasture V.S. & Kasture S.B. (2001) Nootropic and anxiolytic activity of saponins of Albizzia lebbeck leaves. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 69(3-4): 439-444. 5.Chintawar S.D., Somani R.S., Kasture V.S. & Kasture SB. (2002) Nootropic activity of Albizzia lebbeck in mice. J Ethnopharmacol., 81(3): 299-305. 14

6.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Alisma plantago-aquatica (ZE XIE) water plantain {R4} This plant grows widely in marshes in southern China and has traditional uses in cardiovascular disease, diabetes and as an antibacterial (1). Animal experiments, revealed some antibacterial action and also seemed to lower blood pressure, blood sugar and blood cholesterol (1). Later human clinical trials are reported to have shown that Alisma plantago-aquatica can lower plasma cholesterol levels (2). However, the scientific literature on this species is very limited. 1.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Allium macrostemon (XIE BAI) long stamen onion, Chinese chive, Chinese garlic, macrostem onion or Japanese garlic {R8} Extracts can inhibit human platelet aggregation in vitro (1,2,3). 1.He X.J., Wang N.L., Qiu F. & Yao X.S. (2003) Research on active constituents research of gualou xiebai baijiutang (III). The active flavanoids. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(5): 420-423. 2.Peng J., Yao X., Kobayashi H. & Ma C. (1995) Novel furostanol glycosides from Allium macrostemon. Planta Med., 61(1): 58-61. 3.Peng J.P., Wang X. & Yao X.S. (1993) Studies on two new furostanol glycosides from Allium macrostemon Bunge. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 28(7): 526-531.

Allium sativum (TA SUAN) garlic Current commercial crop in Australia, although much is imported. One of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). A number of studies have demonstrated the protective effects of garlic consumption against human cancers (2). When garlic cells are crushed, ‘alliin’ is degraded and converted to ‘allicin’. Allicin shows antibacterial properties and decreases blood cholesterol levels (3). Another key outcome from garlic intake is suppression of platelet aggregation (4). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Mantle D. & Wilkins R. (2005) Medicinal plants in the prevention and therapy of cancer, pp. 281-318. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Lee H., Itokawa H. & Kozuka M. (2005) Asian Herbal Products: The basis for development of high-quality dietary supplements and new medicines, pp. 21-72. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & F. Shahidi (Eds.) ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp. 4.Ariga T. & Seki T. (2005) Functional foods from garlic and onion, pp. 433-489. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & F. Shahidi (Eds.) ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp.

Alpinia hainanensis (CAO DOU KOU) katsumada’s galangal seed {R7} A member of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae), Alpinia hainanensis has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat a variety of conditions such as emesis and gastric disorders. Cardamonin, one of the main constituents from the seeds has antibacterial, antiinflammatory and other important therapeutic activity (1). 7,8-Dihydroxyflavanone, isolated from the seeds was found to have an in vitro cytotoxic effect against A549 (human lung cancer cell-line) and K562 (human leukaemia cell-line) (2). Various aspects of antioxidant activity were evaluated in a total extract derived from A. hainanensis (3). This extract enhanced viability of Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cells and inhibited induced apoptosis. The total extract also showed significant antioxidant activity that was comparable to antioxidant compounds such as EGCG and resveratrol (3). 1.He W., Li Y., Liu J., Hu Z. & Chen X. (2005) Specific interaction of chalcone-protein: cardamonin binding site II on the human serum albumin molecule. Biopolymers, 79(1): 48-57. 2.Hahm E.R., Park S. & Yang C.H. (2003) 7, 8-dihydroxyflavanone as an inhibitor for Jun-Fos-DNA complex formation and its cytotoxic effect on cultured human cancer cells. Nat Prod Res., 17(6): 431-436. 3.Lee S.E., Shin H.T., Hwang H.J. & Kim J.H. (2003) Antioxidant activity of extracts from Alpinia katsumadai seed. Phytother Res., 17(9): 1041-1047.

Alpinia officinarum (GAO LIANG JIANG) lesser galangal, petite galangal or Chinese ginger {R21} ‘Galangin’ is a flavonol which is present in high concentrations in Alpinia officinarum. Results from in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that galangin’s antioxidative and free radical scavenging activities are capable of modulating enzyme activity and suppressing the genotoxicity of chemicals; thereby making it a promising candidate for cancer chemoprevention (1). Other compounds from the rhizome have antioxidant activity (2,3,4). Recent work has established that extracts from A. officinarum can exhibit cytotoxicity against human cancer cell-lines (5). A pancreatic lipase inhibitor from the rhizome significantly lowered serum triglyceride and cholesterol of hyperlipidaemic mice (6,7). Antiinflammatory properties have been demonstrated in vitro with mouse and human cells (8). 1.Heo M.Y., Sohn S.J. & Au W.W. (2001) Anti-genotoxicity of galangin as a cancer chemopreventive agent candidate. Mutat Res, 488(2): 135-150. 2.Ly T.N., Shimoyamada M., Kato K. & Yamauchi R. (2004) Antioxidative compounds isolated from the rhizomes of smaller galanga (Alpinia officinarum Hance). Biofactors., 21(1-4): 305-308. 3.Ly T.N., Shimoyamada M., Kato K. & Yamauchi R. (2003) Isolation and characterization of some antioxidative compounds from the rhizomes of smaller galanga (Alpinia officinarum Hance). J Agric Food Chem., 51(17): 4924-4929. 4.Lee S.E., Hwang H.J., Ha J.S., Jeong H.S. & Kim J.H. (2003) Screening of medicinal plant extracts for antioxidant activity. Life Sci., 73(2): 167-179. 5.Lee C.C. & Houghton P. (2005) Cytotoxicity of plants from Malaysia and Thailand used traditionally to treat cancer. J Ethnopharmacol., 100(3): 237-243. 6.Shin J.E., Han M.J., Song M.C., Baek N.I. & Kim D.H. (2004) 5-Hydroxy-7-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-1- phenyl-3-heptanone: a pancreatic lipase inhibitor isolated from Alpinia officinarum. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(1): 138-140. 7.Shin J.E., Joo Han M. & Kim D.H. (2003) 3-Methylethergalangin isolated from Alpinia officinarum inhibits pancreatic lipase. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(6): 854-857. 8.Yadav P.N., Liu Z. & Rafi M.M. (2003) A diarylheptanoid from lesser galangal (Alpinia officinarum) inhibits proinflammatory mediators via inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase, p44/42, and transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B. J Pharmacol Exp Ther., 305(3): 925-931.

Alpinia oxyphylla (YI ZHI) sharp leaf galangal or black cardamon {R11} Another species in the ginger family, Alpinia oxyphylla is used in Oriental herbal medicine for the treatment of various symptoms accompanying hypertension and cerebrovascular disorders (1). A 50% ethanolic extract from the seed vessel of fruit from Alpinia oxyphylla was investigated and showed antidementia effects and increased learning function in animals (2). In more recent work, the protective effect of ethanol extract from the fruits on glutamate-induced neuronal apoptosis was examined in primary cultured mouse cortical neurons (3). Fruit extract in the presence of glutamate showed neuroprotective function with significantly elevated cell viability, reduced number of apoptotic cells and decreased intensity of glutamate-induced DNA fragmentation (3).

Building on these findings, a study was performed to investigate the effects of water-extracts of the fruit on a cultured primary neuron cell system, cell cytotoxicity and lipid peroxidation in Abeta treatment conditions (1). Abeta-induced cell death was protected by the extract in a dose-dependent manner. Other evidence indicated that the extract protected neurons against ischaemia-induced cell death. Oral administration of the fruit extract to mice prevented ischaemia-induced learning disability and rescued hippocampal CA1 neurons from lethal ischaemic damage. The neuroprotective action of exogenous extract was also confirmed by counting synapses (1). The compounds in A. oxyphylla may exert their neuroprotective effect by reducing the nitric oxide-mediated formation of free radicals or antagonising their toxicity (1).

A. oxyphylla contains diarylheptanoids whose structures are analogous to that of ‘curcumin’ which has been shown to inhibit tumour promotion in experimental carcinogenesis (4). In a study that tested this species for its ability to suppress tumour promotion, topical application of the methanolic extract of dried fruit significantly ameliorated 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced skin tumour promotion as well as ear oedema in mice (4). Treatment of HL-60 cells with the methanolic extract also significantly reduced cell viability and inhibited DNA synthesis (4). Microscopic examination of the treated cells showed characteristic morphology of apoptosis. Furthermore, cells treated with the extract exhibited internucleosomal DNA fragmentation in time and concentration dependent manners. TPA-stimulated generation of superoxide anion in differentiated HL-60 cells was also blunted by A. oxyphylla. Taken together, these findings suggest that A. oxyphylla possesses potential chemopreventive and antitumourigenic activities (4). 16

The antitumour promoting potential of ‘yakuchinone A’ and ‘yakuchinone B’, major pungent ingredients of A. oxyphylla have also been examined (5). Yakuchinone A or B reduced TPA- stimulated production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha in cultured human promyelocytic leukaemia (HL-60) cells. Both compounds blunted the TPA-induced superoxide generation in differentiated HL- 60 cells in a concentration related manner and also inhibited lipid peroxidation in rat brain homogenates. Furthermore, yakuchinone A and yakuchinone B nullified the activation of the activator protein-1 in immortalised mouse fibroblast cells in culture. These findings indicate that pungent diarylheptanoids from A. oxyphylla have antitumour promotional properties that can contribute to their chemopreventive potential (5). 1.Koo B.S., Lee W.C., Chang Y.C. & Kim C.H. (2004) Protective effects of alpinae oxyphyllae fructus (Alpinia oxyphylla MIQ) water-extracts on neurons from ischemic damage and neuronal cell toxicity. Phytother Res., 18(2): 142-148. 2.Kubo M., Matsuda H., Suo T., Yamanaka J., Sakanaka M. & Yoshimura M. (1995) Study on Alpiniae Fructus. I. Pharmacological evidence of efficacy of Alpiniae Fructus on ancient herbal literature. Yakugaku Zasshi., 115(10): 852-862. 3.Yu X., An L., Wang Y., Zhao H. & Gao C. (2003) Neuroprotective effect of Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. fruits against glutamate-induced apoptosis in cortical neurons. Toxicol Lett., 144(2): 205-212. 4.Lee E., Park K.K., Lee J.M., Chun K.S., Kang J.Y., Lee S.S. & Surh Y.J. (1998) Suppression of mouse skin tumor promotion and induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells by Alpinia oxyphylla Miquel (Zingiberaceae). Carcinogenesis., 19(8): 1377-1381. 5.Chun K.S., Sohn Y., Kim H.S., Kim O.H., Park K.K., Lee J.M., Moon A., Lee S.S. & Surh Y.J. (1999) Anti- tumor promoting potential of naturally occurring diarylheptanoids structurally related to curcumin. Mutat Res., 428(1-2): 49-57.

Alstonia macrophylla - batino or hard alstonia {R9} The methanolic crude, methanol-aqueous extract and n-butanol part of the crude extract of Alstonia macrophylla leaves showed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (1). In another study of this species, the methanolic extract of dried leaves and its fractions were investigated for antiinflammatory activity (2). The extract and its fractions showed significant dose dependent antiinflammatory activity in carrageenan and dextran-induced rat hind-paw oedema in rats. This antiinflammatory activity was comparable with that of the standard drug ‘Indomethacin’ (2). Extracts of the root bark have also shown cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell-lines (3,4). 1.Chattopadhyay D., Maiti K., Kundu A.P., Chakraborty M.S., Bhadra R., Mandal S.C. & Mandal A.B. (2001) Antimicrobial activity of Alstonia macrophylla: a folklore of bay islands. J Ethnopharmacol., 77(1): 49-55. 2.Arunachalam G., Chattopadhyay D., Chatterjee S., Mandal A.B., Sur T.K. & Mandal S.C. (2002) Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of Alstonia macrophylla Wall ex A. DC. leaf extract. Phytomedicine, 9(7): 632-635. 3.Keawpradub N., Houghton P.J., Eno-Amooquaye E. & Burke P.J. (1997) Activity of extracts and alkaloids of Thai Alstonia species against human lung cancer cell lines. Planta Med., 63(2): 97-101. 4.Keawpradub N., Eno-Amooquaye E., Burke P.J. & Houghton P.J. (1999) Cytotoxic activity of indole alkaloids from Alstonia macrophylla. Planta Med., 65(4): 311-315.

Alstonia scholaris (DENG TAI YE) [Myanmar- TAUNG-MA-YOE] devil’s tree, ditta bark tree or blackboard tree {R12} Traditional uses of this plant are not particularly relevant to Australia’s current chronic diseases. However, modern research is demonstrating that the devil’s tree has potential. Echitamine chloride, a plant alkaloid from Alstonia scholaris, exhibited significant regression in tumour growth in rats with methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma (1). In more recent work, administration of an alkaloid fraction of A. scholaris, once daily for nine consecutive days to tumour bearing mice caused a dose dependent remission of the tumour (2).

The plant extracts of 17 commonly used Indian medicinal plants were examined for their possible regulatory effect on nitric oxide levels using sodium nitroprusside as an nitric oxide donor in vitro (3). Most of the extracts demonstrated direct scavenging of nitric oxide and exhibited significant activity but potency of activity was greatest for A. scholaris (3). 1.Kamarajan P., Sekar N., Mathuram V. & Govindasamy S. (1991) Antitumor effect of echitamine chloride on methylcholonthrene induced fibrosarcoma in rats. Biochem Int., 25(3): 491-498. 2.Jagetia G.C. & Baliga M.S. (2006) Evaluation of anticancer activity of the alkaloid fraction of Alstonia scholaris (Sapthaparna) in vitro and in vivo. Phytother Res., 20(2): 103-109. 3.Jagetia G.C. & Baliga M.S. (2004) The evaluation of nitric oxide scavenging activity of certain Indian medicinal plants in vitro: a preliminary study. J Med Food., 7(3): 343-348.

Amomum krervanh (BAI DOU KOU) krawan or Siam / Thai cardamom {R4} Possible use as an antimalarial (1). 1.Kamchonwongpaisan, S., Nilanonta, C., Tarnchompoo, B., Thebtaranonth, C., Thebtaranonth, Y., Yuthavong, Y., Kongsaeree, P. & Clardy, J. (1995) An antimalarial peroxide from Amomum krervanh Pierre. Tetrahedron lett., 36 (11): 1821-1824.

Amomum tsao-ko (CAO GUO) caoguo amomum {R7} One of the traditional functions of this plant is the arrest of malarial attack (1). Its essential oils have been identified (2,3), as well as an antifungal agent (4). Possible radical scavenging and antioxidant activity (5). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Wu Y., Ge F., Shi Q., Tan X. & Wu H. (1997) Study of supercritical-CO2 fluid extraction in extracting essential oils of Amomun tsao-ko. Zhong Yao Cai., 20(5): 240-241. 3.Lin J., Zheng Y., Xu Y., Xia P., Wu Z., Cheng F. & Song L. (2000) Analysis of essential oil from Amomum tsaoko by extraction of supercritical CO2 fluid. Zhong Yao Cai., 23(3): 145-148. 4.Moon S.S., Lee J.Y. & Cho S.C. (2004) Isotsaokoin, an antifungal agent from Amomum tsao-ko. J Nat Prod., 67(5): 889-891. 5.Martin T.S., Kiduzaki H., Hisamoto M. & Nakatani N. (2000) Constituents of Amomum tsao-ko and their radical scavenging and antioxidant activities. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 77(6): 667-673.

Amomum villosum (SHA REN) villous amomum fruit {R6} Bornyl acetate, the main ingredient of Amomum villosum displayed analgesic and antiinflammatory effects in rodents (1,2). 1.Wu X., Xiao F., Zhang Z., Li X. & Xu Z. (2005) Research on the analgesic effect and mechanism of bornyl acetate in volatile oil from Amomum villosum. Zhong Yao Cai., 28(6): 505-507. 2.Wu X., Li X., Xiao F., Zhang Z., Xu Z. & Wang H. (2004) Studies on the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect of bornyl acetate in volatile oil from Amomum villosum. Zhong Yao Cai., 27(6): 438-439.

Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (YIE PU TAO TENG) porcelain berry {R9} Used as an antiinflammatory and antihepatotoxic agent in folk medicine. The antioxidant activity of the methanol extract of the root and stem may partially explain this plant’s antiinflammatory and antihepatotoxic effects (1). Antihepatotoxic effects have been demonstrated in mice (2). This herb is also said to possess anticancer activity (3). The antimutagenic activities of extracts of 36 commonly used anticancer crude drugs from Chinese herbs were studied by using the Salmonella/microsomal system in the presence of picrolonic acid or benzo[a]pyrene to test whether they contain direct or indirect antimutagens (4). Each crude drug was extracted with boiling water, the method commonly used by Chinese people to prepare the drug for oral intake. Extracts of porcelain berry showed moderate antimutagenic activity (4). This species is a weed in some locations (5). 1.Wu M.J., Yen J.H., Wang L. & Weng C.Y. (2004) Antioxidant activity of Porcelainberry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Maxim.) Trautv.. Am J Chin Med., 32(5): 681-693. 2.Yabe N. & Matsui H. (2000) Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Vitaceae) extract inhibits a progression of carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic injury in the mice. Phytomedicine, 7(6): 493-498. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 4.Lee H. & Lin J.Y. (1988) Antimutagenic activity of extracts from anticancer drugs in Chinese medicine. Mutat Res., 204(2): 229-234. 5.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Andrographis paniculata (CHUAN XIN LIAN) [India- KARIYAT] creat, andrographis, king of bitter(s) {R14} Erect annual herb to about 80 cm with profuse branching (1). Common throughout the plains of India (2); probably native to India. Cultivated in gardens but often considered a weed, grows in a variety of habitats including wastelands and wetlands. Andrographis paniculata is used in traditional Chinese medicine but was originally imported into China (2) (and Australia).

Although linked to treatments for cancer, human immunodeficiency virus and inflammation, the best efficacy data for this herb have come from human trials where it was found to alleviate symptoms of upper-respiratory tract infections (3), and symptoms and signs of common cold (4). A study of patients with cardiac and cerebral vascular disease also found that it inhibited platelet aggregation induced by ADP (2). Serotonin released from platelets was decreased but plasma serotonin levels remained unchanged. Potential for production in Australia (5). 18

1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 3.Melchior J., Spasov A.A., Ostrovskij O.V., Bulanov A.E. & Wikman G. (2000) Double-blind, placebo- controlled pilot and phase III study of activity of standardized Andrographis paniculata Herba Nees extract fixed combination (Kan jang) in the treatment of uncomplicated upper-respiratory tract infection. Phytomedicine, 7(5): 341-350. 4.Caceres D.D., Hancke J.L., Burgos R.A., Sandberg F. & Wikman G.K. (1999) Use of visual analogue scale measurements (VAS) to asses the effectiveness of standardized Andrographis paniculata extract SHA-10 in reducing the symptoms of common cold. A randomized double blind-placebo study. Phytomedicine, 6(4): 217- 223. 5.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Anemarrhena asphodeloides (ZHI MU) anemarrhena {R22} The rhizomes of Anemarrhena asphodeloides are prescribed as antipyretic, antiinflammatory, diuretic and hypoglycaemic agents in Chinese traditional medicine. The dried rhizome is traditionally used with other herbs in the treatment of diabetes (1). Chinese medical texts explain that this herb can lower blood sugar by increasing the metabolism of glucose in the body and increasing glycogen synthesis in the liver (2). But more recent research suggests that the hypoglycaemic effect of A. asphodeloides extract has been accounted for by the substance ‘mangiferin’ which increases insulin sensitivity (3). Ethanol extract of the roots stimulated insulin secretion in islets of normal Wistar and diabetic GK rats (3). Based on results from mice, the antidiabetic mechanism of A. asphodeloides may be due to decreased insulin resistance (4,5).

An aqueous extract of A. asphodeloides demonstrated growth inhibitory activity against cancer cells in vitro (6). This herb also brought about growth inhibition and induction of apoptotic cell death in gastric cancer cell-lines (7). Another investigation established that steroidal saponins isolated from A. asphodeloides might also be used as novel antithrombotic therapeutic agents in post-myocardial infarction (8). This plant was identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants with potential for production in the USA (9). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Hoa N.K., Phan D.V., Thuan N.D. & Ostenson C.G. (2004) Insulin secretion is stimulated by ethanol extract of Anemarrhena asphodeloides in isolated islet of healthy Wistar and diabetic Goto-Kakizaki Rats. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes., 112(9): 520-525. 4.Miura T., Ichiki H., Iwamoto N., Kato M., Kubo M., Sasaki H., Okada M., Ishida T., Seino Y. & Tanigawa K. (2001) Antidiabetic activity of the rhizoma of Anemarrhena asphodeloides and active components, mangiferin and its glucoside. Biol Pharm Bull., 24(9): 1009-1011. 5.Miura T., Ichiki H., Hashimoto I., Iwamoto N., Kato M., Kubo M., Ishihara E., Komatsu Y., Okada M., Ishida T. & Tanigawa K. (2001) Antidiabetic activity of a xanthone compound, mangiferin. Phytomedicine, 8(2): 85-87. 6.Shoemaker M., Hamilton B., Dairkee S.H., Cohen I. & Campbell M.J. (2005) In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res., 19(7): 649-651. 7.Takeda Y., Togashi H., Matsuo T., Shinzawa H., Takeda Y. & Takahashi T. (2001) Growth inhibition and apoptosis of gastric cancer cell lines by Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge. J Gastroenterol. , 36(2): 79-90. 8.Zhang J., Meng Z., Zhang M., Ma D., Xu S. & Kodama H. (1999) Effect of six steroidal saponins isolated from anemarrhenae rhizoma on platelet aggregation and hemolysis in human blood. Clin Chim Acta., 289(1-2): 79-88. 9.Craker L.E. & Giblette J. (2002). Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production, pp. 491-496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.) ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.-ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Anemone chinensis (BAI TOU WENG) Chinese pulsatilla or Chinese anemone {R12} In China, this plant has been used to treat inflammation of the mucosal lining of the small intestine for many years. However, little was known about the mechanism underlying its antiinflammatory effects until recent rat cell work established that anemonin from the root may exert beneficial therapeutic action in intestinal inflammation by inhibiting the production of nitric oxide, endothelin-1 and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 thus preventing intestinal microvascular dysfunction (1). Compounds from the root have also demonstrated cytotoxicity against P-388, Lewis lung carcinoma (2), human large-cell lung carcinoma (2), and against mouse melanoma cells (3). 1.Duan H., Zhang Y., Xu J., Qiao J., Suo Z., Hu G. & Mu X. (2006) Effect of anemonin on NO, ET-1 and ICAM-1 production in rat intestinal microvascular endothelial cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 104(3): 362-366. 2.Ye W.C., Ji N.N., Zhao S.X., Liu J.H., Ye T., McKervey M.A. & Stevenson P. (1996) Triterpenoids from Pulsatilla chinensis. Phytochemistry, 42(3): 799-802. 3.Liu W.K., Ho J.C., Cheung F.W., Liu B.P., Ye W.C. & Che C.T. (2004) Apoptotic activity of betulinic acid derivatives on murine melanoma B16 cell line. Eur J Pharmacol., 498(1-3): 71-78.

Angelica anomala (BAI ZHI) angelica {R5} Traditional uses are probably not relevant to Australia’s chronic diseases (1) but Angelica anomala was considered here because of the general importance of medicinal plants in this genus, and the good evidence for their bioactivity (2). Work in the 1960s focussed on identification of coumarins in the root (3,4) but since then little has been reported. 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Sarker S.D. & Nahar L. (2004) Natural medicine: the genus Angelica. Curr Med Chem., 11(11): 1479-1500. 3.Hata K., Kozawa M. & Ikeshiro Y. (1967) New coumarins isolated from the roots of Angelica anomala Lall. and Angelica cartilaginomarginata (Makino) Nakai (Umbelliferae). Yakugaku Zasshi., 87(9): 1118-1124. 4.Hata K., Kozawa M., Yen K.Y. & Kimura Y. (1963) Pharmacognostical studies on umbelliferous plants. XX. Studies on Chinese drug "bvaku-shi". 5. On the coumarins of the roots of Angelica formosana Boiss. and A. anomala Lall. Jpn J Pharmacol., 83: 611-614.

Angelica dahurica (BAI ZHI) dahurian angelica or fragrant angelica {R16} Angelica is one of the most commonly used Chinese traditional herbs for allergies and colds. Research indicates that active ingredients in this herb inhibit histamine release and inflammation. The therapeutically important components are coumarins (1). The coumarins ‘pangelin’ and ‘oxypeucedanin hydrate acetonide’ showed potent cytotoxic activity against four kinds of tumour cell- line (2). Inhibition of multidrug-resistant and methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus by extracts from this herb was favourably comparable with some of the newest agents in development for treatment of this bacterium (3). 1.Chen Y., Fan G., Chen B., Xie Y., Wu H., Wu Y., Yan C. & Wang J. (2006) Separation and quantitative analysis of coumarin compounds from Angelica dahurica (Fisch. ex Hoffm) Benth. et Hook. f by pressurized capillary electrochromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal., 41(1): 105-116. 2.Thanh P.N., Jin W., Song G., Bae K. & Kang S.S. (2004) Cytotoxic coumarins from the root of Angelica dahurica. Arch Pharm Res., 27(12): 1211-1215. 3.Lechner D., Stavri M., Oluwatuyi M., Pereda-Miranda R. & Gibbons S. (2004) The anti-staphylococcal activity of Angelica dahurica (Bai Zhi). Phytochemistry., 65(3): 331-335.

Angelica decursiva (QIAN HU) {R10} The roots contain coumarins (1,2). 1.Hata K. & Sano K. (1969) Studies on coumarins from the root of Angelica decursiva FR et SAV. I. The structure of decursin and decursidin. Yakugaku Zasshi., 89(4): 549-557. 2.Liu R., Sun Q., Shi Y. & Kong L. (2005) Isolation and purification of coumarin compounds from the root of Peucedanum decursivum (Miq.) Maxim by high-speed counter-current chromatography. J Chromatogr A., 1076(1-2): 127-132.

Angelica keiskei [Japanese- ASHITABA] Japanese angelica or tomorrow's leaf {R17} This plant has a 2,000 year history in China and Japan as a medicinal herb and is believed to slow aging. A species of the celery family, its stems have a thick yellow juice containing ‘chalcones’. Chalcones are rarely found anywhere in the natural world. The roots have traditionally been used as a health food considered to have diuretic, laxative, analeptic and lactagogue effects. Recently, it has been thought that the roots and stems have preventive effects against coronary heart disease, hypertension and cancer. Although more human clinical work is required, there is enough existing evidence to suggest that this plant should be the focus of on-going investigation.

Recent research evaluated ‘xanthoangelol’, a major chalcone constituent in Angelica keiskei for cell toxicity and apoptosis-inducing activity in human neuroblastoma (IMR-32) and leukaemia (Jurkat) cells (1). Xanthoangelol concentration-dependently reduced the survival rates of both cell-lines, and may be applicable as an effective drug for treatment of neuroblastoma and leukaemia. In another study, xanthoangelol D markedly suppressed both basal and tumour necrosis factor-alpha-induced nuclear factor-kappa B activation in cultured porcine aortic endothelial cells (2). This result suggests that xanthoangelol D may be useful for treatment of various vascular diseases involved nuclear factor - kappaB activation (2).

Two chalcone derivatives from A. keiskei roots also inhibited tumour growth and metastasis in tumour- bearing mice through the inhibition of tumour-induced neovascularisation and/or the inhibition of immune suppression caused by tumours (3).

‘4-hydroxyderricin’, a characteristic chalcone isolated from the yellow stem liquid, suppressed elevation of systolic blood pressure, reduced serum very low-density lipoprotein levels, and decreased hepatic triglyceride content in stroke-prone, spontaneously hypertensive rats (4).

In a study which evaluated human smokers, green vegetable drink (A. keiskei based juice) was drunk every day for eight weeks, and the results supported the hypothesis that this drink exerts a cancer- protective effect via a decrease in oxidative damage to DNA (5). 1.Tabata K., Motani K., Takayanagi N., Nishimura R., Asami S., Kimura Y., Ukiya M., Hasegawa D., Akihisa T. & Suzuki T. (2005) Xanthoangelol, a major chalcone constituent of Angelica keiskei, induces apoptosis in neuroblastoma and leukemia cells. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(8): 1404-1407. 2.Sugii M., Ohkita M., Taniguchi M., Baba K., Kawai Y., Tahara C., Takaoka M. & Matsumura Y. (2005) Xanthoangelol D isolated from the roots of Angelica keiskei inhibits endothelin-1 production through the suppression of nuclear factor-kappaB. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(4): 607-610. 3.Kimura Y. (2005) New anticancer agents: in vitro and in vivo evaluation of the antitumor and antimetastatic actions of various compounds isolated from medicinal plants. In Vivo, 19(1): 37-60. 4.Ogawa H., Ohno M. & Baba K. (2005) Hypotensive and lipid regulatory actions of 4-hydroxyderricin, a chalcone from Angelica keiskei, in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol., 32(1-2): 19-23. 5.Kang M.H., Park Y.K., Kim H.Y. & Kim T.S. (2004) Green vegetable drink consumption protects peripheral lymphocytes DNA damage in Korean smokers. Biofactors, 22(1-4): 245-247.

Angelica pubescens (DU HUO) pubescent angelica {R14} Coumarins are responsible for this herb’s antiinflammatory and antirheumatic activity (1,2,3,4). ‘Osthole’ is one of the angelica antiinflammatory compounds but it also inhibits platelet aggregation (5). Other studies have shown that osthole relaxes the thoracic aorta of rats (6) and is a selective antiproliferative agent in vascular smooth muscle cells (7). In recent work, angelmarin from A. pubescens exhibited 100% preferential cytotoxicity against PANC-1 cancer cells (8). 1.Pan J.X., Lam Y.K., Arison B., Smith J. & Han G.Q. (1987) Isolation and identification of isoangelol, anpubesol and other coumarins from Angelica pubescens Maxim. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 22(5): 380-384. 2.Kosuge T., Yokota M., Sugiyama K., Yamamoto T., Mure T. & Yamazawa H. (1985) Studies on bioactive substances in crude drugs used for arthritic diseases in traditional Chinese medicine. II. Isolation and identification of an anti-inflammatory and analgesic principle from the root of Angelica pubescens Maxim. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo)., 33(12): 5351-5354. 3.Chen Y.F., Tsai H.Y. & Wu T.S. (1995) Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities from roots of Angelica pubescens. Planta Med., 61(1): 2-8. 4.Hoult J.R. & Paya, M. (1996) Pharmacological and biochemical actions of simple coumarins: natural products with therapeutic potential. Gen Pharmacol., 27(4): 713-722. 5.Ko F.N., Wu T.S., Liou M.J., Huang T.F. & Teng C.M. (1989) Inhibition of platelet thromboxane formation and phosphoinositides breakdown by osthole from Angelica pubescens. Thromb Haemost., 62(3): 996-999. 6.Ko F.N., Wu T.S., Liou M.J., Huang T.F. & Teng C.M. (1992) Vasorelaxation of rat thoracic aorta caused by osthole isolated from Angelica pubescens. Eur J Pharmacol., 219(1): 29-34. 7.Guh J.H., Yu S.M., Ko F.N., Wu T.S. & Teng C.M. (1996) Antiproliferative effect in rat vascular smooth muscle cells by osthole, isolated from Angelica pubescens. Eur J Pharmacol., 298(2): 191-197. 8.Awale S., Nakashima E.M., Kalauni S.K., Tezuka Y., Kurashima Y., Lu J., Esumi H. & Kadota S. (2006) Angelmarin, a novel anti-cancer agent able to eliminate the tolerance of cancer cells to nutrient starvation. Bioorg Med Chem Lett., 16(3): 581-583.

Angelica sinensis (DANG GUI or DONG QUAI) Chinese angelica or female ginseng {R27} Considered one of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). Angelica sinensis is certainly one of the most popular Chinese tonic herbs in the West. In Asia, dong quai’s reputation is perhaps second only to ginseng (1). Extracts from the roots are traditionally used as a remedy for painful menstruation and menopausal symptoms, and are believed to produce a balancing effect on oestrogen activity (1). But a double-blind trial with menopausal women found no oestrogenic activity for this herb (2). A recent review found that evidence for dong quai’s influence in treating menopausal symptoms was inconclusive (3). However, ‘Climex’ a herbal preparation containing A. sinensis and Matricaria did reduce hot flushes (4).

This herb is also used in traditional Chinese medicine to promote blood circulation and is used with other herbs to treat arthralgia, rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis (5). A. sinensis is often combined with dan shen (Salvia miltiorrhiza) in the treatment of angina, peripheral vascular disorders and stroke (6). A recent human trial with hundreds of patients studied the therapeutic effect of A. sinensis injection in treating acute cerebral infarction and found a therapeutic effect (7).

Sodium ferulate (SF) is an active principle from A. sinensis and other plants. It has been used in traditional Chinese medicine and is approved by State Drugs Administration of China as a drug for treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases (8,9). SF has antithrombotic, platelet aggregation inhibitory and antioxidant activities in animals and humans (8). For several decades SF has been widely used in China to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and to prevent thrombosis. Positive clinical results have been obtained with SF in coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, pulmonary heart disease and thrombosis (8). Its safety and efficacy have been demonstrated in clinical practice with in vitro and in vivo data supporting the view that SF is a useful drug for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases (8).

A. sinensis is one of the eleven most important cultivated medicinal plants in China (9). Potential for Australian production has been recognised (10) and limited plantings in Australia have established that it can be grown (11). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Hirata J.D., Swiersz L.M., Zell B., Small R. & Ettinger B. (1997) Does dong quai have estrogenic effects in postmenopausal women? A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Fertil Steril., 68: 981-986. 3.Huntley A.L. & Ernst E.A. (2003) Systematic review of herbal medicinal products for the treatment of menopausal symptoms. Menopause, 10(5): 465-476. 4.Kupfersztain C., Rotem C., Fagot R. & Kaplan B. (2003) The immediate effect of natural plant extract, Angelica sinensis and Matricaria chamomilla (Climex) for the treatment of hot flushes during menopause. A preliminary report. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol., 30(4): 203-206. 5.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 6.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 7.Liu Y.M., Zhang J.J. & Jiang J. (2004) Observation on clinical effect of Angelica injection in treating acute cerebral infarction. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 24(3): 205-208. 8.Wang B.H. & Ou-Yang J.P. (2005) Pharmacological actions of sodium ferulate in cardiovascular system. Cardiovasc Drug Rev., 23(2): 161-172. 9.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 10.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra. 11.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - Pers.comm.

Antiaris toxicaria (JIAN SUI FUAN HOU) upas tree {R4} The alcoholic extract of this herb is said to exert a cardiotonic effect with increased blood pressure and cardiac output (1). Extracts are used on poison darts (2). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Bisset N.G. (1979) Arrow poisons in China. Part I. J Ethnopharmacol., 1(4): 325-384.

Antrodia cinnamomea {R22} A medicinal, edible Basidiomycete fungus that has been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat food and drug intoxications, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, hypertension, skin itches and cancer. This

species has been the subject of considerable recent scientific investigation which has revealed details of antioxidative, vasorelaxative, antiinflammatory and antiangiogenic effects (1). A. cinnamomea polysaccharides are active in suppression of angiogenesis (2). Another recent in vitro evaluation concluded that extract from this fungus is a good anticancer agent, being effective in inducing phase G(2)M arrest, acting as an antiproliferative, and an antimetastatic agent against bladder cancer cell T24 cells (3).

In additional work, the extract’s ability to induce apoptosis in cultured MCF-7 breast cancer cells was studied (4). Results showed antiproliferative action and growth inhibition on MCF-7 cells through apoptosis induction; the authors concluding that it may have anticancer properties valuable for application in drug products. Ethylacetate extract from the fruiting bodies also decreased cell growth and induced apoptosis in two human liver cancer cell-lines (5). More support from human (or even animal) trials would help clarify the apparent medical importance of this species. 1.Lu M.K., Cheng J.J., Lai W.L., Lin Y.R. & Huang N.K. (2006) Adenosine as an active component of Antrodia cinnamomea that prevents rat PC12 cells from serum deprivation-induced apoptosis through the activation of adenosine A(2A) receptors. Life Sci., 79(3): 252-258. 2.Cheng J.J., Huang N.K., Chang T.T., Wang D.L. & Lu M.K. (2005) Study for anti-angiogenic activities of polysaccharides isolated from Antrodia cinnamomea in endothelial cells. Life Sci., 76(26): 3029-3042. 3.Peng C.C., Chen K.C., Peng R.Y., Su C.H. & Hsieh-Li H.M.(2006) Human urinary bladder cancer T24 cells are susceptible to the Antrodia camphorata extracts. Cancer Lett., Jan 30 [Epub ahead of print]. 4.Yang H.L., Chen C.S., Chang W.H., Lu F.J., Lai Y.C., Chen C.C., Hseu T.H., Kuo C.T. & Hseu Y.C. (2006) Growth inhibition and induction of apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells by Antrodia camphorata. Cancer Lett., 231(2): 215-227. 5.Hsu Y.L., Kuo Y.C., Kuo P.L., Ng L.T., Kuo Y.H. & Lin C.C. (2005) Apoptotic effects of extract from Antrodia camphorata fruiting bodies in human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Cancer Lett., 221(1): 77-89.

Apocynum venetum (LUOBUMA) dogbane {R21} ‘Quercetin’ is one of the major flavonoids in Apocynum venetum leaves that are used as a traditional herbal tea in China and Japan (1). Quercetin is an important phytochemical that has been found to have a function in suppressing tumours, scavenging free radicals and reducing blood pressure. Recent results from in vitro isometric contraction studies of the aorta and superior mesenteric artery of rats provide some support for the Chinese folk use of this leaf extract-decoction as an antihypertensive therapy (2). In another study, mechanisms underlying the antihypertensive effect of the leaf extract were investigated by observing its vasodilatory effect in the rat mesenteric vascular bed (which plays an important role in changing peripheral resistance and thus regulation of blood pressure) (3). Results suggested that the vasodilation induced by A. venetum is endothelium-dependent and mediated by endothelium-derived hyperpolarising factor, which involves the activation of K+-channels. Higher concentrations of extract may enhance nitric oxide production/release to cause vasodilation (3).

To help explain the beneficial effects of luobuma tea against atherosclerosis, Japanese researchers used the in vitro glycation reaction to investigate activity of the leaf extract and its components against the formation of advanced glycation end-products, which are largely involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic vascular complications (4). Strong inhibitory activity against the formation of advanced glycation end-products was shown by the aqueous extract.

In human trials the effect of A. venetum leaf extract on hypertension and hyperlipaemia was studied (5). The mean blood pressure in 60 cases of the treated group decreased from 171±19 / 98±11 mmHg to 154 ±22 / 91±10 mmHg after treatment for four weeks, and 148±17 / 89±10 mmHg after eight weeks (P<0.01). The high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in 40 cases of hyperlipaemia increased from 47.5±13 mg% to 63.9±18 mg% (P<0.01). These results were better than those in the control groups (5).

Isofraxidin and hyperin isolated from the ether solvent fraction of the leaves were effective sedative components (6). The mode of antidepressant action of A. venetum leaf extract was investigated in rats using a high-performance liquid chromatography system to examine the effects of short-term and long-term administration (7). The extract reduced norepinephrine and dopamine concentrations after eight weeks. In other work, an extract of the leaves markedly shortened the immobility time of male rats in a forced swimming test, indicating possible antidepressant activity (8). It is speculated that this effect might be related to hyperoside and isoquercitrin which are major flavonoids in the extract. 23

A water extract of the leaves showed protective effects against chemical-induced liver injury in mice and again flavonoids appeared to be the protective principles (9). The hepato-protective effects exhibited by the extract and its constituents suggested that the use of A. venetum leaves as a tea material was validated (9).

This flowering perennial to 1 m is a member of the family Apocynaceae. Natural habitat includes swamps, wet locations and maritime sands. Grows in light (sandy) to heavy (clay) soils that are preferably moist. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. The bark yields a fibre that is used for making twine, bags, linen etc. Traditional administration: 3 to 10 g of dried leaf material, decocted in water for an oral dose or steeped in boiling water (10). Like many medicinal plants, there are toxins in A. venetum and usage should be confirmed with healthcare practitioners. 1.Ma M., Hong C.L., An S.Q. & Li B. (2003) Seasonal, spatial, and interspecific variation in quercetin in Apocynum venetum and Poacynum hendersonii, Chinese traditional herbal teas. J Agric Food Chem., 51(8): 2390-2393. 2.Kwan C.Y., Zhang W.B., Nishibe S. & Seo S. (2005) A novel in vitro endothelium-dependent vascular relaxant effect of Apocynum venetum leaf extract. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol., 32(9): 789-795. 3.Tagawa C., Kagawa T., Nakazawa Y., Onizuka S., Nishibe S. & Kawasaki H. (2004) Studies on antihypertensive effect of Luobuma (Apocynum venetum L.) leaf extract (3). Yakugaku Zasshi., 124(11): 851- 856. 4.Yokozawa T. & Nakagawa T. (2004) Inhibitory effects of Luobuma tea and its components against glucose- mediated protein damage. Food Chem Toxicol. ,42(6): 975-981. 5.Ma Y.X. & Chen S.Y. (1989) Observations on the anti-aging, antihypertensive and antihyperlipemic effect of Apocynum venetum leaf extract. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 9(6): 323, 335-337. 6.Chen M. & Liu F.(1991) Sedative chemical constituents of leaves of Apocynum venetum Linn. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 16(10): 609-11, 640. 7.Butterweck V., Simbrey K., Seo S., Sasaki T. & Nishibe S. (2003) Long-term effects of an Apocynum venetum extract on brain monoamine levels and beta-AR density in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 75(3): 557-564. 8.Butterweck V., Nishibe S., Sasaki T. & Uchida M. (2001) Antidepressant effects of Apocynum venetum leaves in a forced swimming test. Biol Pharm Bull., 24(7): 848-851. 9.Xiong Q., Fan W., Tezuka Y., Adnyana I.K., Stampoulis P., Hattori M., Namba T. & Kadota S. (2000) Hepatoprotective effect of Apocynum venetum and its active constituents. Planta Med., 66(2): 127-133. 10.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Aquilaria sinensis (CHEN XIANG) Chinese eaglewood, Chinese agarwood or aquilaria {R7} Traditionally used for ailments including stuffy chest and asthma (1). Most scientific papers have focussed on the nature of the chemical constituents (eg. 2) rather than efficacy. Very limited recent work has been reported. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Yang J.S. & Chen Y.W. (1986) Studies on the chemical constituents of Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Gilg. II. Isolation and structure of baimuxinol and dehydrobaimuxinol. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 21(7): 516-520.

Aralia chinensis (JIA MU) Chinese angelica tree {R5} Used traditionally as a warming, pain-killing herb in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (1), and the root is considered useful in the treatment of diabetes (2). Aralia chinensis is also said to possess anticancer activity (3). Some 1990s scientific papers describe the chemical constituents. 1.Bown D. (1995) Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley, London. 2.Duke J.A. & Ayensu E.S. (1985) Medicinal Plants of China. Pub.- Reference Publications, Inc. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers.

Aralia elata - Japanese aralia, tara or Japanese angelica tree {R24} Root bark of Aralia elata is used as a folk medicine for neurasthenia, rheumatism, diabetes, hepatitis virus and spasm of the stomach in China, Japan and Russia (1). It contains saponin, alkaloid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, methyl eicosanoate and hexacosol (2).

Elatosides G, H, and I isolated from the food garnish ‘Taranome’ (the young shoot of A. elata) were found to exhibit potent hypoglycaemic activity in oral glucose tolerance tests in rats (3). ‘Elatoside E’ isolated from the root cortex also influenced the elevation of plasma glucose level (determined by oral sugar tolerance tests) in rats (4). When administered to rats with benzo(a)pyrene, A. elata ethanol extract exerted antioxidant and strong hypocholesterolaemic and hypolipidaemic effects (2). Japanese aralia extract fed to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats reduced cataract formation (5).

‘Aralin’ a novel cytotoxic protein from the shoots of A. elata exhibited potent cytotoxic activity against various types of human cancer cell-lines - cervical carcinoma cells (HeLa) proved the most sensitive (6). The cytotoxicity of aralin appears to be brought about primarily through the induction of apoptosis. 1.Wang Z., Song S., Lu H., Chen G., Xu S., Sagara Y., Kitaoka N., Manabe M. & Kodama H. (2003) Effect of three triterpenoid compounds isolated from root bark of Aralia elata on stimulus-induced superoxide generation and tyrosyl phosphorylation and translocation of p47(phox) and p67(phox) to cell membrane in human neutrophil. Clin Chim Acta., 336(1-2): 65-72. 2.Chung C.K. & Jung M.E. (2003) Ethanol fraction of Aralia elata Seemann enhances antioxidant activity and lowers serum lipids in rats when administered with benzo(a)pyrene. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(10): 1502-1504. 3.Yoshikawa M., Yoshizumi S., Ueno T., Matsuda H., Murakami T., Yamahara J. & Murakami N. (1995) Medicinal foodstuffs. I. Hypoglycemic constituents from a garnish foodstuff "taranome," the young shoot of Aralia elata SEEM.: elatosides G, H, I, J, and K. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 43(11): 1878-1882. 4.Yoshikawa M., Matsuda H., Harada E., Murakami T., Wariishi N., Yamahara J. & Murakami N. (1994) Elatoside E, a new hypoglycemic principle from the root cortex of Aralia elata Seem.: structure-related hypoglycemic activity of oleanolic acid glycosides. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 42(6): 1354-1356. 5.Chung Y.S., Choi Y.H., Lee S.J., Choi S.A., Lee J.H., Kim H. & Hong E.K. (2005) Water extract of Aralia elata prevents cataractogenesis in vitro and in vivo. J Ethnopharmacol., 101(1-3): 49-54. 6.Tomatsu M., Ohnishi-Kameyama M. & Shibamoto N. (2003) Aralin, a new cytotoxic protein from Aralia elata, inducing apoptosis in human cancer cells. Cancer Lett., 199(1): 19-25.

Arctium lappa (NIU BANG) burdock Current commercial crop in Australia (1). Traditionally used for hypoglycaemic properties (2) but trials on mice were not supportive (3). May be hepatoprotective, possibly through antioxidative activity which decreases the oxidative stress of hepatocytes (4). 1.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra. 2.Chiej R.(1988) The MacDonald Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants, Pub.- MacDonald (Orbis) & Co. Ltd., 447 pp. 3.Swanston-Flatt S.K., Day C., Flatt P.R., Gould B.J. & Bailey C.J. (1989) Glycaemic effects of traditional European plant treatments for diabetes. Studies in normal and streptozotocin diabetic mice. Diabetes Res., 10(2): 69-73. 4.Lin S.C., Lin C.H., Lin C.C., Lin Y.H., Chen C.F., Chen I.C. & Wang L.Y. (2002) Hepatoprotective effects of Arctium lappa Linne on liver injuries induced by chronic ethanol consumption and potentiated by carbon tetrachloride. J Biomed Sci., 9(5): 401-409.

Areca catechu (BING LANG- dried ripe seed, DA FU PI- dried pericarp) areca seeds, areca peel/pericarp, betel nut palm, areca palm or areca nut {R4} Methanol extracts of medicinal plants traditionally used in Chinese medicine were screened for antioxidant activity versus ‘resveratrol’, which has been shown to protect cells from oxidative damage (1). Extracts of Areca catechu showed higher antioxidant activity than resveratrol in all experiments with hamster lung fibroblast (V79-4) cells. A. catechu is also sometimes used in treating malaria (2). Chewing betel nut is closely associated with oral cancer. 1.Lee S.E., Hwang H.J., Ha J.S., Jeong H.S. & Kim J.H. (2003) Screening of medicinal plant extracts for antioxidant activity. Life Sci., 73(2): 167-179. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Arisaema amurense (NAN XING) {R5} Traditionally used for its anticancer activity (1) but efficacy is not well described in the literature. The regulation of monoamine oxidase-B activity is important in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In a recent investigation, 27 species of plants used in traditional Chinese medicine were tested for their inhibitory effect on monoamine oxidase-B in rat brain homogenates (2). The 50% aqueous methanol extracts of four plants including Arisaema amurense, exhibited the best activity and selectivity towards monoamine oxidase-B. A. amurense may therefore be a candidate for use in delaying the progressive degeneration caused by neurological diseases (2). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Lin R.D., Hou W.C., Yen K.Y. & Lee M.H. (2003) Inhibition of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) by Chinese herbal medicines. Phytomedicine, 10(8): 650-656.

Arisaema consanguineum (NAN XING) {R3} Used for its anticancer activity (1) but efficacy is not well described in the literature. Two lectins purified from the tubers were mitogenic for human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in the [3H]- thymidine uptake assay (2). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Shangary S., Kamboj S.S., Singh J., Kamboj K.K. & Sandhu R.S. (1996) New lymphocyte stimulating monocot lectins from family Araceae. II. Immunol Invest., 25(4): 273-278.

Arisaema erubescens (NAN XING) {R5} The dried roots of Arisaema erubescens are used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat a variety of ailments; aqueous extracts are reported to exhibit anticancer properties (1). A fraction of the methanol extract of dried A. erubescens exhibited strong cytotoxic activity against K562 human leukaemia cells. ‘Paeonol’ was isolated from this fraction but authentic paeonol was not cytotoxic to K562 cells, suggesting that compounds co-eluting with paeonol are responsible for the cytotoxic activity (1). 1.Ducki S., Hadfield J.A., Lawrence N.J., Zhang X.G., McGown A.T. & Zhang X.G. (1995) Isolation of paeonol from Arisaema erubescens. Planta-Medica, 61: 586-587.

Arisaema heterophyllum (NAN XING) [Japanese- MAIZURU-TENNAN-SHO {R6} Used for its anticancer activity (1) but no efficacy data could be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Aristolochia debilis (QING MU XIANG or MA DOU LING) slender Dutchman’s pipe {R6} Traditionally used as an antihypertensive herb (1,2). Methanol extracts of 170 natural products including Korean herbal medicines were evaluated for inhibition of prostaglandin E2 production (for COX-2 inhibitors) and nitric oxide formation (for iNOS inhibitors) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- induced mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells (3). Inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis and nitric oxide production are considered potential antiinflammatory and cancer chemopreventive agents. Several extracts, including those from Aristolochia debilis showed potent inhibition of COX-2 activity and iNOS activity (3). ‘Aristolone’ from this plant is now an established anticancer drug (4). Using tissue culture methods, the antiviral effect on type 1 herpes simplex was evaluated using extracts from 472 traditional medicinal herbs (5). Ten herbs were highly effective including A. debilis. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Hong C.H., Hur S.K., Oh O.J., Kim S.S., Nam K.A. & Lee S.K.E. (2002) Valuation of natural products on inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cultured mouse macrophage cells. J. Ethnopharmacol., 83(1-2): 153-9. 4.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 5.Zheng M. (1990) Experimental study of 472 herbs with antiviral action against the herpes simplex virus. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 10(1): 39-41.

Aristolochia indica [Myanmar- EIK-THARA-MULI] Indian birthwort {R9} A traditional treatment for arthritis (1) which has some antibacterial activity (1) and was considered in the past for antifertility (3). There is better evidence of antiarthritic activity in other species. 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe, T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Ravikumar S., Nazar S., Nuralshiefa A. & Abideen S. (2005) Antibacterial activity of traditional therapeutic coastal medicinal plants against some pathogens. J Environ Biol. , 26(2 Suppl): 383-386. 3. Kamboj V.P. & Dhawan B.N.(1982) Research on plants for fertility regulation in India. J Ethnopharmacol., 6(2): 191-226.

Aristolochia manshuriensis (MU TONG) akebia or Manchurian birthwort {R15} Used in Chinese medicine for the treatment of rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis (1). However, this plant is linked to acute and chronic toxicity (2,3) and there are bans on its use in some localities (1). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Hu S.L., Zhang H.Q., Chan K. & Mei Q.X. (2004) Studies on the toxicity of Aristolochia manshuriensis (Guanmuton). Toxicology., 198: 195-201. 3.Liu M.C., Maruyama S., Mizuno M., Morita Y., Hanaki S., Yuzawa Y. & Matsuo S. (2003) The nephrotoxicity of Aristolochia manshuriensis in rats is attributable to its aristolochic acids. Clin Exp Nephrol., 7(3): 186-194.

Aristolochia mollissima (XUN GU FENG) woolly Dutchman’s pipe {R4} For arthralgia with painful joints, alone or with other herbs (1,2). Not the subject of extensive recent research. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Li G.X. (1985) Studies on the anti-inflammatory action of the essential oil of Aristolochia mollissima. Zhong Yao Tong Bao., 10(6): 39-41.

Arnebia euchroma (ZI CAO) arnebia or groomwell {R13} ‘Shikonin’ is one of the active components isolated from the root of Arnebia euchrona. It has been shown to possess significant antibacterial, antiinflammatory and antitumour activities and has been used clinically (1).

In vitro testing has demonstrated that groomwell extracts have activity against - Hepatitis C virus (2), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (3) and human immunodeficiency virus (4). ‘Naphthoquinone pigment-LIII’ from A. euchroma, inhibited the proliferation of a stomach cancer cell-line and an oesophagus cancer cell-line (5). In other work, acetylshikonin, teracrylshikonin, beta, beta-dimethylacrylshikonin and shikonin, isolated from A. euchroma inhibited collagen induced aggregation of washed rabbit platelets (6). Root extracts have shown antiinflammatory effects in rats (7,8) 1.Li H., Luo S. & Zhou T. (1999) Studies on in vitro metabolism of shikonin. Phytother Res., 13(3): 236-238. 2.Ho T.Y., Wu S.L., Lai I.L., Cheng K.S., Kao S.T. & Hsiang C.Y. (2003) An in vitro system combined with an in-house quantitation assay for screening hepatitis C virus inhibitors. Antiviral Res., 58(3): 199-208. 3.Shen C.C., Syu W.J., Li S.Y., Lin C.H., Lee G.H. & Sun C.M. (2002) Antimicrobial activities of naphthazarins from Arnebia euchroma. J Nat Prod., 65(12): 1857-1862. 4.Kashiwada Y., Nishizawa M., Yamagishi T., Tanaka T., Nonaka G., Cosentino L.M., Snider J.V. & Lee K. (1995) Anti-AIDS agents, 18. Sodium and potassium salts of caffeic acid tetramers from Arnebia euchroma as anti-HIV agents. J Nat Prod., 58(3): 392-400. 5.Lu G. & Liao J. (1990) Detection of the anti-cancer biological effect of naphthoquinone pigment-LIII. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 10(7):422-425. 6.Ko F.N., Lee Y.S., Kuo S.C., Chang Y.S. & Teng C.M. (1995) Inhibition on platelet activation by shikonin derivatives isolated from Arnebia euchroma. Biochim Biophys Acta., 1268(3): 329-334. 7.Kaith B.S., Kaith N.S. & Chauhan N.S. (1996) Anti-inflammatory effect of Arnebia euchroma root extracts in rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 55(1): 77-80. 8.Wang W.J., Bai J.Y., Liu D.P., Xue L.M. & Zhu X.Y. (1994) The antiinflammatory activity of shikonin and its inhibitory effect on leukotriene B4 biosynthesis. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 29(3): 161-165.

Artemisia argyi (AI YE) argy wormwood or Chinese mugwort {R12} This plant contains oils that are traditionally used to treat asthma (1), however, recent research focus has been on anticancer evaluation. In up-to-date work, aqueous extracts of Artemisia argyi demonstrated antiproliferative activity on cancer cell-lines with results suggesting that further studies of this potential antineoplastic agent were warranted (2). Other cancer research, suggests that a compound from A. argyi might be used as a potential drug for the treatment of cervical cancers associated with the human papillomavirus (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Shoemaker M., Hamilton B., Dairkee S.H., Cohen I. & Campbell M.J. (2005) In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res., 19(7): 649-651. 3.Lee H.G., Yu K.A., Oh W.K., Baeg T.W., Oh H.C., Ahn J.S., Jang W.C., Kim J.W., Lim J.S., Choe Y.K. & Yoon D.Y. (2005) Inhibitory effect of jaceosidin isolated from Artemisia argyi on the function of E6 and E7 oncoproteins of HPV 16. J. Ethnopharmacol., 98(3): 339-343.

Artemisia capillaris (YIN CHEN) capillary artemisia or yin-chen wormwood {R6} This herb is used in the treatment of hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver (1). Artemisia capillaris is one component of a medicine that has shown some benefits in treatment of chronic hepatitis B in human trials (2,3). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Zhang B.Z., Ding F. & Tan L.W. (1993) Clinical and experimental study on yi-gan-ning granule in treating chronic hepatitis B. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 13(10): 580, 597-599. 3.Chen Z. (1990) Clinical study of 96 cases with chronic hepatitis B treated with jiedu yanggan gao by a double- blind method. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 10(2): 67, 71-74.

Asarum heterotropoides var. mandshuricum (XI XIN) asarum or Manchurian wild ginger {R6} Used with other herbs for rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis (1,2) but has not been the subject of recent investigations of efficacy. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Qu S.Y. & Wu Y.J. (1982) The anti-inflammatory effect of "XI XIN" [Asarum heterotropoides F. Schm. var. mandshuricum (Maxim) Kitag.] Yao Xue Xue Bao., 17(1): 12-16.

Asarum sieboldii (XI XIN) asarum or Manchurian wild ginger {R8} Asarum sieboldii is used in traditional Chinese and Korean medicine with other herbs for rheumatoid arthritis (1,2). Results from animal trials suggest that the methanol extract of this species exerts antinociceptive and antiinflammatory effects by activating opioid receptors, and by inhibiting bradykinin and histamine-mediated actions (2). More support from additional investigation is required. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Kim S.J., Gao Zhang C. & Taek Lim J. (2003) Mechanism of anti-nociceptive effects of Asarum sieboldii Miq. radix: potential role of bradykinin, histamine and opioid receptor-mediated pathways. J Ethnopharmacol., 88(1): 5-9.

Asparagus cochinchinensis (TIAN DONG) Chinese asparagus {R7} This herb is said to possess anticancer activity (1). The human hepatoma cell-line (Hep G2 cells) is used in a reliable system for examining alcohol-induced hepatotoxicity. An investigation of an aqueous extract of Asparagus cochinchinensis roots (ACAE) on ethanol-induced cytotoxicity in Hep G2 cells found that ACAE dose-dependently inhibited ethanol-induced tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) secretion (2). ACAE also inhibited the ethanol and TNF-alpha-induced cytotoxicity. Furthermore, it was found that ACAE inhibited TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis of Hep G2 cells. These results suggest that ACAE may prevent ethanol-induced cytotoxicity through inhibition of Hep G2 cell apoptosis (2). Another study established that an aqueous extract of A. cochinchinensis inhibited secretion of tumour necrosis factor-alpha from primary cultures of mouse astrocytes (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Koo H.N., Jeong H.J., Choi J.Y., Choi S.D., Choi T.J., Cheon Y.S., Kim K.S., Kang B.K., Park S.T., Chang C.H., Kim C.H., Lee Y.M., Kim H.M., An N.H. & Kim J.J. (2000) Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha- induced apoptosis by Asparagus cochinchinensis in Hep G2 cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 73(1-2): 137-143. 3.Kim H., Lee E., Lim T., Jung J. & Lyu, Y. (1998) Inhibitory effect of Asparagus cochinchinensis on tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion from astrocytes. Int J Immunopharmacol., 20(4-5): 153-162.

Astragalus complanatus (SHA YUAN ZI) flat-stem milk-vetch {R6} The total flavonoid fraction of Astragalus complanatus displayed obvious hypotensive effects in rats, mainly by decreasing total peripheral resistance (1,2). 1.Xue B., Li J.X. & Chen L.B. (2002) Depressive effect of total flavonoid fraction of Astragalus complanatus R. Br and its influence upon hemodynamics in SHR. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 27(11): 855-858. 2.Li J.X., Xue B., Chai Q., Liu Z.X., Zhao A.P. & Chen L.B. (2005) Antihypertensive effect of total flavonoid fraction of Astragalus complanatus in hypertensive rats. Chin J. Physiol., 48(2): 101-106.

Astragalus membranaceus (HUANG QI) astragalus or membranous milk-vetch In 1998, this herb was identified as having potential for Australia (1). Since then, trial plantings have been established and evaluated in Tasmania (2). Astragalus membranaceus is a commonly cultivated herb in China. This plant was also identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants that had potential for production in the USA (3). Many studies have examined the effects of this herb on cardiovascular disease and cancer. Human clinical trials have demonstrated benefits. 1.Purbrick P. (1998) Medicinal herbs, pp. 369-376. In, Hyde, K.W. (Ed.) ‘The New Rural Industries- a Handbook for Farmers and Investors’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra, 570 pp. 2.Laurence R. (2006) Medicinal herbs - A preliminary evaluation of Astragalus, Bilberry, Feverfew and Stevia. Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation publication no. 05/185, 46 pp. 3.Craker L.E. & Giblette J. (2002) Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production, pp. 491-496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Astragalus mongholicus (HUANG QI) {R7} Huang Qi or Astragalus herbal products are typically composed of Astragalus membranaceus root components, but often Astragalus mongholicus is used in conjunction, sometimes being incorrectly recognised as a subspecies or variety of A. membranaceus. A. mongholicus has been investigated for in vitro antioxidant activity of its chemical constituents (1). However, A. membranaceus is the more

thoroughly investigated species and possibly has better potential for Australian commercial production. 1.Yu D.H., Bao Y.M., Wei C.L. & An L.J. (2005) Studies of chemical constituents and their antioxidant activities from Astragalus mongholicus Bunge. Biomed Environ Sci., 18(5): 297-301.

Atractylodes japonica {R8} Atractylodes japonica has traditionally been used for the treatment of pain and arthritis. The effect of A. japonica against induced inflammation was investigated using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, nitric oxide detection, and prostaglandin E2 immunoassay in mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages (1). The aqueous extract suppressed nitric oxide production and prostaglandin E2 synthesis with results suggesting that A. japonica exerts antiinflammatory and analgesic effects probably in part by suppression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (1).

An oriental herbal combination (BDX-1) was prepared from Achyranthes bidentata and A. japonica and in clinical tests was found to be effective in rheumatoid arthritis patients (2). In mouse models, the oral administration of BDX-1 was found to markedly inhibit collagen-induced arthritis, adjuvant- induced arthritis, and zymosan-induced inflammation. It also inhibited carrageenan-induced acute oedema and acetic acid-induced writhing response (2). 1.Jang M.H., Shin M.C., Kim Y.J., Kim C.J., Kim Y. & Kim E.H. (2004) Atractylodes japonica suppresses lipopolysaccharide-stimulated expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(3): 324-327. 2.Han S.B., Lee C.W., Yoon Y.D., Lee J.H., Kang J.S., Lee K.H., Yoon W.K., Lee K., Park S.K. & Kim H.M. (2005) Prevention of arthritic inflammation using an oriental herbal combination BDX-1 isolated from Achyranthes bidentata and Atractylodes japonica. Arch Pharm Res., 28(8): 902-908.

Atractylodes lancea (CANG ZHU) southern tsangshu {R14} Traditionally used with other herbs for rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis (1) and for topical inflammations (2). Beta-eudesmol, a sesquiterpenoid alcohol isolated from Atractylodes lancea rhizome, was investigated for antiangiogenesis effects in vitro and in vivo (mice) (3). It was concluded that beta-eudesmol may aid the development of drugs to treat angiogenic diseases (3). Abnormal angiogenesis is implicated in various diseases including cancer and diabetic retinopathy. Other research found that in rabbits this herb can lower blood sugar to 40% of the original level after subcutaneous injection of the water extract at a dose of 6 g/kg (4). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Prieto J.M., Recio M.C., Giner R.M., Manez S., Giner-Larza E.M. & Rios J.L. (2003) Influence of traditional Chinese anti-inflammatory medicinal plants on leukocyte and platelet functions. J. Pharm Pharmacol., 55(9): 1275-1282. 3.Tsuneki H., Ma E.L., Kobayashi S., Sekizaki N., Maekawa K., Sasaoka T., Wang M.W. & Kimura I. (2005) Antiangiogenic activity of beta-eudesmol in vitro and in vivo. Eur J Pharmacol., 512(2-3): 105-115. 4.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Atractylodes macrocephala (BAI ZHU) atractylodes rhizome or white atractylodes {R10} ‘AMP-B’, a complex polysaccharide from Atractylodes macrocephala showed significant hypoglycaemic effect on alloxan-induced hyperglycaemic rats (1). A recent trial of sixty-four cachectic cancer patients suggested that ‘lactone I’ from A. macrocephala could be beneficial for treating cachexia (2). 1.Shan J.J. & Tian G.Y. (2003) Studies on physico-chemical properties and hypoglycemic activity of complex polysaccharide AMP-B from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 38(6): 438-441. 2.Liu Y., Ye F., Qiu G.Q., Zhang M., Wang R., He Q.Y. & Cai Y. (2005) Effects of lactone I from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz on cytokines and proteolysis-inducing factors in cachectic cancer patients. Di Yi Jun Yi Da Xue Xue Bao., 25(10): 1308-1311.

Azadirachta indica [Myanmar- TA-MAR] neem or Indian lilac {R13} Cultivated and naturalised in tropical Asia, exact native range obscure (1). Used traditionally for asthma and tumours (2) but only this later use has received recent investigative attention. The antimutagenic activity against Trp-P-1 of methanolic extracts of 118 samples (108 species) of edible Thai plants was examined by the Ames Test (3). Five plants, including Azadirachta indica, exhibited significant antimutagenic activity (3). Subsequent to this finding, the cancer chemopreventive potential of neem compounds has been demonstrated in several in vitro and animal models (eg. 4,5). Potential for production in Australia has been recognised (6). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe, T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 3.Nakahara K., Trakoontivakorn G., Alzoreky N.S., Ono H., Onishi-Kameyama M. & Yoshida M. (2002) Antimutagenicity of some edible Thai plants, and a bioactive carbazole alkaloid, mahanine, isolated from Micromelum minutum. J Agric Food Chem., 50(17): 4796-4802. 4.Subapriya R., Bhuvaneswari V., Ramesh V. & Nagini S. (2005) Ethanolic leaf extract of neem (Azadirachta indica) inhibits buccal pouch carcinogenesis in hamsters. Cell Biochem Funct., 23(4): 229-238. 5.Dasgupta T., Banerjee S., Yadava P.K. & Rao A.R. (2004) Chemopreventive potential of Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaf extract in murine carcinogenesis model systems. J Ethnopharmacol., 92(1): 23-36. 6.Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical & industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp.

Bacopa monnieri [India- BRAHMI] bacopa or moneywort {R21} A hairless perennial creeper which was identified in 1998 as having potential for Australia (1) and is now a commercial crop (2). Bacopa’s distribution range is pantropic and it is indigenous to Australia (3,4). It is typically found on wet, swampy ground in coastal areas of Queensland and New South Wales to south of Sydney. In the USA, this succulent is regarded as a noxious weed (3). Medicinally used as brain tonic for improving memory, concentration and learning; for nervous deficit due to injury and stroke; nervous breakdown, nervous exhaustion; and may be of value in epilepsy and insanity (4). It is a component of at least one commercial product (eg. ‘Megamemory 3000’) that is readily available in Australia.

Bacopa extracts have been extensively investigated in several laboratories for their neuropharmacological effects and a number of reports are available confirming their nootropic action (5). An Australian study examined the effects of B. monnieri on human memory in a double-blind randomised, placebo controlled study of 76 adults aged between 40 and 65 years (6). The results showed a significant effect of bacopa on a test for the retention of new information. Follow-up tests showed that rate of learning was unaffected, suggesting that bacopa decreases the rate of forgetting of newly acquired information. Tasks assessing attention, verbal and visual short-term memory and the retrieval of pre-experimental knowledge were unaffected. Questionnaire measures of everyday memory function and anxiety levels were also unaffected (6). In more Australian work, bacopa extracts were examined for chronic effects on cognitive function in healthy human subjects (7). The study was a double-blind placebo-controlled independent-group design in which subjects were randomly allocated to one of two treatment conditions, B. monnieri (300 mg) or placebo. It was found that B. monnieri significantly improved speed of visual information processing, learning rate and memory consolidation, and state anxiety compared to placebo, with maximal effects evident after 12 weeks (7). It was concluded that this herb may improve higher order cognitive processes (learning and memory) that are critically dependent on the input of environmental information. 1.Purbrick P. (1998) Medicinal herbs, pp. 369-376. In, Hyde K.W. (Ed.) ‘The New Rural Industries- a Handbook for Farmers and Investors’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra, 570 pp. 2.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra. 3.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 4.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 5.Russo A. & Borrelli F. (2005) Bacopa monniera, a reputed nootropic plant: an overview. Phytomedicine, 12(4): 305-317. 6.Roodenrys S., Booth D., Bulzomi S., Phipps A., Micallef C. & Smoker J. (2002) Chronic effects of Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) on human memory. Neuropsychopharmacology., 27(2): 279-281.

7.Stough C., Lloyd J., Clarke J., Downey L.A., Hutchison C.W., Rodgers T. & Nathan P.J. The chronic effects of an extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) on cognitive function in healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl)., 156(4): 481-484.

Barleria prionitis [Myanmar- LEIK-SA-YWE] barleria {R5} Widely distributed over Africa and tropical Asia and naturalised elsewhere; a weed in some localities and a medicinal plant in Myanmar. A fraction from the methanol-water extract of Barleria prionitis was evaluated for antiinflammatory and antiarthritic activities against different acute and chronic animal test models (1). It exhibited significant antiinflammatory activity against different inflammagens like carrageenan, histamine and dextran. Significant antiarthritic activity was observed in an adjuvant-induced polyarthritis test in rats (1). 1.Singh B., Bani S., Gupta D.K., Chandan B.K. & Kaul A. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of 'TAF' an active fraction from the plant Barleria prionitis Linn. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(2-3): 187-193.

Boehmeria nivea (ZHU MA GEN) ramie root {R3} Water extracts of Boehmeria nivea var. nivea exhibited a hepatoprotective activity against CCl4 induced liver injury, and also showed antioxidant effects in FeCl2-ascorbate induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver homogenate (1). The liver protective and antioxidative effects of this species possibly involve mechanisms related to free radical scavenging effects. 1.Lin C.C., Yen M.H., Lo T.S. & Lin J.M. (1998) Evaluation of the hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of Boehmeria nivea var. nivea and B. nivea var. tenacissima. J. Ethnopharmacol., 60(1): 9-17.

Benincasa hispida (DONG GUA PI) winter melon or wax gourd {R6} Current commercial crop in Australia. Benincasa hispida has been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat hypertension and inflammation. The antioxidation and angiotensin-converting enzyme activity inhibition found in trials may provide protective effects against cardiovascular diseases and cancers (1). 1.Huang H.Y., Huang J.J., Tso T.K., Tsai Y.C. & Chang C.K. (2004) Antioxidant and angiotension-converting enzyme inhibition capacities of various parts of Benincasa hispida (wax gourd). Nahrung., 48(3): 230-233.

Bletilla striata (BAI JI) bletilla, Chinese ground orchid or shiran {R11} This species is rare or endangered (1). A traditional Chinese medicine against liver tumour. Human trials have shown success as a vascular embolising agent in interventional treatment of primary hepatic carcinoma (2,3). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Zheng C., Feng G. & Liang H. (1998) Bletilla striata as a vascular embolizing agent in interventional treatment of primary hepatic carcinoma. Chin Med J (Engl)., 111(12): 1060-1063. 3.Zheng C., Feng G. & Zhou R. (1996) New use of Bletilla striata as embolizing agent in the intervention treatment of hepatic carcinoma. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi., 18(4): 305-307.

Boswellia sacra (RU XIANG) frankincense, olibanum-tree, magher or mogar {R15} The dried gum resin of this plant has been used in traditional Chinese (and Indian) medicine for thousands of years to alleviate pain and inflammation, especially for inflammatory arthritis (1,2,3). A recent random, blinded study on rats showed that frankincense extract had significant antiarthritic and antiinflammatory effects (1). A purified mixture of boswellic acids from this plant resin exhibited carrier-dependent immunomodulatory properties in vitro (3). Boswellic acid acetate, a compound isolated from this herb, can induce differentiation and apoptosis of leukaemia cells (4). Conclusion- good evidence for antiarthritic effects from animal trials; rigorous human validation trials are required but the legacy of use cannot be ignored. 1.Fan A.Y., Lao L., Zhang R.X., Zhou A.N., Wang L.B., Moudgil K.D., Lee D.Y., Ma Z.Z., Zhang W.Y. & Berman B.M. (2005) Effects of an acetone extract of Boswellia carterii Birdw. (Burseraceae) gum resin on adjuvant-induced arthritis in lewis rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 101(1-3): 104-109. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Chevrier M.R., Ryan A.E., Lee D.Y., Zhongze M., Wu-Yan Z. & Via C.S. (2005) Boswellia carterii extract inhibits TH1 cytokines and promotes TH2 cytokines in vitro. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol., 12(5): 575-580. 4.Jing Y., Nakajo S., Xia L., Nakaya K., Fang Q., Waxman S. & Han R. (1999) Boswellic acid acetate induces differentiation and apoptosis in leukemia cell lines. Leuk Res., 23(1): 43-50.

Boswellia serrata [India- KUNDUR LUBAN or SALAI] boswellia, Indian frankincense or Indian olibanum-tree {R19} A large tree native to India and a traditional remedy in Ayurvedic medicine for treatment of inflammatory diseases. Boswellia serrata is possibly one of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). The primary active component of the gum resin (guggulu) is ‘boswellic acid’ which has demonstrated antiarthritic effects in a variety of animal models (1,2). Authors of a recent paper claimed that B. serrata is a ‘proven’ antiinflammatory in clinical trials (3).

A randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled crossover study was conducted to assess the efficacy, safety and tolerability of B. serrata extract in 30 patients with osteoarthritis of the knee (4). All patients receiving guggulu treatment reported decrease in knee pain, increased knee flexion and increased walking distance; frequency of swelling in the knee joint was also decreased. Observed differences between drug treated and placebo were statistically significant (4). B. serrata extract was also recommended for possible therapeutic use in other arthritis types. However, another double-blind pilot study of human patients with arthritis showed no measurable efficacy (5).

There is evidence from double-blind, placebo-controlled research on human patients that administration of this plant may be beneficial in treating bronchial asthma (6). By reducing inflammation, this is possibly one of very few species that can help treat this disease (7). Recognised as a potential new crop for Australia (8). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Singh G.B. & Atal C.K. (1986) Pharmacology of an extract of salai guggal ex-Boswellia serrata, a new non- steroidal anti-inflammatory agent. Agents Actions., 18: 407-412. 3.Roy S., Khanna S., Shah H., Rink C., Phillips C., Preuss H., Subbaraju G.V., Trimurtulu G., Krishnaraju A.V., Bagchi M., Bagchi D. & Sen C.K. (2005) Human genome screen to identify the genetic basis of the antiinflammatory effects of Boswellia in microvascular endothelial cells. DNA Cell Biol., 24(4): 244-255. 4.Kimmatkar N., Thawani V., Hingorani L. & Khiyani R. (2003) Efficacy and tolerability of Boswellia serrata extract in treatment of osteoarthritis of knee - a randomized double blind placebo controlled trial. Phytomedicine, 10(1): 3-7. 5.Sander O., Herborn G. & Rau R. (1998) Is H15 (resin extract of Boswellia serrata, "incense") a useful supplement to established drug therapy of chronic polyarthritis? Results of a double-blind pilot study. Z Rheumatol., 57(1): 11-16. 6.Gupta I., Gupta V., Parihar A., Gupta S., Ludtke R., Safayhi H. & Ammon H.P. (1998) Effects of Boswellia serrata gum resin in patients with bronchial asthma: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, 6-week clinical study. Eur J Med Res., 3(11): 511-514. 7.Miller A.L. (2001) The etiologies, pathophysiology, and alternative/complementary treatment of asthma. Altern Med Rev., 6(1): 20-47. 8.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm

Brucea javanica (YA DAN ZI) [Malaysia- LADA PAHIT] Java brucea or Macassar kernel tree {19} Used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating cancer (1,2). A shrub or small tree to 10 m, found in India through to southern China, and down into northern Australia (1). It grows well under humid and seasonal weather conditions to an altitude of 900 m. The fruit contains several quassinoids, one of these compounds, ‘bruceantin’, is known to have strong antiamoebic and antimalarial properties (1). Animal and cell-line testing has shown that bruceantin is possibly a potent anticancer agent (3). Emulsion from B. javanica fruit inhibited growth activity of cultured human carcinoma cells (4), and bruceoside C showed potent cytotoxicities against KB, A-549, RPMI, and TE-671 tumour cells (5). Apoptosis inducing activity has been reported in more recent in vitro work (6,7). 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Sakaki T., Yoshimura S., Tsuyuki T., Takahashi T. & Honda T. (1986) Yadanzioside P, a new antileukemic quassinoid glycoside from Brucea javanica (L.) Merr with the 3-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl) bruceantin structure. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin., 34: 4447-4450. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 4.Xuan Y.B., Yasuda S., Shimada K., Nagai S. & Ishihama H. (1994) Growth inhibition of the emulsion from to Brucea javanica cultured human carcinoma cells. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho., 21(14): 2421-2425. 5.Fukamiya N., Okano M., Miyamoto M., Tagahara K. & Lee K.H. (1992) Antitumor agents, 127. Bruceoside C, a new cytotoxic quassinoid glucoside, and related compounds from Brucea javanica. J Nat Prod., 55(4): 468- 475. 32

6.Lau F.Y., Chui C.H., Gambari R., Kok S.H., Kan K.L., Cheng G.Y., Wong R.S., Teo I.T., Cheng C.H., Wan T.S., Chan A.S. & Tang J.C. (2005) Antiproliferative and apoptosis-inducing activity of Brucea javanica extract on human carcinoma cells. Int J Mol Med., 16(6): 1157-1162. 7.Wang F., Cao Y., Liu H.Y., Fu Z.D. & Han R. (2003) Experimental studies on the apoptosis of HL-60 cells induced by Brucea javanica oil emulsion. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(8): 759-762.

Buddleja officinalis (MI MENG HUA) buddleia {R4} A common weed in Europe where it was introduced from China by 19th century plant hunters (1). Traditionally used as an antispasmodic, mild diuretic, stimulant for urine flow, and to treat eye inflammation (1). At least eight flavonoid compounds have been isolated from the flowers (2). In one study, the flavonoid ‘luteolin’ and a phenylpropanoid glycoside ‘acteoside’, isolated from buddleia flowers exhibited potent antioxidative activity (3). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Li J.S., Zhao Y.Y., Wang B., Li X.L. & Ma L.B. (1996) Separation and identification of the flavonoids from Buddleia officinalis Maxim. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 31(11): 849-854. 3.Piao M.S., Kim M.R., Lee D.G., Park Y., Hahm K.S., Moon Y.H. & Woo E.R. (2003) Antioxidative constituents from Buddleia officinalis. Arch Pharm Res., 26(6): 453-457.

Bupleurum chinense (CHAI HU) bupleurum, Chinese thoroughwax or hare's ear {R7} ‘Saikosaponins’ appear to account for much of the medicinal activity of this plant. Test-tube studies have found that saikosaponins can inhibit growth of liver cancer cells (1) and are antiinflammatory (2). Research focus has tended to be on liver disease. Potential for Australian production has been recognised (3). 1.Motoo Y. & Sawabu N. (1994) Antitumor effects of saikosaponins, baicalin and baicalein on human hepatoma cell lines. Cancer Lett., 86: 91-95. 2.Yamamoto M., Kumagai A. & Yamamura Y. (1975) Structure and actions of saikosaponins isolated from Bupleurum falcatum L. I. Anti-inflammatory action of saikosaponins. Arzneim Forsch., 25: 1021-1023. 3.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Bupleurum scorzonerifolium (CHAI HU) bupleurum {R6} A traditional Chinese herb which has been widely used to treat liver diseases such as hepatitis and cirrhosis. ‘Saikosaponins’ appear to account for much of this plant’s medicinal activity. Test-tube studies have found that saikosaponins can inhibit growth of liver cancer cells (1) and are antiinflammatory (2). A crude acetone extract of Bupleurum scorzonerifolium showed in vitro antiproliferation activity and apoptosis effects against A549 human lung cancer cells (3). More recent work has demonstrated antiproliferation activity in A549 human cancer cells in vivo (4). An in vivo study showed that extract from this plant could suppress growth in A549 subcutaneous xenograft tumours (4). 1.Motoo Y. & Sawabu N. (1994) Antitumor effects of saikosaponins, baicalin and baicalein on human hepatoma cell lines. Cancer Lett., 86: 91-95. 2.Yamamoto M., Kumagai A. & Yamamura Y. (1975) Structure and actions of saikosaponins isolated from Bupleurum falcatum L. I. Anti-inflammatory action of saikosaponins. Arzneim Forsch, 25: 1021-1023. 3.Cheng Y.L., Chang W.L., Lee S.C., Liu Y.G., Lin H.C., Chen C.J., Yen C.Y., Yu D.S., Lin S.Z. & Harn H.J. (2003) Acetone extract of Bupleurum scorzonerifolium inhibits proliferation of A549 human lung cancer cells via inducing apoptosis and suppressing telomerase activity. Life Sci., 73(18): 2383-2394. 4.Cheng Y.L., Lee S.C., Lin S.Z., Chang W.L., Chen Y.L., Tsai N.M., Liu Y.C., Tzao C., Yu D.S. & Harn H.J. (2005) Anti-proliferative activity of Bupleurum scrozonerifolium in A549 human lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Lett., 222(2): 183-193.

Caesalpinia sappan (SU MU) sappan wood or Indian redwood {R24} Traditionally used to invigorate blood circulation (1) and modern research supports this use with evidence that ‘brazilin’, a major component, can induce in vitro vasorelaxation (2). Brazilin may also have the capacity to decrease blood glucose in diabetic animals (3).

Inhibitors of nitric oxide production are considered potential antiinflammatory and cancer chemopreventive agents. Extracts of sappan wood are inhibitors of nitric oxide activity (4). The suppressive effect of nitric oxide synthase gene expression by brazilin may be the mechanism for antiinflammatory and cancer chemoprotective activity (5). Chloroform extracts decreased the viability of head and neck cancer cell-lines (6). Antioxidant activity of the heartwood has been confirmed in

both in vitro and in vivo animal models (7). Chloroform, n-butanol, methanol, and aqueous extracts have shown antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (8). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Hu C.M., Kang J.J., Lee C.C., Li C.H., Liao J.W. & Cheng Y.W. (2003) Induction of vasorelaxation through activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by brazilin. Eur J Pharmacol., 468(1): 37-45. 3.You E.J., Khil L.Y., Kwak W.J., Won H.S., Chae S.H., Lee B.H. & Moon C.K. (2005) Effects of brazilin on the production of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate in rat hepatocytes. J. Ethnopharmacol., 102(1): 53-57. 4.Hong C.H., Hur S.K., Oh O.J., Kim S.S., Nam K.A. & Lee S.K. (2002) Evaluation of natural products on inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cultured mouse macrophage cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 83(1-2): 153-159. 5.Bae I.K., Min H.Y., Han A.R., Seo E.K. & Lee S.K. (2005) Suppression of lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase by brazilin in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Eur J. Pharmacol., 513(3): 237-242. 6.Kim E.C., Hwang Y.S., Lee H.J., Lee S.K., Park M.H., Jeon B.H., Jeon C.D., Lee S.K., Yu H.H. & You Y.O. (2005) Caesalpinia sappan induces cell death by increasing the expression of p53 and p21WAF1/CIP1 in head and neck cancer cells. Am J Chin Med., 33(3): 405-414. 7.Badami S., Moorkoth S., Rai S.R., Kannan E. & Bhojraj S. (2003) Antioxidant activity of Caesalpinia sappan heartwood. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(11): 1534-1537. 8.Kim K.J., Yu H.H., Jeong S.I., Cha J.D., Kim S.M. & You Y.O. (2004) Inhibitory effects of Caesalpinia sappan on growth and invasion of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Ethnopharmacol., 91(1): 81-87.

Callerya cinerea (JI XUE TENG) millettia vine {R2} Traditionally used to promote blood circulation, reduce pain in the waist and knees, reduce numbness in the extremities, and reduce arthralgia due to wind dampness (1). Very little published information is available from which to draw conclusions on efficacy. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Callerya reticulata (JI XUE TENG) millettia vine {R2} Traditionally used to promote blood circulation, reduce pain in the waist and knees, reduce numbness in the extremities, and reduce arthralgia due to wind dampness (1). Like many medicinal plants, millettia vine contains flavonoids (2). Limited research. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Chen Y.P., Chen C.C. & Hsu H.Y. (1986) Pharmacological activities of the flavonoids of Bauhinia championii and Millettia reticulata. Prog Clin Biol Res., 213: 297-300.

Calophyllum inophyllum [Malaysia- BINTANGOR LAUT, Myanmar- PUNNA or KAMANI] Alexandrian laurel or dillo oil tree {R14} Natural range extends through Africa, Asia and into northern Australia (1). This evergreen tree to 35 m can withstand saline water. The Malays use the seed oil to treat rheumatism and in India and Java, the oil or the pounded seed is applied to relieve itch, rheumatism and eruptions of the skin. The active chemical constituents isolated from the leaves and seeds are ‘inophyllum B and P’, which are potent non-nucleoside inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (2,3,4). Cell cultures of this plant have been use to yield inophyllum (5).

Based on in vitro and animal trials, some of the 4-phenylcoumarins isolated from Calophyllum inophyllum may be potent cancer chemopreventive agents (6). Essential oil extracted from the flowers contains 25 compounds, with naphthalene derivatives being the most prominent. They have antibacterial, antiinflammatory, and phagocytosis stimulant activities (2). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 3.De Clercq, E. (2000) Current lead natural products for the chemotherapy of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Med Res Rev., 20(5): 323-349. 4.Patil A.D., Freyer A.J., Eggleston D.S., Haltiwanger R.C., Bean M.F., Taylor P.B., Caranfa M.J., Breen A.L., Bartus H.R., Johnson R.K., et al. (1993) The inophyllums, novel inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase isolated from the Malaysian tree, Calophyllum inophyllum Linn. J Med Chem., 36(26): 4131-4138. 5.Luo H.L., Guo Y., Cui T.B., Dai J.G., Zhang J.S. & Xu B.Q. (2004) Effects of fungal elicitor on inophyllums production in suspension cultured cells of Calophyllum inophyllum L. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 39(4): 305-308. 6.Itoigawa M., Ito C., Tan H.T., Kuchide M., Tokuda H., Nishino H. & Furukawa H. (2001) Cancer chemopreventive agents, 4-phenylcoumarins from Calophyllum inophyllum. Cancer Lett., 169(1): 15-19.

Calotropis gigantea [Myanmar- MAYOE-GYI] madar, bowstring hemp or giant milkweed {R4} Used in Myanmar medicine for treatment of arthritis and abdominal tumours (1) but has not been the subject of recent scientific evaluation for these ailments. 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp.

Calotropis procera [India- AKADA] apple of Sodom, Sodom apple or madar A naturalised weed species in Australia that has several claimed medicinal qualities. Anticancer effects have been demonstrated in mice (1). Potential for Australian commercial production has been investigated (2). 1.Choedon T., Mathan G., Arya S., Kumar V.L. & Kumar V. (2006) Anticancer and cytotoxic properties of the latex of Calotropis procera in a transgenic mouse model of hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol., 12(16): 2517-2522. 2.Rod Jones, DPI Vic.- pers. comm.

Camellia sinensis (LU CHA) green tea Currently being developed as a commercial crop in Australia. One of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). Both green and black tea are derived from Camellia sinensis but differences in postharvest processing ensure that polyphenols with potent antioxidant and anticancer properties are better preserved in the green form. Green tea’s clinical applications are primarily based on its antioxidant activity. Green tea polyphenols have demonstrated greater antioxidant protection than vitamins C and E (1). Numerous population based observational studies have demonstrated that green tea consumption is associated with a significantly lower risk of many types of cancer, whereas black tea effects can be the reverse (1). (However, a human observational study has shown that the flavonoid intake of black tea can reduce incidence of stroke). Green tea and its extracts have also been shown to exert many anticancer effects in experimental studies (1). Anticancer properties are the result of polyphenols blocking the formation of cancer-causing compounds as well as effectively detoxifying or trapping cancer causing chemicals. The forms of cancer that appear to be best prevented are those of the gastrointestinal tract including cancers of the stomach, small intestine, pancreas, and colon (1). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp.

Campsis grandiflora (LING XIAO) Chinese trumpet creeper {R5} Traditionally to promote blood circulation/relieve stasis (1). Cachinol, 1-O-methyl cachinol and iridoid cachineside I isolated from the methanol extract of Campsis grandiflora leaves inhibited rat platelet aggregation (2). In another recent study, oleanolic acid, hederagenin, ursolic acid, tormentic acid and myrianthic acid were isolated from the methanol extract of the leaves (3). All of the compounds were equivalently effective as acetylsalicylic acid in inhibiting induced platelet aggregation (3).

Compounds extracted from the flowers revealed relatively high human acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase-1 inhibitory activity (4). In the latest published work on C. grandiflora, the antioxidative and antiinflammatory activities of the flower extract were investigated. In vitro exposure of human dermal fibroblasts to the 50% ethanol flower extract showed significant antioxidative protective effects against hydrogen peroxide, and topically applied extract dose-dependently inhibited chemically-induced ear oedema in mice (5). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Jin J.L., Lee S., Lee Y.Y., Heo J.E., Kim J.M. & Yun-Choi H.S. (2005) Two new non-glycosidic iridoids from the leaves of Campsis grandiflora. Planta Med., 71(6): 578-580. 3.Jin J.L., Lee Y.Y., Heo J.E., Lee S., Kim J.M. & Yun-Choi H.S. (2004)Anti-platelet pentacyclic triterpenoids from leaves of Campsis grandiflora. Arch Pharm Res., 27(4): 376-380. 4.Kim D.H., Han K.M., Chung I.S., Kim D.K., Kim S.H., Kwon B.M., Jeong T.S., Park M.H., Ahn E.M. & Baek N.I. (2005) Triterpenoids from the flower of Campsis grandiflora K. Schum. as human acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitors. Arch Pharm Res., 28(5): 550-556. 5.Cui X.Y., Kim J.H., Zhao X., Chen B.Q., Lee B.C., Pyo H.B., Yun Y.P. & Zhang Y.H. (2006) Antioxidative and acute anti-inflammatory effects of Campsis grandiflora flower. J Ethnopharmacol., 103(2): 223-228.

Camptotheca acuminata (XI ZHU) camptotheca {R16} In Chinese folk medicine, this herb is used to treat carcinoma of the stomach, rectum, colon and bladder, as well as chronic leukaemia (1). Modern research has extensively examined this species and proven its antitumour activity. Camptothecin (CPT) is a modified monoterpene indole alkaloid produced by Camptotheca acuminata and other angiosperm species (2,3). The CPT derivatives, ‘irinotecan’ and ‘topotecan’, are used throughout the world for treatment of various cancers, and over a dozen CPT analogues are currently at various stages of clinical development. The world-wide market size for irinotecan/topotecan in 2002 was estimated at $750 million (2). In spite of the rapid growth of the market, CPT is still harvested by extraction from bark and seeds of C. acuminata and Nothapodytes foetida. The development of hairy root cultures of C. acuminata, and the cloning and characterisation of genes encoding key enzymes of the pathway leading to CPT formation in plants has opened new possibilities to propose alternative and more sustainable production systems for this important alkaloid (2).

Some trial plantings of C. acuminata are in the early stages of establishment in Queensland but further funds are sought to progress the investigation (4). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Lorence A. & Nessler C.L. (2004) Camptothecin, over four decades of surprising findings. Phytochemistry, 65(20): 2735-2749. 3.Chang-Xiao L. & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 4.Craig Davis, DPI Qld. - pers. comm.

Cannabis sativa (HUO MA REN) hemp, cannabis or marijuana The medicinal properties of this plant tend to be over-shadowed by its illegal use as a euphorigenic drug. Used in Chinese medicine to lower blood pressure and in the West for relief of muscular sclerosis symptoms.

Caragana sinica (JIN GI ER) Chinese peatree {R6} The dried roots of Caragana sinica have been used in Korean and Chinese medicine for treatment of neuralgia, rheumatism and arthritis (1). Chinese folk medicine also prescribes this herb to lower blood pressure (2). The antihypertensive effect is due to a centrally mediated action on the sympathetic nervous system. The main active compound is phyto-oestrogen ‘kobophenol A’ (3). Requires continued investigation. 1.Kitanaka S., Takido M., Mizoue K., Kondo H. & Nakaike S. (1996) Oligomeric stilbenes from Caragana chamlagu Lamark root. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 44: 565-567. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Liang G.L., Bi J.B., Huang H.Q., Zhang S. & Hu C.Q. (2005) Metabolites and the pharmacokinetics of kobophenol A from Caragana sinica in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol., 101(1-3): 324-329.

Caralluma attenuata {R3} The hypoglycaemic effect of aqueous and alcoholic extracts of whole plant Caralluma attenuata were investigated in both normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats, and blood glucose levels were found to be significantly lowered (1). In similar earlier work, ethanol, chloroform and butanol extracts of C. attenuata were tested on glucose loaded and alloxan-diabetic rats, and in both tests, the butanol extract (oral dose 250 mg/kg) showed statistically significant antihyperglycaemic activity (2). Luteolin-4'-O-neohesperidoside from C. attenuata has strong antiinflammatory action (more potent than ibuprofen) (3). Note: this scientific name is under review. 1.Jayakar B., Rajkapoor B. & Suresh B. (2004) Effect of Caralluma attenuata in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats. J Herb Pharmacother., 4(1): 35-40. 2.Venkatesh S., Reddy G.D., Reddy B.M., Ramesh M. & Rao A.V. (2003) Antihyperglycemic activity of Caralluma attenuata. Fitoterapia., 74(3): 274-279. 3.Ramesh M., Rao Y.N., Rao A.V., Prabhakar M.C., Rao C.S., Muralidhar N. & Reddy B.M. (1998) Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of a flavonoid isolated from Caralluma attenuata. J Ethnopharmacol., 62(1): 63-66.

Catharanthus roseus (CHANG CHU HUA) Madagascar periwinkle, Cape periwinkle or rose periwinkle {R12} A native to Africa but commonly used in Asian folk medicines. Decoctions of Catharanthus roseus are used in traditional medicine for thwarting malaria, diabetes, cancer and skin disease (1). Antidiabetic activity (usually of the fresh leaf juice) has been confirmed in studies on rats and rabbits (2,3,4). C. roseus contains more than 70 different alkaloids (5). The major ones, ‘vinblastine’ and ‘vincristine’, are drugs that have been used in China for anticancer therapy (6) especially in cases of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and Hodgkin’s disease (5). The semi-synthetic compound ‘vindensine’ based on extracts from C. roseus is also effective against certain cancers (5). Currently grown as an ornamental crop in Australia and proposed as a medicinal herb (7). 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Pinn G. (2005) Herbal medicine in endocrinology and metabolic disease, pp. 383-398. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Singh S.N., Vats P., Suri S., Shyam R., Kumria M.M., Ranganathan S. & Sridharan K. (2001) Effect of an antidiabetic extract of Catharanthus roseus on enzymic activities in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J. Ethnopharmacol., 76(3): 269-277. 4.Nammi S., Boini M.K., Lodagala S.D. & Behara R.B. (2003) The juice of fresh leaves of Catharanthus roseus Linn. reduces blood glucose in normal and alloxan diabetic rabbits. BMC Complement Altern Med., 2003 Sep 2;3;4. Epub 2003 Sep 2. 5.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 6.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 7.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Celosia argentea (QING XIANG) feather cockscomb or silver cockscomb {R7} Celosia argentea is used in traditional medicine for sores, ulcers and skin eruptions (1). Fifty plant species used in the traditional medicine of Perak, Peninsular Malaysia were screened for antibacterial and antifungal activities, and C. argentea was one of ten that displayed the broadest spectrum of activity (2). A leaf extract improved wound healing (3) and ‘celosian’, an acidic polysaccharide from the seeds, was an effective immunostimulating agent with potent antihepatotoxic effects (4). C. argentea seeds are also widely used in Indian folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (5). A study showed that an alcoholic extract of the seeds possessed antidiabetic activity in alloxan- induced diabetic rats (5). 1.Priya K.S., Arumugam G., Rathinam B., Wells A. & Babu M. (2004) Celosia argentea Linn. leaf extract improves wound healing in a rat burn wound model. Wound Repair Regen., 12(6): 618-625. 2.Wiart C., Mogana S., Khalifah S., Mahan M., Ismail S., Buckle M., Narayana A.K. & Sulaiman M. (2004) Antimicrobial screening of plants used for traditional medicine in the state of Perak, Peninsular Malaysia. Fitoterapia, 75(1): 68-73. 3.Priya K.S., Arumugam G., Rathinam B., Wells A. & Babu M. (2004) Celosia argentea Linn. leaf extract improves wound healing in a rat burn wound model. Wound Repair Regen., 12(6): 618-625. 4.Hase K., Basnet P., Kadota S. & Namba T. (1997) Immunostimulating activity of Celosian, an antihepatotoxic polysaccharide isolated from Celosia argentea. Planta Med., 63(3): 216-219. 5.Vetrichelvan T., Jegadeesan M. & Devi B.A. (2002) Anti-diabetic activity of alcoholic extract of Celosia argentea Linn. seeds in rats. Biol Pharm Bull., 25(4): 526-528.

Centella asiatica (JI XUE CAO) marsh pennywort, gotu kola, hydrocotyle, brahmi, Indian pennywort or daun pegaga {R8} Identified in 1998 as a potential medicinal herb for Australian production (1) and now a commercial crop (2). Centella asiatica is possibly one of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (3). A native to India, China, Indonesia, Australia, the south pacific, Madagascar and much of Africa (3). Modern research has substantiated its efficacy in wound healing and in the USA, the most popular use of this plant has been in the treatment of cellulite and varicose veins. Human studies have demonstrated that the total triterpenoid fraction is effective in treatment of venous insufficiency due to its ability to enhance connective tissue structure of the perivascular sheath, reduce sclerosis or hardening, and improve blood flow through affected limbs (4,5). Improvements have been observed in approximately 80% of patients in clinical trials (3). The use of C. asiatica as an antiarthritic cure is not supported by scientific trials.

The leaves of C. asiatica are commonly consumed as a green vegetable in Asian curries, salads and soups but they may also be used as a tea-like drink. Its distribution is widespread and its highly adaptive physiology allows it to thrive under a wide range of climatic conditions. In Australia, two cultivars are grown commercially - one has small leaves and a creeping form, and the other has large leaves and is erect (2). C. asiatica can survive in temperatures close to 0oC but it is not frost tolerant. Light sandy to medium (loamy) soils are preferred, however, it also grows in heavy clay soils (2). Optimum soil pH is in the range of 6.5 to 7.5. 1.Purbrick, P. (1998) Medicinal herbs, pp. 369-376. In, Hyde, K.W. (Ed.) ‘The New Rural Industries- a Handbook for Farmers and Investors’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra, 570 pp. 2.Fernando N. & Vujovic S. (2005) Gotu kola- Pennywort. Access to Asian Foods Newsletter, Issue 83, August. 3.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 4.Cesarone M.R., Laurora G., De Sanctis M.T., Incandela L., Grimaldi R., Marelli C. & Belcaro G. (1994) The microcirculatory activity of Centella asiatica in venous insufficiency. A double-blind study. Minerva Cardioangiol., 42(6): 299-304. 5.Marastoni F., Baldo A., Redaelli G. & Ghiringhelli L. (1982) Centella asiatica extract in venous pathology of the lower limbs and its evaluation as compared with tribenoside. Minerva Cardioangiol., 30(4): 201-207.

Cephalotaxus fortunei (SAN JIN SHAN) Plum yew, Chinese plum yew, Fortune’s plum yew or three-pointed fir {R6} Antitumour agents from this plant were discussed in the scientific literature in 1981 (1) and ‘harringtonine’ was later established as an anticancer drug (2). In 1992, two new alkaloids (‘neoharringtonine’ and ‘anhydroharringtonine’) with antileukaemic activity were isolated from the root and rhizome (3). Reports from Chinese hospital physicians have indicated that plum yew compounds inhibit the hemopoietic system and reduce the leukocyte count (4). Cephalotaxus fortunei has been successful in the treatment of leukaemia with an effective rate of 72.7%, and complete remission in 20% of patients (4). Plum yew alkaloids are effective against malignant lymphoma and clinical trials showed a reduction in tumour size and improvement in the patient’s overall condition (4). However, harringtonine can cause heart problems. More recently, four new cephalotaxus alkaloids were isolated from C. fortunei, and each displayed cytotoxicity against nasopharynx KB cells (5). 1.Sun N.J., Zhao Z.F., Chen R.T., Lin W. & Zhou Y.Z. (1981) Isolation and identification of the antitumor agent- hainanolide from Cephalotaxus fortunei. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 16(3): 233-234. 2.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Wang D.Z., Ma G.E. & Xu R.S. (1992) Studies on the alkaloids of Cephalotaxus. VII. Structures and semi- synthesis of two anticancer cephalotaxine esters. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 27(3): 173-177. 4.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 5.Bocar M., Jossang A. & Bodo B. (2003) New alkaloids from Cephalotaxus fortunei. J Nat Prod., 66(1): 152- 154.

Chaenomeles speciosa (MU GUA) flowering quince or Chinese quince {R3} Traditional Chinese use of Chaenomeles speciosa is for rheumatic and rheumatoid arthritis, especially with muscular contracture (1). Glucosides from this species have been shown to reduce secondary inflammation in adjuvant arthritic rats (2). In related work, it was concluded that the glucosides possessed antiinflammatory and immunoregulatory actions and had a therapeutic effect for rats with collagen-induced arthritis (3). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Dai M., Wei W., Shen Y.X. & Zheng Y.Q. (2003) Glucosides of Chaenomeles speciosa remit rat adjuvant arthritis by inhibiting synoviocyte activities. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 24(11): 1161-1166. 3.Chen Q. & Wei W. (2003) Effects and mechanisms of glucosides of Chaenomeles speciosa on collagen- induced arthritis in rats. Int Immunopharmacol., 3(4): 593-608.

Chrysanthemum x morifolium (JU HUA) chrysanthemum {R4} An existing flower crop in Australia. Claimed actions include antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antihypertensive (1). Commonly used in China for cases of angina pectoris and hypertension (2). However, there is very little scientific evidence to support any medical benefits. The petals contain carotenoids (3). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Kishimoto S., Maoka T., Nakayama M. & Ohmiya A. (2004) Carotenoid composition in petals of chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflorum (Ramat.) Kitamura). Phytochemistry, 65(20): 2781-2787.

Cinnamomum camphora [Malay- TEJA LAWANG] camphor, camphor laurel or Japanese camphor {R10} Naturalised in many locations including Australia and is difficult to eliminate once established (1). An essential oil from this plant has long been prescribed in traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases such as rheumatism, sprains, bronchitis and muscle pains (2,3). Its antiinflammatory actions are fairly well established (3). 1.Hall, D. (1988) Dorothy Hall’s Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Lothian, 327 pp. 2.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 3.Lee H.J., Hyun E.A., Yoon W.J., Kim B.H., Rhee M.H., Kang H.K., Cho J.Y. & Yoo E.S. (2006) In vitro antiinflammatory and anti-oxidative effects of Cinnamomum camphora extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol., 103(2): 208- 216.

Cinnamomum tamala [India- TEJPAT, Myanmar- KARAWAY] Cassia cinnamon or Indian Cassia {R3} In Myanmar the leaves and bark are used to treat heart disease, and the leaves are used for arthritis and asthma (1). In a 2003 trial, extracts from Cinnamomum tamala showed significant blood glucose lowering activity in rats (2). However, earlier work on mice was not supportive as an antidiabetic (3). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe, T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Kar A., Choudhary B.K. & Bandyopadhyay N.G. (2003) Comparative evaluation of hypoglycaemic activity of some Indian medicinal plants in alloxan diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 84(1): 105-108. 3.Swanston-Flatt S.K., Day C., Bailey C.J. & Flatt P.R. (1989) Evaluation of traditional plant treatments for diabetes: studies in streptozotocin diabetic mice. Acta Diabetol Lat., 26(1): 51-55.

Cinnamomum verum [India- DHAL CHINI, Malaysia-KAYA MANIS] cinnamon or Ceylon cinnamon {R8} An indigenous herb of Sri Lanka and India (1) and an important species in traditional Sikh medicine (2). The dried bark and twigs are also used traditionally in China with other plants to treat cancer and high blood pressure. Oils from this species are said to have antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral properties (1). Of 11 essential oils tested in vitro against pathogenic bacterial strains, Cinnamomum verum was one of three exhibiting the highest and broadest antibacterial activity (3). In other work, the in vitro inhibiting activity of 16 essential oils and 42 of their main constituents was investigated against a strain of Candida albicans. The essential oils of five plant species including C. verum, showed maximum inhibitory activity (4).

This species also exerted antioxidant protection in rats through its ability to activate antioxidant enzymes (5). In very recent research, the free radical scavenging capacity and antioxidant activities of the methanolic extract of C. verum leaf were studied and compared to antioxidant compounds like trolox, butylated hydroxyl anisole, gallic acid and ascorbic acid (6). The extract exhibited free radical and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. The peroxidation inhibiting activity showed very good antioxidant activity (6).

Human clinical trials have shown that intake of 1, 3, or 6 g of cinnamon per day reduces serum glucose, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and total cholesterol in people with type II diabetes (7). Suggesting that inclusion of cinnamon in the diet of people with type II diabetes will reduce risk factors associated with diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Recognised as a potential new crop for Australia (8).

1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Sandhu D.S. & Heinrich M. (2005) The use of health foods, spices and other botanicals in the Sikh community in London. Phytother Res., 19(7): 633-642. 3.Hersch-Martinez P., Leanos-Miranda B.E. & Solorzano-Santos F. (2005) Antibacterial effects of commercial essential oils over locally prevalent pathogenic strains in Mexico. Fitoterapia, 76(5): 453-457. 4.Tampieri M.P., Galuppi R., Macchioni F., Carelle M.S., Falcioni L., Cioni P.L. & Morelli I. (2005) The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia., 159(3): 339-345. 5.Dhuley J.N. (1999) Anti-oxidant effects of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) bark and greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum) seeds in rats fed high fat diet. Indian J Exp Biol., 37(3): 238-242. 6.Mathew S. & Abraham T.E. (2006) In vitro antioxidant activity and scavenging effects of Cinnamomum verum leaf extract assayed by different methodologies. Food Chem Toxicol., 44(2): 198-206. 7.Khan A., Safdar M., Ali Khan M.M., Khattak K.N. & Anderson R.A. (2003) Cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care., 26(12): 3215-3218. 8.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm

Cirsium japonicum (DA JI) Japanese thistle {R7} The Chinese pharmacopoeia recommends the use of field thistle in treatment of bleeding and inflammation (1). It is also said to be effective in treating hypertension and hepatitis (2). However, scientific literature on medical use of this species is scarce. Recent work on effects of the methanol extract on rats treated with ethanol suggested that Cirsium japonicum may alleviate alcoholic toxicity by enhancing ethanol oxidation, as well as inhibiting lipid peroxidation (3). Also linked to improvement of memory deficit in animals (4). Potential noxious weed (5). 1.Ganzera M., Pocher A. & Stuppner H. (2005) Differentiation of Cirsium japonicum and C. setosum by TLC and HPLC-MS. Phytochem Anal., 16(3): 205-209. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Park J.C., Hur J.M., Park J.G., Kim S.C., Park J.R., Choi S.H. & Choi J.W. (2004) Effects of methanol extract of Cirsium japonicum var. ussuriense and its principle, hispidulin-7-O-neohesperidoside on hepatic alcohol- metabolizing enzymes and lipid peroxidation in ethanol-treated rats. Phytother Res., 18(1): 19-24. 4.Yamazaki M., Hirakura K., Miyaichi Y., Imakura K., Kita M., Chiba K. & Mohri T. (2001) Effect of polyacetylenes on the neurite outgrowth of neuronal culture cells and scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice. Biol Pharm Bull., 24(12): 1434-1436. 5.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Cirsium setosum (XIAO JI) field thistle {R3} The Chinese pharmacopoeia indicates the use of Cirsium setosum in treatment of bleeding and inflammation (1). However, no relevant material could be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Ganzera M., Pocher A. & Stuppner H. (2005) Differentiation of Cirsium japonicum and C. setosum by TLC and HPLC-MS. Phytochem Anal., 16(3): 205-209.

Cistanche deserticola (ROU CONG RONG) desert broomrape or desert cistanche {R15} An arabinogalactan isolated from the stems of Cistanche deserticola induced the proliferation of cultured lymphocytes (1). Phenylethanoid compounds from the stem have shown strong free radical scavenging activity (2). In another study, the rhizomes were extracted and the analgesic and antiinflammatory effects were evaluated in several animal models (3). Extracts effectively inhibited writhing response, reduced pain and decreased oedema. These trials established that this plant has analgesic and antiinflammatory effects, and the butanolic and aqueous layers contain the active constituents (3). It is used in vast quantities in China but is collected from the wild rather than being cultivated (4). This plant is rare or endangered (5). 1.Wu X.M., Gao X.M., Tsim K.W. & Tu P.F. (2005) An arabinogalactan isolated from the stems of Cistanche deserticola induces the proliferation of cultured lymphocytes. Int J Biol Macromol., 37(5):278-282. 2.Xiong Q., Kadota S., Tani T. & Namba T. (1996) Antioxidative effects of phenylethanoids from Cistanche deserticola. Biol Pharm Bull., 19(12): 1580-1585. 3.Lin L.W., Hsieh M.T., Tsai F.H., Wang W.H. & Wu C.R. (2002) Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity caused by Cistanche deserticola in rodents. J Ethnopharmacol., 83(3): 177-182. 4.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 5.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Citrus reticulata (CHEN PI) mandarin or tangerine Widely cultivated in the tropics and subtropics; probable origin in SE Asia. Current commercial crop in Australia. Traditionally used as an antiasthmatic, antiinflammatory and circulatory stimulant (1). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Clematis chinensis (WEI LING XIAN) Chinese clematis {R12} This plant has been used in Chinese traditional medicine for 1,000 years as an antibacterial, antitumour, analgesic and antihyperglycaemic (1). Other sources suggest that traditional use extends to treatment of arthralgia (2) and inflammation (3). An Australian study demonstrated inhibitory activity against at least one enzyme relating to inflammation (4). The roots are rich in saponins (3,5). A saponin-enriched fraction prepared from the methanol extract of the roots showed cytotoxic activity against HL-60 promyelocytic leukaemia cells (5). In earlier work, the cytocidal effects of total saponin from Clematis chinensis was demonstrated on experimental tumour EAC cells, S180A (mouse) cells and HepA cells in vitro (6).

The cardiovascular pharmacology of aqueous extracts of C. chinensis was studied in rats both in vivo and in vitro (7). A hypotensive response mediated through histaminergic activity was observed and the extract relaxed isolated methoxamine preconstricted helical tail artery strips. 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Xu R., Zhao W., Xu J., Shao B. & Qin G. (1996) Studies on bioactive saponins from Chinese medicinal plants. Adv Exp Med Biol., 404: 371-382. 4.Li R.W., David Lin G., Myers S.P. & Leach D.N. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese medicinal vine plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(1): 61-67. 5.Mimaki Y., Yokosuka A., Hamanaka M., Sakuma C., Yamori T. & Sashida Y. (2004) Triterpene saponins from the roots of Clematis chinensis. J Nat Prod., 67(9): 1511-1516. 6.Qiu G., Zhang M. & Yang Y. (1999) The antitumour activity of total saponin of Clematis chinensis. Zhong Yao Cai., 22(7): 351-353. 7.Ho C.S., Wong Y.H. & Chiu K.W. (1989) The hypotensive action of Desmodium styracifolium and Clematis chinensis. Am J Chin Med., 17(3-4): 189-202.

Clerodendrum trichotomum (CHOU WU TONG) kusagi {R5} Clerodendron trichotomum leaves have been used for centuries in Chinese folk medicine for their antiinflammatory properties. In one recent study, the antiinflammatory effects of leaf extract were studied in rats, mice and in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Inhibition of carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema, vascular permeability and prostaglandin E2 generation showed that a 60% methanol fraction of the leaf contained potent antiinflammatory activity (1). ‘Isoacteoside’ and ‘jionoside D’ isolated from C. trichotomum also demonstrated in vitro antioxidant properties (2,3). Stems of this plant have also been traditionally used for treatment of hypertension in China, Korea, and Japan (4,5). 1.Choi J.H., Whang W.K. & Kim H.J. (2004) Studies on the anti-inflammatory effects of Clerodendron trichotomum Thunberg leaves. Arch Pharm Res., 27(2): 189-193. 2.Chae S., Kim J.S., Kang K.A., Bu H.D., Lee Y., Seo Y.R., Hyun J.W. & Kang S.S. (2005) Antioxidant activity of isoacteoside from Clerodendron trichotomum. J Toxicol Environ Health A., 68(5): 389-400. 3.Chae S., Kim J.S., Kang K.A., Bu H.D., Lee Y., Hyun J.W. & Kang S.S. (2004) Antioxidant activity of jionoside D from Clerodendron trichotomum. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(10): 1504-1508. 4.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 5.Kang D.G., Lee Y.S., Kim H.J., Lee Y.M. & Lee H.S. (2003) Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory phenylpropanoid glycosides from Clerodendron trichotomum. J Ethnopharmacol., 89(1): 151-154.

Cnidium monnieri (SHE CHUANG) {R23} Cnidium monnieri is a well-known Chinese medicinal plant that is said to exhibit strong antipruritic, antiallergic, antidermatophytic, antibacterial and antifungal activities (1). The main pharmacological constituents of this herb are coumarin compounds and volatile oil but it also contains monoterpene polyols, glucides, as well as recently discovered sesquiterpene components (2). In recent years, active investigations of its antitumour activity have been performed in China and elsewhere. An up-to-date review claims that C. monnieri possesses multi-aspect and comprehensive antitumour functions, involving direct tumour-inhibitory activity and improvement in immune function (2). For example, coumarins from the fruit induce apoptosis in human cancer cell-lines (3). Grown in very small amounts in Australia (4).

1.Li H.B. & Chen F. (2005) Simultaneous separation and purification of five bioactive coumarins from the Chinese medicinal plant Cnidium monnieri by high-speed counter-current chromatography. J Sep Sci., 28(3): 268-272. 2.Zhou Z.W. & Liu P.X. (2005) Progress in study of chemical constituents and anti-tumor activities of Cnidium monnieri. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 30(17): 1309-1313. 3.Yang L.L., Wang M.C., Chen L.G. & Wang C.C. (2003) Cytotoxic activity of coumarins from the fruits of Cnidium monnieri on leukemia cell lines. Planta Med., 69(12): 1091-1095. 4.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Coccinia grandis [India- KUNDREE, TINDORA] ivy gourd or little gourd {R6} The leaves of this plant have been used since ancient times as an antidiabetic drug by Ayurvedic physicians (1,2). In one trial, dried extract from this plant in doses of 500 mg/kg body weight was administered orally to 30 diabetic patients for six weeks (3). Results suggested that ingredients present in the C. grandis extract may act like insulin. In an experimental double-blind study, 10 of 16 patients with uncontrolled maturity-onset diabetes who received a preparation of C. grandis leaves for six weeks showed marked improvement in their glucose tolerance, while none out of the 16 patients in the placebo group showed improvement (P<0.001) (4). Recognised as a potential new crop for Australia (5) but is a potential aquatic or terrestrial noxious weed (6). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Grover J.K., Yadav S. & Vats V. (2002) Medicinal plants of India with anti-diabetic potential. J Ethnopharmacol., 81(1): 81-100. 3.Kamble S.M., Kamlakar P.L., Vaidya S. & Bambole V.D. (1998) Influence of Coccinia indica on certain enzymes in glycolytic and lipolytic pathway in human diabetes. Indian J Med Sci., 52(4): 143-146. 4.Khan A.K., AKhtar S. & Mahtab H. (1980) Treatment of diabetes mellitus with Coccinia indica. Br Med J., 280: 1044. 5.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 6.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Codonopsis pilosula (DANG SHEN) bellflower or Asiabell {R21} A double-blind, randomised placebo controlled trial design was used to determine the efficacy in memory function of Codonopsis pilosula and Gingko biloba compared to placebo (1). Sixty participants, aged 21 to 60 years, who were either students or faculty of the Southern California University of Health Sciences underwent a computerised, standardised acquisition and retention test. Findings indicated that both products were better than placebo at producing improvements in acquisition and retention, and overall health status. The combination product (ie. both herbs) seemed to be better than G. biloba alone in improving cognitive function (1).

C. pilosula is one of the 11 most important cultivated medicinal herbs in China (2). It was identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants that had potential for production in the USA (3), but before then, potential had been recognised for Australia (4). C. pilosula is a perennial member of the Family Campanulaceae growing to 1.7 m. It is a climbing vine that grows well in part shade; it must be provided with a trellis and spaced 30 cm within rows. Young growth in spring, even on mature plants, is frost-tender. The roots are traditionally used and are harvested in autumn after three years. One traditional option for oral dosage is 10 to 30 g of dried root, decocted in water (5). 1.Singh B., Song H., Liu X.D., Hardy M., Liu G.Z., Vinjamury S.P. & Martirosian C.D. (2004) Dangshen (Codonopsis pilosula) and Bai guo (Gingko biloba) enhance learning and memory. Altern Ther Health Med., 10(4): 52-56. 2.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Craker L.E. & Giblette J. (2002) Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production, pp. 491-496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. 4.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 5.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Coix lacryma-jobi (YI YI REN) coix, adlay or Job's tears {R17} Seeds of Coix lachryma-jobi are consumed as an antiinflammatory medicine and health food. The dried seed kernels from this grass are used to alleviate rheumatoid arthritis with contracture of joints and muscles, and can be cooked into soup with rice and used in everyday meals (1). Results from trials using mouse cells demonstrated that a methanol extract of the seeds showed antiinflammatory properties which may involve an inhibition of nitric oxide or superoxide production by activated macrophages (2).

The seeds are also used traditionally for their antitumour properties (3). Trials on rats suggested that dehulled seeds suppressed early events in colon carcinogenesis but not the formation of tumours (4). Another study examined the effects of methanolic extract of coix seed on the growth of human lung cancer cells in vitro and found that it exerted an antiproliferative effect on A549 cancer cells by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (5). In mice, it was found that lung tumour growth in vivo was inhibited by the methanolic extract (5). A neutral lipid isolated from the endosperm of coix inhibited in vitro pancreatic cancer cell growth through induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest as well as regulation of gene expression (6). This species is widely naturalised in the tropics and subtropics (7). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Seo W.G., Pae H.O., Chai K.Y., Yun Y.G., Kwon T.H. & Chung H.T. (2000) Inhibitory effects of methanol extract of seeds of Job's Tears (Coix lachryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen) on nitric oxide and superoxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol., 22(3): 545-554. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 4.Shih C.K., Chiang W. & Kuo M.L. (2004) Effects of adlay on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in rats. Food Chem Toxicol., 42(8): 1339-1347. 5.Chang H.C., Huang Y.C. & Hung W.C. (2003) Antiproliferative and chemopreventive effects of adlay seed on lung cancer in vitro and in vivo. J Agric Food Chem., 51(12): 3656-3660. 6.Bao Y., Yuan Y., Xia L., Jiang H., Wu W. & Zhang X. (2005) Neutral lipid isolated from endosperm of Job's tears inhibits the growth of pancreatic cancer cells via apoptosis, G2/M arrest, and regulation of gene expression. J Gastroenterol Hepatol., 20(7): 1046-1053. 7.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Commelina communis (YA ZHI CAO) dayflower or Asiatic dayflower {R3} An extract of Commelina communis after decoction in water is traditionally used for the treatment of diabetes in Korea. An aqueous extract alleviated hyperglycaemia caused by maltose or starch loading in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice with better efficacy than that of acarbose (1). Prolonged administration of C. communis extract tended to normalise hyperglycaemia in streptozotocin-diabetic mice suggesting potential for use in the management of non-insulin-dependent diabetes (1). ‘P-hydroxycinnamic acid’ and ‘D-mannitol’ isolated from C. communis showed antibacterial activity and antitussive effects respectively (2). 1.Youn J.Y., Park H.Y. & Cho K.H. (2004) Anti-hyperglycemic activity of Commelina communis L.: inhibition of alpha-glucosidase. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2004 Dec; 66 Suppl 1: S149-155. 2.Tang X.Y., Zhou M.H., Zhang Z.H. & Zhang Y.B. (1994) Active constituents of Commelina communis L.. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 19(5): 297-298.

Commiphora wightii [Indian- GUGGUL(A)] mukul myrrh {R12} Considered by some to be one of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). A well known Ayurvedic herb for the treatment of arthritis which has recently come into prominence as an effective treatment for high blood cholesterol (2). ‘Gugulipid’ is an extract of the oleoresin of the mukul myrrh tree, a native to India (1). Several human studies have shown that gugulipid can lower both cholesterol and triglyceride levels (1). The mechanism of action for its cholesterol lowering action is the ability to increase the liver’s metabolism of low-density lipoprotein - cholesterol. In an experimental placebo-controlled study, 205 patients received gugulipid or a placebo (3). Total cholesterol was significantly lowered in 70-80% of patients. However, a recent review suggested that more human research was required (4). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition. Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 3.Nityanand S., Srivastava J.S. & Asthana O.P. (1989) Clinical trials with Gugulipid: a new hypolipidemic agent. J Assoc Phys India, 37(5): 323-328.

4.Pinn G. (2005) Herbal medicine in endocrinology and metabolic diesease, pp. 383-397. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp.

Commiphora myrrha (MO YAO ) myrrh or African myrrh {R6} Reportedly contains antihyperglycaemic compounds (1). A recent investigation tested an aqueous extract for its antiproliferative activity on eight cancer cell-lines as well as on normal human mammary epithelial cells (2). Results indicated potential use as an antineoplastic agent with further evaluation studies warranted. A furanosesquiterpenoid from the gum exudate exhibited weak cytotoxic activity against a MCF-7 breast tumour cell-line (3). 1.Ubillas R.P., Mendez C.D., Jolad S.D., Luo J., King S.R., Carlson T.J. & Fort D.M. (1999) Antihyperglycemic furanosesquiterpenes from Commiphora myrrha. Planta Med., 65(8): 778-779. 2.Shoemaker M., Hamilton B., Dairkee S.H., Cohen I. & Campbell M.J. (2005) In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res., 19(7): 649-651. 3.Zhu N., Kikuzaki H., Sheng S., Sang S., Rafi M.M., Wang M., Nakatani N., DiPaola R.S., Rosen R.T. & Ho C.T. (2001) Furanosesquiterpenoids of Commiphora myrrha. J Nat Prod., 64(11): 1460-1462.

Convallaria keiskei (LING LAN) {R4} This herb has digitalis-like cardiovascular action and has been used in the treatment of heart disease (1). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Convallaria majalis - convallaria or lily-of-the-valley {R9} During the 20th century, the drugs utilised most frequently by physicians for the treatment of congestive heart failure have been obtained from digitalis. Numerous other plants contain cardioactive glycosides with steroidal structures and physiological functions similar to those of digitalis. Some of these (eg. Convallaria majalis, source of the drug ‘convallatoxin’) have been used from time to time in the treatment of congestive heart failure, but none represents any special advantage over digitalis (1,2).

Angiogenesis plays a pivotal role in tumour growth and represents a key target for chemopreventive intervention. Despite the large number of existing angiogenesis inhibitors, there is still a great demand for new antiangiogenic compounds. The effects of administration of ‘convallamaroside’ (a steroidal saponin isolated from lily-of-the-valley) to mice on tumour angiogenesis reaction induced by tumour cells has been investigated (3). Convallamaroside showed a significant inhibitory effect on the number of new vessels induced in mice by human kidney tumour cells. Similarly, administration of convallamaroside to mice decreased the number of new vessels induced by sarcoma mice cells (3). 1.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Pub.- Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 2.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Nartowska J., Sommer E., Pastewka K., Sommer S. & Skopinska-Rozewska E. (2004) Anti-angiogenic activity of convallamaroside, the steroidal saponin isolated from the rhizomes and roots of Convallaria majalis L. Acta Pol Pharm., 61(4): 279-282.

Coptis chinensis (HUANG LIAN) golden thread or Chinese gold thread {R25} ‘Berberine’ is a plant alkaloid with a long history of medicinal use in both Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine and it is present in Coptis chinensis (1). This plant is one of the 11 most important cultivated medicinal plants in China (2). Berberine extracts and decoctions have demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity against a variety of organisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminths and chlamydia. Berberine showed antimicrobial activity against all tested strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (3). In recent work, the inhibitory activity of C. chinensis rhizome-derived material was evaluated against sortase, a bacterial surface protein anchoring transpeptidase, from Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538p, and was found to be potent (4). C. chinensis aqueous extracts also exhibited strong inhibition on cariogenic bacteria (5).

Trials with four human liver cancer cell-lines suggest that C. chinensis extract and its major constituents, berberine and coptisine, possess active antihepatoma and antileukaemia activities (6). After using C. chinensis compound for 30 days, the size of transplanted tumours in mice was remarkably reduced, and the inhibition rate of tumour growth was 29.5% (7). 1.[No authors listed] (2000) Berberine. Altern Med Rev., 5(2): 175-177. 44

2.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Yu H.H., Kim K.J., Cha J.D., Kim H.K., Lee Y.E., Choi N.Y. & You Y.O. (2005) Antimicrobial Activity of Berberine Alone and in Combination with Ampicillin or Oxacillin Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Med Food., 8(4): 454-461. 4.Kim S.H., Shin D.S., Oh M.N., Chung S.C., Lee J.S. & Oh K.B. (2004) Inhibition of the bacterial surface protein anchoring transpeptidase sortase by isoquinoline alkaloids. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 68(2): 421-424. 5.Wang S., Fan M. & Bian Z. (2001) Experimental study of bacteriostatic activity of Chinese herbal medicines on primary cariogenic bacteria in vitro. Zhonghua Kou Qiang Yi Xue Za Zhi, 36(5): 385-387. 6.Lin C.C., Ng L.T., Hsu F.F., Shieh D.E. & Chiang L.C. (2004) Cytotoxic effects of Coptis chinensis and Epimedium sagittatum extracts and their major constituents (berberine, coptisine and icariin) on hepatoma and leukaemia cell growth. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol., 31(1-2): 65-69. 7.Wang G.P., Tang F.Q. & Zhou J.P. (2003) Effect of Coptis chinensis compound on the gene expression in transplanted tumor tissue in nasopharyngeal carcinoma cell line of CNE1 by cDNA microarray. Hunan Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao., 28(4): 347-352.

Coriolus versicolor (YUN ZHI) {R17} Coriolus versicolor is a medicinal fungus widely prescribed for the prophylaxis and treatment of cancer and infection in China (1). In recent years, it has been extensively demonstrated both preclinically and clinically that aqueous extracts obtained from C. versicolor display a wide array of biological activities, including stimulatory effects on different immune cells and inhibition of cancer growth. The growing popularity of aqueous C. versicolor extracts as an adjunct medical modality to conventional cancer therapies has generated substantial commercial interest in developing these extracts into consistent and efficacious oral proprietary products. While very limited information is available on the physical, chemical, and pharmacodynamic properties of the active principles present in these extracts, there has been sufficient scientific evidence to support the feasibility of developing at least some of these constituents into an evidence-based immunomodulatory agent (1).

Polysaccharide-K (PSK), also known as ‘krestin’, is a unique protein-bound polysaccharide, which has been used as a chemoimmunotherapy agent in the treatment of cancer in Asia for over 30 years. PSK and polysaccharopeptide (PSP) are both protein-bound polysaccharides which are derived from the CM-101 and COV-1 strains of C. versicolor by Japanese and Chinese researchers, respectively (2). Both polysaccharide preparations have documented anticancer activity in vitro, in vivo and in human clinical trials, though PSK has been researched longer and has therefore undergone more thorough laboratory, animal and clinical testing. Several randomised clinical trials have demonstrated that PSK has great potential as an adjuvant cancer therapy agent, with positive results seen in the adjuvant treatment of gastric, oesophageal, colorectal, breast and lung cancers. These studies have suggested the efficacy of PSK as an immunotherapy or biological response modifier. Biological response modifiers potentially have the ability to improve the ‘host versus tumour response’, thereby increasing the ability of the host to defend itself from tumour progression (2).

In Japanese trials since 1970, PSK significantly extended survival at five years or beyond for patients with cancers of the stomach, colon-rectum, oesophagus, nasopharynx, lung (non-small cell types) and HLA B40-positive breast cancer (3). PSP was subjected to Phase II and Phase III trials in China. In double-blind trials, PSP significantly extended five-year survival in patients with oesophageal cancer. PSP significantly improved quality of life, provided substantial pain relief, and enhanced immune status in 70 to 97% of patients with cancers of the stomach, oesophagus, lung, ovary, and cervix. PSK and PSP boosted immune cell production, ameliorated chemotherapy symptoms, and enhanced tumour infiltration by dendritic and cytotoxic T-cells. Their extremely high tolerability, proven benefits to survival and quality of life, and compatibility with chemotherapy and radiation therapy makes them well suited for cancer management regimens (3). 1.Chu K.K., Ho S.S. & Chow A.H. (2002) Coriolus versicolor: a medicinal mushroom with promising immunotherapeutic values. J Clin Pharmacol., 42(9): 976-984. 2.Fisher M. & Yang L.X. (2002) Anticancer effects and mechanisms of polysaccharide-K (PSK): implications of cancer immunotherapy. Anticancer Res., 22(3): 1737-1754. 3.Kidd P.M. (2000) The use of mushroom glucans and proteoglycans in cancer treatment. Altern Med Rev., 5(1): 4-27.

Cornus officinalis (SHAN ZHU YU) Japanese cornel, Asiatic dogwood or Japanese cornelian- cherry {R8} This plant is used as an antibacterial and for lowering blood pressure (1,2). Water extracts of Cornus officinalis inhibited hepatocellular carcinoma cells and leukaemic cells through antioxidant and antineoplastic effects (3). Results from another study using iridoid total glycoside from C. officinalis suggested that it was a beneficial agent for prevention and therapy of diabetic nephropathy (4). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 3.Chang J.S., Chiang L.C., Hsu F.F. & Lin C.C. (2004) Chemoprevention against hepatocellular carcinoma of Cornus officinalis in vitro. Am J Chin Med., 32(5): 717-725. 4.Xu H.Q. & Hao H.P. (2004) Effects of iridoid total glycoside from Cornus officinalis on prevention of glomerular overexpression of transforming growth factor beta 1 and matrixes in an experimental diabetes model. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(7): 1014-1018.

Corydalis bungeana {R5} Extracts from the whole plant contain glycosides and alkaloids (1). Petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts showed activity against Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas syringae using a bioautographic assay (2). Note: this scientific name is under review. 1.Xie C., Veitch N.C., Houghton P.J. & Simmonds M.S. (2004) Flavonoid glycosides and isoquinolinone alkaloids from Corydalis bungeana. Phytochemistry., 65(22): 3041-3047. 2.Xie C., Kokubun T., Houghton P.J. & Simmonds M.S. (2004) Antibacterial activity of the Chinese traditional medicine, Zi Hua Di Ding. Phytother Res., 18(6): 497-500.

Corydalis decumbens (XIA TIAN WU) decumbent corydalis tuber {R5} Traditionally for ailments including hypertension, stroke and rheumatic arthritis (1,2). Various compounds have been isolated from the bulbs/tubers including alkaloids (2,3). However, the species seems to have generated limited documented research. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Zhang J.S., Zhu D.Y. & Hong S.H. (1995) Isoquinoline alkaloids, decumbenine B and C, from Corydalis decumbens. Phytochemistry, 39: 435-437. 3.Liao J., Liang W.Z. & Tu G.S. (1994) Chemical constituents of Corydalis decumbens (Thunb.) Pers. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi, 19(10): 612-3, 639.

Corydalis yanhusuo (YAN HU SUO) {R12} Alkaloids from this plant have been shown to have a wide number of pharmacological actions on the central nervous system, including analgesic and sedative actions (1). In a recent controlled clinical trial, the analgesic effects of Corydalis yanhusuo were analysed in the cold-pressor test which is widely used in humans for induction of chronic pain (2). With a single, oral administration of the extracts of C. yanhusuo, pain intensity and pain bothersomeness scores significantly decreased suggesting potential clinical value for treating mild to moderate pain (2). Corydalis alkaloids also have cardiovascular effects [eg. the drug ‘dehydrocorydaline’ (3)]. dl-Tetrahydropalmatine has been shown to both decrease the stickiness of platelets and protect against stroke (4), as well as lower blood pressure and heart rate in animal studies (5). A small double-blind clinical trial found that it may also exert an antiarrhythmic action on the heart (6). In recent work on rats, an extract from C. yanhusuo had protective effects on myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion injury which were closely associated with inhibition of myocardial apoptosis (7). 1.Zhu Y.P. (1998) Chinese Materia Media: Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Applications. Pub.- Australia: Harwood Academic Publishers. 2.Yuan C.S., Mehendale S.R., Wang C.Z., Aung H.H., Jiang T., Guan X. & Shoyama Y. (2004) Effects of Corydalis yanhusuo and Angelicae dahuricae on cold pressor-induced pain in humans: a controlled trial. J Clin Pharmacol., 44(11): 1323-1327. 3.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 4.Xing J.F., Wang M.N., Ma X.Y., et al. (1997) Effects of dl-tetrahydropalmatine on rabbit platelet aggregation and experimental thrombosis in rats. Chin Pharm Bull., 13: 258-260. 5.Lin M.T., Chueh F.Y., Hsieh M.T. Chen C.F. (1996) Antihypertensive effects of dl-tetrahydropalmatine: an active principle isolated from corydalis. Clin Exper Pharm Physiol., 23: 738-742. 6.Xiaolin N., Zhenhua H., Xin M., et al. (1998) Clinical and experimental study of dl-tetrahydropalmatine effect in the treatment of supraventricular arrhythmia. J Xi’An Med Univ., 10: 150-153.

7.Ling H., Wu L. & Li L. (2006) Corydalis yanhusuo rhizoma extract reduces infarct size and improves heart function during myocardial ischemia/reperfusion by inhibiting apoptosis in rats. Phytother Res., 20(6): 448-453.

Crataegus pinnatifida (SHAN ZHA) Chinese hawthorn {R7} Chinese hawthorn is said to lower blood cholesterol, improve coronary circulation, lower blood pressure and also act as an antibacterial agent (1). However, it has not been as well investigated as its European relatives Crataegus monogyna and Crataegus laevigata. An older study reported benefits in treating angina (2). More recent investigation tested two cytotoxic ursane-type triterpenes (‘uvaol’ and ‘ursolic acid’) from this plant and found some weak-moderate cytotoxicity against cancer cell-lines (3). ‘Corosolic acid’ isolated from the fruit was tested for anticancer activity and displayed about the same potent cytotoxic activity against several human cancer cell-lines as ursolic acid (4). Flavonoid contents from dried fruit demonstrated antiinflammatory potential in vitro and in live rats (5). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Weng W.L., Zhang W.Q., Liu F.Z., Yu X.C., Zhang P.W., Liu Y.N., Chi H.C., Yin G.X. & Huang M.B. (1984) Therapeutic effect of Crataegus pinnatifida on 46 cases of angina pectoris - a double blind study. J Tradit Chin Med., 4(4): 293-294. 3.Min B.S., Kim Y.H., Lee S.M., Jung H.J., Lee J.S., Na M.K., Lee C.O., Lee J.P. & Bae K. (2000) Cytotoxic triterpenes from Crataegus pinnatifida. Arch Pharm Res., 23(2): 155-158. 4.Ahn K.S., Hahm M.S., Park E.J., Lee H.K. & Kim I.H. (1998) Corosolic acid isolated from the fruit of Crataegus pinnatifida var. psilosa is a protein kinase C inhibitor as well as a cytotoxic agent. Planta Med., 64(5): 468-470. 5.Kao E.S., Wang C.J., Lin W.L., Yin Y.F., Wang C.P. & Tseng T.H. (2005) Anti-inflammatory potential of flavonoid contents from dried fruit of Crataegus pinnatifida in vitro and in vivo. J Agric Food Chem., 53(2): 430- 436.

Crateva nurvala [Myanmar- KADET] three-leaf caper or garlic pear {R2} Myanmar folk medicine uses this species for diabetes, abdominal tumours and asthma (1). Largely ignored in modern research related to Australia’s chronic diseases. There is potential for production in Australia (2). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Cratoxylum cochinchinense {R4} Thirty-three traditional Chinese medicine extracts were examined for their antioxidant activity using the 2,2'-azinobis[3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate] assay. Five extracts with high activity, including Cratoxylum cochinchinense were selected for further characterisation. C. cochinchinense out- performed most of the other extracts in most of the assays tested (1). In more up-to-date findings, new xanthones and known compounds were isolated from the roots and they exhibited effective antioxidative properties (2). 1.Tang S.Y., Whiteman M., Peng Z.F., Jenner A., Yong E.L. & Halliwell B. (2004) Characterization of antioxidant and antiglycation properties and isolation of active ingredients from traditional Chinese medicines. Free Radic Biol Med., 36(12): 1575-1587. 2.Mahabusarakam W., Nuangnaowarat W. & Taylor W.C. (2006) Xanthone derivatives from Cratoxylum cochinchinense roots. Phytochemistry, 67(5): 470-474.

Crotalaria albida {R2} Crotalaria albida is used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating coughs and phlegmy asthma; it contains glycosides (1). The combined administration of cyclophosphamide and extracts from C. albida (and Senecio) led to prolonged life-span of S180 (ascitic) tumour bearing mice (2). 1.Ding Y., Kinjo J., Yang C.R. & Nohara T. (1991) Oleanene glycosides from Crotalaria albida. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 39: 496-498. 2.Indap M.A. & Gokhale S.V. (1986) Combined effect of cyclophosphamide and extracts of Crotalaria and Senecio plants on experimental tumours. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol., 30(2): 182-186.

Crotalaria sessiliflora (YE BAI HE) rattlebox or tanukimame {R5} Flavonoids have been isolated from the whole plant (1), while the seeds have been shown to contain alkaloids (2). Seven antioxidative compounds were isolated from the aerial parts, and among the isolated compounds, ‘hydroxyeucomic acid’ showed the strongest free radical-scavenging activity, (almost identical to that of epigallocatechin gallate) (3). ‘Orientin’ and ‘isoorientin’ showed strong

antiperoxidative activities toward linoleic acid and protective effects against the bactericidal action of the tert-butyl peroxyl radical. Their activities were nearly equal to that of epigallocatechin gallate (3).

The antitumour principles of this plant have also been considered and the alkaloid ‘monocrotaline A’ is credited for this activity (4,5). Reports of older clinical trials suggest that Crotalaria sessiliflora is effective against skin carcinoma, cervical cancer and rectal cancer (4). Monocrotaline A is hydrolyzed in the liver, its metabolite is strongly bound to RNA and inhibits DNA biosynthesis, thus creating a reduction in protein synthesis by cancer cells (4). This species is a native to the Northern Territory and Queensland. 1.Yoo H.S., Lee J.S., Kim C.Y. & Kim J. (2004) Flavonoids of Crotalaria sessiliflora. Arch Pharm Res., 27(5): 544-546. 2.Roder E., Liang X.T. & Kabus K.J. (1992) Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from the seeds of Crotalaria sessiliflora. Planta medica, 58(3): 283. 3.Mun'im A., Negishi O. & Ozawa T. (2003) Antioxidative compounds from Crotalaria sessiliflora. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 67(2): 410-414. 4.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 5.Huang L., Wu K.M., Xue Z., Cheng J.C., Xu L.Z., Xu S.P. & Xi Y.G. (1980) The isolation of antitumor active principle of Crotalaria sessiliflora and synthesis of its derivatives. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 15(5): 278-283.

Croton oblongifolius [Myanmar- THETYIN-GYI] {R8} Traditionally used for general inflammations and arthritis (1). Compounds from the stem bark have shown cytotoxicity against human tumour cell-lines (2,3,4,5). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Roengsumran S., Pornpakakul S., Muangsin N., Sangvanich P., Nhujak T., Singtothong P., Chaichit N., Puthong S. & Petsom A. (2004) New halimane diterpenoids from Croton oblongifolius. Planta Med., 70(1): 87- 89. 3.Sommit D., Petsom A., Ishikawa T. & Roengsumran S. (2003) Cytotoxic activity of natural labdanes and their semi-synthetic modified derivatives from Croton oblongifolius. Planta Med., 69(2): 167-170. 4.Roengsumran S., Musikul K., Petsom A., Vilaivan T., Sangvanich P., Pornpakakul S., Puthong S., Chaichantipyuth C., Jaiboon N. & Chaichit N. (2002) Croblongifolin, a new anticancer clerodane from Croton oblongifolius. Planta Med., 68(3): 274-277. 5.Roengsumran S., Petsom A., Kuptiyanuwat N., Vilaivan T., Ngamrojnavanich N., Chaichantipyuth C. & Phuthong S. (2001) Cytotoxic labdane diterpenoids from Croton oblongifolius. Phytochemistry, 56(1): 103-107.

Cullen corylifolium (BU GU ZHI) [Myanmar- NE HLE] psoralea, scurf(y) pea or black dot {R12} Used traditionally for asthma (1,2) but no relevant material could be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Curculigo orchioides (XIAN MAO) curculigo or golden eye-grass {R7} The rhizome is traditionally used for treating arthralgia (1), asthma, jaundice and decline in strength (2). Glycosides from the rhizome have shown potent antioxidative activity as evaluated by their scavenging effects on hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anion radicals (3). Of 33 traditional Chinese medicine extracts examined for their antioxidant activity, Curculigo orchioides was one of five extracts with high activity (4). There is also some evidence to suggest that the methanolic extract can stimulate immune responses (5), and the methanol extract of rhizomes holds potential (based on mouse trials) as a protective agent against cytotoxic drugs (6). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Lakshmi V., Pandey K., Puri A., Saxena R.P. & Saxena K.C. (2003) Immunostimulant principles from Curculigo orchioides. J Ethnopharmacol., 89(2-3): 181-184. 3.Wu Q., Fu D.X., Hou A.J., Lei G.Q., Liu Z.J., Chen J.K. & Zhou T.S. (2005) Antioxidative phenols and phenolic glycosides from Curculigo orchioides. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo)., 53(8): 1065-1067. 4.Tang S.Y., Whiteman M., Peng Z.F., Jenner A., Yong E.L. & Halliwell B. (2004) Characterization of antioxidant and antiglycation properties and isolation of active ingredients from traditional Chinese medicines. Free Radic Biol Med., 36(12): 1575-1587. 5.Lakshmi V., Pandey K., Puri A., Saxena R.P. & Saxena K.C. (2003) Immunostimulant principles from Curculigo orchioides. J Ethnopharmacol., 89(2-3): 181-184. 6.Bafna A.R. & Mishra S.H. (2006) Immunostimulatory effect of methanol extract of Curculigo orchioides on immunosuppressed mice. J Ethnopharmacol., 104: 1-4. 48

Curcuma kwangsinensis (E ZHU) {R4} Rhizoma Curcumae is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been used for over a thousand years to remove blood stasis and alleviate pain. This medicine is made from the rhizomes of three Curcuma species, including Curcuma kwangsinensis. In trials on isolated rat aorta, water extracts from this plant showed vasodilation (relaxation) effects (1). 1.Sasaki Y., Goto H., Tohda C., Hatanaka F., Shibahara N., Shimada Y., Terasawa K. & Komatsu K. (2003) Effects of curcuma drugs on vasomotion in isolated rat aorta. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(8): 1135-1143.

Curcuma longa (YU JIN) turmeric An existing commercial crop in Australia and an important medicinal plant. Curcumin, a yellow pigment in the rhizomes is a powerful antiinflammatory agent and turmeric’s usefulness in treating rheumatoid arthritis is well documented.

Curcuma phaeocaulis (E ZHU) {R8} Rhizoma Curcumae is a traditional Chinese medicine used to remove blood stasis and alleviate pain. It is made from three types of Curcuma rhizome, including Curcuma phaeocaulis. In trials on isolated rat aorta, water extracts from this plant showed vasodilation effects (1). Antiplatelet aggregation and anticoagulant action were observed in mice treated with extracts of C. phaeocaulis (2). Mice inoculated with C. phaeocaulis extract also showed improved learning in a water maze (3). 1.Sasaki Y., Goto H., Tohda C., Hatanaka F., Shibahara N., Shimada Y., Terasawa K. & Komatsu K. (2003) Effects of curcuma drugs on vasomotion in isolated rat aorta. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(8): 1135-1143. 2.Mao C., Xie H. & Lu T. (2000) Studies on antiplatelet aggregation and anticoagulant action of Curcuma phaeocaulis. Zhong Yao Cai, 23(4): 212-213. 3.Li L., Han C., Cui S., Qiu D., Piao K. & Xuan F. (1998) Effects of Curcuma phaeocaulis on learning and memory and lipid peroxide in mice. Zhong Yao Cai., 21(10): 522-523.

Curcuma wenyujin (E ZHU or WEN YU JIN) {R7} Rhizoma Curcumae is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been used in removing blood stasis and alleviating pain for over a thousand years. Three species of Curcuma rhizomes are used including Curcuma wenyujin. In trials on isolated rat aorta, water extracts from this plant showed vasodilation effects (1). 1.Sasaki Y., Goto H., Tohda C., Hatanaka F., Shibahara N., Shimada Y., Terasawa K. & Komatsu K. (2003) Effects of curcuma drugs on vasomotion in isolated rat aorta. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(8): 1135-1143.

Curcuma zedoaria (E ZHU) kua, zedoary, zedoaire, temu putih or temu kuning {R6} Before cancerous conditions were fully recognised, Chinese medicine used E Zhu in the treatment of indigestion. Extracts from this species have now been broadly applied as an anticancer remedy, and the active anticancer principles are believed to be ‘curcumenol’ and ‘curdione’ (1). Clinical trials in 209 cases of cervical carcinoma showed a 64.4% effective rate (1). After injection of the active extract around the cancer, size of the cancer became smaller, the cancer tissue showed signs of necrosis and a clear line of demarcation developed between normal and cancerous tissues. This species has not been the focus of as much recent research as Curcuma longa. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Cuscuta chinensis (TU SI) Chinese dodder or aftimun {R15} This species occurs in tropical and temperate Asia and is naturalised elsewhere (1). It occurs in Queensland and possibly at limited locations elsewhere in Australia. Its current status is that of an Australian native but the possibility that it is a naturalised species is being investigated. Cuscuta chinensis is a holoparasitic angiosperm that develops haustoria for parasitism (2). This could be an important agronomic factor in any attempt to commercialise production, although the species is a weed in some commercial crops in China. Extracts from the seeds possess immune enhancement activity (3,4,5). C. chinensis is also reputed to have antitumour activity and is used in the Indian Unani system of medicine for that purpose. The effect of a hot water extract on 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene- induced skin papillomas and carcinomas in Swiss albino mice was studied, and oral administration markedly delayed the appearance of papillomas, retarded their growth and reduced incidence of carcinoma (6). The antimutagenic activity of 108 species of edible Thai plants was examined by other researchers, and C. chinensis was one of five plants which exhibited significant activity (7). C.

chinensis is one component of a dietary supplement proprietary product called ‘Equiguard’. Results from in vitro studies show that Equiguard significantly reduced cancer cell growth, induced apoptosis, suppressed expression of the androgen receptor and lowered intracellular and secreted prostate specific antigen, and almost completely abolished colony forming abilities of prostate cancer cells (8). However, while searching for new oestrogenic compounds from plants, other workers investigating the seed extract from C. chinensis found a compound that stimulated in vitro proliferation of breast cancer cells (9). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Tada Y., Wakasugi T., Nishikawa A., Furuhashi K. & Yamada K. (2000) Developmental regulation of a gene coding for a low-molecular-weight heat shock protein during haustorium formation in the seedlings of a holoparasitic plant, Cuscuta japonica. Plant Cell Physiol., 41(12): 1373-1380. 3.Wang Z., Fang J.N., Ge D.L. & Li X.Y. (2000) Chemical characterization and immunological activities of an acidic polysaccharide isolated from the seeds of Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 21(12): 1136- 1140. 4.Bao X., Wang Z., Fang J. & Li X. (2002) Structural features of an immunostimulating and antioxidant acidic polysaccharide from the seeds of Cuscuta chinensis. Planta Med., 68(3): 237-243. 5.Lin H.B., Lin J.Q., Lin J.Q., Lu N. & Yi X.Y. (2003) Comparative study on immune enhancement effects of four kinds of dodder seeds in Shandong Province. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Xue Bao., 1(1): 51-53. 6.Nisa M., Akbar S., Tariq M. & Hussain Z. (1986) Effect of Cuscuta chinensis water extract on 7,12- dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced skin papillomas and carcinomas in mice. J Ethnopharmacol., 18(1): 21-31. 7.Nakahara K., Trakoontivakorn G., Alzoreky N.S., Ono H., Onishi-Kameyama M. & Yoshida M. (2002) Antimutagenicity of some edible Thai plants, and a bioactive carbazole alkaloid, mahanine, isolated from Micromelum minutum. J Agric Food Chem., 50(17): 4796-4802. 8.Hsieh T.C., Lu X., Guo J., Xiong W., Kunicki J., Darzynkiewicz Z. & Wu J.M. (2002) Effects of herbal preparation Equiguard on hormone-responsive and hormone-refractory prostate carcinoma cells: mechanistic studies. Int J Oncol., 20(4): 681-689. 9.Umehara K., Nemoto K., Ohkubo T., Miyase T., Degawa M. & Noguchi H. (2004) Isolation of a new 15- membered macrocyclic glycolipid lactone, Cuscutic Resinoside a from the seeds of Cuscuta chinensis: a stimulator of breast cancer cell proliferation. Planta Med., 70(4): 299-304.

Cuscuta japonica (TU SI) Japanese dodder {R2} Active components have been investigated that may be responsible for the antihypertensive action of the traditional crude drug made from this species (1). Cuscuta japonica is a holoparasitic angiosperm that develops haustoria for parasitism (2). This could complicate commercial production. 1.Oh H., Kang D.G., Lee S. & Lee H.S. (2002) Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors from Cuscuta japonica Choisy. J Ethnopharmacol., 83(1-2): 105-108. 2.Tada Y., Wakasugi T., Nishikawa A., Furuhashi K. & Yamada K. (2000) Developmental regulation of a gene coding for a low-molecular-weight heat shock protein during haustorium formation in the seedlings of a holoparasitic plant, Cuscuta japonica. Plant Cell Physiol., 41(12): 1373-1380.

Cyclocarya paliurus (QING QIAN LIU) {R8} The leaves of Cyclocarya paliurus possess an intensive sweet taste and are used to treat hypertension and diabetes (1). Cyclocarioside A, the main sweet principle of this plant, possesses about 200 times the sweetness intensity of sugar (2). The leaves contain saponins (1), triterpenoids (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, epikatonic acid) (3), and kaempferol, quercetin and isoquercitrin (4).

With respect to diabetes research, one study concluded that C. paliurus is rich in polysaccharide complex, which had obvious blood-sugar reducing activity and could improve the capability of glucose tolerance in diabetic mice (5). Another study examined the hypoglycaemic activity of the species in mice by oral glucose tolerance testing (6). Blood glucose level was significantly lower in the C. paliurus extract treatment group than in the control group after animals were given sucrose but this difference was not observed following the administration of glucose. An in vitro study showed that C. paliurus inhibits alpha-glucosidase, a disaccharide-degrading enzyme in the small intestinal mucosa, leading to a decrease in the absorption of glucose into the blood and a subsequent lowering of the blood glucose level (6).

C. paliurus extract reduced blood lipid levels in mice probably through suppression of the activity of digestive lipase (7). 1.Shu RenGeng, Xu ChangRui, Li LianNiang, Yu ZhiLi, Shu R.G., Xu C.R, Li L.N. & Yu Z.L. (1995) Cyclocariosides II and III: two secodammarane triterpenoid saponins from Cyclocarya paliurus. Planta Medica., 61: 551-553. 50

2.Yang D.J., Zhong Z.C. & Xie Z.M. (1992) Studies on the sweet principles from the leaves of Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinskaya. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 27(11): 841-844. 3.Shu R., Liu Y., Chen J. & Shu J. (2005) Studies on the triterpenoids of Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinsk. Zhong Yao Cai., 28(7): 558-559. 4.Yi X., Shi J.G., Zhou G.X. & Xie M.Y. (2002) Studies on the chemical constituents in the leaves of Cyclocarya paliurus. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 27(1): 43-45. 5.Li L., Xie M. & Yi X. (2002) Study on reducing blood sugar of polysaccharide from Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinsk. Zhong Yao Cai., 25(1): 39-41. 6.Kurihara H., Fukami H., Kusumoto A., Toyoda Y., Shibata H., Matsui Y., Asami S. & Tanaka T. (2003) Hypoglycemic action of Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinskaja in normal and diabetic mice. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 67(4): 877-880. 7.Kurihara H., Asami S., Shibata H., Fukami H. & Tanaka T. (2003) Hypolipemic effect of Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal) Iljinskaja in lipid-loaded mice. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(3): 383-385.

Cymbopogon distans (YUN XIANG CAO) {R1} Traditional Chinese medicine recommends this herb for relief of bronchial asthma (1). However, relevant material could not be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Cynanchum glaucescens (BAI QIAN) glaucescent swallowwort {R7} Used traditionally with other herbs for treating asthma (1). Decoctions of this species have been shown to have antiasthmatic and antiinflammatory effects (2). Water, ethanol and ether extracts from Cynanchum glaucescems administrated orally showed significant antitussive effect against ammonia- induced cough in mice (3). Water and ethanol extracts had obvious expectorant effects. A filtered solution of water decoction injected intraperitoneally effectively protected guinea pigs from asthma induced by an acetulcholine and histamine mixture, and also inhibited mouse ear inflammation caused by croton oil (3). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Liang A., Xue B., Yang Q., Li Z., Wang J. & Fu M. (1996) Pharmacological comparative study on baiqian and baiwei. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 21(10): 622-625. 3.Liang A., Xue B., Yang Q. & Li Z. (1995) Antitussive, expectorant and anti-asthmatic effects of Cynanchum glaucescens (Decne.) Hand.-Mazz. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi, 20(3): 176-178,

Cynomorium songaricum (SUO YANG) songaria cynomorium {R11} Stem extracts of this species were inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 protease (1). A more recent study also confirmed that some triterpenes from the stems show inhibitory activity against human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease (2). In order to develop a new apoptosis inducer, a study screened 22 crude drugs for their apoptosis-inducing activity, and it was found that C. songaricum induced the death of HL-60 cells (3). 1.Ma C., Nakamura N., Miyashiro H., Hattori M. & Shimotohno K. (1999) Inhibitory effects of constituents from Cynomorium songaricum and related triterpene derivatives on HIV-1 protease. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 47(2): 141-145. 2.Nakamura N. (2004) Inhibitory effects of some traditional medicines on proliferation of HIV-1 and its protease. Yakugaku Zasshi., 124(8): 519-529. 3.Nishida S., Kikuichi S., Yoshioka S., Tsubaki M., Fujii Y., Matsuda H., Kubo M. & Irimajiri K. (2003) Induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells treated with medicinal herbs. Am J Chin Med., 31(4): 551-562.

Cyperus rotundus (XIANG FU) nut grass, nut sedge, coco grass, purple/red nut sedge, tigernut, musta or motha {R20} Nitric oxide and superoxide are important mediators in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. The methanol extract of rhizomes of Cyperus rotundus showed inhibition of nitric oxide production by mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cell-line, and suppressed the production of superoxide by phorbol ester-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells (1). The authors conclude that this extract could be developed for the treatment of inflammatory diseases mediated by overproduction of nitric oxide and superoxide (1).

Results from recent research showed that C. rotundus was one component in a salt-spice-herbal mixture that exerted promising antioxidant potential against free radical induced oxidative damage in rats (2). In vitro antimalarial activity has also been reported for this species and in one test, of 49 plants investigated, the most active extract was obtained from the tubers of C. rotundus (3). 1.Seo W.G., Pae H.O., Oh G.S., Chai K.Y., Kwon T.O., Yun Y.G., Kim N.Y. & Chung H.T. (2001) Inhibitory effects of methanol extract of Cyperus rotundus rhizomes on nitric oxide and superoxide productions

by murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7 cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 76(1): 59-64. 2.Natarajan K.S., Narasimhan M., Shanmugasundaram K.R. & Shanmugasundaram E.R. (2006) Antioxidant activity of a salt-spice-herbal mixture against free radical induction. J Ethnopharmacol., 105(1-2):76-83. 3.Weenen H., Nkunya M.H., Bray D.H., Mwasumbi L.B., Kinabo L.S. & Kilimali V.A. (1990) Antimalarial activity of Tanzanian medicinal plants. Planta Med., 56(4): 368-370.

Daemonorops draco (XUE JIE) dragon’s blood or dragon’s blood palm {R7} Used internally to promote blood circulation and relieve pain. It is combined with other herbs in an antibruise powder (1). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Dalbergia odorifera (JIANG XIANG) dalbergia or fragrant rosewood {R13} Flavonoids are the main active constituents of Dalbergia odorifera (1). Components of the heartwood showed antiallergic and significant antiinflammatory activity (2). The properties of ‘butein’ isolated from D. odorifera were investigated, and it was concluded that it served as a powerful antioxidant against lipid and human low-density lipoprotein peroxidation by its versatile free radical scavenging actions and metal ion chelation (3). 1.Liu R., Wang W., Wang Q., Bi K. & Guo D. (2006) Identification and determination of major flavonoids in rat urine by HPLC-UV and HPLC-MS methods following oral administration of Dalbergia odorifera extract. Biomed Chromatogr., 20(1): 101-108. 2.Chan S.C., Chang Y.S., Wang J.P., Chen S.C. & Kuo S.C. (1998) Three new flavonoids and antiallergic, antiinflammatory constituents from the heartwood of Dalbergia odorifera. Planta Med., 64(2): 153-158. 3.Cheng Z.J., Kuo S.C., Chan S.C., Ko F.N. & Teng C.M. (1998) Antioxidant properties of butein isolated from Dalbergia odorifera. Biochim Biophys Acta., 1392(2-3): 291-299.

Daphne genkwa (YUAN HUA) lilac daphne {R14} This well known plant used in traditional Chinese medicine contains diterpenoids (1), diterpenes (1,2) and biflavonoids (3). Early work pointed to the potential of this species in cancer treatment with two of its natural products shown to possess antileukaemic activity in mice (4). In recent work, twelve highly oxygenated novel daphnane-type diterpenoids (genkwanines A-L), together with four known diterpenes were isolated from the buds (1). A number of these compounds showed very potent cytotoxic activities against two tumour cell-lines, and five compounds exhibited strong activity to inhibit endothelium cell HMEC proliferation (1). Daphne genkwa could be a promising source of antitumour, antiinflammatory and antiallergy agents (5,6). 1.Zhan Z.J., Fan C.Q., Ding J. & Yue J.M. (2005) Novel diterpenoids with potent inhibitory activity against endothelium cell HMEC and cytotoxic activities from a well-known TCM plant Daphne genkwa. Bioorg Med Chem., 13(3): 645-655. 2.Zhou B.N. (1991) Some progress on the chemistry of natural bioactive terpenoids from Chinese medicinal plants. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz., 86 Suppl 2: 219-226. 3.Zheng W.F. & Shi F. (2005) Three biflavonoids from ethanol extract of the root of Daphne genkwa. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 40(5): 438-442. 4.Liou Y.F., Hall I.H. & Lee K.H. (1982) Antitumor agents LVI: the protein synthesis inhibition by genkwadaphnin and yuanhuacine of P-388 lymphocytic leukemia cells. J Pharm Sci., 71(12): 1340-1344. 5.Kai H., Koine T., Baba M. & Okuyama T. (2004) Pharmacological effects of Daphne genkwa and Chinese medical prescription, "Jyu-So-To". Yakugaku Zasshi., 124(6): 349-354. 6.Hong C.H., Hur S.K., Oh O.J., Kim S.S., Nam K.A. & Lee S.K. (2002) Evaluation of natural products on inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cultured mouse macrophage cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 83(1-2): 153-159.

Dendrobium nobile (SHI HU) dendrobium orchid {R12} Rare and/or endangered (1). Used to lower blood pressure (2). Two phenanthrenes isolated from the aerial parts were found to be cytotoxic against A549 (human lung carcinoma), SK-OV-3 (human ovary adenocarcinoma), and HL-60 (human promyelocytic leukaemia) cell-lines (3). One of these compounds also showed antitumour activity and increased life-span of ICR mice intraperitoneally implanted with cells of sarcoma 180 (3). A bibenzyl compound that possesses antimutagenic activity has also been isolated from the storage stem (4). Two sesquiterpene glycosides, isolated from the stems were found to stimulate the proliferation of murine T and B lymphocytes in vitro, while a third compound showed inhibitory activity in this same assay (5). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

3.Lee Y.H., Park J.D., Baek N.I., Kim S.I. & Ahn B.Z. (1995) In vitro and in vivo antitumoral phenanthrenes from the aerial parts of Dendrobium nobile. Planta Med., 61(2): 178-180. 4.Miyazawa M., Shimamura H., Nakamura S., Sugiura W., Kosaka H. & Kameoka H. (1999) Moscatilin from Dendrobium nobile, a naturally occurring bibenzyl compound with potential antimutagenic activity. J Agric Food Chem., 47(5): 2163-2167. 5.Zhao W., Ye Q., Tan X., Jiang H., Li X., Chen K. & Kinghorn A.D. (2001) Three new sesquiterpene glycosides from Dendrobium nobile with immunomodulatory activity. J Nat Prod., 64(9): 1196-1200.

Dendrobium officinale (SHI HU) dendrobium orchid or suk gok {R4} Rare and/or endangered (1). Used to lower blood pressure (2). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp.

Descurainia sophia (TING LI) fixweed or herb-sophia {R6} A traditional treatment for some forms of asthma (1). Descurainia sophia was considered for its cardiac glycosides in the past (2) and recent work has identified a new sulphur glycoside from the seeds (3). Other components of the seeds include quercetins and kaempferols (4). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Chen Y.Q., Li R.Z. & Wang Y.W. (1981) Identification of cardiac glycosides from the seeds of Descurainia sophia L. Webb. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 16(1): 62-64. 3.Sun K., Li X., Liu J.M., Wang J.H., Li W. & Sha Y. (2005) A novel sulphur glycoside from the seeds of Descurainia sophia (L.). J Asian Nat Prod Res., 7(6): 853-856. 4.Wang A.Q., Wang X.K., Li J.L. & Cui X.Y. (2004) Isolation and structure identification of chemical constituents from the seeds of Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 39(1): 46-51.

Desmodium styracifolium (GUANG JIN QIAN CAO) coin-leaf desmodium {R7} The cardiovascular pharmacology of an aqueous extract of Desmodium styracifolium was studied in rats both in vivo and in vitro (1). Hypotensive actions were produced and the extract relaxed isolated methoxamine-preconstricted, helical tail artery strips. 1.Ho C.S., Wong Y.H. & Chiu K.W. (1989) The hypotensive action of Desmodium styracifolium and Clematis chinensis. Am J Chin Med., 17(3-4): 189-202.

Dianthus superbus (QU MAI) fringed pink or pink dianthus {R11} This plant is used as a diuretic in traditional Chinese medicine. It possesses some inhibitory activity for urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis (1). Extracts displayed moderate antimutagenic activity using the Salmonella/microsomal system in the presence of benzo[a]pyrene (2). Compounds isolated from the methanol extract showed cytotoxicities toward the Hep G2 cancer cell-line (3,4). 1.Li J.J., Tu Y.Y., Tong J.Z. & Wang P.T. (2000) Inhibitory activity of Dianthus superbus L. and 11 kinds of diuretic Traditional Chinese medicines for urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis in vitro. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 25(10): 628-630. 2.Lee H. & Lin J.Y. (1988) Antimutagenic activity of extracts from anticancer drugs in Chinese medicine. Mutat Res., 204(2): 229-234. 3.Hsieh P.W., Chang F.R., Wu C.C., Wu K.Y., Li C.M., Chen S.L. & Wu Y.C. (2004) New cytotoxic cyclic peptides and dianthramide from Dianthus superbus. J Nat Prod., 67(9): 1522-1527. 4.Hsieh P.W., Chang F.R., Wu C.C., Li C.M., Wu K.Y., Chen S.L., Yen H.F. & Wu Y.C. (2005) Longicalycinin A, a new cytotoxic cyclic peptide from Dianthus superbus var. longicalycinus (MAXIM.) WILL. Chem Pharm Bull.(Tokyo), 53(3): 336-338.

Dichroa febrifuga (CHANG SHAN) Chinese quinine or fever flower {R14} The active principle in Dichroa febrifuga is ‘febrifugine’, which was isolated 50 years ago but has been used as an antimalarial in Chinese traditional medicine for more than 2,000 years. However, intensive study of the properties of febrifugine has been hindered for decades due to its side-effects (1). This species is also a Chinese antiarrhythmic drug which has been investigated in animal cell trials (2). Other animal models established that an aqueous extract of the root had potential as a therapeutic agent for inflammatory disease (3,4). 1.Jiang S., Zeng Q., Gettayacamin M., Tungtaeng A., Wannaying S., Lim A., Hansukjariya P., Okunji C.O., Zhu S. & Fang, D. (2005) Antimalarial activities and therapeutic properties of febrifugine analogs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 49(3): 1169-1176. 2.Lu L.L., Habuchi Y., Tanaka H. & Morikawa J. (1995) Electrophysiological effects of changrolin, an antiarrhythmic agent derived from Dichroa febrifuga, on guinea-pig and rabbit heart cells. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol., 22(5): 337-341.

3.Choi B.T., Lee J.H., Ko W.S., Kim Y.H., Choi Y.H., Kang H.S. & Kim H.D. (2003) Anti-inflammatory effects of aqueous extract from Dichroa febrifuga root in rat liver. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 24(2): 127-132. 4.Kim Y.H., Ko W.S., Ha M.S., Lee C.H., Choi B.T., Kang H.S. & Kim H.D. (2000) The production of nitric oxide and TNF-alpha in peritoneal macrophages is inhibited by Dichroa febrifuga Lour. J Ethnopharmacol., 69(1): 35-43.

Dictamnus dasycarpus (BAI XIAN PI) dense fruit dittany {R12} Components of Dictamnus dasycarpus were tested for their vasorelaxing effect on rat aorta, and ‘fraxinellone’ and ‘dictamine’ were shown to be effective vasorelaxants (1). In vitro tests for immunological activity showed that ‘dictamnoside A’ (from the water-soluble constituents of the root bark) possessed remarkable activity in stimulating the proliferation of T-cells (2). ‘Dasycarpuside A’ (isolated from water-soluble constituents of the root bark) showed weak cytotoxic activity against A- 549 (human lung adenocarcinoma) cell-line but another compound inhibited in vitro proliferation of T- cells (3). 1.Yu S.M., Ko F.N., Su M.J., Wu T.S., Wang M.L., Huang T.F. & Teng C.M. (1992) Vasorelaxing effect in rat thoracic aorta caused by fraxinellone and dictamine isolated from the Chinese herb Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz: comparison with cromakalim and Ca2+ channel blockers. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol., 345(3): 349- 355. 2.Chang J., Xuan L.J., Xu Y.M. & Zhang J.S. (2001) Seven new sesquiterpene glycosides from the root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus. J Nat Prod., 64(7): 935-938. 3.Chang J., Xuan L.J., Xu Y.M. & Zhang J.S. (2002) Cytotoxic terpenoid and immunosuppressive phenolic glycosides from the root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus. Planta Med., 68(5): 425-429.

Dimocarpus longan (LONG YAN ROU) longan {R5} Traditionally used to treat palpitation due to fright, insomnia and poor memory (1). However, three unusual amino acids have been isolated from the seeds and identified as antimutagens against spontaneous mutation of Salmonella typhimurium TA100 (2). An extract of longan with adenosine active principle was tested for its anxiolytic-like effect by application of the anticonflict method in mice (3). The extract indicated significant positive activity and also contributed to an analgesic effect which was observed through writhing. The rich array of phenolic compounds in longan seeds could be utilised as health-beneficial bioactive compounds rather than just discarded as waste (4). Dimocarpus longan is a relatively new commercial crop in subtropical Australia (5). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Minakata H., Komura H., Tamura S.Y., Ohfune Y., Nakanishi K. & Kada T. (1985) Antimutagenic unusual amino acids from plants. Experientia., 41(12): 1622-1623. 3.Okuyama E, Ebihara H, Takeuchi H, Yamazaki M. (1999) Adenosine, the anxiolytic-like principle of the Arillus of Euphoria longana. Planta Med., 65(2): 115-119. 4.Soong Y.Y. & Barlow P.J. (2005) Isolation and structure elucidation of phenolic compounds from longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) seed by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A., 1085(2): 270-277. 5.Drinnan J. (2004) Longans: postharvest handling and storage. Access to Asian Foods newsletter, Issue 70 May.

Dioscorea bulbifera (HUANG YAO ZI) aerial yam, potato yam or bitter yam {R5} An extract of Dioscorea bulbifera rhizomes showed inhibitory effects against tumour promotion of mouse epidermal JB6 cells (1). The constituents which showed the most potent antitumour promoting effects were flavonoids. Another anticancer screen on this species was carried out in vivo with HepA in mice (2). Results suggested that the active anticancer compounds are mainly extracted by petroleum ether from hydrophobic constituents and that the anticancer effects are related to direct toxicity on tumour cells. D. bulbifera is indigenous to the Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia but is a noxious weed elsewhere and is widely naturalised (3). Its native range also includes Africa and Asia. 1.Gao H., Kuroyanagi M., Wu L., Kawahara N., Yasuno T. & Nakamura Y. (2002) Antitumor-promoting constituents from Dioscorea bulbifera L. in JB6 mouse epidermal cells. Biol Pharm Bull., 25(9): 1241-1243. 2.Yu Z.L., Liu X.R., McCulloch M. & Gao J. (2004) Anticancer effects of various fractions extracted from Dioscorea bulbifera on mice bearing HepA. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(6): 563-567. 3.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Dioscorea collettii var. hypoglauca (FEN BEI SHU YU) {R10} Rhizomes of Dioscorea collettii var. hypoglauca are used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat cervical carcinoma, carcinoma of the urinary bladder and renal tumours (1). Steroidal saponins isolated from this plant were identified as the active compounds exhibiting cytotoxic activity against the cancer cell-line K562 in vitro (1). In other work, ‘methyl protogracillin’ and ‘methyl protoneodioscin’, both furostanol saponins isolated from the rhizome were tested for their cytotoxicity in vitro against 60 human cancer cell-lines (2,3). It was found that both compounds were cytotoxic against all tested cell-lines from leukaemia and solid tumours. The mechanism of anticancer action was believed to be novel (2,3). Other furostanol saponins isolated from the rhizome were cytotoxic against most tested cell-lines from leukaemia and solid tumours (4,5,6). 1.Hu Ke, Dong AiJun, Yao XinSheng, Kobayashi H., Iwasaki S., Hu K., Dong A.J. & Yao X.S. (1996) Antineoplastic agents; I. Three spirostanol glycosides from rhizomes of Dioscorea collettii var. hypoglauca. Planta-Medica, 62: 573-575. 2.Hu K. & Yao X. (2001) Methyl protogracillin (NSC-698792): the spectrum of cytotoxicity against 60 human cancer cell lines in the National Cancer Institute's anticancer drug screen panel. Anticancer Drugs, 12(6): 541- 547. 3.Hu K. & Yao X.S. (2002) The cytotoxicity of methyl protoneodioscin (NSC-698791) against human cancer cell lines in vitro. Anticancer Res., 22(2A): 1001-1005. 4.Hu K. & Yao X. (2002) Protodioscin (NSC-698 796): its spectrum of cytotoxicity against sixty human cancer cell lines in an anticancer drug screen panel. Planta Med., 68(4): 297-301. 5.Hu K. & Yao X. (2002) The cytotoxicity of protoneodioscin (NSC-698789), a furostanol saponin from the rhizomes of Dioscorea collettii var. hypoglauca, against human cancer cells in vitro. Phytomedicine., 9(6): 560- 565. 6.Hu K. & Yao X. (2003) The cytotoxicity of methyl protodioscin against human cancer cell lines in vitro. Cancer Invest., 21(3): 389-393.

Dioscorea oppositifolia (SHAN YAO) Chinese yam {R5} Dioscorea oppositifolia is used in China for the treatment of asthma and diabetes (1). Compounds from this plant exhibited promising neuroprotective effects and discernible-to-moderate antioxidant activities in vitro (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Ma C., Wang W., Chen Y.Y., Liu R.N., Wang R.F. & Du L.J. (2005) Neuroprotective and antioxidant activity of compounds from the aerial parts of Dioscorea opposita. J Nat Prod., 68(8): 1259-1261.

Diospyros kaki (SHI DI) Chinese persimmon, Japanese persimmon or kaki An existing commercial crop in Australia. Use of the leaves as a tea in Korea has a long tradition because it is thought to be effective against hypertension. Diospyros kaki extracts were found to exhibit distinctive vasorelaxant activity in isolated rat aorta (1). Flavone from leaves may exert vascular protection by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle cell growth associated with hypercholesterolaemia (2). 1.Yin M.H., Kang D.G., Choi D.H., Kwon T.O. & Lee H.S. (2005) Screening of vasorelaxant activity of some medicinal plants used in Oriental medicines. J Ethnopharmacol., 99(1): 113-117. 2.Ouyang P., Bei W., Lai W. & Peng W. (2004) Effects of flavone from leaves of Diospyros kaki on rat vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation stimulated by native low-density lipoprotein in vitro. Zhong Yao Cai., 27(8): 600-602.

Diospyros maritima {R6} Stems of Diospyros maritima are used as a traditional treatment for rheumatic diseases in Taiwan (1). The bark (2) and stem (1) may contain cytotoxic constituents. Some of these constituents exhibited strong in vitro cytotoxicity against cancer cell-lines (1). A native to northern Australia (3). 1.Kuo Y.H., Chang C.I., Li S.Y., Chou C.J., Chen C.F., Kuo Y.H. & Lee K.H. (1997) Cytotoxic constituents from the stems of Diospyros maritima. Planta Medica., 63: 363-365. 2.Gu J.Q., Graf T.N., Lee D., Chai H.B., Mi Q., Kardono L.B., Setyowati F.M., Ismail R., Riswan S., Farnsworth N.R., Cordell G.A., Pezzuto J.M., Swanson S.M., Kroll D.J., Falkinham J.O. 3rd, Wall M.E., Wani M.C., Kinghorn A.D. & Oberlies N.H. (2004) Cytotoxic and antimicrobial constituents of the bark of Diospyros maritima collected in two geographical locations in Indonesia. J Nat Prod., 67(7): 1156-1161. 3.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Dipsacus asperoides (XU DUAN) Himalayan teasel plant or Sichuan teasel {R4} According to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, beta-amyloid protein is directly toxic to neurons, leading to neurodegeneration. To explore the effects of saponins from Dipsacus asperoides on neuronal damage induced by beta-amyloid protein in vitro, biochemical analysis combining primary cultured neurons was adopted (1). Results demonstrated that the saponins possessed a neuroprotective action possibly achieved by relieving oxidative stress. 1.Qian Y.H., Liu Y., Hu H.T., Ren H.M., Chen X.L. & Xu J.H. (2002) The effects of the total saponin of Dipsacus asperoides on the damage of cultured neurons induced by beta-amyloid protein 25-35. Anat Sci Int., 77(3): 196-200.

Drynaria fortunei (GU SUI BU) drynaria {R18} In traditional Chinese medicine this plant is reported as a good enhancer of bone healing. Pharmacological factors are needed to prevent bone loss that occurs with increasing age. However, the chemical compounds that act on bone metabolism in herbal medicines are poorly understood (1). Human cell-line studies have shown that Drynaria fortunei extract directly stimulates cell proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts (1). Results also suggest that D. fortunei is effective for bone antiresorptive action in bone cells. In complementary work, the proliferative effects of 30 Oriental medicinal herbs on MCF-7 (oestrogen-sensitive breast cancer cell-line) and ROS 17/2.8 osteoblast-like cells were determined (2). The methanol extract from rhizomes of D. fortunei showed the most potent proliferative activity. Compounds isolated from the rhizomes may be useful as phyto-oestrogens, which can play important physiological roles in the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis (2). Benefits to bone structure and healing are further demonstrated in various animal experiments (eg. 3,4). Note: this scientific name is undergoing review. 1.Jeong J.C., Lee J.W., Yoon C.H., Lee Y.C., Chung K.H., Kim M.G. & Kim C.H. (2005) Stimulative effects of Drynariae Rhizoma extracts on the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 96(3): 489-495. 2.Chang E.J., Lee W.J., Cho S.H. & Choi S.W. (2003) Proliferative effects of flavan-3-ols and propelargonidins from rhizomes of Drynaria fortunei on MCF-7 and osteoblastic cells. Arch Pharm Res., 26(8): 620-630. 3.Tang Q., Chen L.L. & Yan J. (2004) Effects of traditional chinese medicine Drynaria fortunei smith on promoting the proliferation, differentiation and calcification of mouse osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(2): 164-168. 4.Chen L.L., Tang Q. & Yan J. (2004) Therapeutic effect of aqueous-extract from a traditional Chinese medical herb Drynaria fortunei on rat experimental model of alveolar bone resorption. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(6): 549-553.

Duchesnea indica (SHE MEI) false strawberry, Indian strawberry or mock strawberry {R7} A native to temperate and tropical Asia but widely naturalised elsewhere (1). This herb is said to possesses anticancer activity (2). Aqueous extracts of Duchesnea indica showed in vitro antiproliferative activity towards cancer cells (3). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Shoemaker M., Hamilton B., Dairkee S.H., Cohen I. & Campbell M.J. (2005) In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res., 19(7): 649-651.

Ecklonia kurome (KUN BU) kelp {R10} Compounds from this seaweed have anticoagulant activity (1). More recently, the bactericidal activity of phlorotannins from this brown alga were found to be as effective against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as against other bacteria tested (2). 1.Nishino T., Nagumo T., Kiyohara H. & Yamada H. (1991) Structural characterization of a new anticoagulant fucan sulfate from the brown seaweed Ecklonia kurome. Carbohydr Res., 211(1): 77-90. 2.Nagayama K., Iwamura Y., Shibata T., Hirayama I. & Nakamura T. (2002) Bactericidal activity of phlorotannins from the brown alga Ecklonia kurome. J Antimicrob Chemother., 50(6): 889-893.

Eleutherococcus gracilistylus (WU JIA) slenderstyle acanthopanax {R8} Traditionally the root bark is used for rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis due to deficiency of the liver and kidney (1). Cytoactivity tests in vitro showed that by regulating the activity of cell cycle controlling enzymes, extracts of this plant inhibited the proliferation of human tumour cells but did not lead to cell death (2,3). Another study found that extracts inhibited human platelet aggregation, liberation, and thrombosis in vitro, suggesting possible antithrombotic action (4). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 56

2.Shan B.E., Fu X.M., Hua Z.X., Li Q., Liang W., Liu J., Zhang H. & Liu G. (2005) Study on mechanism of the anti-tumor activity of Acanthopanax gracilistylus. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 25(9): 825-828. 3.Shan B.E., Zeki K., Sugiura T., Yoshida Y. & Yamashita U. (2000) Chinese medicinal herb, Acanthopanax gracilistylus, extract induces cell cycle arrest of human tumor cells in vitro. Jpn J Cancer Res., 91(4): 383-389. 4.Chen X.C., Xia L., Hu S. & Huang G. (1996) Inhibitory effects of Acanthopanax gracilistylus saponins on human platelet aggregation and platelet factor 4 liberation in vitro. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao., 17(6): 523-526.

Eleutherococcus senticosus (WU JIA PI or CI WU JIA) eleuthero or Siberian ginseng {R18} This shrub grows abundantly in parts of the old ‘Soviet’ Far East, Korea, China and Japan. It became well known in the West in the 1950s when it was extensively used by Soviet athletes to increase stamina and enhance performance but has been used in China for at least 2,000 years (1,2). It is generally considered to be a cheaper and more abundant substitute for Panax ginseng. Previously identified as a potential new crop for Australia (3).

Plant adaptogens are compounds that increase the ability of an organism to adapt to environmental factors and to avoid damage from such factors. The sympatho-adrenal-system mediated stimulating effects of adaptogen derived from Eleutherococcus senticosus typically generate no side effects, unlike traditional stimulants (4). Furthermore, administration of this adaptogen can effectively increase mental performance and physical working capacity in humans (4,5). E. senticosus root extract has been administered to more than 2,100 healthy human subjects in clinical trials for evaluating its adaptogenic properties (5). An unspecific feeling of fatigue and asthenia often pushes elderly people to seek help from adaptogenic substances. A recent randomised clinical trial of E. senticosus found that it safely improved some aspects of mental health and social functioning in elderly hypertensive human volunteers (6). It has also been observed to reduce cardiovascular stress (7).

Animal experiments and modern clinical trails have shown that a number of herbs are immunologically active (eg. E. senticosus), and most of the tonics derived from them are immunomodulating agents (8). Administration of E. senticosus may improve immune function for patients with immunodepression. Treatment with this herb increased the absolute number of immunocompetent cells, with an especially pronounced effect on T lymphocytes but also on cytotoxic and natural killer cells (9). In addition, a general enhancement of the activation state of T lymphocytes was observed. 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Pub.- Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 3.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 4.Panossian A. & Wagner H. (2005) Stimulating effect of adaptogens: an overview with particular reference to their efficacy following single dose administration. Phytother Res., 19(10): 819-838. 5.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 6.Cicero A.F., Derosa G., Brillante R., Bernardi R., Nascetti S. & Gaddi A. (2004) Effects of Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus maxim.) on elderly quality of life: a randomized clinical trial. Arch Gerontol Geriatr Suppl., 9: 69-73. 7.Facchinelli F., Neri L. & Larabusi M. (2002) Eleutherococcus senticosus reduces cardiovascular stress response in healthy subjects: a randomised, placebo controlled trial. Stress & Health, 18: 11-17. 8.Li X.Y. (1991) Immunomodulating Chinese herbal medicines. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz., 1991;86 Suppl 2: 159- 164. 9.Bohn B., Nebe C.T. & Birr C. (1987) Flow-cytometric studies with Eleutherococcus senticosus extract as an immunomodulatory agent. Arzneimittelforschung., 37(10): 1193-1196.

Elsholtzia splendens (XIANG RU) aromatic madder or Haizhou elsholtzia {R4} In North-East Asia, this plant is an ingredient of folk medicines used to treat cough, headache and inflammation (1). In vivo antiinflammatory activity using several mouse models of inflammation and pain established that an ethanol extract of this herb inhibited ear oedema and exhibited significant analgesic activity against mouse acetic acid-induced writhing (1).

In 31 hyperlipaemia human patients, a combined Acanthopanax senticosus and Elscholtzia splendens treatment significantly decreased serum beta-lipoprotein and increased high density lipoprotein- cholesterol (2). Thus, the arteriosclerosis index decreased significantly.

1.Kim D.W., Son K.H., Chang H.W., Bae K., Kang S.S. & Kim H.P. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of Elsholtzia splendens. Arch Pharm Res., 26(3): 232-236. 2.Shi Z., Liu C. & Li R. (1990) Effect of a mixture of Acanthopanax senticosus and Elsholtzia splendens on serum-lipids in patients with hyperlipemia. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 10(3): 155-156.

Enicostemma littorale [India- NAHI or MAJA-MAKKA BOOTI] {R12} A perennial herb found throughout India. Available commercially as a botanical extract. Pills prepared from Enicostemma littorale were administered to 84 human patients with Type II Diabetes for three months (1). Estimation of various biochemical parameters showed that E. littorale reduced blood glucose as well as serum insulin levels and prevented the progression of complications in diabetic patients. Significant improvement in kidney function, lipid profile and blood pressure was observed suggesting that E. littorale is an effective herbal antidiabetic (1). This herb’s potent antidiabetic properties have also been well demonstrated in experiments with rats (eg. 2,3). Note: this scientific name is under review. 1.Upadhyay U.M. & Goyal R.K. (2004) Efficacy of Enicostemma littorale in Type 2 diabetic patients. Phytother Res., 18(3): 233-235. 2.Srinivasan M., Padmanabhan M. & Prince P.S. (2005) Effect of aqueous Enicostemma littorale Blume extract on key carbohydrate metabolic enzymes, lipid peroxides and antioxidants in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Pharm Pharmacol., 57(4): 497-503. 3.Maroo J., Vasu V.T. & Gupta S. (2003) Dose dependent hypoglycemic effect of aqueous extract of Enicostemma littorale blume in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Phytomedicine, 10(2-3): 196-199.

Entada phaseoloides (GUO GANG LONG) St. Thomas bean, matchbox bean, Queensland bean or gogo {R4} The native range for this species includes temperate and tropical Asia, and the Pacific region including Australia (north Queensland) (1,2). A tall woody climber found in rainforest or dense scrub just above coastal high-water marks (2). It is used as an antirheumatic (3). Two sulfur-containing amides, ‘entadamide A’ and ‘entadamide B’, isolated from the seeds of Entada phaseoloides, were synthesised and found to inhibit the 5-lipoxygenase activity of RBL-1 cells, suggesting potential as antiinflammatory drugs (4). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Lassak E. & McCarthy T. (2001) Australian Medicinal Plants. Pub.- Reed New Holland, JB Books, 240 pp. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 4.Ikegami F., Sekine T., Aburada M., Fujii Y., Komatsu Y. & Murakoshi I. (1989) Synthesis of entadamide A and entadamide B isolated from Entada phaseoloides and their inhibitory effects on 5-lipoxygenase. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 37(7): 1932-1933.

Ephedra sinica (MA HUANG) Chinese ephedra or Chinese joint-fir One of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). Uses supported by clinical data include- treatment of nasal congestion due to hay fever, allergic rhinitis, acute coryza, common cold, sinusitis and bronchial asthma (2).

Ma Huang’s medicinal use in China dates from approximately 2800 BC (1). It was traditionally used primarily in the treatment of common cold, asthma, hay fever, arthritis, hypotension and hives. Western medicine’s interest in ephedra began in 1923 with the demonstration that the isolated alkaloid ‘ephedrine’ possessed a number of pharmacological effects (1). Ephedrine was synthesised in 1927 and since that time both ephedrine and pseudoephedrine have been used extensively in over-the- counter cold and allergy medications (1). Ephedra was the first Chinese herbal remedy to yield an active constituent widely used in Western medicine (2).

Ephedra is a relatively potent and useful herb for relieving the bronchoconstriction and mucosal congestion associated with bronchial asthma (2). The dosage of ephedra is dependent on the alkaloid content, the average total alkaloid content of Ephedra sinica is 1 to 3% (1). For asthma, the dose of ephedra should have an ephedrine content of 12.5 to 25.0 mg, (taken 2 to 3 times daily); for the crude herb this would require a dose of 500 to 1,000 mg three times per day (1).

Ephedra has multiple, serious side-effects (eg. increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, nausea, insomnia, irritability) particularly in large doses. These side-effects prohibit the indiscriminate use of ephedra, especially for people suffering heart conditions, hypertension, diabetes or thyroid disease (2). 58

Various products containing ephedra or ephedrine have been marketed with numerous unsubstantiated and potentially dangerous therapeutic claims. These include weight loss, appetite control and an alternative to illegal street drugs like ‘Ecstasy’ (2). Due to its chemical structure, ephedrine can serve as a precursor for illegal synthesis of the drug ‘speed’. Restricting the availability of the herb will not have an effect because the plant is a minor source of ephedrine, most is produced by chemical synthesis. The Food and Drug Administration of USA banned the sale of dietary supplements containing ephedra in April, 2004. 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.WHO monographs (1999) WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants Volume 1, Pub.- World Health Organisation, Geneva, 289 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Pub.- Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp.

Epimedium brevicornu (YIN YANG HUO) epimedium herb {R17} This herb has a traditional role in treating arthralgia, high blood pressure and angina pectoris (1,2). It is also believed to have oestrogenic activity and could be useful in management of menopausal symptoms (3,4). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Zhang C.Z., Wang S.X., Zhang Y., Chen J.P. & Liang X.M. (2005) In vitro estrogenic activities of Chinese medicinal plants traditionally used for the management of menopausal symptoms. J Ethnopharmacol., 98(3): 295-300. 4.De Naeyer A., Pocock V., Milligan S. & De Keukeleire D. (2005) Estrogenic activity of a polyphenolic extract of the leaves of Epimedium brevicornum. Fitoterapia, 76(1): 35-40.

Epimedium koreanum (YIN YANG HUO) {R6} Extracts of Epimedium koreanum are used in traditional Korean medicine for improvement of memory and cognition in old age. Tests for cholinesterase inhibitory properties demonstrated significant inhibition (1). 1.Oh M.H., Houghton P.J., Whang W.K. & Cho J.H. (2004) Screening of Korean herbal medicines used to improve cognitive function for anti-cholinesterase activity. Phytomedicine, 11(6): 544-548.

Epimedium sagittatum (YIN YANG HUO) horny goat weed {R15} This plant is said to reduce blood pressure, lower blood sugar, act as an antiasthmatic and stimulate the sensory nerves to increase sexual desire (1). Epimedium sagittatum contains a number of flavonoids, some of which show oestrogen-inhibiting properties in vitro (2). These hormonal actions may partly explain why E. sagittatum has been used traditionally to treat sexual disorders, and why it has shown efficacy for improving sex drive in clinical trials of patients with kidney failure (3). Other flavonoids in this herb, such as ‘icariin’, appear to stimulate the cells (osteoblasts) that build bone (4). Rodents given flavonoid extracts were protected against osteoporosis (5). A number of flavonoids showed effects on the immune system that were both stimulating and suppressing depending on circumstances in vitro (6). Preliminary human trials in people with kidney disease undergoing dialysis confirm that E. sagittatum can improve the function of various parts of the immune system (7). A combination of E. sagittatum with other herbs has been shown to inhibit inflammation in animals (8). This may explain its use in early studies in formulas to treat hay-fever (9). Water extracts of E. sagittatum have also reduced blood pressure and cholesterol levels in several animal species (10). E. sagittatum products are widely available over the counter in Australia. 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Yap S.P., Shen P., Butler M.S., Gong Y., Loy C.J. & Yong E.L. (2005) New estrogenic prenylflavone from Epimedium brevicornum inhibits the growth of breast cancer cells. Planta Med., 71: 114-119. 3.Liao H.J., Chen X.M. & Li W.G. (1995) Effect of Epimedium sagittatum on quality of life and cellular immunity in patients of hemodialysis maintenance. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 15: 202-204. 4.Meng F.H., Li Y.B., Xiong Z.L., Jiang Z.M. & Li F.M. (2005) Osteoblastic proliferative activity of Epimedium brevicornum Maxim. Phytomedicine, 12: 189-193. 5.Chen K.M., Ge B.F., Ma H.P. & Zheng R.L. (2004) The serum of rats administered flavonoid extract from Epimedium sagittatum but not the extract itself enhances the development of rat calvarial osteoblast-like cells in vitro. Pharmazie, 59: 61-64. 6.Liang H.R., Vuorela P., Vuorela H. & Hiltunen R. (1997) Isolation and immunomodulatory effect of flavonol glycosides from Epimedium hunanense. Planta Med., 63: 316-319.

7.Chen X., Zhou M. & Wang J. (1995) Effect of Epimedium sagittatum on soluble IL-2 receptor and IL-6 levels in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi., 34: 102-104. 8.Wei R.B., Huo H.R., Li X.Q., Zhou A.X., Shen H. & Tian J. (2002) Study on antiinflammatory effect of a compound TCM agent containing ant extractive in animal models. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 27: 215-216. 9.Yu Y.J. (1989) Effect of tian-huang-ling granule in the treatment of allergic rhinitis. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi ., 9: 708, 720-721. 10.Chen J.K. & Chen T.T. (2004) Chinese Medical Herbology and Pharmacology. City of Industry, CA: Art of Medicine Press.

Eriobotrya japonica (PI PA YE) loquat An existing crop in Australia. Extracts from the leaves have been linked to antitumour and antiinflammatory effects (1,2,3). 1.Banno N., Akihisa T., Tokuda H., Yasukawa K., Taguchi Y., Akazawa H., Ukiya M., Kimura Y., Suzuki T. & Nishino H. (2005) Anti-inflammatory and antitumor-promoting effects of the triterpene acids from the leaves of Eriobotrya japonica. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(10): 1995-1999. 2.Ito H., Kobayashi E., Li S.H., Hatano T., Sugita D., Kubo N., Shimura S., Itoh Y., Tokuda H., Nishino H. & Yoshida T. (2002) Antitumor activity of compounds isolated from leaves of Eriobotrya japonica. J Agric Food Chem., 50(8): 2400-2403. 3.Ito H., Kobayashi E., Takamatsu Y., Li S.H., Hatano T., Sakagami H., Kusama K., Satoh K., Sugita D., Shimura S., Itoh Y. & Yoshida T. (2000) Polyphenols from Eriobotrya japonica and their cytotoxicity against human oral tumor cell lines. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 48(5): 687-693.

Erysimum cheiranthoides (TANG JIE) wormseed mustard {R7} The seeds contain several glycosides, some of which are similar to digitalis (1,2). Glycosides from Erysimum cheiranthoides were evaluated for their inhibitory activity against Na+,K(+)-ATPase through a comparison with typical cardiac glycosides (3). Two of them, cheiranthoside III and VIII, showed high inhibiting activity which was equivalent to that of digitoxin. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Lei Z.H., Yahara S., Nohara T., Tai B.S., Xiong J.Z. & Ma Y.L. (2000) Cardiac glycosides from Erysimum cheiranthoides. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 48(2): 290-292. 3.Lei Z.H., Kuniyasu A., Tai B.S., Nakayama H. & Nohara T. (2001) Na+,K(+)-ATPase inhibiting activity of cardiac glycosides from Erysimum cheiranthoides. Planta Med., 67(4): 369-370.

Erythrina variegata (HAI TONG PI) coral tree {R26} This species occurs throughout the Pacific, Asia, Africa and is also indigenous to northern Australia (1). Compounds have shown activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (2,3). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Sato M., Tanaka H., Yamaguchi R., Kato K. & Etoh H. (2004) Synergistic effects of mupirocin and an isoflavanone isolated from Erythrina variegata on growth and recovery of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Antimicrob Agents., 24(3): 241-246. 3.Tanaka H., Sato M., Fujiwara S., Hirata M., Etoh H. & Takeuchi H. (2002) Antibacterial activity of isoflavonoids isolated from Erythrina variegata against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lett Appl Microbiol., 35(6): 494-498.

Eucommia ulmoides (DU ZHONG) eucommia, gutta-percha tree or tochu {R20} Historically an active ingredient commonly used in antihypertensive herbal prescriptions in China (1,2). A study in 2003 using isometric contraction of isolated rat aortic and dog carotid rings, claims to have provided the first evidence for in vitro vasorelaxant action of Eucommia ulmoides, thus confirming the pharmacological basis for its use as an antihypertensive agent (3). More recent work confirmed that E. ulmoides extract was non-toxic and effective in reducing systolic blood pressure in spontaneous hypertensive rats (4).

E. ulmoides leaves are also used as a folk remedy for treatment of diabetes. Flavonol glycosides with glycation inhibitory activity could be responsible for this antidiabetic action (5). A study which investigated whether the leaves could improve hyperglycaemia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats found that it significantly lowered blood glucose levels (6).

In Japan, the aqueous extract of E. ulmoides leaves (Tochu tea) is a popular beverage that may reduce human exposure to dietary mutagens (7). In Australia there have been previous attempts to grow this plant but it is not a current commercial crop (8). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp.

2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Kwan C.Y., Chen C.X., Deyama T. & Nishibe S. (2003) Endothelium-dependent vasorelaxant effects of the aqueous extracts of the Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. leaf and bark: implications on their antihypertensive action. Vascul Pharmacol., 40(5): 229-235. 4.Lang C., Liu Z., Taylor H.W. & Baker D.G. (2005) Effect of Eucommia ulmoides on systolic blood pressure in the spontaneous hypertensive rat. Am J Chin Med., 33(2): 215-230. 5.Kim H.Y., Moon B.H., Lee H.J. & Choi D.H. (2004) Flavonol glycosides from the leaves of Eucommia ulmoides O. with glycation inhibitory activity. J Ethnopharmacol., 93(2-3): 227-230. 6.Lee M.K., Kim M.J., Cho S.Y., Park S.A., Park K.K., Jung U.J., Park H.M. & Choi M.S. (2005) Hypoglycemic effect of Du-zhong (Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.) leaves in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Diabetes Res Clin Pract., 67(1): 22-28. 7.Sasaki Y.F., Chiba A., Murakami M., Sekihashi K., Tanaka M., Takahoko M., Moribayashi S., Kudou C., Hara Y., Nakazawa Y., Nakamura T. & Onizuka S. (1996) Antimutagenicity of Tochu tea (an aqueous extract of Eucommia ulmoides leaves): 2. Suppressing effect of Tochu tea on the urine mutagenicity after ingestion of raw fish and cooked beef. Mutat Res., 371(3-4): 203-214. 8.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Euonymus alatus (WEI MAO or GUI JIAN YU) burning bush or winged euonymus {R12} Euonymus alatus has been used in Asian countries as a folk medicine for regulating blood circulation, relieving pain (including angina pectoris), eliminating blood clots, treating dysmenorrhea and for tumour therapy (1,2). Anecdotal accounts also suggested antihyperglycaemic activity by enhancing insulin secretion and this has received recent experimental support. A study investigated the preventive effect of 50% ethanol extract of this plant in high fat, diet induced hyperglycaemic and hyperlipidaemic mice (3). The extract reduced plasma glucose and lipid levels, and reduced the deposition of triglyceride in the liver.

More recent investigation of this species has focussed on anticancer potential. Uterine leiomyomal (tumour) cells treated with E. alatus exhibited a much lower proliferation rate than untreated cells (4). Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 is known to be involved in promoting tumour cell invasion and metastasis. In one study, a phenolic compound with possible anti-MMP-9 activity was isolated from methanol extracts prepared from E. alatus stem bark (5). The compound was identified as ‘chlorogenic acid’ and showed strong inhibitory effect of MMP-9 activity in vitro. Other work confirms the therapeutic potential of compounds from this plant and suggests that the antimetastatic and antitumour effects are mediated partly through selective suppression of MMP-9 (6,7). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Chung H.S., Jeong H.J., Kim J.S., Jeong S.I., Kim K.S., Kim K.S., Kang B.K., Ahn J.W., Baek S.H. & Kim H.M. (2002) Activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase by Euonymus alatus in mouse peritoneal macrophages. Clin Chim Acta., 318(1-2): 113-120. 3.Park S.H., Ko S.K. & Chung S.H. (2005) Euonymus alatus prevents the hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia induced by high-fat diet in ICR mice. J Ethnopharmacol., 102(3): 326-335. 4.Lee T.K., Lee J.Y., Kim D.I., Lee Y.C. & Kim C.H. (2005) Differential regulation of protein kinase C activity by modulating factors and Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Sieb in human myometrial and uterine leiomyomal smooth muscle cells. Int J Gynecol Cancer., 15(2): 349-358. 5.Jin U.H., Lee J.Y., Kang S.K., Kim J.K., Park W.H., Kim J.G., Moon S.K. & Kim CH. (2005) A phenolic compound, 5-caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid), is a new type and strong matrix metalloproteinase-9 inhibitor: isolation and identification from methanol extract of Euonymus alatus. Life Sci., 77(22): 2760-2769. 6.Chung T.W., Moon S.K., Chang Y.C., Ko J.H., Lee Y.C., Cho G., Kim S.H., Kim J.G. & Kim C.H. (2004) Novel and therapeutic effect of caffeic acid and caffeic acid phenyl ester on hepatocarcinoma cells: complete regression of hepatoma growth and metastasis by dual mechanism. FASEB J., 18(14): 1670-1681. 7.Park W.H., Kim S.H. & Kim C.H. (2005) A new matrix metalloproteinase-9 inhibitor 3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid (caffeic acid) from methanol extract of Euonymus alatus: isolation and structure determination. Toxicology, 207(3): 383-390.

Eupatorium spp. (PEI LAN) eupatorium {R7} Primarily found in Taiwan but a number of species from this genus also grow in China and several have been linked with antitumour activity (1,2). However, efficacy assessments have tended to be based on in vitro trials (1). A 2004 report suggested that there was potential for production of Eupatorium purpureum in Australia (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Lee K.H., Huang H.C., Huang E.S. & Furukawa H. (1972) Antitumor agents. II. Eupatolide, a new cytotoxic principle from Eupatorium formosanum HAY. J Pharm Sci., 61(4): 629-631. 3.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Euphorbia lathyris (QIAN JIN ZI) caper euphorbia, caper spurge or mole plant {R8} Caper spurge seed oil contains a series of diterpenoids (1). In one trial, seed extract showed antitumour activity against Sarcoma 180 ascites in mice (2). However, there have been concerns that some of the chemical components are co-carcinogens (3). 1.Bicchi C., Appendino G., Cordero C., Rubiolo P., Ortelli D. & Veuthey J.L. (2001) HPLC-UV and HPLC- positive-ESI-MS analysis of the diterpenoid fraction from caper spurge (Euphorbia lathyris) seed oil. Phytochem Anal., 12(4): 255-262. 2.Itokawa H., Ichihara Y., Watanabe K. & Takeya K. (1989) An antitumor principle from Euphorbia lathyris. Planta Med., 55(3): 271-272. 3.Bissell M.J., Nemethy E.K., Riddle L. & Calvin M. (1981) Testing for tumor promoters in Euphorbia lathyris: analysis of possible health hazards. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol., 27(6): 894-902.

Euryale ferox (QIAN SHI) euryale, foxnut, gorgon or makhana {R6} Euryale fed to BALB/c mice stimulated humoral immunity (1). Another study reported significant antioxidant activity mediated by specific components in ethyl acetate and butanol fractions (2). 1.Puri A., Sahai R., Singh K.L., Saxena R.P., Tandon J.S. & Saxena K.C. (2000) Immunostimulant activity of dry fruits and plant materials used in Indian traditional medical system for mothers after child birth and invalids. J Ethnopharmacol., 71(1-2): 89-92. 2.Lee S.E., Ju E.M. & Kim J.H. (2002) Antioxidant activity of extracts from Euryale ferox seed. Exp Mol Med., 34(2): 100-106.

Eurycoma longifolia [Malaysia- TONGKAT ALI] Malaysian ginseng {R23} There are more than 200 Eurycoma longifolia products on the market for uses including- energy and stamina enhancement, blood circulation improvement and source of antioxidant (1). The roots are used as a traditional medicine to treat malaria and modern research has supported these antimalarial claims. Three quassinoids from the roots were evaluated for antimalarial activity against nine Plasmodium falciparum isolates obtained from patients infected with chloroquine-resistant malaria (2). Results indicated that eurycomanol, eurycomanol 2-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, and 13 beta, 18- dihydroeurycomanol possessed antimalarial activity.

Many of this plant’s compounds have been conjointly tested for antimalarial function and cytotoxicity. Five cytotoxic constituents characterised from the roots were evaluated against a panel of cell-lines comprising a number of human cancer types (3). Significant activity against the cell-lines was observed, and two compounds were found to demonstrate significant antimalarial activity as judged by studies conducted with cultured Plasmodium falciparum strains. In recent work, compounds were isolated from the roots of E. longifolia and screened in vitro assays (4). Eight compounds demonstrated strong cytotoxicity toward human lung cancer cell-lines and seven exhibited strong cytoxicity toward human breast cancer cell-lines. Two compounds displayed potent antimalarial activity against resistant Plasmodium falciparum (4). Further studies report cytotoxicity against human cancer cell-lines (5,6). 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Ang H.H., Chan K.L. & Mak J.W. (1995) In vitro antimalarial activity of quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia against Malaysian chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum isolates. Planta Med., 61(2): 177-178. 3.Kardono L.B., Angerhofer C.K., Tsauri S., Padmawinata K., Pezzuto J.M. & Kinghorn A.D. (1991) Cytotoxic and antimalarial constituents of the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. J Nat Prod., 54(5): 1360-1367. 4.Kuo P.C., Damu A.G., Lee K.H. & Wu T.S. (2004) Cytotoxic and antimalarial constituents from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Bioorg Med Chem., 12(3): 537-544. 5.Kuo P.C., Shi L.S., Damu A.G., Su C.R., Huang C.H., Ke C.H., Wu J.B., Lin A.J., Bastow K.F., Lee K.H. & Wu T.S. (2003) Cytotoxic and antimalarial beta-carboline alkaloids from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. J Nat Prod., 66(10): 1324-1327. 6.Tee T.T. & Azimahtol H.L. (2005) Induction of apoptosis by Eurycoma longifolia jack extracts. Anticancer Res., 25(3B): 2205-2213.

Evodia rutaecarpa (WU ZHU YU) {R29} This herb is prescribed for hypertension (1). Vasorelaxant and hypotensive effects have been reported in animal studies (2,3,4,5). ‘Evodiamine’, the major alkaloidal component of the dried, unripe fruit exerted a protective effect against myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion injury in rats (6). Other cardiotonic effects are reported (7). Evodiamine also halted proliferation and induced apoptosis in human cancer cell-lines (8,9). 62

1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Chiou W.F., Chou C.J., Liao J.F., Sham A.Y. & Chen C.F. (1994) The mechanism of the vasodilator effect of rutaecarpine, an alkaloid isolated from Evodia rutaecarpa. Eur J Pharmacol., 257(1-2): 59-66. 3.Chiou W.F., Liao J.F. & Chen C.F. (1996) Comparative study of the vasodilatory effects of three quinazoline alkaloids isolated from Evodia rutaecarpa. J Nat Prod., 59(4): 374-378. 4.Chiou W.F., Liao J.F., Shum A.Y. & Chen C.F. (1996) Mechanisms of vasorelaxant effect of dehydroevodiamine: a bioactive isoquinazolinocarboline alkaloid of plant origin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol., 27(6): 845-853. 5.Chiou W.F., Shum A.Y., Liao J.F. & Chen C.F. (1997) Studies of the cellular mechanisms underlying the vasorelaxant effects of rutaecarpine, a bioactive component extracted from an herbal drug. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol., 29(4): 490-498. 6.Rang W.Q., Du Y.H., Hu C.P., Ye F., Xu K.P., Peng J., Deng H.W. & Li Y.J. (2004) Protective effects of evodiamine on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Planta Med., 70(12): 1140-1143. 7.Kobayashi Y., Hoshikuma K., Nakano Y., Yokoo Y. & Kamiya T. (2001) The positive inotropic and chronotropic effects of evodiamine and rutaecarpine, indoloquinazoline alkaloids isolated from the fruits of Evodia rutaecarpa, on the guinea-pig isolated right atria: possible involvement of vanilloid receptors. Planta Med., 67(3): 244-248. 8.Zhang Y., Wu L.J., Tashiro S., Onodera S. & Ikejima T. (2004) Evodiamine induces tumor cell death through different pathways: apoptosis and necrosis. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 25(1): 83-89. 9.Fei X.F., Wang B.X., Li T.J., Tashiro S., Minami M., Xing de J.& Ikejima T. (2003) Evodiamine, a constituent of Evodiae Fructus, induces anti-proliferating effects in tumor cells. Cancer Sci., 94(1): 92-98.

Fallopia multiflora (HE SHOU WU) Chinese knotweed, fleece flower, polygonum or fo ti {R24} The processed root is commonly used in the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia in traditional Chinese medicine and is believed to help prevent atherosclerosis (1,2,3). Lowered plasma cholesterol levels are achieved by reducing intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol (1). Effective rates in the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia are reported at 62 to 82% (1). Dosages of 12 g per day significantly lowered serum cholesterol in 62% of patients (4). Fallopia multiflora also helped prevent development of atherosclerotic lesions in rabbits fed cholesterol (4). In recent work, a water-soluble fraction of this plant was administered to rabbits fed a high cholesterol diet (5). Treatment of the rabbits attenuated the increase in plasma cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and plasma triglyceride; and decreased atherosclerotic lesioned area. It was concluded that the herbal treatment was a powerful agent against atherosclerosis (5).

In the last six years, F. multiflora has been the focus of several rodent experiments that have demonstrated its brain protective capacity (6,7,8,9,10). It is generally concluded that this plant has great applicative value in prevention and treatment of senile neuropathies, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and vascular dementia (11).

F. multiflora has been identified as a potential new crop for Australia (12). In Australia, there have been previous attempts to grow this plant but it is not a current commercial crop (13). It is a perennial climber growing to 4.5 m and member of the family Polygonaceae. In China, the roots are harvested in autumn, preferably from plants 3 to 4 years old, and are usually dried for later use. This plant will tolerate a range of soil types and soil pH, preferring a moisture retentive not too fertile soil in sun or part shade. This species is hardy to at least -15°C. Sometimes the root is repeatedly washed to leech out bitterness; the leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. Traditional administration: 10 to 30 g of the tuberous root decocted in water for internal use (14). Or, 4 to 8 g/day of the dried root or 8 to 16 ml/day of 1:2 fluid extract (2). Higher doses for lowering cholesterol. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 3.Yin J.H., Zhou X.Y. & Zhu X.Q. (1992) Pharmacological and clinical studies on the processed products of radix Polygoni multiflori. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 17(12): 722-4, 762-3. 4.Chang H.M. & But P.P. (1987) Pharmacology & Applications of Chinese materia Medica, Vol 2, Pub.- World Scientific, Singapore. 5.Yang P.Y., Almofti M.R., Lu L., Kang H., Zhang J., Li T.J., Rui Y.C., Sun L.N. & Chen W.S. (2005) Reduction of atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits and decrease of expressions of intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor in foam cells by a water-soluble fraction of Polygonum multiflorum. J Pharmacol Sci., 99(3): 294-300. 6.Li M., Du X.P. & Ye H. (2003) Protective effect of Polygonum multiflorum thunb on the cerebral cholinergic neurofibers in rats. Hunan Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao., 28(4): 361-364. 7.Chan Y.C., Wang M.F. & Chang H.C. (2003) Polygonum multiflorum extracts improve cognitive performance in senescence accelerated mice. Am J Chin Med., 31(2): 171-179. 63

8.Chan Y.C., Cheng F.C. & Wang M.F. (2002) Beneficial effects of different Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. extracts on memory and hippocampus morphology. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol. (Tokyo), 48(6): 491-497. 9.Um M.Y., Choi W.H., Aan J.Y., Kim S.R. & Ha T.Y. (2006) Protective effect of Polygonum multiflorum Thunb on amyloid beta-peptide 25-35 induced cognitive deficits in mice. J Ethnopharmacol., 104(1-2): 144-148. 10.Li X., Matsumoto K., Murakami Y., Tezuka Y., Wu Y. & Kadota S. (2005) Neuroprotective effects of Polygonum multiflorum on nigrostriatal dopaminergic degeneration induced by paraquat and maneb in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 82(2): 345-352. 11.Wang W. & Wang D.Q. (2005) Progress of study on brain protective effect and mechanism of Polygonum multiflorum. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 25(10): 955-959. 12.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 13.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm. 14.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Firmiana simplex (WU TONG) Chinese parasol tree, Chinese bottle tree, Japanese varnish tree, phoenix tree or aogiri {R6} The alcoholic extract of Firmiana simplex can reduce plasma cholesterol levels but does not affect triglyceride levels; it has a vasodilating effect, increases coronary flow and lowers peripheral blood pressure (1). ‘Firmianones A and B’ from the roots exhibited moderate cytotoxicity to the P388 cancer cell-line (2). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Bai H., Li S., Yin F. & Hu L. (2005) Isoprenylated naphthoquinone dimers firmianones A, B, and C from Firmiana platanifolia. J Nat Prod., 68(8): 1159-1163.

Forsythia suspensa (LIAN QIAO) forsythia, weeping forsythia or goldenbells {R15} Forsythia suspensa has been used widely in traditional medicines to treat gonorrhea, erysipelas, inflammation, pyrexia and ulcer. It has also shown antioxidant activity, as well as antibacterial, antiviral, choleretic and antiemetic effects (1). Antiinflammatory activity of extracts and fractions from the dried fruit has been demonstrated in rats (2,3). This antiinflammatory action may be explained in part by the plant’s antioxidant properties (4). 1.Li H.B. & Chen F. (2005) Preparative isolation and purification of phillyrin from the medicinal plant Forsythia suspensa by high-speed counter-current chromatography. J Chromatogr A., 1083(1-2): 102-105. 2.Ozaki Y., Rui J., Tang Y. & Satake M. (1997) Antiinflammatory effect of Forsythia suspensa Vahl and its active fraction. Biol Pharm Bull., 20(8): 861-864. 3.Ozaki Y., Rui J. & Tang Y.T. (2000) Antiinflammatory effect of Forsythia suspensa V(AHL) and its active principle. Biol Pharm Bull., 23(3): 365-367. 4.Schinella G.R., Tournier H.A., Prieto J.M., Mordujovich de Buschiazzo P. & Rios J.L. (2002) Antioxidant activity of anti-inflammatory plant extracts. Life Sci., 70(9):1023-1033.

Fraxinus chinensis subsp. rhynchophylla (QIN PI) northern ash {R5} Bioassay-guided fractionation of an aqueous extract of the bark of this plant furnished two inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitory compounds (‘ferulaldehyde’ and ‘scopoletin’) together with a coumarin (‘fraxidin’) (1). Ferulaldehyde and scopoletin showed inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in a dose-dependent manner by murine macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with interferon- gamma plus lipopolysaccharide. The inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis of ferulaldehyde was reflected in a decreased amount of inducible nitric oxide synthase protein (1). 1.Kim N.Y., Pae H.O., Ko Y.S., Yoo J.C., Choi B.M., Jun C.D., Chung H.T., Inagaki M., Higuchi R. & Kim Y.C. (1999) In vitro inducible nitric oxide synthesis inhibitory active constituents from Fraxinus rhynchophylla. Planta Med., 65(7): 656-658.

Fritillaria cirrhosa (CHUAN BEI MU) Sichuan fritillary or tendrilled fritillary {R7} Traditionally used to lower blood pressure (1). Limited research and better alternatives would seem to be available. 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp.

Fritillaria delavayi (SUO SHA BEI MU) {R3} Antiinflammatory, expectorant and bacteriostatic effects are reported for tests in vitro and on mice but this species is not as effective as Fritillaria pallidiflora (1). Unlikely to be important for treating Australian health issues. 1.Xu H.B., Sun X.B., Wen F.C., Zhou J.H., Ding T., Sun L.W. & Li Y. (2000) An preliminary comparative study on physiological activity of Fritillaria pallidiflora Schrek. and F. delavayi Franch. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 25(7): 391-394.

Fritillaria pallidiflora (YI BEI MU) Sinkiang fritillaria {R10} Antiinflammatory, expectorant and bacteriostatic effects are reported for tests in vitro and on mice (1). Limited research. 1.Xu H.B., Sun X.B., Wen F.C., Zhou J.H., Ding T., Sun L.W. & Li Y. (2000) An preliminary comparative study on physiological activity of Fritillaria pallidiflora Schrek. and F. delavayi Franch. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 25(7): 391-394.

Fritillaria thunbergii (ZHE BEI MU) fritillary or Thunberg fritillary {R9} Traditionally used to lower blood pressure (1) and to treat gastritis-like disorders (2). The main pharmacologically active phytochemicals are steroidal alkaloids (3). Infection by Helicobacter pylori has been ascertained to be an important etiologic impetus leading usually to chronic active gastritis and gastric ulcer. In a trial that utilised five clinic strains of Helicobacter pylori, the antibacterial action of 30 Chinese herbal medicines was assessed in vitro. Aqueous extracts derived from Cassia obtusifolia, Fritillaria thunbergii and Eugenia caryophyllata were strongly inhibitory against all six Helicobacter strains (2). Other work points to strong antibacterial activity with fritillary in the top five of 80 plants tested (4). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Li Y., Xu C., Zhang Q., Liu J.Y. & Tan R.X. (2005) In vitro anti-Helicobacter pylori action of 30 Chinese herbal medicines used to treat ulcer diseases. J Ethnopharmacol., 98(3): 329-333. 3.Ding K., Lin G., Ho Y.P., Cheng T.Y. & Li P. (1996) Prederivatization and high-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of alkaloids of bulbs of Fritillaria. J Pharm Sci., 85(11): 1174-1179. 4.Kim S.W., Chang I.M. & Oh K.B. (2002) Inhibition of the bacterial surface protein anchoring transpeptidase sortase by medicinal plants. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 66(12): 2751-2754.

Ganoderma lucidum (LING ZHI) reishi mushroom {R22} Reishi mushrooms grow wild on decaying logs and tree stumps in the coastal provinces of China. The fruiting body of the mushroom is employed medicinally. Reishi grows in six different colours but the red variety is most commonly used and commercially cultivated in China, North America, Japan, Taiwan and Korea.

Reishi contains several major constituents, including triterpenoids called ‘ganoderic acids’. Reishi triterpenoids have been shown to lower plasma cholesterol and phospholipid levels, helping to prevent atherosclerotic changes in the arterial wall (1). These triterpenoids also help reduce blood platelets from sticking together, an important factor in lowering the risk for coronary artery disease. Two controlled clinical trials have investigated the effects of reishi on high blood pressure in humans and both found it could lower blood pressure significantly compared to a placebo or controls (2,3). It increases myocardiac contractility and systolic volume, and can improve cardiac function (1).

A recent review concluded that investigations into the anticancer activity of reishi (performed in both in vitro and in vivo studies), support its application for cancer treatment and prevention (4). It is estimated that more than 30% of pediatric cancer patients in China are taking reishi (5). Cellular immune responses and mitogenic reactivity of cancer patients have been enhanced by reishi, as reported in two randomised and one non-randomised trial, and the quality-of-life of 65% of lung cancer patients improved in one study. Direct cytotoxic and antiangiogenesis mechanisms have also been established by in vitro studies. At present, reishi is a health food supplement to support cancer patients but evidence supporting the potential of direct in vivo anticancer effects should not be underestimated; clinical studies are needed to define the applicable dosage in vivo (4).

Unfortunately, because this fungus is a root rot organism, introduction to Australia could place tree crops (forestry and horticulture) at risk (6). Some native Ganoderma species are under investigation. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Kammatsuse K., Kajiware N. & Hayashi K. (1985) Studies on Ganoderma lucidum: I. Efficacy against hypertension and side effects. Yakugaku Zasshi, 105: 531-533. 3.Jin H., Zhang G. & Cao X. (1996) Treatment of hypertension by ling zhi combined with hypotensor and its effects on arterial, arteriolar and capillary pressure and microcirculation, pp. 131-138. In, Nimmi H., Xiu R.J., Sawada T., Zheng C. (Eds.) ‘Microcirculatory Approach to Asian Traditional Medicine’. Pub.- New York Elsevier Science. 4.Yuen J.W. & Gohel M.D. (2005) Anticancer Effects of Ganoderma lucidum: A Review of Scientific Evidence. Nutr Cancer., 53(1): 11-17. 5.Chan W.K., Lam D.T., Law H.K., Wong W.T., Leung Koo M.W., Lau A.S., Lau Y.L. & Chan G.C. (2005) Ganoderma lucidum Mycelium and Spore Extracts as Natural Adjuvants for Immunotherapy. J Altern Complement Med., 11(6): 1047-1057. 6.Caroline Mohammed - pers.comm. 65

Garcinia gummi-guta [India- GAMBOOGE] citrin, Malabar tamarind or Brindall berry {R11} Native to South India and South-East Asia, and historically used in the Ayurvedic treatment of obesity (1). Has gained recent attention as a popular natural weight loss aid. Obesity is associated with an increased risk for type II diabetes mellitus, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, biliary disease, obstructive sleep apnea, and certain types of cancer (2). The rind of this pumpkin-like fruit is rich in ‘hydroxy citric acid’, or HCA, which is used in weight loss formulations. HCA is believed to block the conversion of sugary foods and starches into fats but may also inhibit appetite by effecting certain brain chemicals. In vitro HCA has beneficial effects on fat metabolism, and animal studies have demonstrated appetite suppression and weight reduction (3). Some reports of human trials do not support the effectiveness of HCA in weight loss (eg. 4), however, other human trials have demonstrated benefits (eg. 5). A recent extensive review concluded that evidence for most dietary supplements as aids in reducing body weight was not convincing with none of the reviewed dietary supplements (including Garcinia) recommended for over-the-counter use (6). However, in their latest work these authors conclude that unlike many other products, those based on Garcinia are associated with the least number of health risks and this plant merits further investigation (7). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Joyal S.V. (2004) A perspective on the current strategies for the treatment of obesity. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord., 3(5): 341-356. 3.Pinn G. (2005) Herbal medicine in endocrinology and metabolic disease, pp. 383-398. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 4.Heymsfield S.B., Allison D.B., Vasselli J.R., Pietrobelli A., Greenfield D. & Nunez C. (1998) Garcinia cambogia (hydroxycitric acid) as a potential antiobesity agent: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA., 280(18): 1596-1600. 5.Mattes R.D. & Bormann L. (2000) Effects of (-)-hydroxycitric acid on appetitive variables. Physiol Behav., 71(1-2): 87-94. 6.Pittler M.H. & Ernst E. (2004) Dietary supplements for body-weight reduction: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr., 79(4): 529-36. 7.Pittler M.H., Schmidt K. & Ernst E. (2005) Adverse events of herbal food supplements for body weight reduction: systematic review. Obes Rev., 6(2): 93-111.

Garcinia mangostana - mangosteen {R12} This species has been used in Thai indigenous medicine for many years and is a relatively new crop in parts of northern Australia. In a recent study, aqueous and ethanolic extracts of 10 traditional Thai medicinal plants were investigated for their ability to inhibit 35 hospital isolates of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Nine medicinal plants displayed activity against all isolates tested and the ethanolic extract of Garcinia mangostana was one of three that were most effective (1). In other work, ‘alpha-Mangostin’, isolated from the stem bark of G. mangostana was found to be active against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (2).

This plant has also demonstrated antiproliferation activity. Ethanolic extracts of nine Thai medicinal plants were tested for antiproliferative activity in SKBR3 human breast adenocarcinoma cell-line, and G. mangostana showed the most potent activity (3). Six xanthones from the pericarps of mangosteen were examined for effects on cell growth inhibition of human leukaemia cell-line HL60, and all displayed growth inhibitory effects (4). Another trial extracted and purified six xanthone compounds from rinds of mangosteen fruit and tested their cytotoxic effect on a panel of 14 different human cancer cell-lines including six of hepatoma (5). Several commonly used chemotherapeutic agents were included in the assay to determine the relative potency of the potential new drugs. Results showed that one of the xanthone derivatives (‘garcinone E’) had potent cytotoxic effects on all human cancer cell- lines (5). However, it seems that the anticancer potential of G. mangostana needs better support from in vivo studies. This species is a good example of one that could be supported as an increased dietary component (it is safe and tastes good) even though the evidence is not absolute. 1.Voravuthikuncahi S.P. & Kitpipit L. (2005) Activity of medicinal plant extracts against hospital isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect., 11(6): 510-512. 2.Sakagami Y., Iinuma M., Piyasena K.G. & Dharmaratne H.R. (2005) Antibacterial activity of alpha-mangostin against vancomycin resistant Enterococci (VRE) and synergism with antibiotics. Phytomedicine, 12(3): 203-208. 3.Moongkarndi P., Kosem N., Luanratana O., Jongsomboonkusol S. & Pongpan N. (2004) Antiproliferative activity of Thai medicinal plant extracts on human breast adenocarcinoma cell line. Fitoterapia, 75(3-4): 375- 377.

4.Matsumoto K., Akao Y., Kobayashi E., Ohguchi K., Ito T., Tanaka T., Iinuma M. & Nozawa Y. (2003) Induction of apoptosis by xanthones from mangosteen in human leukemia cell lines. J Nat Prod., 66(8): 1124-1127. 5.Ho C.K., Huang Y.L. & Chen C.C. (2002) Garcinone E, a xanthone derivative, has potent cytotoxic effect against hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Planta Med., 68(11): 975-979.

Gardenia jasminoides (ZHI ZI) gardenia Grown commercially as an ornamental plant in Australia. Traditionally used for properties including - antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, hypotensive, laxative and sedative (1). Gardenia fruit have also been widely used in Chinese medicine to treat liver and gall bladder disorders. Antiinflammatory (2) and antithrombotic effects (3) have also been reported. It has been shown recently that ‘geniposide’, the main ingredient of Gardenia Fructus, exhibits antitumour effects (4). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Yao Q., Zhou G., Zhu Y., Pan Y., Hu J., Xue H. & Zhang Q. (1991) Screening studies on anti-inflammatory function of traditional Chinese herb Gardenia jasminoides Ellis and its possibility in treating soft tissue injuries in animals. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 16(8): 489-93, 513. 3.Suzuki Y., Kondo K., Ikeda Y. & Umemura K. (2001) Antithrombotic effect of geniposide and genipin in the mouse thrombosis model. Planta Med., 67(9): 807-810. 4.Peng C.H., Huang C.N. & Wang C.J. (2005) The anti-tumor effect and mechanisms of action of penta-acetyl geniposide. Curr Cancer Drug Targets, 5(4): 299-305.

Gastrodia elata (TIAN MA) tall gastrodia orchid {R23} This species is now rare in the wild, due to over-collection as a medicinal plant (1). Gastrodia elata has been used traditionally for the treatment of convulsive diseases such as epilepsy in oriental countries and still occupies an important place in traditional medicine there. Also used to alleviate headaches and dizziness. Most of the recent research on this species and determination of medical efficacy has focussed on animals but some convincing findings have been made. G. elata active components and preparations have anticonvulsive and free radical scavenging activity (2,3); neuroprotective activity (4,5,6,7); and, memory consolidation and retrieval functions (8). The ethyl ether fraction of G. elata contained one or more compounds that dramatically reduced amyloid beta- peptide induced neuronal cell death in vitro, suggesting potential as an antidementia agent (Alzheimer's disease is associated with cell death in neuronal cells) (9). Evidence from at least one human double-blind, randomised controlled clinical trial of stroke victims showed improvement in vascular dementia after taking gastrodine, an extract from the tuber (10).

This orchid which grows to approximately 1 m, is a saprophytic herb without green parts; it is dependent upon a fungus for its nutriment. This makes it difficult to cultivate outside its native range. As well as its fungal host, it also requires a damp humus-rich soil in a shaded woodland position. Methods for cultivating it have now been devised in China. However, the symbiotic fungus (Armillaria mellea) on which G. elata depends is a root disease organism that is one of the most prominent killers and decayers of deciduous and coniferous trees and shrubs in natural forest stands, plantations, orchards, and gardens throughout the world.

In China, gastrodia tubers are harvested in the autumn or winter, skinned, boiled and either dried in sunlight or baked dry. Administration: 3 to 10 g ground into a powder and swallowed, 1 to 1.5 g each time (11). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Hsieh C.L., Chiang S.Y., Cheng K.S., Lin Y.H., Tang N.Y., Lee C.J., Pon C.Z. & Hsieh C.T. (2001) Anticonvulsive and free radical scavenging activities of Gastrodia elata Bl. in kainic acid-treated rats. Am J Chin Med., 29(2): 331-341. 3.Mori A., Yokoi I., Noda Y. & Willmore L.J. (2004) Natural antioxidants may prevent posttraumatic epilepsy: a proposal based on experimental animal studies. Acta Med Okayama., 58(3): 111-118. 4.Hsieh C.L., Chen C.L., Tang N.Y., Chuang C.M., Hsieh C.T., Chiang S.Y., Lin J.G. & Hsu S.F. (2005) Gastrodia elata BL mediates the suppression of nNOS and microglia activation to protect against neuronal damage in kainic acid-treated rats. Am J Chin Med., 33(4): 599-611. 5.Sun X.F., Wang W., Wang D.Q. & Du G.Y. (2004) Research progress of neuroprotective mechanisms of Gastrodia elata and its preparation. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(4): 292-295. 6.Zhang C.Y., Du G.Y., Wang W., Ye Z.G., Wang D.Q., Sun X.F. & Zhao D.Z. (2004) Effects of tianma gouteng fang on transmitter amino acids in the hippocampus extracellular liquids in freely moving rats subjected to brain ischemia. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(11): 1061-1065.

7.Kim H.J., Lee S.R. & Moon K.D. (2003) Ether fraction of methanol extracts of Gastrodia elata, medicinal herb protects against neuronal cell damage after transient global ischemia in gerbils. Phytother Res., 17(8): 909-912. 8.Hsieh M.T., Wu C.R. & Chen C.F. (1997) Gastrodin and p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol facilitate memory consolidation and retrieval, but not acquisition, on the passive avoidance task in rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 56(1): 45-54. 9.Kim H.J., Moon K.D., Lee D.S. & Lee S.H. (2003) Ethyl ether fraction of Gastrodia elata Blume protects amyloid beta peptide-induced cell death. J Ethnopharmacol., 84(1): 95-98. 10.Tian J., Zhu A., Shi J., Yin J. & Peng S. (2003) A double-blind, randomized controlled clinical trial of compound of gastrodine in treatment of mild to moderate vascular dementia in Beijing, China. Presented at the American Heart Association Second Asia Pacific Scientific Forum, Honolulu, Hawaii, June 10, 2003. Abstract No. P177. 11.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Gentiana dahurica (QIN JIAO) gentian {R4} This herb is said to have antiinflammatory and antibacterial effects, and lowers blood pressure (1). Used with other herbs for rheumatoid arthritis with muscular contracture and severe joint pain (2). No medical efficacy papers could be retrieved. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Gentiana macrophylla (QIN JIAO) large-leaf gentian {R18} This plant is said to exhibit antiinflammatory and antibacterial effects and lower blood pressure (1,2). It is also used to treat rheumatism (1,3). A recent rat study found that the potential antiinflammatory action of ‘gentianine’ from Gentiana macrophylla might be at least partly based on the suppressed production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin (4). In related work, acute treatment of rheumatoid rats with an extract from the roots of G. macrophylla produced a significant inhibitory effect on rheumatoid arthritis (5). When rats were orally fed the extract at a daily dose of 100 mg/kg body weight, prostaglandin E(2) levels in inflamed tissues, sole thickness and ankle circumferences were significantly decreased. Authors conclude that G. macrophylla displayed considerable potency in antiinflammatory action and could be used in the control of inflammation or rheumatoid arthritis (5). A proposed crop for Australia (6). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 3.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 4.Kwak W.J., Kim J.H., Ryu K.H., Cho Y.B., Jeon S.D. & Moon CK. (2005) Effects of gentianine on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in male Sprague-Dawley rats treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Biol Pharm Bull., 28(4): 750-753. 5.Yu F., Yu F., Li R. & Wang R. (2004) Inhibitory effects of the Gentiana macrophylla (Gentianaceae) extract on rheumatoid arthritis of rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 95(1): 77-81. 6.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Gentiana scabra (LONG DAN) scabrous gentian {R11} Traditionally used for liver problems (1). Recent research reported that methanolic extracts of the aerial parts and roots both had certain hepatoprotective effects in acute liver injury models for mice (2). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Jiang W.X. & Xue B.Y. (2005) Hepatoprotective effects of Gentiana scabra on the acute liver injuries in mice. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 30(14): 1105-1107.

Gentiana triflora (LONG DAN) three-flower gentian {R5} Root extract from Gentiana triflora triggered cell death of human Daudi cells in culture and daily administration of the extract to mice inhibited growth of implanted solid tumours (1). 1.Matsukawa K., Ogata M., Hikage T., Minami H., Shimotai Y., Saitoh Y., Yamashita T., Ouchi A., Tsutsumi R., Fujioka T. & Tsutsumi K. (2006) Antiproliferative activity of root extract from Gentian plant (Gentiana triflora) on cultured and implanted tumor cells. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 70(4): 1046-1048.

Ginkgo biloba (seeds- BAI GUO, leaves- YEN XING) ginkgo or maidenhair tree {R13} Ginkgo biloba has been a popular ornamental tree in SE Australia for many years. This rare example of a monotypic genus originated in China but no longer occurs in the wild there. A good example of traditional medicinal use of seeds evolving to a modern focus centred on the leaves. The literature on this species is extensive and there is excellent support from human trials indicating that leaf extracts can enhance memory and cognitive behaviour especially in the elderly. G. biloba extract (GBE) may 68

be the most important plant-derived medicine available. GBE has been confirmed by more than 50 double-blind studies to be effective in cerebral, as well as arterial insufficiency (1). GBE may offer significant protective action against the development of Alzheimer’s disease, hearing loss and strokes (1).

G. biloba was one of ten species identified with potential for future development (2). It is now grown in Australia as a medicinal ‘herb’ (3) and there have been recent reports suggesting that ‘hedgerow’ style plantings for leaf yield are being established. Many readily available, commercial ‘medicinal’ products use extract from this plant. The extract works, the issues are around economies of production and value-adding. 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Wilkinson J., Wahlqvist M. & Clark J. (2002) New food and pharmaceutical products from agriculture (Papers from Outlook 2002). Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Publication No. 02/015, 32 pp. 3.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Gleditsia sinensis (ZAO JIAO) Chinese honey-locust {R19} Historically this herb is prescribed for its anticancer (1) and antiasthma activity (2). The fruit are rich in saponins. Findings from rodent studies (in vitro and in vivo) have demonstrated that the ethanolic extract from anomalous fruits of Gleditsia sinensis possesses antiallergic and antiinflammatory activities, which may reduce the release of mediators such as histamine from mast cells thereby weakening the inflammatory action (3).

Many recent in vitro investigations of human cancer cells have shown that the fruit (and sometimes thorn) extracts have anticancer activity (4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11). These results indicate potential use as an antineoplastic agent and suggest that further studies are warranted. An in vivo experiment found that the ethanolic extract of G. sinensis stings (thorns) significantly reduced uterine cervical tumour weight and increased the life-span of tumour harbouring mice (12). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Dai Y., Chan Y.P., Chu L.M. & Bu P.P. (2002) Antiallergic and anti-inflammatory properties of the ethanolic extract from Gleditsia sinensis. Biol Pharm Bull., 25(9): 1179-1182. 4.Chow L.M., Tang J.C., Teo I.T., Chui C.H., Lau F.Y., Leung T.W., Cheng G., Wong R.S., Wong I.L., Tsang K.M., Tan W.Q., Zhao Y.Z., Lai K.B., Lam W.H., Guo D.A. & Chan A.S. (2002) Antiproliferative activity of the extract of Gleditsia sinensis fruit on human solid tumour cell lines. Chemotherapy., 48(6): 303-308. 5.Chow L.M., Chui C.H., Tang J.C., Lau F.Y., Yau M.Y., Cheng G.Y., Wong R.S., Lai P.B., Leung T.W., Teo I.T., Cheung F., Guo D. & Chan A.S. (2003) Anti-angiogenic potential of Gleditsia sinensis fruit extract. Int J Mol Med., 12(2): 269-273. 6.Zhong L., Qu G., Li P., Han J. & Guo D. (2003) Induction of apoptosis and G2/M cell cycle arrest by Gleditsioside E from Gleditsia sinensis in HL-60 cells. Planta Med., 69(6): 561-563. 7.Chow L.M., Chui C.H., Tang J.C., Teo I.T., Lau F.Y., Cheng G.Y., Wong R.S., Leung T.W., Lai K.B., Yau M.Y., Gou D. & Chan A.S. (2003) Gleditsia sinensis fruit extract is a potential chemotherapeutic agent in chronic and acute myelogenous leukemia. Oncol Rep., 10(5): 1601-1607. 8.Zhong L., Li P., Han J., Qu G. & Guo D. (2004) Structure-activity relationships of saponins from Gleditsia sinensis in cytotoxicity and induction of apoptosis. Planta Med., 70(9): 797-802. 9.Lim J.C., Park J.H., Budesinsky M., Kasal A., Han Y.H., Koo B.S., Lee S.I. & Lee D.U. (2005) Antimutagenic constituents from the thorns of Gleditsia sinensis. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 53(5): 561-564. 10.Shoemaker M., Hamilton B., Dairkee S.H., Cohen I. & Campbell M.J. (2005) In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res., 19(7): 649-651. 11.Cheung F., Chui C.H., Chan A.S., Lau F.Y., Cheng G.Y., Wong R.S., Kok S.H., Teo I.T., Cheng C.H. & Tang J.C. (2005) Inhibition of proteasome activity in Gleditsia sinensis fruit extract-mediated apoptosis on human carcinoma cells. Int J Mol Med., 16(5): 925-929. 12.Long L., Geng G.X. & Li Q.W. (2006) Effect of Gleditsia sinensis stings on growth inhibition and expression of PCNA and p53 in mice bearing uterine cervical carcinoma (U14). Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 31(2): 150- 153.

Glehnia littoralis (BEI SHA SHEN) beach silvertop or northern glehnia {R14} This species has antibacterial and antifungal properties (1). In one study, methanol extracts of 36 samples of 21 Umbelliferae plants were screened for polyacetylenic compounds using the ELISA for panaxytriol, and their antiproliferative activity was checked by MTT assay with tumour cell-lines MK- 1, HeLa and B16F10 (2). The presence of antiproliferative polyacetylenes was suggested in nine plants including Glehnia littoralis fruit (2). The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging assay disclosed quercetin, isoquercetin, rutin, chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid as the major antioxidative constituents in a crude drug from the underground parts of G. littoralis (3). In other work, the roots of G. littoralis were extracted with an aqueous extraction method and an organic method (4). The aqueous extract showed potent inhibition of erythrocyte hemolysis, while the organic extract was potent in inhibiting lipid peroxidation. Results suggested that G. littoralis is a cheaper substitute for Panax quinquefolium with regard to antioxidant activity (4). 1.Matsuura H., Saxena G., Farmer S.W., Hancock R.E. & Towers G.H. (1996) Antibacterial and antifungal polyine compounds from Glehnia littoralis ssp. leiocarpa. Planta Med., 62(3): 256-259. 2.Nakano Y., Matsunaga H., Saita T., Mori M., Katano M. & Okabe H. (1998) Antiproliferative constituents in Umbelliferae plants II. Screening for polyacetylenes in some Umbelliferae plants, and isolation of panaxynol and falcarindiol from the root of Heracleum moellendorffii. Biol Pharm Bull., 21(3): 257-261. 3.Yuan Z., Tezuka Y., Fan W., Kadota S. & Li X. (2002) Constituents of the underground parts of Glehnia littoralis. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 50(1): 73-77. 4.Ng T.B., Liu F. & Wang H.X. (2004) The antioxidant effects of aqueous and organic extracts of Panax quinquefolium, Panax notoginseng, Codonopsis pilosula, Pseudostellaria heterophylla and Glehnia littoralis. J Ethnopharmacol., 93(2-3): 285-288.

Gloriosa superba [Malaysia- BUNGA SONGSANG] climbing lily, creeping lily, flame lily or glory lily {R8} In folk medicine Gloriosa superba is used as a remedy for arthritis but the ‘colchicine’ content of this plant makes it highly toxic and consequently it has limited use (1). Colchicine is used under the supervision of physicians to treat gout and rheumatism (1). Colchicine also inhibits the division of animal cells but is too dangerous to be used to treat tumour growth. A biosynthetic precursor of colchicine, ‘demecolcine’ is safer and is used to treat certain cancerous cells (1). A major environmental weed (2) in coastal NE New South Wales and SE Queensland. 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Glycine max (DAN DOU CHI) soybean Current commercial crop in Australia. The consumption of whole-soybean foods and soybean-protein isolates can have some beneficial effects on lipid markers of cardiovascular risk (1). Fermented soybean products may have functional properties. These may present opportunities for Australian value-adding. 1.Cassidy A., Albertazzi P., Lise Nielsen I., Hall W., Williamson G., Tetens I., Atkins S., Cross H., Manios Y., Wolk A., Steiner C. & Branca F. (2006) Critical review of health effects of soyabean phyto-oestrogens in postmenopausal women. Proc Nutr Soc., 65(1): 76-92.

Glycyrrhiza uralensis (GAN CAO) Chinese licorice {R6} Not to be confused with its more widely researched relative Glycyrrhiza glabra, which is also used as a medicinal plant in China but has a broad indigenous distribution. General information that refers to ‘licorice root’ typically alludes to G. glabra. The literature on G. uralensis is not extensive and it is often tested in conjunction with many other herbs which makes determination of individual efficacy difficult. Nonetheless, it has shown some in vitro activity by inhibiting cell growth associated with prostate cancer (1). This species is used in vast quantities in China but is collected from the wild and not cultivated (2). Traditionally used with other herbs to treat asthma (3). 1.Hsieh T.C., Lu X., Chea J. & Wu J.M. (2002) Prevention and management of prostate cancer using PC-SPES: a scientific perspective. J Nutr. 2002 Nov:132 (11 Suppl): 3513S-3517S. 2.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Gnaphalium affine (SHU QU CAO) {R4} Claimed to have antiasthmatic effects (1). Very limited reporting available. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Gueldenstaedtia verna {R1} Petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts showed activity against Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas syringae using a bioautographic assay (1). 1.Xie C., Kokubun T., Houghton P.J. & Simmonds M.S. (2004) Antibacterial activity of the Chinese traditional medicine, Zi Hua Di Ding. Phytother Res., 18(6): 497-500.

Gymnema sylvestre [India- GURMAR] small Indian ipecac, gymnema or miracle-fruit {R16} A woody climber that is native to temperate and tropical Asia and Africa (1). It has long been used in the treatment of diabetes. ‘Gymnemic acid IV’ from Gymnema sylvestre reduced blood glucose levels and increased plasma insulin levels in streptozotocin diabetic mice (2). Some researchers indicate that scientific investigation has upheld its effectiveness in both type I and type II diabetes (3,4). However, a more recent opinion suggests that while the results from extensive animal testing on G. sylvestre have been positive, the quality of human studies has not been good (5). Potential for commercial production in Australia has been recognised (6). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Lacaille-Dubois M. (2005) Bioactive saponins from plants: recent developments, pp. 399-428. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 4.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 5.Pinn G. (2005) Herbal medicine in endocrinology and metabolic disease, pp. 383-398. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 6.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256- 264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Heterostemma brownii {R3} The aerial parts are used in Taiwanese folk medicine to treat tumours (1,2). ‘Heteromines D and E’ isolated from the aerial parts showed cytotoxicity against five cancer cell-lines (2). Note: this scientific name is under review. 1.Jakobsen E. & Gundersen L. (2000) Synthesis of Heteromine C from Guanine. Heterocycles, 53: 935-940. 2.Lin Y.L., Huang R.L., Chang C.M. & Kuo Y.H. (1997) Two new puriniums and three new pyrimidines from Heterostemma brownii. J Nat Prod., 60(10): 982-985.

Hibiscus mutabilis (FU RONG YIE) confederate-rose, cotton-rose or fuyo {R4} Said to possess anticancer activity (1), but there is very little information in the medical literature relating to this species. In one experimental assessment made on the anti-herpes simplex virus-II action of 500 herbs, 13 highly effective herbs were screened out, including Hibiscus mutabilis (2). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Zheng M.S. (1989) An experimental study of the anti-HSV-II action of 500 herbal drugs. J Tradit Chin Med., 9(2): 113-116.

Homalomena occulta (QIAN NIAN JIAN) homalomena {R4} Traditionally for rheumatoid arthritis (1). The constituents of the rhizome have been studied (2,3), but scientific documentation is too limited to draw conclusions on efficacy. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Zhou C.M., Yao C., Sun H.L., Qiu S.X. & Cui G.Y. (1991) Volatile constituents of the rhizome of Homalomena occulta. Planta medica, 57(4): 391-392. 3.Elbandy M., Lerche H., Wagner H. & Lacaille-Dubois M.A. (2004) Constituents of the rhizome of Homalomena occulta. Biochemical systematics & ecology, 32(12): 1209-1213.

Houttuynia cordata (YU XING CAO) houttuynia, chameleon plant, fish plant or dokudami {R18} Current commercial crop in Australia, the leaves and smaller stems are eaten fresh as a salad or food garnish. Houttuynia cordata injection is widely used to treat disease in China and at present there were about 40 factories producing it (1). The steam distillate prepared from fresh plants was found to have direct inhibitory activity herpes simplex virus type-1, influenza virus, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 without showing cytotoxicity (2). Recent work has suggested that its antiinflammatory properties could play a role in treating severe acute respiratory syndrome (ie. SARS) (3). Results from rat trials clearly indicated that houttuynia had antiinflammatory activity. Cell-line work has also demonstrated antiinflammatory actions (4). Other investigations have considered the effect of H. cordata water extract on mast cell-mediated anaphylactic reactions (5). The mast cell-mediated anaphylactic reaction is involved in many allergic diseases such as asthma and allergic rhinitis. Results suggested that the extract may be beneficial.

Nontheless, H. cordata water extract is better known for its antioxidant and anticancer activities. Several bioactive alkaloids from a methanolic extract of the aerial parts exhibited significant cytotoxicity against five human tumour cell-lines (6). In other studies to evaluate antileukaemic activity, five leukaemic cell-lines were cultured with hot water extracts of H. cordata which inhibited all lines (7). H. cordata showed antioxidative and antimutagenic properties in rats exposed to oxidative stress in oxidised-frying oil, feeding trials (8). 1.Lu H.M., Liang Y.Z. & Chen S. (2006) Identification and quality assessment of Houttuynia cordata injection using GC-MS fingerprint: A standardization approach. J Ethnopharmacol., 105(3):436-440. 2.Hayashi K., Kamiya M. & Hayashi T. (1995) Virucidal effects of the steam distillate from Houttuynia cordata and its components on HSV-1, influenza virus, and HIV. Planta Med., 61(3): 237-241. 3.Lu H.M., Liang Y.Z., Yi L.Z. & Wu X.J. (2005) Anti-inflammatory effect of Houttuynia cordata injection. J Ethnopharmacol., 104(1-2): 245-249. 4.Park E., Kum S., Wang C., Park S.Y., Kim B.S. & Schuller-Levis G. (2005) Anti-inflammatory activity of herbal medicines: inhibition of nitric oxide production and tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion in an activated macrophage-like cell line. Am J Chin Med., 33(3): 415-424. 5.Li G.Z., Chai O.H., Lee M.S., Han E.H., Kim H.T. & Song C.H. (2005) Inhibitory effects of Houttuynia cordata water extracts on anaphylactic reaction and mast cell activation. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(10): 1864-1868. 6.Kim S.K., Ryu S.Y., No J., Choi S.U. & Kim Y.S. (2001) Cytotoxic alkaloids from Houttuynia cordata. Arch Pharm Res., 24(6): 518-521. 7.Chang J.S., Chiang L.C., Chen C.C., Liu L.T., Wang K.C. & Lin C.C. (2001) Antileukemic activity of Bidens pilosa L. var. minor (Blume) Sherff and Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Am J Chin Med., 29(2): 303-312. 8.Chen Y.Y., Liu J.F., Chen C.M., Chao P.Y. & Chang T.J. (2003) A study of the antioxidative and antimutagenic effects of Houttuynia cordata Thunb. using an oxidized frying oil-fed model. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo)., 49(5): 327-333.

Huperzia serrata - toothed club moss or toge-shiba {R16} This club moss has been used in China since recorded history for treatment of swelling, fever and blood disorders (1) but modern scientific investigation has found a new use. In the early 1990s, ‘huperzine A’, an alkaloid isolated from Huperzia serrata was found to be a selective cholinesterase inhibitor and could improve learning and retrieval processes (2). Preliminary clinical studies at that time showed that huperzine A improved short and long-term memory in patients with cerebral arteriosclerosis and memory impairment (3). In other research from this period, the therapeutic effects of huperzine A were studied by random, match and double-blind method in 56 patients of multi-infarct dementia or senile dementia, and 104 patients of senile and presenile simple memory disorders (4). Curative effects were evaluated using the Wechsler memory scale. Results showed that curative effects of huperzine A were significant. Only a few patients felt slight dizziness and this did not affect the therapeutic benefits (4). Huperzine A also subsequently exhibited memory-enhancing activities in a broad range of animal cognitive models (5).

More recently, huperzine A has undergone double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials in patients with Alzheimer's disease, with significant improvements both to cognitive function and the quality of life (6). Most of the clinical trials are from China but huperzine A and derivatives are attracting considerable interest in the West (6). Furthermore, both animal and human safety evaluations have demonstrated that huperzine A is devoid of unexpected toxicity.

Phase IV clinical trials in China have now demonstrated that huperzine A significantly relieves memory deficits in aged subjects, patients with benign senescent forgetfulness, Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia, with minimal peripheral cholinergic side-effects compared with other acetylcholinesterases in use (7,8). Huperzine A possesses the ability to protect cells against hydrogen peroxide, beta-amyloid protein (or peptide), glutamate, ischaemia and staurosporine-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis (8).

Marco Hi-Tech Joint Venture has exclusive worldwide marketing and distribution rights to huperzine A (9). Marco Hi-Tech Joint Venture is a corporation principally owned by Hi-Tech Pharmacal and Marco International, a global trading and finance firm formed to import huperzine A from China. Marco Hi-Tech Joint Venture also has rights to synthetic analogues of huperzine A. In July 2003, Savient Pharmaceuticals acquired the exclusive rights from Marco Hi-Tech to market huperzine A in Europe and the USA (9).

This club moss grows to around 10 cm in height under shady conditions. It requires a humid atmosphere and may be hard to establish. The spores are generally produced in abundance but are difficult to grow successfully. 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Zangara, A. (2003) The psychopharmacology of huperzine A: an alkaloid with cognitive enhancing and neuroprotective properties of interest in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 75(3): 675-686. 3.Zhu X.Z. (1991) Development of natural products as drugs acting on central nervous system. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz., 86(2): 173-175. 4.Zhang R.W., Tang X.C., Han Y.Y., Sang G.W., Zhang Y.D., Ma Y.X., Zhang C.L. & Yang R.M. (1991) Drug evaluation of huperzine A in the treatment of senile memory disorders. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao., 12(3): 250-252. 5.Tang X.C. (1996) Huperzine A (shuangyiping): a promising drug for Alzheimer's disease. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao., 17(6): 481-484. 6.Zangara A. (2003) The psychopharmacology of huperzine A: an alkaloid with cognitive enhancing and neuroprotective properties of interest in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 75(3): 675-686. 7.Wang R. & Tang X.C. (2005) Neuroprotective effects of huperzine A. A natural cholinesterase inhibitor for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurosignals., 14(1-2): 71-82. 8.Wang R., Yan H. & Tang X.C. (2006) Progress in studies of huperzine A, a natural cholinesterase inhibitor from Chinese herbal medicine. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 27(1): 1-26. 9.[Authors not listed] (2004) Huperzine A. Drugs R D., 5(1): 44-45.

Ilex pubescens (MAO DONG QING) pubescent holly {R11} The root dilates blood vessels and is used in coronary heart disease to increase blood flow in coronary arteries and reduce blood pressure (1). A successful treatment for angina pectoris (2). Experimental studies have shown that compounds from this plant inhibit thrombosis, platelet adhesion and platelet aggregation (3,4,5). The cardio drugs ‘glaberone’and ‘ilexonin A’ have been isolated from Ilex pubescens (6). It is also a traditional Chinese medicine that is frequently prescribed for treating depression-like ailments. Findings from recent experiments on mice supported the clinical prescription of this herb as an antidepressant phytochemical for human use (7). 1.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Wang L. & Wang Z. (1989) Ilexonin A may be a slow calcium channel blocker. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 9(11): 668-71, 645. 4.Wang Z. & Li F. (1993) Effects of ilexonin A on cAMP metabolism in platelets. Chin Med Sci J., 8(4): 215- 217. 5.Jiang Z.H., Wang J.R., Li M., Liu Z.Q., Chau K.Y., Zhao C. & Liu L. (2005) Hemiterpene glucosides with anti-platelet aggregation activities from Ilex pubescens. J Nat Prod., 68(3): 397-399. 6.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 7.Xu C., Luo L. & Tan R.X. (2004) Antidepressant effect of three traditional Chinese medicines in the learned helplessness model. J Ethnopharmacol., 91(2-3): 345-349.

Imperata cylindrica (BAI MAO GEN) imperata, alang-alang or cogon grass {R15} The roots have an ethnobotanical use as antidiabetic agents. However, when fed to mice Imperata cylindrica did not lower blood glucose levels (1). Nonetheless, ‘imperanene’ a novel phenolic compound isolated from I. cylindrica showed platelet aggregation inhibitory activity (2). And, a novel lignan, ‘graminone B’ showed inhibitory activity on contraction of rabbit aorta (3). A potential weed (4). 1.Villasenor I.M. & Lamadrid M.R. (2006) Comparative anti-hyperglycemic potentials of medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 104(1-2): 129-131. 2.Matsunaga K., Shibuya M. & Ohizumi Y. (1995) Imperanene, a novel phenolic compound with platelet aggregation inhibitory activity from Imperata cylindrica. J Nat Prod., 58(1): 138-139. 3.Matsunaga K., Shibuya M. & Ohizumi Y. (1994) Graminone B, a novel lignan with vasodilative activity from Imperata cylindrica. J Nat Prod., 57(12): 1734-1736. 4.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Inula racemosa [India- PUSHKARMOOLA] Inula or Indian elecampane {R14} An Ayurvedic herb traditionally used for ischaemic heart disease and asthma (1). Effects on cardiovascular disease have been better investigated (2). Inula prevented ECG signs of ischaemia after exercise in human patients with ischaemic heart disease (1). Inula was found to possess significant antianginal activity in an open clinical study of 30 patients with angina pectoris; it also lowered diastolic blood pressure (1).

Inula was studied in combination with Guggula (Commiphora mukul) using 200 patients with ischaemic heart (3). Initially approximately 80% experienced dyspnoea and all 200 subjects had chest pain, with positive indications of myocardial ischaemia (3). At the end of the six-month study period, 26% of subjects had a complete restoration of normal ECG and another 59% showed ECG improvement. Twenty-five percent of subjects had no chest pain and patients experiencing dyspnoea fell to 32% (3).

In another trial, the efficacy of inula was compared to nitroglycerin for the prevention of anginal symptoms (4). Nine human subjects with ischaemic heart disease were involved in the study and all showed positive for myocardial ischaemia through their ECG ST-segment depression on exertion. The inula group received 3 g root powder 90 min prior to testing and the controls were given nitroglycerin. All nine subjects had improvement in ST-segment depression on ECG but benefits were greater for those who were given inula (4). In Australia, there have been previous attempts to grow this plant but it is not a current commercial crop (5). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 74

2.Miller AL. (1998) Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease. Altern Med Rev., 3(6): 422-431. 3.Singh R.P., Singh R., Ram P. & Batliwala P.G. (1993) Use of Pushkar-Guggul, an indigenous antiischemic combination, in the management of ischemic heart disease. Int J Pharmacog., 31: 147-160. 4.Tripathi S.N., Upadhyaya B.N. & Guptha V.K. (1984) Beneficial effect of Inula racemosa (Pushkarmoola) in angina pectoris: a preliminary report. Ind J Physiol Pharmac., 28: 73-75. 5.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Iphigenia indica (SHAN CI GU) iphigenia or grass lily {R2} Suggested role in cancer treatment (1) but there is a lack of published scientific evidence to back claims. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Iris domestica (SHE GAN) belamcanda, blackberry lily or leopard lily {R14} ‘Isorhapontigenin’, isolated from belamcanda has a chemical structure very similar to that of ‘resveratrol’, which is a potent antioxidant. Study of the antioxidative activity of isorhapontigenin in vitro showed that it was potent and much more active than vitamin E (1). ‘Irigenin’ from the rhizomes could be a leading compound for antiinflammation (2). ‘Tectorigenin’ isolated from the rhizomes showed antiproliferation activity in animal trials and suppressed tumour weight and volume (3). Other experiments on belamcanda extract showed inhibition of development of animal tumours in vivo (4). Tectorigenin may also have a role in prevention and/or treatment of diabetic complications (5). 1.Wang Q.L., Lin M. & Liu G.T. (2001) Antioxidative activity of natural isorhapontigenin. Jpn J Pharmacol., 87(1): 61-66. 2.Ahn K.S., Noh E.J., Cha K.H., Kim Y.S., Lim S.S., Shin K.H. & Jung S.H. (2006) Inhibitory effects of Irigenin from the rhizomes of Belamcanda chinensis on nitric oxide and prostaglandin E(2) production in murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Life Sci., 78(20): 2336-2342. 3.Jung S.H., Lee Y.S., Lee S., Lim S.S., Kim Y.S., Ohuchi K. & Shin K.H. (2003) Anti-angiogenic and antitumor activities of isoflavonoids from the rhizomes of Belamcanda chinensis. Planta Med., 69(7): 617-622. 4.Thelen P., Scharf J.G., Burfeind P., Hemmerlein B., Wuttke W., Spengler B., Christoffel V., Ringert R.H. & Seidlova-Wuttke D. (2005) Tectorigenin and other phytochemicals extracted from leopard lily Belamcanda chinensis affect new and established targets for therapies in prostate cancer. Carcinogenesis, 26(8): 1360-1367. 5.Jung S.H., Lee Y.S., Lee S., Lim S.S., Kim Y.S. & Shin K.H. (2002) Isoflavonoids from the rhizomes of Belamcanda chinensis and their effects on aldose reductase and sorbitol accumulation in streptozotocin induced diabetic rat tissues. Arch Pharm Res., 25(3): 306-312.

Isodon eriocalyx {R7} In traditional Chinese medicine this species is used for its antiinflammatory and antibacterial properties (1). Rich in diterpenoids (1,2,3). Compounds isolated from the leaves of Isodon eriocalyx var. laxiflora have been tested for their in vitro cytotoxicity toward human tumour cells (4). Laxiflorin E, laxiflorin C and eriocalyxin B showed significant inhibitory effects on K562 cells, and compounds laxiflorin E and eriocalyxin B demonstrated significant inhibitory activity toward T24 cells (4,5). While laxiflorin I and maoecrystal C displayed inhibitory effects on both these tumour cell types (4,5). Laxiflorin L inhibited human tumour A549 cell-line (5). Note: this scientific name is undergoing review. 1.Sun H.D., Lin Z.W., Niu F.D., Shen P.Q., Pan L.T., Lin L.Z. & Cordell G.A. (1995) Diterpenoids from Isodon eriocalyx var. laxiflora. Phytochemistry, 38(6): 1451-1455. 2.Niu X.M., Li S.H., Mei S.X., Na Z., Zhao Q.S., Lin Z.W. & Sun H.D. (2002) Cytotoxic 3,20-epoxy-ent- kaurane diterpenoids from Isodon eriocalyx var. laxiflora. J Nat Prod., 65(12): 1892-1896. 3.Chen S.N., Yue J.M., Chen S.Y., Lin Z.W., Qin G.W., Sun H.D. & Chen Y.Z. (1999) Diterpenoids from Isodon eriocalyx. J Nat Prod., 62(5): 782-784. 4.Niu X.M., Li S.H., Li M.L., Zhao Q.S., Mei S.X., Na Z., Wang S.J., Lin Z.W. & Sun H.D. (2002) Cytotoxic ent-kaurane diterpenoids from Isodon eriocalyx var. laxiflora. Planta Med., 68(6): 528-533. 5.Niu X.M., Li S.H., Mei S.X., Na Z., Zhao Q.S., Lin Z.W. & Sun H.D. (2002) Cytotoxic 3,20-epoxy-ent- kaurane diterpenoids from Isodon eriocalyx var. laxiflora. J Nat Prod., 65(12): 1892-1896.

Juglans regia (HU TAO REN) English walnut An existing commercial crop in Australia. Said to possess anticancer activity (1) and function as a mild hypoglycaemic (2), and antiinflammatory (2). Used with other herbs for asthma (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 3.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Justicia adhatoda [India- AMALAKA, ADOTODAI] Malabar Nut Tree or pavettia {R10} A small evergreen bush that grows commonly in open plains, especially in the lower Himalayas (1). Use is linked to respiratory diseases such as asthma. Human clinical studies showed an expectorant action, especially in acute bronchitis, with a loosening of thick phlegm (1,2). However, the antiasthma claims lack strong backing. Benefits in treating asthma may be as much due to expectorant and antiallergic effects as to bronchodilation (1). Alkaloids from Justicia adhatoda showed pronounced protection against allergen-induced bronchial obstruction in guinea pigs (3). However, some concerns have been raised over the safety of this plant when used as a herbal medicine (4). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Narimanian M., Badalyan M., Panosyan V., Gabrielyan E., Panossian A., Wikman G. & Wagner H. (2005) Randomized trial of a fixed combination (KanJang) of herbal extracts containing Adhatoda vasica, Echinacea purpurea and Eleutherococcus senticosus in patients with upper respiratory tract infections. Phytomedicine., 12(8): 539-547. 3.Dorsch W. & Wagner H. (1991) New antiasthmatic drugs from traditional medicine? Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol., 94(1-4): 262-265. 4.Claeson U.P., Malmfors T., Wikman G. & Bruhn J.G. (2000) Adhatoda vasica: a critical review of ethnopharmacological and toxicological data. J Ethnopharmacol., 72(1-2): 1-20.

Laminaria japonica (KUAN BU or KUN BU) laminaria kelp or kombu {R10} Laminarin polysaccharides from Laminaria japonica, a marine brown alga, suppressed apoptotic death and extended cell survival in cultures of mouse thymocytes (1). These results suggest that laminarin polysaccharides could be utilised to develop new immunopotentiating substances and functional alternative medicines. The prolonging effect of L. japonica on life-span was investigated in mice fed a diet containing the carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene (2). Addition of 2 or 5%, kombu to the benzo[a]pyrene diet recovered the life-span to a level similar to that of the control. The faeces of the kombu fed mice contained ingested benzo[a]pyrene, mainly in forms adsorbed on kombu fibers. A benzo[a]pyrene fed group given cellulose as dietary fiber instead of kombu did not show positive effects. The authors summarise that humans are exposed to various environmental carcinogens and kombu fibers probably contribute to longevity by removing them (2). In other animal studies, L. japonica polysaccharides effectively decreased serum lipid and prevented the formation of atherosclerosis (3).

Increasing evidence in both experimental and clinical studies suggests that oxidative stress plays a major role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus type I and type II. Results from rat trials suggest that L. japonica could be of great value as a dietary supplement in preventing hyperglycaemia in diabetes mellitus, possibly through its antioxidant activity (4).

A new study and the first to report on the antioxidant activities of lipophilic extracts from seaweeds suggests that seaweeds can be considered as a potential source for the extraction of lipophilic antioxidants, which might be used as dietary supplements or in production in the food industry (5). L. japonica had intermediate antioxidant activity compared to other seaweed species. 1.Kim K.H., Kim Y.W., Kim H.B., Lee B.J. & Lee DS. (2006) Anti-apoptotic Activity of Laminarin Polysaccharides and their Enzymatically Hydrolyzed Oligosaccharides from Laminaria japonica. Biotechnol Lett., 28(6): 439-446. 2.Sakakibara H., Nakagawa S., Wakameda H., Nakagiri Y., Kamata K., Das S.K., Tsuji T. & Kanazawa K. (2005) Effects of Japanese kelp (kombu) on life span of benzo[a]pyrene-fed mice. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol. (Tokyo), 51(5): 369-373. 3.Li C., Gao Y., Li M., Shi W. & Liu Z. (2005) Effect of Laminaria japonica polysaccharides on lowing serum lipid and anti-atherosclerosis in hyperlipemia quails. Zhong Yao Cai., 28(8): 676-679. 4.Jin D.Q., Li G., Kim J.S., Yong C.S., Kim J.A. & Huh K. (2004) Preventive effects of Laminaria japonica aqueous extract on the oxidative stress and xanthine oxidase activity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat liver. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(7): 1037-1040. 5.Huang H.L. & Wang B.G. (2004) Antioxidant capacity and lipophilic content of seaweeds collected from the Qingdao coastline. J Agric Food Chem., 52(16): 4993-4997.

Lentinus edodes (HUA GU) [Japan- SHIITAKE] shiitake mushroom or black mushroom Currently a small commercial crop in Australia. The shiitake mushroom is a mainstay in the Japanese diet and is regarded as a protector against cancer (1). It is the second most commonly cultivated edible mushroom also used for medicinal purposes (2). One of shiitake’s polysaccharide components is ‘lentinan’, a highly purified glucan (extracted from either the fruiting body or mycelium) which is

used for cancer treatment (1). Lentinan must be injected because it is poorly absorbed orally and does not suppress tumour growth in animals when administered orally. Human trials have shown that lentinan may improve the prognosis in breast cancer and may be effective as an adjuvant to chemotherapy in gastric and colorectal cancer therapy (1). KS-2 is another polysaccharide from shiitake that is used by cancer patients in China and can be absorbed orally (1). Its effectiveness has been tested in mouse experiments. 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Huo-Hsiung Lee, Hideji Itokawa & Mutsuo Kozuka (2005) Asian Herbal Products: The basis for development of high-quality dietary supplements and new medicines, pp. 21-72. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & Shahidi F. (Eds.) ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp.

Leonurus japonicus (YI MU CAO) Chinese motherwort {R12} In vitro activity of Chinese motherwort extract was tested against seven human cancer cell-lines and found to be effective in inhibiting the growth of all of them (1). Antiproliferation effects were dose and time dependent. 1.Chinwala M.G., Gao M., Dai J. & Shao J. (2003) In vitro anticancer activities of Leonurus heterophyllus sweet (Chinese motherwort herb). J Altern Complement Med., 9(4): 511-518.

Lepidium apetalum (TING LI ZI) pepper grass, pepper weed or tansy mustard {R4} A traditional treatment for asthma (1) but not well supported by scientific evidence. Published research suggests roles in promoting some aspects of heart function (2), decreasing UV-induced skin pigmentation in guinea pigs and decreasing melanogenesis of HM3KO human melanoma cells (3). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Wu X., Yang Y. & Huang D. (1998) Effect of aqueous extract of Lepidium apetalum on dog's left ventricular function. Zhong Yao Cai., 21(5): 243-245. 3.Choi H., Ahn S., Lee B.G., Chang I. & Hwang J.S. (2005) Inhibition of skin pigmentation by an extract of Lepidium apetalum and its possible implication in IL-6 mediated signaling. Pigment Cell Res., 18(6): 439-446.

Ligustrum lucidum (NU ZHEN ZI) Chinese privet, glossy privet or wax-leaf privet {R12} Widely cultivated in China and naturalised in South Africa, temperate Asia, Australia, New Zealand and South America (1). In traditional Chinese medicine, uses for the fruit include- eyesight improvement, antibacterial, immune stimulant, stimulant for urine flow and heart function improvement (2). Recent work evaluated the aqueous extract of Ligustrum lucidum for antiproliferative activity on human cancer cell-lines (3). It demonstrated growth inhibitory activity and authors suggest that results indicate potential use as a antineoplastic agent with further studies warranted to evaluate the mechanism of action and isolation of active compounds (3). Nonetheless, this plant is a potent, successful invader and a potential conservation problem (4). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Shoemaker M., Hamilton B., Dairkee S.H., Cohen I. & Campbell M.J. (2005) In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res., 19(7): 649-651. 4.Aragon R. & Groom M. (2003) Invasion by Ligustrum lucidum (Oleaceae) in NW Argentina: early stage characteristics in different habitat types. Rev Biol Trop., 51(1): 59-70.

Ligusticum sinense (CHUAN XIONG or GAO BEN) Chinese lovage, Sichuan lovage or straw weed {R20} The dried rhizome is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb for prevention and treatment of inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases. Most research has focussed on its use in treating cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Ligusticum sinense lowers blood pressure and when used in the treatment of angina pectoris the active principle has shown efficiency rates of 88% (1). Various animal models have demonstrated vasorelaxing effects (2,3). The synthetic cardio drug ‘tetramethyl pyrazine’ is based on an active principle from this plant (4).

In clinical trials with 545 patients, the active principle produced 80 to 90% improvement in the acute stage of cerebral ischaemia (1). In another double-blind trial of 220 patients, the effect of chuan xiong on the treatment of acute cerebral infarction was superior to low molecular weight dextran and the difference between the two groups was statistically significant (5). Clinical tests using chuan xiong in the treatment of ischaemic stroke found that effects were the same as or better than those of controls, 77

such as papaverine, dextran and aspirin-persantin (6). Chuan xiong may improve brain microcirculation through inhibiting thrombus formation and platelet aggregation. Protective effects against cerebral damage have also been demonstrated in animal studies (7,8,9). In Australia there have been previous attempts to grow this plant but it is not a current commercial crop (10). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Chan S.S., Choi A.O., Jones R.L. & Lin G. (2006) Mechanisms underlying the vasorelaxing effects of butylidenephthalide, an active constituent of Ligusticum chuanxiong, in rat isolated aorta. Eur J Pharmacol., 537(1-3): 111-117. 3.Liang M.J., He L.C. & Yang G.D. (2005) Screening, analysis and in vitro vasodilatation of effective components from Ligusticum Chuanxiong. Life Sci., 78(2): 128-133. 4.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 5.Chen D.R. (1992) Comparative study of chuanxiong and dextran 40 in the treatment of acute cerebral infarction. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 12(2): 67, 71-73 6.Chen K.J. & Chen K. (1992) Ischemic stroke treated with Ligusticum chuanxiong. Chin Med J (Engl)., 105(10): 870-873. 7.Tian J.W., Fu F.H., Jiang W.L., Wang C.Y., Sun F. & Zhang T.P. (2005) Protective effect of Ligusticum chuanxiong phthalides on focai cerebral ischemia in rats and its related mechanism of action. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 30(6): 466-468. 8.Ni J.W., Matsumoto K. & Watanabe H. (1995) Tetramethylpyrazine improves spatial cognitive impairment induced by permanent occlusion of bilateral common carotid arteries or scopolamine in rats. Jpn J Pharmacol., 67(2): 137-141. 9.Leung A.W., Mo Z.X. & Zheng Y.S. (1991) Reduction of cellular damage induced by cerebral ischemia in rats. Neurochem Res., 16(6): 687-692. 10. Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Lilium brownii (BAI HE) Brown's lily or Hong Kong lily {R6} A well-known and important herb used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antiinflammatory (1). The bulbs of this lily contain steroidal saponins and alkaloids (2). Recent work surveyed 27 plant species for their inhibitory effect on monoamine oxidase-B in rat brain homogenates (3). The 50% aqueous methanol extracts of four species, including a variety of Lilium brownii, exhibited the best activity. Authors suggest that it may be a candidate for use in delaying the progressive degeneration caused by neurological diseases (3). 1.Hou X. & Chen F. (1998) Studies on chemical constituents of Lilium brownii. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 33(12): 923- 926. 2.Mimaki Y. & Sashida Y. (1990) Steroidal saponins and alkaloids from the bulbs of Lilium brownii var. colchesteri. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 38(11): 3055-3059. 3.Lin R.D., Hou W.C., Yen K.Y. & Lee M.H. (2003) Inhibition of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) by Chinese herbal medicines. Phytomedicine, 10(8): 650-656.

Lindera aggregata (WU YAO) lindera {R4} The leaves are believed to have antibacterial and antiinflammatory constituents (1). 1.Zhang C.F., Sun Q.S., Wang Z.T. & Chou G.X. (2001) Studies on constituents of the leaves of Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 26(11): 765-767.

Lindera megaphylla - lindera {R9} ‘Dicentrine’, a naturally occurring aporphine type alkaloid, isolated from the root of Lindera megaphylla has inhibitory effects on platelet aggregation and ATP release (1). Dicentrine’s positive haemodynamic effects have been demonstrated in scientific studies but usually in vitro with rat, rabbit or guinea pig cells/tissues (1,2). One study also evaluated dicentrine for its potential anticancer activity (3). Dicentrine decreased colony formation efficiency in some human hepatoma cell-lines and was cytotoxic to various oesophageal carcinoma, lymphoma, leukaemia and hepatoma cell-lines. A tumour growing assay in mice showed that injection of dicentrine significantly inhibited tumour incidence (3). 1.Yu S.M., Chen C.C., Ko F.N., Huang Y.L., Huang T.F. & Teng C.M. (1992) Dicentrine, a novel antiplatelet agent inhibiting thromboxane formation and increasing the cyclic AMP level of rabbit platelets. Biochem Pharmacol., 43(2): 323-329. 2.Yu S.M., Hsu S.Y., Ko F.N., Chen C.C., Huang Y.L., Huang T.F. & Teng C.M. (1992) Haemodynamic effects of dicentrine, a novel alpha 1-adrenoceptor antagonist: comparison with prazosin in spontaneously hypertensive and normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats. Br J Pharmacol., 106(4): 797-801. 3.Huang R.L., Chen C.C., Huang Y.L., Ou J.C., Hu C.P., Chen C.F. & Chang C. (1998) Anti-tumor effects of d- dicentrine from the root of Lindera megaphylla. Planta Med., 64(3): 212-215.

Liquidambar formosana (LU LU TONG) sweetgum or Formosan gum {R7} Used with other herbs for arthralgia characterised by numbness and muscular contracture (1). Four oleanane triterpenoids from the ethyl acetate extract of Liquidambar formosana fruits exhibited strong inhibitory activity against the NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells) transcription factor suggesting possible anticancer influences (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Dat NT, Lee IS, Cai XF, Shen G, Kim YH. (2004) Oleanane triterpenoids with inhibitory activity against NFAT transcription factor from Liquidambar formosana. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(3): 426-428.

Liquidambar orientalis (SU HE XIANG) storax {R3} Antibacterial activity against selected bacteria (1). 1.Sagdic O., Ozkan G., Ozcan M. & Ozcelik S. (2005) A study on inhibitory effects of Sigla tree (Liquidambar orientalis Mill. var. orientalis) storax against several bacteria. Phytother Res., 19(6): 549-551.

Litchi chinensis (LI ZHI) lychee An existing crop. Major commercial planting of lychee commenced in Australia in the 1970s. Litchi fruit pericarp extract contains significant amounts of polyphenolic compounds which exhibited powerful antioxidative activity against fat oxidation in vitro (1). This extract also exhibited activity against hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro (human cells) and in vivo (mice), through inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis (1). One traditional reason for lychee consumption is its antitumour effects (2). 1.Wang X., Wei Y., Yuan S., Liu G., Zhang Y.L. & Wang W. (2006) Potential anticancer activity of litchi fruit pericarp extract against hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Lett., 239(1): 144-150. 2.Shi J. & Moy J. (2005) Functional foods from fruit and fruit products, pp. 303-340. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & Shahidi F. (Eds.) ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp.

Lithospermum erythrorhizon (ZI CAO) purple gromwell or red gromwell {R8} Tumour necrosis factor alpha contributes to the pathogenesis of both acute and chronic inflammatory diseases and has been a target for the development of new antiinflammatory drugs. ‘Shikonins’, the naphthoquinone pigments present in the root tissues of Lithospermum erythrorhizon have been reported to exert antiinflammatory effects both in vitro and in vivo (1). Trials on mice suggest that shikonins inhibit the transcriptional activation of the human tumour necrosis factor alpha promoter through interference with the basal transcription machinery. Shikonins also inhibit human immunodeficiency virus type-1 and constitute a basis for the development of novel anti-HIV therapeutic agents (2). 1.Staniforth V., Wang S.Y., Shyur L.F. & Yang N.S. (2004) Shikonins, phytocompounds from Lithospermum erythrorhizon, inhibit the transcriptional activation of human tumor necrosis factor alpha promoter in vivo. J Biol Chem., 279(7): 5877-5885. 2.Chen X., Yang L., Zhang N., Turpin J.A., Buckheit R.W., Osterling C., Oppenheim J.J. & Howard O.M. (2003) Shikonin, a component of chinese herbal medicine, inhibits chemokine receptor function and suppresses human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 47(9): 2810-2816.

Litsea cubeba (BI CHENG QIE or SHANG CONG ZI) mountain spicy tree, sambal, litsea, pheasant pepper or mountain pepper {R12} Recent research found that Litsea cubeba methanol extract and its fractions showed remarkable antioxidant activity in comparison with alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid (1). Tests on L. cubeba bark extracts suggested possible benefits for inflammatory conditions (2). Vasorelaxing effects in rat thoracic aorta caused by laurotetanine isolated from this species have also been reported (3). In addition, antifungal activity is claimed (3,4). The essential oil is popularly believed to be an antispasmodic and thus has potential antiasthmatic properties (6); but hard evidence is scanty. Used traditionally to treat bronchial asthma (7). 1.Hwang J.K., Choi E.M. & Lee J.H. (2005) Antioxidant activity of Litsea cubeba. Fitoterapia, 76(7-8): 684- 686. 2.Choi E.M. & Hwang J.K. (2004) Effects of methanolic extract and fractions from Litsea cubeba bark on the production of inflammatory mediators in RAW264.7 cells. Fitoterapia, 75(2): 141-148. 3.Chen W.Y., Ko F.N., Wu Y.C., Lu S.T. & Teng C.M. (1994) Vasorelaxing effect in rat thoracic aorta caused by laurotetanine isolated from Litsea cubeba Persoon. J Pharm Pharmacol., 46(5): 380-382. 4.Wang F., Yang D., Ren S., Zhang H. & Li R. (1999) Chemical composition of essential oil from leaves of Litsea cubeba and its antifungal activities. Zhong Yao Cai., 22(8): 400-402. 5.Zhou Y. (1984) Antifungal activity of volatile oils in Litsea cubeba and its main constituent citral. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 4(9): 558-559.

6.Qian B.C., Gong W.G., Chen J., Zhang Y.Q., Xu H.J. & Zhang L.X. (1980) Pharmacological studies on antiasthmatic and anti-anaphylactic activities of the essential oil of Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Yao Xue Xue Bao., 15(10): 584-589. 7.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Livistona chinensis (KUI SHU ZI) Chinese fan palm or Chinese fountain palm {R7} The hot water extract of the dry fruit of Livistona chinensis palm has been used in folklore medicine in Southern China for treating various tumours (1,2). Research has shown that extract from the seed has potent antiangiogenic and antitumour activity. The aqueous extract inhibited in vitro proliferation of endothelial cells and multiple tumour cell-lines including mouse fibrosarcoma and human breast and colon cancer (2). In mouse experiments, extract suppressed the growth of subcutaneous fibrosarcoma tumours. Extract from the shell is more potent than the inner kernel in tumour suppression and may be a potential supplemental source for cancer treatment (3). The fruit of L. chinensis warrant further investigation for anticancer potential. L. chinensis is a common ornamental palm in Australia. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Cheung S. & Tai J. (2005) In vitro studies of the dry fruit of Chinese fan palm Livistona chinensis. Oncol Rep., 14(5): 1331-1336. 3.Sartippour M.R., Liu C., Shao Z.M., Go V.L., Heber D. & Nguyen M. (2001) Livistona extract inhibits angiogenesis and cancer growth. Oncol Rep., 8(6): 1355-1357.

Loropetalum chinense (JI MU) {R1} In China, this herb has been used to treat angina pectoris (1). No relevant material could be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Luffa aegyptiaca (SI GUA LUO) sponge luffa, loofah or sponge gourd Current commercial crop in Australia. Traditionally used with other herbs for arthralgia (1). Oral administration of ethanolic extract of the seed significantly reduced blood glucose levels in streptozotocin diabetic rats with a potency similar to that of the biguanide, metformin (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.El-Fiky F.K., Abou-Karam M.A. & Afify E.A. (1996) Effect of Luffa aegyptiaca (seeds) and Carissa edulis (leaves) extracts on blood glucose level of normal and streptozotocin diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 50(1): 43- 47.

Lycium barbarum (GOU QI ZI- fruit, DI GU PI- root bark) Barbary wolfberry or matrimony vine {R22} Traditional uses - lowers blood pressure, lowers blood sugar levels, lowers blood cholesterol levels, immunostimulant, liver tonic and restorative (1). Blood pressure increase of rats could be significantly prevented by treatment with 10% Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (2). Recent work examined the hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effects of L. barbarum fruit water decoction, crude polysaccharide extracts, and purified polysaccharide fractions in alloxan-induced diabetic or hyperlipidaemic rabbits (3). It was found that the three fruit extracts/fractions significantly reduced blood glucose levels and serum total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations, and at the same time markedly increased high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, after 10 days of treatment; indicating substantial hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effects. Crude extracts of the fruit were identified to be rich in antioxidants (3). In related work, the effect of L. barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) on improvement of insulin resistance and lipid profile was studied in rats, in a model for non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) (4). Rats were divided into three groups: control, NIDDM control, and NIDDM+LBP. LBP treatment for three weeks resulted in a significant decrease in the concentration of plasma triglyceride and weight in NIDDM rats. Furthermore, LBP markedly decreased plasma cholesterol levels and fasting plasma insulin levels, and decreased postprandial glucose level at 30 min during oral glucose tolerance testing, and significantly increased the insulin sensitive index in NIDDM rats (4).

This herb has also been investigated for anticancer effects. Seventy-nine advanced cancer patients in a clinical trial were treated with LAK/IL-2 combined with LBP. Initial results of the treatment obtained from 75 evaluable patients indicated that objective regression of cancer was achieved in patients with malignant melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, colorectal carcinoma, lung cancer, nasopharyngeal carcinoma and malignant hydrothorax (5). The response rate of patients treated with LAK/IL-2 plus LBP was 40.9% while that of patients treated with LAK/IL-2 was 16.1% (P < 0.05). The mean

remission in patients treated with LAK/IL-2 plus LBP also lasted significantly longer. The results indicate that LBP can be used as an adjuvant in the biotherapy of cancer (5). Since this clinical work was undertaken, a number of cell-line and animal trials have confirmed antioxidant, antiproliferation and antitumour properties (eg. 6,7,8,9,10).

An up-to-date human supplementation trial showed that ‘zeaxanthin’ in whole wolfberries is bioavailable and that intake of a modest daily amount markedly increased fasting plasma zeaxanthin levels (11). Age-related macular degeneration is a common disorder that causes irreversible loss of central vision but increased intake of foods containing zeaxanthin may be effective in its prevention. L. barbarum also displayed neuroprotective effects in rat trials and could play a role in prevention of Alzheimer's disease (12).

Previously identified as a potential new crop for Australia (13). Family Solanaceae, a deciduous shrub growing to 2.5 m. Can tolerate nutritionally poor soil and maritime exposure and is easily grown. The fruit which are berries about 2 cm in diameter, can be consumed raw, dried or cooked but only fully ripe fruits should be eaten. They have a mild, sweet liquorice flavour. In China, fruit are collected in summer, dried in the shade and used unprepared. Young shoots can also be lightly cooked and used as a vegetable; the flavour is cress-like. L. barbarum leaves are also a tea substitute. Traditional medicinal administration: 5 to 10 g decocted in water for internal use (ripe fruit), 6 to 15 g decocted in water for an oral dose (dried root bark) (14). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley- Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Jia Y.X., Dong J.W., Wu X.X., Ma T.M. & Shi A.Y. (1998) The effect of lycium barbarum polysaccharide on vascular tension in two-kidney, one clip model of hypertension. Sheng Li Xue Bao., 50(3): 309-314. 3.Luo Q., Cai Y., Yan J., Sun M. & Corke H. (2004) Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects and antioxidant activity of fruit extracts from Lycium barbarum. Life Sci., 76(2): 137-149. 4.Zhao R., Li Q. & Xiao B. (2005) Effect of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide on the improvement of insulin resistance in NIDDM rats. Yakugaku Zasshi., 125(12): 981-988. 5.Cao G.W., Yang W.G. & Du P. (1994) Observation of the effects of LAK/IL-2 therapy combining with Lycium barbarum polysaccharides in the treatment of 75 cancer patients. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi., 16(6): 428-431. 6.Gan L., Wang J. & Zhang S. (2001) Inhibition the growth of human leukemia cells by Lycium barbarum polysaccharide. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu., 30(6): 333-335. 7.Gan L., Hua Zhang S., Liang Yang X. & Bi Xu H. (2004) Immunomodulation and antitumor activity by a polysaccharide-protein complex from Lycium barbarum. Int Immunopharmacol., 4(4): 563-569. 8.Wu S.J., Ng L.T. & Lin C.C. (2004) Antioxidant activities of some common ingredients of traditional chinese medicine, Angelica sinensis, Lycium barbarum and Poria cocos. Phytother Res., 18(12): 1008-1012. 9.Zhang M., Chen H., Huang J., Li Z., Zhu C. & Zhang S. (2005) Effect of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide on human hepatoma QGY7703 cells: inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis. Life Sci., 76(18): 2115- 2124. 10.He Y.L., Ying Y., Xu Y.L., Su J.F., Luo H. & Wang H.F. (2005) Effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide on tumor microenvironment T-lymphocyte subsets and dendritic cells in H22-bearing mice. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Xue Bao., 3(5): 374-377. 11.Cheng C.Y., Chung W.Y., Szeto Y.T. & Benzie I.F. (2005) Fasting plasma zeaxanthin response to Fructus barbarum L. (wolfberry; Kei Tze) in a food-based human supplementation trial. Br J Nutr., 93(1): 123-130. 12.Yu M.S., Leung S.K., Lai S.W., Che C.M., Zee S.Y., So K.F., Yuen W.H. & Chang R.C. (2005) Neuroprotective effects of anti-aging oriental medicine Lycium barbarum against beta-amyloid peptide neurotoxicity. Exp Gerontol., 40(8-9): 716-727. 13.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 14.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Lycium chinense (DI GU PI- root bark, GOU QI ZI- fruit) Chinese boxthorn or Chinese wolfberry {R21} This herb has been observed to lower blood sugar levels, lower blood pressure and lower blood cholesterol (1). However, its use as a liver tonic and restorative has been better substantiated (2). ‘Zeaxanthin dipalmitate’ from Lycium chinense exerted potent hepatoprotective activity in cultured rat cells (3). A novel cerebroside (1-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)-(2S,3R,4E,8Z)-2-N-palmityloc tadecasphinga-4,8-diene) from the fruits of L. chinense may preserve the hepatic mitochondrial level of glutathione by scavenging reactive oxygen species produced during carbon tetrachloride-induced toxicity and thereby reduce lipid peroxidation and cellular damage (4,5). Other recent studies have demonstrated the hepatoprotective effects of compounds from the fruit (6,7).

(+)-Lyoniresinol-3alpha-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside from an ethyl acetate extract of the root bark exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from patients, and human pathogenic fungi without having any hemolytic effect on human erythrocytes (8). This indicates excellent potential as a lead compound for the development of antibiotic agents.

Regulation of monoamine oxidase-B activity is important in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Twenty-seven species of plants used in traditional Chinese medicines were used in an investigation of their inhibitory effect on monoamine oxidase-B in rat brain homogenates (9). The 50% aqueous methanol extracts of four active extracts, including L. chinense, exhibited the best activity and selectivity towards monoamine oxidase-B and may therefore be candidates for use in delaying the progressive degeneration caused by neurological diseases. This plant was identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants that has potential for production in the USA (10). Also recognised as a potential new crop for Australia (11).

L. chinense (family Solanaceae) is a deciduous, perennial shrub growing to 2.5 m. It resembles a raspberry bush in form and behaviour, and yields fruit (oblong berries about 15 mm long by 8 mm diameter), two to three years after planting. Yields are enhanced by rigorous pruning. Spacing between plants should be around 1 m within rows. Berries are harvested several times per season, and root bark may be harvested in late autumn or early spring. The fruit are typically dried like raisins and sold in packages in Chinese supermarkets, and have a sweet, aniseed-like flavour. Only the fully ripe fruits should be eaten. Leaves and young shoots can be consumed raw (eg. in salads) or cooked. The roasted seed is a coffee substitute and the dried leaves are a tea substitute. This plant is easily grown and succeeds in impoverished soils. Traditional medicinal administration: 5 to 10 g decocted in water for internal use (ripe fruit), 6 to 15 g decocted in water for an oral dose (dried root bark) (12). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 3.Kim H.P., Kim S.Y., Lee E.J., Kim Y.C. & Kim Y.C. (1997) Zeaxanthin dipalmitate from Lycium chinense has hepatoprotective activity. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol., 97(3): 301-314. 4.Kim S.Y., Lee E.J., Kim H.P., Kim Y.C., Moon A. & Kim Y.C. (1999)A novel cerebroside from lycii fructus preserves the hepatic glutathione redox system in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes. Biol Pharm Bull., 22(8): 873-875. 5.Kim S.Y., Lee E.J., Kim H.P., Lee H.S. & Kim Y.C. (2000) LCC, a cerebroside from Lycium chinense, protects primary cultured rat hepatocytes exposed to galactosamine. Phytother Res., 14(6): 448-451. 6.Chin Y.W., Lim S.W., Kim S.H., Shin D.Y., Suh Y.G., Kim Y.B., Kim Y.C. & Kim J. (2003) Hepatoprotective pyrrole derivatives of Lycium chinense fruits. Bioorg Med Chem Lett., 13(1): 79-81. 7.Ha K.T., Yoon S.J., Choi D.Y., Kim D.W., Kim J.K. & Kim C.H. (2005) Protective effect of Lycium chinense fruit on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity. J Ethnopharmacol., 96(3): 529-535. 8.Lee D.G., Jung H.J. & Woo E.R. (2005) Antimicrobial property of (+)-lyoniresinol-3alpha-O-beta-D- glucopyranoside isolated from the root bark of Lycium chinense Miller against human pathogenic microorganisms. Arch Pharm Res., 28(9): 1031-1036. 9.Lin R.D., Hou W.C., Yen K.Y. & Lee M.H. (2003) Inhibition of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) by Chinese herbal medicines. Phytomedicine, 10(8): 650-656. 10.Craker L.E. & Giblette J. (2002). Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. pp. 491- 496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. 11.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 12.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Lycopodium clavatum (SHAN JIN CAO) common club moss {R11} One of the main components of common club moss is ‘alpha-onocerin’, a well known triterpenoid responsible for acetylcholinesterase inhibiting activity and therefore of therapeutic potential in treatment of Alzheimer's disease (1,2). In earlier work, 46 water and methanol extracts from crude drugs were screened for Flavobacterium prolyl endopeptidase inhibition (3). Extracts from six species, including Lycopodium clavatum showed strong inhibitory activity and may therefore have antiamnesic effects (and cognitive benefits). L. clavatum is also one herbal component of a homeopathic remedy (‘Hepeel’) that has exerted specific antioxidative, antiproliferative and biochemical effects on HepG2 cells, suggesting potential hepatoprotective and tumouristatic action (4). 1.Rollinger J.M., Ewelt J., Seger C., Sturm S., Ellmerer E.P. & Stuppner H. (2005) New insights into the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of Lycopodium clavatum. Planta Med., 71(11): 1040-1043. 82

2.Orhan I., Terzioglu S. & Sener B. (2003) Alpha-onocerin: an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor from Lycopodium clavatum. Planta Med., 69(3): 265-267. 3.Tezuka Y., Fan W., Kasimu R. & Kadota S. (1999) Screening of crude drug extracts for prolyl endopeptidase inhibitory activity. Phytomedicine, 6(3): 197-203. 4.Gebhardt R. (2003) Antioxidative, antiproliferative and biochemical effects in HepG2 cells of a homeopathic remedy and its constituent plant tinctures tested separately or in combination. Arzneimittelforschung., 53(12): 823-830.

Lycopus lucidus (ZE LAN) bugleweed or shiny bugleweed {R9} Phenolic compounds and flavonoids from the aerial parts of Lycopus lucidus have potent antioxidative activity (1). The isolate ‘betulinic acid’ is reported to be a selective inducer of apoptosis in various human cancers, and has shown antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory properties (2). However, most recent research activity (through animal trials) on this plant has focussed on extract inhibition of platelet aggregation and blood coagulation, and promotion of blood circulation (3,4,5,6). 1.Woo E.R. & Piao M.S. (2004) Antioxidative constituents from Lycopus lucidus. Arch Pharm Res., 27(2): 173- 176. 2.Yun Y., Han S., Park E., Yim D., Lee S., Lee C.K., Cho K. & Kim K. (2003) Immunomodulatory activity of betulinic acid by producing pro-inflammatory cytokines and activation of macrophages. Arch Pharm Res., 26(12): 1087-1095. 3.Tian Z., Gao N., Li L., Yu J. & Luo X. (2001) Effect of two extracted fraction from Lycopus lucidus on coagulation function. Zhong Yao Cai., 24(7): 507-508. 4.Shi H.Z., Gao N.N., Li Y.Z., Yu J.G., Fan Q.C. & Bai G.E. (2002) Effects of active fractions from Lycopus lucidus L. F04 on erythrocyte rheology [correction of erythrocyterheology]. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing)., 15(5): 331-334. 5.Shi H.Z., Gao N.N., Li Y.Z., Yu J.G., Fan Q.C. & Bai G.E. (2004) Effects of active fractions from Lycopus lucidus L. F04 on platelet aggregation and thrombus formation. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing)., 17(5): 313-317. 6.Shi H.Z., Gao N.N., Li Y.Z., Yu J.G., Fan Q.C., Bai G.E. & Xin B.M. (2005) Effects of L.F04, the active fraction of Lycopus lucidus, on erythrocytes rheological property. Chin J Integr Med., 11(2): 132-135.

Magnolia denudata (XIN YI or YU LAN) magnolia or lilytree {R6} The antiinflammatory activities of compounds isolated from leaves of Magnolia denudata have been assessed, and one had significant inhibitiory effects on mouse hind-paw oedema induced by carrageenan (1). In Korea, the buds have been successfully used for management of allergic diseases. Recent testing established that extract from the buds induced mitochondria and caspase-dependent mast cell apoptosis, thereby supporting the view that the clinical effects of this plant depend on pharmacological efficacy in regulating mast cell apoptosis (2). 1.Du J., Wang M.L., Chen R.Y. & Yu D.Q. (2001) Chemical constituents from the leaves of Magnolia denudata. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 3(4): 313-319. 2.Kim G.C., Lee S.G., Park B.S., Kim J.Y., Song Y.S., Kim J.M., Yoo K.S., Huh G.Y., Jeong M.H., Lim Y.J., Kim H.M. & Yoo Y.H. (2003) Magnoliae flos induces apoptosis of RBL-2H3 cells via mitochondria and caspase. Int Arch Allergy Immunol., 131(2): 101-110.

Magnolia officinalis (HOU PO) Chinese magnolia {R23} Relevant here for its traditional use in treating asthma (1). Some support from scientific trials (eg. 2,3,4,5). There is also growing evidence that Magnolia officinalis could play an important role in fighting cancer (6,7,8,9,10,11). ‘Honokiol’, a small molecular weight lignan isolated from M. officinalis, showed antiangiogenic, antiinvasive and antiproliferative activities in a variety of cancers (7,10). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Homma M., Oka K., Niitsuma T. & Itoh H. (1994) A novel 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitor contained in saiboku-to, a herbal remedy for steroid-dependent bronchial asthma. J Pharm Pharmacol., 46(4): 305-309. 3.Wang S.M., Lee L.J., Huang Y.T., Chen J.J. & Chen Y.L. (2000) Magnolol stimulates steroidogenesis in rat adrenal cells. Br J Pharmacol., 131(6): 1172-1178. 4.Taniguchi C., Homma M., Takano O., Hirano T., Oka K., Aoyagi Y., Niitsuma T. & Hayashi T. (2000) Pharmacological effects of urinary products obtained after treatment with saiboku-to, a herbal medicine for bronchial asthma, on type IV allergic reaction. Planta Med., 66(7): 607-611. 5.Ko C.H., Chen H.H., Lin Y.R. & Chan M.H. (2003) Inhibition of smooth muscle contraction by magnolol and honokiol in porcine trachea. Planta Med., 69(6): 532-536. 6.Yance D.R. Jr & Sagar S.M. (2006) Targeting angiogenesis with integrative cancer therapies. Integr Cancer Ther., 5(1): 9-29. 7.Tse A.K., Wan C.K., Shen X.L., Yang M. & Fong W.F. (2005) Honokiol inhibits TNF-alpha-stimulated NF- kappaB activation and NF-kappaB-regulated gene expression through suppression of IKK activation. Biochem Pharmacol., 70(10):1443-1457. 83

8.Battle T.E., Arbiser J. & Frank D.A. (2005) The natural product honokiol induces caspase-dependent apoptosis in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) cells. Blood, 106(2): 690-697. 9.Yang S.E., Hsieh M.T., Tsai T.H. & Hsu S.L. (2003) Effector mechanism of magnolol-induced apoptosis in human lung squamous carcinoma CH27 cells. Br J Pharmacol., 138(1): 193-201. 10.Bai X., Cerimele F., Ushio-Fukai M., Waqas M., Campbell P.M., Govindarajan B., Der C.J., Battle T., Frank D.A., Ye K., Murad E., Dubiel W., Soff G. & Arbiser J.L. (2003) Honokiol, a small molecular weight natural product, inhibits angiogenesis in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. J Biol Chem., 278(37): 35501-35507. 11.Ikeda K., Sakai Y. & Nagase H. (2003) Inhibitory effect of magnolol on tumour metastasis in mice. Phytother Res., 17(8): 933-937.

Mallotus repandus {R13} The crude drug ‘Thang-kau-tin’ is used in Taiwan folk medicine to treat rheumatic arthritis and hepatitis (1). It contains the stems and roots of Mallotus repandus and components of three other plant species. Water extracts of these plants showed superoxide radical and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity (1). Another study of water extract of the stem confirmed antiinflammatory activity against animal paw oedema induced by carrageenan (2).

A screening of 129 samples of Formosan plants for antihepatotoxic activity in primary cultured hepatocytes revealed that 19 and 26 plants exhibited more than 50% inhibition against cytotoxicity produced by carbon tetrachloride and D-galactosamine, respectively. M. repandus disclosed significant antihepatotoxic activity in both assay methods (3). 1.Lin J.M., Lin C.C., Chen M.F., Ujiie T. & Takada A. (1995) Studies on Taiwan folk medicine, thang-kau-tin (II): Measurement of active oxygen scavenging activity using an ESR technique. Am J Chin Med., 23(1): 43-51. 2.Lin C.C., Lin J.M. & Chiu H.F. (1992) Studies on folk medicine "thang-kau-tin" from Taiwan. (I). The antiinflammatory and liver-protective effect. Am J Chin Med., 20(1): 37-50. 3.Yang L.L., Yen K.Y., Kiso Y. & Hikino H. (1987) Antihepatotoxic actions of Formosan plant drugs. J Ethnopharmacol., 19(1): 103-110.

Marsdenia tenacissima (TONG GUAN TENG) Rajmahal creeper or Rajmahal hemp {R7} Used as an antiasthmatic (1). A source of polyoxypregnane glycosides (2) and steroidal glycosides (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Deng J., Shen F. & Chen D. (2006) Quantitation of seven polyoxypregnane glycosides in Marsdenia tenacissima using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-evaporative light-scattering detection. J Chromatogr A., 1116(1-2): 83-88. 3.Shen F. & Chen D.F. (2005) Determination of C21 steroidal glycosides in Marsdenia tenacissima by colorimetric method. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 30(22): 1745-1748.

Maytenus hookeri (MEI DENG MU) {R3} This herb is used in the treatment of lung cancer, breast and ovary cancer, acute lympocytic leukaemia, colon carcinoma and kidney carcinoma (1). Contains ‘maytansine’, an alkaloid that seems to possess strong anticancer properties based on animal and in vitro studies (1). Limited recent research. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Melia azedarach (KU LIAN PI) [Myanmar- PAN-TAMAR] China berry, Persian lilac, toosendan, Sichuan pagoda-tree, bead tree, bastard cedar or pride of China {R14} Widely naturalised throughout the world (1). Used traditionally to treat arthritis and diabetes (2). ‘Toosendanin’ from the bark significantly suppressed the proliferation of tested human cancer cell- lines (3). Limonoid compounds from the root bark (4,5) and fruit have also shown inhibitory effects on growth of human cancer cell-lines (6,7,8). Antibacterial and antiviral effects are reported. A large deciduous tree up to 45 m in rainforest but much smaller in open situations (9). Found in central New South Wales to northern Queensland, and the Northern Territory; in rainforest and moist locations near rivers (9). Often planted as an ornamental tree. 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 3.Zhang B., Wang Z.F., Tang M.Z. & Shi YL. (2005) Growth inhibition and apoptosis-induced effect on human cancer cells of toosendanin, a triterpenoid derivative from Chinese traditional medicine. Invest New Drugs, 23(6): 547-553. 4.Takeya K., Quio Z.S., Hirobe C. & Itokawa H. (1996) Cytotoxic trichilin-type limonoids from Melia azedarach. Bioorg Med Chem., 4(8): 1355-1359.

5.Itokawa H., Qiao Z.S., Hirobe C. & Takeya K. (1995) Cytotoxic limonoids and tetranortriterpenoids from Melia azedarach. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 43(7): 1171-1175. 6.Tada K., Takido M. & Kitanaka S. (1999) Limonoids from fruit of Melia toosendan and their cytotoxic activity. Phytochemistry, 51(6): 787-791. 7.Kim H.M., Oh G.T., Han S.B., Hong D.H., Hwang B.Y., Kim Y.H. & Lee J.J. (1994) Comparative studies of adriamycin and 28-deacetyl sendanin on in vitro growth inhibition of human cancer cell lines. Arch Pharm Res., 17(2): 100-103. 8.Zhou H., Hamazaki A., Fontana J.D., Takahashi H., Esumi T., Wandscheer C.B., Tsujimoto H. & Fukuyama Y. (2004) New ring C-seco limonoids from Brazilian Melia azedarach and their cytotoxic activity. J Nat Prod., 67(9): 1544-1547. 9.Lassak E. & McCarthy T. (2001) Australian Medicinal Plants. Pub.- Reed New Holland, JB Books, 240 pp.

Menispermum dauricum (BEI DOU GEN or YE DOU GEN) Asiatic moonseed {R21} A Chinese medicinal herb used to treat asthma (1), hypertension and liver cancer (2). Alkaloids from the roots/rhizomes inhibit blood platelet aggregation (3,4) and also have some cytotoxic activity (5,6). Menispermum dauricum alkaloids also increased myocardial oxygen and coronary flow in dogs (7). Tests on rabbits suggested that the alkaloids might play a protective role in concurrent myocardial- cerebral ischaemia/reperfusion injury (8). 1.Lu Y.M., Frostl W., Dreessen J. & Knopfel T. (1994) P-type calcium channels are blocked by the alkaloid daurisoline. Neuroreport., 5(12): 1489-1492. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Tong L. & Yue T.L. (1989) Effect of dauricine on rat and human platelet aggregation and metabolism of arachidonic acid in washed rat platelets. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 24(2): 85-88. 4.Hu S.M., Xu S.X., Yao X.S., Cui C.B., Tezuka Y. & Kikuchi T. (1993) Dauricoside, a new glycosidal alkaloid having an inhibitory activity against blood-platelet aggregation. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 41(10): 1866-1868. 5.Yu B.W., Meng L.H., Chen J.Y., Zhou T.X., Cheng K.F., Ding J. & Qin GW. (2001) Cytotoxic oxoisoaporphine alkaloids from Menispermum dauricum. J Nat Prod., 64(7): 968-970. 6.Yu B.W., Chen J.Y., Wang Y.P., Cheng K.F., Li X.Y. & Qin G.W. (2002) Alkaloids from Menispermum dauricum. Phytochemistry., 61(4): 439-442. 7.Li Y.Q., Yang X.Y., Zhou S.C. & Gong P.L. (2003) Effects of phenolic alkaloids of Menispermum dauricum on the hemodynamics and coronary circulation in anesthetized dog. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 38(9): 658-660. 8.Wang F., Zhao G., Lu Q., Qu L. & Guo L.J. (2005) Protective effect of phenolic alkaloids from Menispermum dauricum on myocardial cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in rabbits. Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue., 17(3): 154-156.

Metapanax davidii - nothopanax {R3} In traditional Chinese medicine, the bark of this plant is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, fractures and strains (1). The active compounds are glycosides (2,3). While there is some evidence for the medical role of glycosides in treating human ailments, there is a lack of recent scientific literature relating to Metapanax davidii. 1.Yu S.S., Yu D.Q. & Liang X.T. (1995) Triterpenoid saponins from the bark of Nothopanax davidii. Phytochemistry, 38(3): 695-698. 2.Yu S.S. & Xiao Z.Y. (1992) The structures of yiyeliangwanoside III and IV from the bark of Nothopanax davidii (France) Harms. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 27(1): 42-47. 3.Yu S.S. & Xiao Z.Y. (1991) Study on the chemical components from the bark of Nothopanax davidii (Franch) harms. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 26(4): 261-266.

Momordica charantia - bitter melon, bitter gourd, balsam pear or karela Current commercial crop in Australia. The unripe fruit of the bitter melon is edible and has been used extensively in folk medicine as a remedy for diabetes. Animal trials are often supportive, as are conclusions from earlier human experiments (1,2,3,4,5). Some reviewers conclude that the quality of human trials in Momordica charantia research has been low and ultimately the evidence to support its use in treating diabetes is not sufficient (6,7, 8). Other recent work points to more positive findings (9). The truth remains confused and is typified by comments from a recent review (10) – ‘over 100 studies using modern techniques have authenticated its use in diabetes’ and ‘there are few reports available on clinical use of bitter melon in diabetes that have shown promising results’. In summary, bitter melon may have hypoglycaemic effects, but current data are not sufficient to recommend its use in the absence of careful supervision and monitoring (7). 1.Raman A. & Lau C. (1996) Anti-diabetic properties and phytochemistry of Momordica charantia. Phytomed., 2(4): 349-362. 2.Akhtar M. (1982) Trial of Momordica charantia Linn (Karela) powder in patients with maturity-onset diabetes. J Pak Med Assoc., 32(4): 106-107. 3.Leatherdale B.A., Panesar R.K., Singh G., Atkins T.W., Bailey C.J. & Bignell A.H. (1981) Improvement in glucose tolerance due to Momordica charantia (karela). Br Med J (Clin Res Ed)., 282: 1823-1824.

4.Welihinda J., Karunanayake E.H., Sheriff M.H. & Jayasinghe K.S. (1986) Effect of Momordica charantia on the glucose tolerance in maturity onset diabetes. J Ethnopharmacol., 17(3): 277-282. 5.Srivastava Y., Venkatakrishna-Bhatt H., Verma Y. & Venkaiah K. (1993) Antidiabetic and Adaptogenic Properties of Momordica charantia Extract: An Experimental and Clinical Evaluation. Phytotherapy Research, 7: 285-289. 6.Ernst E. (1997) Plants with hypoglycaemic activity in humans. Phytomedicine, 4: 73-78. 7.Ethan Basch W., Gabardi S. & Ulbricht C. (2003) Bitter Melon (Momordica charantia): A Review of Efficacy and Safety. Am J Health-Syst Pharm., 60(4): 356-359. 8.Shekelle P.G., Hardy M., Morton S.C., Coulter I., Venuturupalli S., Favreau J. & Hilton L.K. (2005) Are Ayurvedic herbs for diabetes effective? J Fam Pract., 54(10): 876-886. 9.Tongia A., Tongia S.K. & Dave M. (2004) Phytochemical determination and extraction of Momordica charantia fruit and its hypoglycemic potentiation of oral hypoglycemic drugs in diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Indian J Physiol Pharmacol., 48(2): 241-244. 10.Grover J.K. & Yadav S.P. (2004) Pharmacological actions and potential uses of Momordica charantia: a review. J Ethnopharmacol., 93(1): 123-132.

Monascus purpureus - red yeast {R15} This is traditionally used as a dried, powdered red-yeast-rice which is a fermentation by-product of cooked non-glutinous rice on which red yeast has been grown. A trial in 1999 examined the cholesterol-lowering effects of a proprietary Chinese red-yeast-rice supplement in an American population using a double-blind, placebo-controlled, prospectively randomised 12 week controlled trial at a university research center (1). Eighty-three healthy adult subjects with hyperlipidaemia who were not being treated with lipid-lowering drugs participated. Subjects were treated with red-yeast- rice (2.4 g/day) or placebo and instructed to consume a diet providing 30% of energy from fat, <10% from saturated fat, and <300 mg cholesterol daily. Main outcome measures were total cholesterol, total triacylglycerol, and high-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol measured at weeks 8, 9, 11, and 12. It was found that total cholesterol concentrations decreased significantly between baseline and 8 weeks in the red-yeast-rice treated group compared with the placebo-treated group (1). Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and total triacylglycerol were also reduced with the supplement. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol did not change significantly (1). It was concluded that red-yeast-rice significantly reduced total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and total triacylglycerol concentrations compared with placebo and provided a new, novel, food-based approach to lowering cholesterol in the general population.

Researchers have since determined that one or more ingredients in red-yeast-rice (including monacolin K), inhibit(s) the production of cholesterol by blocking the action of a key enzyme in the liver that is responsible for biosynthesis of cholesterol. By year 2000, monacolin K was a well-recognised prescription drug under the United States Adopted Name ‘lovastatin’ (Mevacor®). In healthy adults who maintained their usual diet, lovastatin produced mean reductions in serum total and LDL cholesterol of 23 to 27% and 35 to 45 %, respectively at dosages of 6.25 to 50 mg twice daily (2). Red yeast provides the same therapeutic profile as lovastatin (2).

In up-to-date research the serum lipid-lowering effect of Monascus purpureus was examined in patients with hyperlipidaemia in a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (3). In all, 79 patients (aged 23-65 years) with a mean baseline low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level of 5.28 mmol/l received a twice daily dose of placebo or M. purpureus rice (600 mg) for eight weeks. At week eight, M. purpureus rice therapy reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 27.7%, total cholesterol by 21.5%, triglycerides by 15.8% and apolipoprotein B by 26.0% (3). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein A-I levels were increased by 0.9 and 3.4% respectively (not significant). It was concluded that M. purpureus rice significantly reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol, triglycerides and apolipoprotein B levels, and was well tolerated in patients with hyperlipidaemia. However, this study only provided data from an eight week trial and the authors suggest that long-term safety and efficacy data are still needed (3). 1.Heber D., Yip I., Ashley J.M., Ashley J.M., Elashoff D.A., Elashoff R.M. & Vay Liang W. Go (1999) Cholesterol-lowering effects of a proprietary Chinese red-yeast-rice dietary supplement. Am J Clin Nutr., 69: 231-236. 2.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Pub.- Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 3.Lin C.C., Li T.C. & Lai M.M. (2005) Efficacy and safety of Monascus purpureus Went rice in subjects with hyperlipidemia. Eur J Endocrinol., 153(5): 679-686.

Morinda citrifolia [Malaysia- NONI, Myanmar- YEYO] Indian mulberry or ko-on-je-rung {R27} This evergreen, small tree is native to many countries in the Indo-Pacific region, including tropical northern Australia and is reported to have a broad range of therapeutic effects, including antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antitumour, antihelmin, analgesic, hypotensive, antiinflammatory and immune enhancing (1). It has been used in Polynesian traditional medicine for over 2000 years (1) and in the mid-1990s was known worldwide as ‘Hawaiian magic fruit’ and the ‘Hawaiian miracle medicine’ (2). There are a number of Morinda citrifolia products sold in the market as ‘Noni’ preparations; these include juices, health tonics, applications for skin related problems, cuts and bruises (2).

This species has been relatively well investigated in recent years, although as is common with many traditional herbal remedies there is a lack of human clinical research to support claims. The primary active components appear to be glycosides that are present both in the fruit (3) and leaves (4). These could contribute to cancer prevention. Antioxidative activities of some noni compounds have been demonstrated (4,5). Based on in vitro experiments and laboratory animal tests, one study concluded that a noni drink did prevent carcinogen-DNA adduct formation and had antioxidant activity comparable to the effects of vitamin C and grape seed powder (6).

The fruit juice contains a polysaccharide-rich substance with antitumour activity in the Lewis lung peritoneal carcinomatosis model (7). An immunomodulatory polysaccharide-rich substance from the fruit juice has also been found to possess both prophylactic and therapeutic potentials against the immunomodulator sensitive Sarcoma 180 tumour system (8); with the antitumour activity of noni extract producing a cure rate of 25% to 45% in allogeneic mice (8).

Use of this plant as an antiinflammatory agent in Australian aboriginal medicine and traditional Chinese medicine has been supported by recent Australian research findings (9). Potential for Australian commercial production was recognised several years ago (10) and Queensland plantings have been established. 1.Wang M.Y., West B.J., Jensen C.J., Nowicki D., Su C., Palu A.K. & Anderson G. (2002) Morinda citrifolia (Noni): a literature review and recent advances in Noni research. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 23(12): 1127-1141. 2.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 3.Wang M., Kikuzaki H., Jin Y., Nakatani N., Zhu N., Csiszar K., Boyd C., Rosen R.T., Ghai G. & Ho C.T. (2000) Novel glycosides from noni (Morinda citrifolia). J Nat Prod., 63(8): 1182-1183. 4.Sang S., Cheng X., Zhu N., Stark R.E., Badmaev V., Ghai G., Rosen R.T. & Ho C.T. (2001) Flavonol glycosides and novel iridoid glycoside from the leaves of Morinda citrifolia. J Agric Food Chem., 49(9): 4478-4481. 5.Su B.N., Pawlus A.D., Jung H.A., Keller W.J., McLaughlin J.L. & Kinghorn A.D. (2005) Chemical constituents of the fruits of Morinda citrifolia (Noni) and their antioxidant activity. J Nat Prod., 68(4): 592-595. 6.Wang M.Y. & Su C. (2001) Cancer preventive effect of Morinda citrifolia (Noni). Ann N Y Acad Sci., 952: 161-168. 7.Hirazumi A. & Furusawa E. (1999) An immunomodulatory polysaccharide-rich substance from the fruit juice of Morinda citrifolia (noni) with antitumour activity. Phytother Res., 13(5): 380-387. 8.Furusawa E., Hirazumi A., Story S. & Jensen J. (2003) Antitumour potential of a polysaccharide-rich substance from the fruit juice of Morinda citrifolia (Noni) on sarcoma 180 ascites tumour in mice. Phytother Res., 17(10): 1158-1164. 9.Li R.W., Myers S.P., Leach D.N., Lin G.D. & Leach G. (2003) A cross-cultural study: anti-inflammatory activity of Australian and Chinese plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(1): 25-32. 10.Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical & industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp.

Morinda officinalis (BA JI TIAN) morinda {R6} The root of Morinda officinalis is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis in traditional Chinese medicine (1). In a recent investigation, an iridoid glycoside ‘monotropein’ from this plant was tested using hot-plate and writhing antinociceptive assays, and carrageenan-induced antiinflammatory assays in mice and rats (1). Pretreatment with monotropein significantly reduced stretching episodes and prolonged action time in mice, and also significantly reduced acute paw oedema of rats caused by carrageenan (1). This antiinflammatory and antinociceptive action of M. officinalis root is reported in additional recent research using animal models (2). Findings from animal trials also support the conclusion that M. officinalis possesses antidepressant (3) and antistress agents (4).

1.Choi J., Lee K.T., Choi M.Y., Nam J.H., Jung H.J., Park S.K. & Park H.J. (2005) Antinociceptive antiinflammatory effect of Monotropein isolated from the root of Morinda officinalis. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(10): 1915-1918. 2.Kim I.T., Park H.J., Nam J.H., Park Y.M., Won J.H., Choi J., Choe B.K. & Lee K.T. (2005) In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of the methanol extract of the roots of Morinda officinalis. J Pharm Pharmacol., 57(5): 607-615. 3.Zhang Z.Q., Yuan L., Yang M., Luo Z.P. & Zhao Y.M. (2002) The effect of Morinda officinalis How, a Chinese traditional medicinal plant, on the DRL 72-s schedule in rats and the forced swimming test in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 72(1-2): 39-43. 4.Li Y.F., Yuan L., Xu Y.K., Yang M., Zhao Y.M. & Luo Z.P. (2001) Antistress effect of oligosaccharides extracted from Morinda officinalis in mice and rats. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 22(12): 1084-1088.

Moringa oleifera [Myanmar- DANT-DA-LUN] drumstick tree or Indian horse-radish {R18} Traditional Myanmar medicinal uses include treatment for asthma, confusion, heart disease and cancer (1). The leaves are a rich source of ‘kaempferol’ (2). A study of 11 plants used in Bangladeshi folk medicine found that Moringa oleifera was only one of three that could be considered as a potential source of anticancer compounds based on animal and in vitro cell tests (3). Research findings (non- human) also suggest possible chemopreventive potential against chemical carcingenesis (4,5). Significant blood glucose lowering (hypoglycaemic) activity has been observed in rats (6). In Africa, the traditional use is for rheumatic and articulary pain, and trials have confirmed that the roots contain antiinflammatory principles (7). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Bajpai M., Pande A., Tewari S.K. & Prakash D. (2005) Phenolic contents and antioxidant activity of some food and medicinal plants. Int J Food Sci Nutr., 56(4): 287-291. 3.Costa-Lotufo L.V., Khan M.T., Ather A., Wilke D.V., Jimenez P.C., Pessoa C., de Moraes M.E. & de Moraes M.O. (2005) Studies of the anticancer potential of plants used in Bangladeshi folk medicine. J Ethnopharmacol., 99(1): 21-30. 4.Bharali R., Tabassum J. & Azad M.R. (2003) Chemomodulatory effect of Moringa oleifera, Lam, on hepatic carcinogen metabolising enzymes, antioxidant parameters and skin papillomagenesis in mice. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev., 4(2): 131-139. 5.Guevara A.P., Vargas C., Sakurai H., Fujiwara Y., Hashimoto K., Maoka T., Kozuka M., Ito Y., Tokuda H. & Nishino H. (1999) An antitumor promoter from Moringa oleifera Lam. Mutat Res., 440(2): 181-188. 6.Kar A., Choudhary B.K. & Bandyopadhyay N.G. (2003) Comparative evaluation of hypoglycaemic activity of some Indian medicinal plants in alloxan diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 84(1): 105-108. 7.Ndiaye M., Dieye A.M., Mariko F., Tall A., Sall Diallo A. & Faye B. (2002) Contribution to the study of the anti-inflammatory activity of Moringa oleifera (moringaceae). Dakar Med., 47(2): 210-212.

Morus alba (SANG) white mulberry {R11} Traditional practitioners use Morus alba for asthma, rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis and hypertension (1,2,3). Recent data suggests that antioxidants from this plant may be useful in the protection of cardiotoxicity in patients who receive ‘doxorubicin’ (an anticancer drug) (4). In another recent study, the hypoglycaemic activity of the flavonoid rich fraction of 70% alcohol extract of M. alba root bark was evaluated after feeding to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (5). Administration of the extract for 10 days significantly reduced the glucose amount from control level to a lower level, and significantly increased the insulin level from control.

Although native to China, this species is widely cultivated in temperate regions, naturalised in tropical and Southern Africa, United States and South America (6). Commercial production in Australia is unlikely to be economically advantageous. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Yamatake Y., Shibata M. & Nagai M. (1976) Pharmacological studies on root bark of mulberry tree (Morus alba L.) Jpn J Pharmacol., 26(4): 461-469. 4.Wattanapitayakul S.K., Chularojmontri L., Herunsalee A., Charuchongkolwongse S., Niumsakul S. & Bauer J.A. (2005) Screening of antioxidants from medicinal plants for cardioprotective effect against doxorubicin toxicity. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol., 96(1): 80-87. 5.Singab A.N., El-Beshbishy H.A., Yonekawa M., Nomura T. & Fukai T. (2005) Hypoglycemic effect of Egyptian Morus alba root bark extract: effect on diabetes and lipid peroxidation of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 100(3): 333-338. 6.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Mucuna birdwoodiana (JI XUE TENG) {R2} The dried stem has been traditionally used to promote blood circulation, to reduce pain in the waist and knees, alleviate numbness in the extremities and reduce arthralgia (1). However, very little knowledge of this usage is documented in the scientific literature. Nonetheless, this species may have importance in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (a neurodegenerative disease). One of the therapeutic approaches to this disease is to increase the concentration of dopamine precursor by administering L-DOPA. This compound is found in various species of bean, notably Mucuna spp., in sufficient concentrations to make their growing and harvesting economically worthwhile, although the drug is now mainly obtained by synthesis (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Houghton P. (2005) Use of medicinal plants in CNS disorders, pp. 353-382. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.), ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp.

Murraya paniculata (JIU LI XIANG) Chinese box, kemuning, cosmetic bark tree or jasmine orange {R14} Used in traditional Chinese medicine and native to India, southern China, Malaysia and Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia) (1). In Queensland, it is a popular ornamental but also a weed. Contains immunoreactive isoflavonoids (1) and has possible antifertility actions (2). 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Lapcik O., Klejdus B., Davidova M., Kokoska L., Kuban V. & Moravcova J. (2004) Isoflavonoids in the Rutaceae family: 1. Fortunella obovata, Murraya paniculata and four Citrus species. Phytochem Anal., 15(5): 293-299. 3.Pei Gen X. & Nai Gong W. (1991) Can ethnopharmacology contribute to the development of anti-fertility drugs? J Ethnopharmacol., 32(1-3): 167-177.

Myrica rubra (YANG MEI) red bayberry {R12} Focus of recent Australian research (1) with trial plantings proposed. Fruit extracts containing anthocyanins and flavonols have displayed free radical scavenging activity (2). In vitro testing has revealed some anticancer activity (3,4,5). 1.Joyce D., Tahir Khurshid, Shiming Liu, McGregor G., Jianrong Li & Yueming Jiang (2005) Red bayberry - a new and exciting crop for Australia? Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Pub. No. 05/081, 26 pp. 2.Bao J., Cai Y., Sun M., Wang G. & Corke H. (2005) Anthocyanins, flavonols, and free radical scavenging activity of Chinese bayberry (Myrica rubra) extracts and their color properties and stability. J Agric Food Chem., 53(6): 2327-2332. 3.Kuo P.L., Hsu Y.L., Lin T.C., Lin L.T. & Lin C.C. (2004) Induction of apoptosis in human breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cells by prodelphinidin B-2 3,3'-di-O-gallate from Myrica rubra via Fas-mediated pathway. J Pharm Pharmacol., 56(11): 1399-1406. 4.Kuo P.L., Hsu Y.L., Lin T.C. & Lin C.C. (2004) Prodelphinidin B-2 3,3'-di-O-gallate from Myrica rubra inhibits proliferation of A549 carcinoma cells via blocking cell cycle progression and inducing apoptosis. Eur J Pharmacol., 501(1-3): 41-48. 5.Yang L.L., Chang C.C., Chen L.G. & Wang C.C. (2003) Antitumor principle constituents of Myrica rubra Var. acuminata. J Agric Food Chem., 51(10): 2974-2979.

Nardostachys chinensis (GAN SONG) Chinese spikenard {R10} Extract repels mosquitoes (1). Nardosinone from Nardostachys chinensis caused marked enhancement of nerve growth factor-mediated neurite outgrowth from PC12D cells (2,3) and may therefore facilitate neurobehavioural activities. 1.Yang Y.C., Lee E.H., Lee H.S., Lee D.K. & Ahn Y.J. (2004) Repellency of aromatic medicinal plant extracts and a steam distillate to Aedes aegypti. J Am Mosq Control Assoc., 20(2): 146-149. 2.Li P., Matsunaga K., Yamamoto K., Yoshikawa R., Kawashima K. & Ohizumi Y. (1999) Nardosinone, a novel enhancer of nerve growth factor in neurite outgrowth from PC12D cells. Neurosci Lett., 273(1): 53-56. 3.Li P., Yamakuni T., Matsunaga K., Kondo S. & Ohizumi Y. (2003) Nardosinone enhances nerve growth factor- induced neurite outgrowth in a mitogen-activated protein kinase- and protein kinase C-dependent manner in PC12D cells. J Pharmacol Sci., 93(1): 122-125.

Nelumbo nucifera (LIAN) lotus Current commercial crop in Australia. Has been the subject of considerable research by RIRDC. Traditionally used as an antihypertensive (1). Commonly used as an antiaging food in China (2). In recent work, the antiobesity effect of Nelumbo nucifera leaf extract was examined in mice (3). The extract impaired digestion, inhibited absorption of lipids and carbohydrates, accelerated lipid metabolism and up-regulated energy expenditure. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Yi Dang (2005) Antiaging properties of Asian functional foods: a histroical topic closely linked to longevity, pp. 120-144. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & Shahidi F. (Eds.) ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp. 3.Ono Y., Hattori E., Fukaya Y., Imai S. & Ohizumi Y. (2006) Anti-obesity effect of Nelumbo nucifera leaves extract in mice and rats. J. Ethnopharmacol., 106(2): 238-244.

Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (HU HUANG LIAN) picrorhiza {R9} Rich in glycosides (1,2) with possible antioxidative effects (3). Possible nerve growth factor- potentiating activity (4). 1.Kim I.H., Kaneko N., Uchiyama N., Lee J.E., Takeya K., Kawahara N. & Goda Y. (2006) Two phenylpropanoid glycosides from Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 54(2): 275-277. 2.Wang H., Ye W.C., Xiong F. & Zhao S.X. (2004) Phenylethanoid glycosides from root of Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(6): 531-534. 3.Wang H., Sun Y., Ye W.C., Xiong F., Wu J.J., Yang C.H. & Zhao S.X. (2004) Antioxidative phenylethanoid and phenolic glycosides from Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 52(5): 615-617. 4.Li P., Matsunaga K. & Ohizumi Y. (1999) Enhancement of the nerve growth factor-mediated neurite outgrowth from PC12D cells by Chinese and Paraguayan medicinal plants. Biol Pharm Bull., 22(7): 752-755.

Nerium oleander (JIA ZHU TAO) oleander, rose bay or rose-laurel {R4} The active principle is the glycoside ‘oleandrin’ which can increase myocardial contractility, slow the heart rate and increase stroke volume (1). Used to treat congestive heart failure in China but case reports do not indicate that the benefits are better than those of digitalis (1,2). Extracts from this species have attracted more recent interest in antitumour research (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 3.Smith J.A., Madden T., Vijjeswarapu M. & Newman R.A. (2001) Inhibition of export of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) from the prostate cancer cell lines PC3 and DU145 by Anvirzel and its cardiac glycoside component, oleandrin. Biochem Pharmacol., 62(4): 469-472.

Notopterygium forbesii (QIANG HUO) notopterygium {R5} Notopterygium forbesii can antagonise heart arrhythmia induced by aconitine and was at one time proposed as an antiarrhythmic drug (1). 1.Zhu X. & Chu R. (1990) A comparison of anti-arrhythmic effects of four kinds of rhizoma seu radix Nomopterygii. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 15(6): 366-8, 385.

Notopterygium incisum (QIANG HUO) notopterygium {R8} Notopterygium incisum can antagonise heart arrhythmia induced by aconitine and prolong ventricular vibration induced by CaCl2 (1). Thus it was once proposed as a possible antiarrhythmic drug (1). 1.Zhu X. & Chu R. (1990) A comparison of anti-arrhythmic effects of four kinds of rhizoma seu radix Nomopterygii. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 15(6): 366-8, 385.

Ocimum basilicum [Myanmar- PIN PWA] basil, common basil or sweet basil Current commercial crop in Australia. Recent work using an aqueous extract of Ocimum basilicum established that it inhibited platelet aggregation and resulted in an antithrombotic effect in rats (1). 1.Tohti I., Tursun M., Umar A., Turdi S., Imin H. & Moore N. (2006) Aqueous extracts of Ocimum basilicum L. (sweet basil) decrease platelet aggregation induced by ADP and thrombin in vitro and rats arterio-venous shunt thrombosis in vivo. Thromb Res ., 2006 Feb 7; [Epub ahead of print].

Ocimum tenuiflorum - Holy basil or sacred basil {R14} Native to India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. Research has shown that this species is a powerful antioxidant and has antiinflammatory properties. Its antiinflammatory activity is as effective as some commercial drugs such as aspirin and ibuprofen but without the side-effects of some commercial drugs (1). Ocimum tenuiflorum is traditionally used to treat diabetes (2). In a study

published in 1996, O. tenuiflorum was found to have the ability to lower blood glucose levels in non- insulin dependent diabetic patients, and it could also protect the pancreatic cells that produce insulin (3). Extracts from the leaves also showed good activity against three methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains (4). Current commercial crop in Australia; the leaves are most commonly stir-fried. 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Grover J.K., Yadav S. & Vats V. (2002) Medicinal plants of India with anti-diabetic potential. J Ethnopharmacol., 81(1): 81-100. 3.Agrawal P., Rai V. & Singh R.B. (1996) Randomized placebo-controlled, single blind trial of holy basil leaves in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther., 34(9): 406-409. 4.Aqil F., Khan M.S., Owais M. & Ahmad I. (2005) Effect of certain bioactive plant extracts on clinical isolates of beta-lactamase producing methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Basic Microbiol., 45(2): 106-114.

Oenanthe javanica - water dropwort, Javan water dropwort, Chinese celery or Indian pennywort {R12} Since ancient times this plant has been widely cultivated in China. The Department of Food Science and Technology in South Korea recently reported that it has antihypertensive properties and is suitably used as an additive in nutraceutical drink products (1). Oenanthe javanica injections were found to significantly antagonise heart arrhythmias induced in rats and decreased rates of ventricular fibrillation and death (2). A study which injected diabetic mice with O. javanica flavone determined that it possessed hypoglycaemic and hypotriglyceride actions (3).

This plant which is a member of the celery family (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) is a native to Queensland (4) and has been previously identified as a potential new crop for Australia (5). O. javanica is a perennial herb with creeping stolons that produce ascending stems to 100 cm (1). Its natural habitat is warm, wet swampy areas. It requires wet soil and can grow in water. The tender shoots and young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. Leaves are also used as a seasoning in soups. Flavour is carrot- or parsley-like. Young shoots that sprout from the root in winter are best; the root is also edible. O. javanica is cultivated as a minor vegetable in many parts of the world. 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Ji G., Yao X., Zang Z. & Huang Z. (1990) Antiarrhythmic effect of Oenanthe javanica (Bl.) DC. Injection. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 15(7): 429-31, 448. 3.Yang X.B., Huang Z.M., Cao W.B., Zheng M., Chen H.Y. & Zhang J.Z. (2000) Antidiabetic effect of Oenanthe javanica flavone. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 21(3): 239-242. 4.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 5.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm

Oldenlandia diffusa (BAI HUA SHE SHE CAO) hedyotis {R23} A common weed in China (1) that is used for its anticancer activity (2). Good evidence exists from animal/in vitro studies to indicate that extracts from this plant have strong antitumour effects (eg. 3,4,5,6). 1.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Yu HsuehChiu, Suzuki S., Okubo T., Kawashima I., Tsuda M., Borai N.E., Yamamura M. & Yu H.C. (2000) Anti-tumor effect of Chinese herbal medicines "Scutellaria barbata and Oldenlandia diffusa" on cancer cell lines and C3H-AVy mouse with spontaneous hepatocellular carcinoma. J of Traditional Medicines, 17: 165-169. 4.Gupta S., Zhang D., Yi J. & Shao J. (2004) Anticancer activities of Oldenlandia diffusa. J Herb Pharmacother., 4(1): 21-33. 5.Shan B.E., Zhang J.Y. & Du X.N. (2001) Immunomodulatory activity and anti-tumor activity of Oldenlandia diffusa in vitro. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 21(5): 370-374. 6.Wong B.Y., Lau B.H., Jia T.Y. & Wan C.P. (1996) Oldenlandia diffusa and Scutellaria barbata augment macrophage oxidative burst and inhibit tumor growth. Cancer Biother Radiopharm., 11(1): 51-56.

Ophiopogon japonicus (MAI DONG) dwarf lilyturf, mondograss, ophiopogon or snake's beard {R25} Commonly grown as an ornamental in the West, including Australia. Ophiopogon japonicus is used in China for treating heart disease. Clinical trials on 101 patients with angina showed a 74 to 78% effective response rate to this herb (1). Cardioprotective effects have also been demonstrated in animal studies (2,3,4,5,6).

Shengmai San, a traditional Chinese herbal medicine including O. japonicus showed potential in both preventive and therapeutic usages for cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury in rat trials (7,8). Another study on rats with induced amnesia concluded that O. japonicus possessed cognition-enhancing activities and antiamnestic effects (9).

Recent research investigated antiinflammatory effects of the aqueous extract from O. japonicus in mouse and rat models (10). Results demonstrated that the extract possessed remarkable antiinflammatory activity and ‘ruscogenin’ and ‘ophiopogonin D’ were two of its active components. Traditional use in the treatment of various diseases associated with inflammation was seen to be supported by these findings (10). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Chen M., Yang Z.W., Zhu J.T., Xiao Z.Y. & Xiao R. (1990) Anti-arrhythmic effects and electrophysiological properties of Ophiopogon total saponins. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao., 11(2): 161-165. 3.Wang Q.J., Lu W.W., Lu H., Liu F., Yang S.J., Hua Y.Q. & Ji S.X. (2003) Protective effect of qi dong yi xin on acute myocardial infarction in dogs. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(5): 449-452. 4.Tao J., Wang H., Zhou H. & Li S. (2005) The saponin monomer of dwarf lilyturf tuber, DT-13, reduces L-type calcium currents during hypoxia in adult rat ventricular myocytes. Life Sci., 77(24): 3021-3030. 5.Kou J., Yu B. & Xu Q. (2005) Inhibitory effects of ethanol extract from Radix Ophiopogon japonicus on venous thrombosis linked with its endothelium-protective and anti-adhesive activities. Vascul Pharmacol., 43(3): 157-163. 6.Tao J., Wang H., Chen J., Xu H. & Li S. (2005) Effects of saponin monomer 13 of dwarf lilyturf tuber on L- type calcium currents in adult rat ventricular myocytes. Am J Chin Med., 33(5): 797-806. 7.Xuejiang W., Magara T. & Konishi T. (1999) Prevention and repair of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury by Chinese herbal medicine, shengmai san, in rats. Free Radic Res., 31(5): 449-455. 8.Ichikawa H., Wang X. & Konishi T. (2003) Role of component herbs in antioxidant activity of shengmai san - a traditional Chinese medicine formula preventing cerebral oxidative damage in rat. Am J Chin Med., 31(4): 509- 521. 9.Lin Y.C., Wu C.R., Lin C.J. & Hsieh M.T. (2003) The ameliorating effects of cognition-enhancing Chinese herbs on scopolamine- and MK-801-induced amnesia in rats. Am J Chin Med., 31(4): 543-549. 10.Kou J., Sun Y., Lin Y., Cheng Z., Zheng W., Yu B. & Xu Q. (2005) Anti-inflammatory activities of aqueous extract from Radix Ophiopogon japonicus and its two constituents. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(7): 1234-1238.

Oroxylum indicum [Myanmar- KYAUNG-SHA, Malaysia- KAMPONG] oroxylum, Indian trumpet flower or midnight horror {R7} This plant is used in Asian folk medicine for heart diseases, abdominal tumours and asthma (1). Most of the available scientific literature has focussed on potential anticancer properties. One study evaluated the anticancer potential of 11 plants used in Bangladeshi folk medicine and found that Oroxylum indicum showed the highest toxicity on all tested tumour cell-lines (2). Extracts from this plant have also shown antiproliferation activity on breast cancer cell-lines (3). In other work, the antimutagenic activity against Trp-P-1 of methanolic extracts of 118 samples (108 species) of edible Thai plants was examined by the Ames Test (4). Five plants, including O. indicum, exhibited significant activity with antimutagenic ED90 values lower than 5 microL/plate (0.1 mg of dry plant material equivalent). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Costa Lotufo L.V., Khan M.T., Ather A., Wilke D.V., Jimenez P.C., Pessoa C., de Moraes M.E. & de Moraes M.O. (2005) Studies of the anticancer potential of plants used in Bangladeshi folk medicine. J Ethnopharmacol., 99(1): 21-30. 3.Lambertini E., Piva R., Khan M.T., Lampronti I., Bianchi N., Borgatti M. & Gambari R. (2004) Effects of extracts from Bangladeshi medicinal plants on in vitro proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines and expression of estrogen receptor alpha gene. Int J Oncol., 24(2): 419-423. 4.Nakahara K., Trakoontivakorn G., Alzoreky N.S., Ono H., Onishi-Kameyama M. & Yoshida M. (2002) Antimutagenicity of some edible Thai plants, and a bioactive carbazole alkaloid, mahanine, isolated from Micromelum minutum. J Agric Food Chem., 50(17): 4796-4802.

Orthosiphon aristatus [Indonesia- KUMIS KUCING] Java tea or cat’s whiskers {R6} Distributed naturally through India, Indonesia, Malaysia and parts of tropical Australia (Queensland), and a popular garden plant (1,2). The dried leaves were exported to Europe in 1886, and soon became a popular herbal tea in Europe (2). Used for the blood circulatory system, diabetes, rheumatism, as a diuretic, and to treat bacterial infections and inflammations of the urinary tract (2).

Research has shown that aqueous extracts of Orthosiphon aristatus exhibited considerable antibacterial activity against Streptococcus mutans (3). Antihypertensive properties have been demonstrated for rats (4,5). Chinese traditional use in renal disease has some support (6). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 3.Chen C.P., Lin C.C. & Namba T. (1989) Screening of Taiwanese crude drugs for antibacterial activity against Streptococcus mutans. J Ethnopharmacol., 27(3): 285-295. 4.Ohashi K., Bohgaki T. & Shibuya H. (2000) Antihypertensive substance in the leaves of kumis kucing (Orthosiphon aristatus) in Java Island. Yakugaku Zasshi., 120(5): 474-482. 5.Matsubara T., Bohgaki T., Watarai M., Suzuki H., Ohashi K. & Shibuya H. (1999) Antihypertensive actions of methylripariochromene A from Orthosiphon aristatus, an Indonesian traditional medicinal plant. Biol Pharm Bull., 22(10): 1083-1088. 6.Yoshimura H., Sugawara K., Saito M., Saito S., Murakami S., Miyata N., Kawashima A., Morimoto S., Gao N., Zhang X. & Yang J. (2003) In vitro TGF-beta1 antagonistic activity of ursolic and oleanolic acids isolated from Clerodendranthus spicatus. Planta Med., 69(7): 673-675.

Paederia foetida [India- GANDHAVADULIA, GANDHALI] lesser Malayan stinkwort, Chinese moon creeper or skunk vine {R6} A traditional remedy for rheumatism (1). Results from in vitro and animal trials have indicated that there is some rationale behind the ethnomedical use of Paederia foetida for treating inflammatory disorders (2). Possible noxious weed/invasive species (3). 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.De S., Ravishankar B. & Bhavsar G.C. (1994) Investigation of the anti-inflammatory effects of Paederia foetida. J Ethnopharmacol., 43(1): 31-38. 3.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Paeonia lactiflora (BAI SHAO) Chinese p(a)eony or common garden p(a)eony {R22} Antiinflammatory, antioxidative, antihepatic injury and immunoregulatory activities of the total glucosides of Paeonia lactiflora root have been extensively proven for many years (1). The antiinflammatory effects of the total glucosides of paeony have been recently demonstrated in rat trials (2). JCICM-6, an antiarthritic herbal formula including P. lactiflora was examined in regards to reducing experimentally-induced inflammation using nine animal models (3). Results indicated that JCICM-6 possessed significant antiinflammatory and analgesic effects, which implies that it would be a potential candidate for further investigation as a new antiarthritic botanical drug for humans.

P. lactiflora is also used in humans as a cognition enhancer (4). The effects of ‘paeoniflorin’ isolated from peony were examined in aging-induced learning deficit in rats (5). Daily administration of paeoniflorin significantly attenuated learning impairment in aged rats, whereas it did not affect the learning in young rats. These data indicate the therapeutic potential of paeoniflorin in the treatment of senile dementia and aging-induced cognitive dysfunction (5). How paeoniflorin influences neuronal and neuroendocrine function has been recently investigated in rodent cells (6).

Extracts from P. lactiflora are used as a muscle relaxant and have been successful in treating angina (1). Paeonia, ginseng and Stevia rebaudiana were used to treat angina with a 93% success rate in symptoms, a 53% improvement in ECG and significant improvement in microcirculation (1). Components from the roots exhibited an endothelium-dependent vasodilator effect on isolated rat aorta (7). Intravenous injection of paeoniflorin reversed guanethidine-induced hypotension in rats (8).

Paeoniflorin has shown a lowering effect on cholesterol levels in experimentally-induced hyperlipidaemic rats (9). Paeoniflorin significantly lowered total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein and triglyceride levels compared with a control group.

Paeoniflorin and 8-debenzoylpaeoniflorin from the dried root produced a significant blood sugar lowering effect in streptozotocin-treated rats (10). Plasma insulin was not changed in paeoniflorin- treated normoglycaemic rats indicating an insulin-independent action. Also, this glucoside reduced the elevation of blood sugar in glucose challenged rats. Increase of glucose utilisation by paeoniflorin can thus be considered (10).

Potential for Australian production as a medicinal herb (11); currently produced as an ornamental. 1.Liu D.F., Wei W. & Song L.H. (2006) Protective effect of paeoniflorin on immunological liver injury induced by bacillus Calmette-Guerin plus lipopolysaccharide: modulation of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin- 6 MRNA. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol., 33(4): 332-339. 2.Zheng Y.Q. & Wei W. (2005) Total glucosides of paeony suppresses adjuvant arthritis in rats and intervenes cytokine-signaling between different types of synoviocytes. Int Immunopharmacol., 5(10): 1560-1573. 3.Zhou H., Wong Y.F., Cai X., Liu Z.Q., Jiang Z.H., Bian Z.X., Xu H.X. & Liu L. (2006) Suppressive effects of JCICM-6, the extract of an anti-arthritic herbal formula, on the experimental inflammatory and nociceptive models in rodents. Biol Pharm Bull., 29(2): 253-260. 4.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 5.Ohta H., Matsumoto K., Shimizu M. & Watanabe H.P (1994) aeoniflorin attenuates learning impairment of aged rats in operant brightness discrimination task. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 49(1): 213-217. 6.Tsai T.Y., Wu S.N., Liu Y.C., Wu A.Z. & Tsai Y.C. (2005) Inhibitory action of L-type Ca2+ current by paeoniflorin, a major constituent of peony root, in NG108-15 neuronal cells. Eur J Pharmacol., 523(1-3): 16-24. 7.Goto H., Shimada Y., Akechi Y., Kohta K., Hattori M. & Terasawa K. (1996) Endothelium-dependent vasodilator effect of extract prepared from the roots of Paeonia lactiflora on isolated rat aorta. Planta Med., 62(5): 436-439. 8.Cheng J.T., Wang C.J. & Hsu F.L. (1999) Paeoniflorin reverses guanethidine-induced hypotension via activation of central adenosine A1 receptors in Wistar rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol., 26(10): 815-816. 9.Yang H.O., Ko W.K., Kim J.Y. & Ro H.S. (2004) Paeoniflorin: an antihyperlipidemic agent from Paeonia lactiflora. Fitoterapia., 75(1): 45-49. 10.Hsu F.L., Lai C.W. & Cheng J.T. (1997) Antihyperglycemic effects of paeoniflorin and 8- debenzoylpaeoniflorin, glucosides from the root of Paeonia lactiflora. Planta Med., 63(4): 323-325. 11.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Paeonia suffruticosa (MU DAN) tree peony or mountain peony {R25} Small shrub to 1.5 m. Widely cultivated in temperate regions and a popular garden ornament in the West; produced as an ornamental plant in Australia. One of the 11 most important cultivated medicinal plants in China (1). Extracts from this plant have been shown to possess potent in vitro antioxidant (2,3), antimutagenic and antiproliferative (4) effects. Other work showed that 1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O- galloyl-beta-D-glucose (PGG) from the root could protect neuronal cells from oxidative stress via the induction of heme oxygenase-1 gene expression (5). PGG has also been investigated for vasorelaxant and antiinflammatory effects (which link to traditional uses) (6). In vitro results suggested that PGG dilates vascular smooth muscle and suppresses processes of vascular inflammation. 1.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.), ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 2.Liu F. & Ng T.B. (2000) Antioxidative and free radical scavenging activities of selected medicinal herbs. Life Sci., 66(8): 725-735. 3.Lee S.E., Hwang H.J., Ha J.S., Jeong H.S. & Kim J.H. (2003) Screening of medicinal plant extracts for antioxidant activity. Life Sci., 73(2): 167-179. 4.Oh G.S., Pae H.O., Oh H., Hong S.G., Kim I.K., Chai K.Y., Yun Y.G., Kwon T.O. & Chung H.T. (2001) In vitro anti-proliferative effect of 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-beta-D-glucose on human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line, SK-HEP-1 cells. Cancer Lett., 174(1): 17-24. 5.Choi B.M., Kim H.J., Oh G.S., Pae H.O., Oh H., Jeong S., Kwon T.O., Kim Y.M. & Chung H.T. (2002) 1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O-galloyl-beta-D-glucose protects rat neuronal cells (Neuro 2A) from hydrogen peroxide- mediated cell death via the induction of heme oxygenase-1. Neurosci Lett., 328(2): 185-189. 6.Kang D.G., Moon M.K., Choi D.H., Lee J.K., Kwon T.O. & Lee H.S. (2005) Vasodilatory and antiinflammatory effects of the 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-beta-D-glucose (PGG) via a nitric oxide-cGMP pathway. Eur J Pharmacol., 524(1-3): 111-119. 7.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Panax ginseng (REN SHEN or GINSENG) Chinese ginseng, Korean ginseng, Asian ginseng or Asiatic ginseng One of the 11 most important cultivated medical plants in China (1). A relatively new commercial crop in the cooler parts of Australia (2). Possibly one of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (3). Chinese or Korean ginseng is a small perennial plant native to the damp woodlands of northern China, Manchuria and Korea. Ginseng is the most famous medicinal plant of China, where it is generally used alone or with other herbs for revitalising properties, especially after illness (3). The mental and physical antifatigue effects of ginseng have been demonstrated in both animal studies and double-blind clinical trials in humans (3). And, in an experimental double-blind study on human patients, ginseng showed tendency to increase simple mental reactions and improved abstract thinking (3). Administration of Chinese ginseng may also inhibit cancer development; there is evidence from at least three human observational studies (4). Antihypertensive activity is also reported (5). 1.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 2.Hosemans C. (2004) Ginseng, pp. 245-250. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Aust. Gov. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. 3.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 4.Huo Hsiung Lee, Hideji Itokawa & Mutsuo Kozuka (2005) Asian Herbal Products: The basis for development of high-quality dietary supplements and new medicines, pp. 21- 72. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & Shahidi F. (Eds.), ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp. 5.Lacaille-Dubois M. (2005) Bioactive saponins from plants: recent developments, pp. 399-428. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp.

Panax notoginseng (SAN QI) notoginseng, sanchi ginseng, tienchi or South China ginseng {R13} One of the 11 most important cultivated medical plants in China (1). This ginseng exerts a major effect on the cardiovascular system. It dilates the coronary vessels and reduces vascular resistance, resulting in increased flow and decreased blood pressure (2). Recent studies have shown that a preparation from this herb can produce a 95.5% improvement in symptoms of angina pectoris and 83% improvement in the electrocardiogram pattern (2). Recognised as a potential new crop for Australia (3). 1.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 2.Huo-Hsiung Lee, Hideji Itokawa & Mutsuo Kozuka (2005) Asian Herbal Products: The basis for development of high-quality dietary supplements and new medicines, pp. 21- 72. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & Shahidi F. (Eds.) ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp. 3.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm

Panax pseudoginseng (SAN QI) pseudoginseng, Himalayan ginseng or Nepal ginseng {R11} This species is primarily used in the treatment of heart disease and circulatory disorders and some support for efficacy comes from animal trials (1). ‘Trilinolein’, a triacylglycerol purified from Panax pseudoginseng is believed to be the myocardial protective agent, and may act through antioxidant activity (2,3). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Chan P., Hong C.Y., Tomlinson B., Chang N.C., Chen J.P., Lee S.T. & Cheng JT. (1997) Myocardial protective effect of trilinolein: an antioxidant isolated from the medicinal plant Panax pseudoginseng. Life Sci., 61(20): 1999-2006. 3.Chan P. & Tomlinson B. (2000) Antioxidant effects of Chinese traditional medicine: focus on trilinolein isolated from the Chinese herb sanchi (Panax pseudoginseng). J Clin Pharmacol., 40(5): 457-461.

Panax zingiberensis (SAN QI) ginger-like san qi or ginger ginseng {R6} This species is seriously threatened in the wild (1). The roots/rhizomes are rich in saponins, and Panax zingiberensis is said to exert a major effect in dilating coronary vessels by reducing vascular resistance, this results in increased coronary flow and a lowering of blood pressure (2). Human studies in treatment of angina pectoris have shown that this herb can produce a 95.5% improvement in symptoms and 83% improvement in ECG pattern; it also lowered blood cholesterol levels (2). ‘Zingibroside R1’ isolated from rhizomes showed some anti-human immunodeficiency virus-1 activity which was found to be superior to that of glycyrrhizin (3). 1.Tran Q.L., Than M.M., Tezuka Y., Banskota A.H., Kouda K., Watanabe H., Zhu S., Komatsu K., Thet M.M., Swe T., Maruyama Y. & Kadota S. (2003) Wild ginseng grows in Myanmar. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 51(6): 679-682. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Hasegawa H., Matsumiya S., Uchiyama M., Kurokawa T., Inouye Y., Kasai R., Ishibashi S. & Yamasaki K. Inhibitory effect of some triterpenoid saponins on glucose transport in tumor cells and its application to in vitro cytotoxic and antiviral activities. Planta Med., 60(3): 240-243.

Patrinia scabiosifolia (BAI JIANG CAO) {R12} Numerous phytochemical studies have examined this species for the basis of its sedative and hypnotic effects used in Chinese traditional medicine (1,2). Patrinia scabiosaefolia has also been suggested for cancer therapy. In a recent study, an ethyl acetate extract of P. scabiosaefolia retarded human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cell growth in vitro by possibly activating the caspase-independent mitochondrial cell death pathway (3). 1.Luo H.C., Cui Y.H., Shen Y.C. & Lou Z.Q. (1986) Clinical observation and pharmacological investigation of the sedative and hypnotic effects of the Chinese drug rhizome and root of Patrinia scabiosaefolia Fisch. J Tradit Chin Med., 6(2): 89-94. 2.Nakanishi T., Tanaka K., Murata H., Somekawa M. & Inada A. (1993) Phytochemical studies of seeds of medicinal plants. III. Ursolic acid and oleanolic acid glycosides from seeds of Patrinia scabiosaefolia Fischer. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 41(1): 183-186. 3.Chiu L.C., Ho T.S., Wong E.Y. & Ooi V.E. (2006) Ethyl acetate extract of Patrinia scabiosaefolia downregulates anti-apoptotic Bcl-2/Bcl-X(L) expression, and induces apoptosis in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells independent of caspase-9 activation. J Ethnopharmacol., 105(1-2): 263-268.

Patrinia villosa (BAI JIANG CAO) patrinia {R8} The flavonoid content of Patrinia villosa has received recent attention (1). This species was one of 10 from 472 which were highly effective against herpes simplex virus (2). Some anti-lipid peroxidation activity has been demonstrated in rats (3). 1.Peng J., Fan G., Chai Y. & Wu Y. (2006) Efficient new method for extraction and isolation of three flavonoids from Patrinia villosa Juss. by supercritical fluid extraction and high-speed counter-current chromatography. J Chromatogr A., 1102(1-2): 44-50. 2.Zheng M. (1990) Experimental study of 472 herbs with antiviral action against the herpes simplex virus. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 10(1): 39-41. 3.Jiang H., Huang X., Yang Y. & Zhang Q. (1997) Studies on the antilipid peroxidation of nine sorts of Chinese herbal medicines with the function of protecting liver. Zhong Yao Cai., 20(12): 624-626.

Perilla frutescens (ZI SU YE) perilla, beefsteak plant or beefsteak mint Current commercial crop in Australia. The leaves and seeds have been consumed since 5000 B.C. (1). Perilla seed oil has a high content of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids which are known to have an inhibitory effect on blood platelet aggregation and anticancer action (1). Perilla oil prevents lipid peroxidation in vivo and has more potent serum cholesterol-lowering ability than safflower oil (1). 1.Fukuda Y. & Nagashima M. (2005) Antioixidative function of seeds and nuts and their traditional oils in the orient, pp. 381- 409. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & Shahidi F. (Eds.), ‘Asian Functional Foods’. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp.

Periploca sepium (GANG LIU or XIANG JIA PI) silk vine {R8} Periploca sepium has traditionally been used in oriental medicine for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (1). Effects of an aqueous extract on human rheumatoid arthritis-derived fibroblast-like cells have been investigated (2). Results supported the view that P. sepium extract is a rich source of growth inhibition and anti-Interleukin-6 production (2). (Interleukin-6 is a proinflammatory cytokine secreted by T cells and macrophages). In the latest relevant work, the immunosuppressive effects of ‘periplocoside E’ (a pregnane glycoside) from P. sepium were investigated in vitro and in vivo (mice) (1). Findings demonstrated that periplocoside E is an immunosuppressive compound which directly inhibits T cell

activation in vitro and in vivo. It was concluded that this herb is appropriate for treatment of T cell- mediated disorders, such as autoimmune diseases (1). Earlier work on silk vine considered antitumour constituents (3). 1.Zhu Y.N., Zhao W.M., Yang Y.F., Liu Q.F., Zhou Y., Tian J., Ni J., Fu Y.F., Zhong X.G., Tang W., Zhou R., He P.L., Li X.Y. & Zuo J.P. (2006) Periplocoside E, an Effective Compound from Periploca sepium Bge, Inhibited T Cell Activation in vitro and in vivo. J Pharmacol Exp Ther., 316(2): 662-669. 2.Tokiwa T., Harada K., Matsumura T. & Tukiyama T. (2004) Oriental medicinal herb, Periploca sepium, extract inhibits growth and IL-6 production of human synovial fibroblast-like cells. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(10): 1691-1693. 3.Itokawa H., Xu J.P. & Takeya K. (1988) Studies on chemical constituents of antitumor fraction from Periploca sepium. V. Structures of new pregnane glycosides, periplocosides J, K, F and O. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 36(11): 4441-4446.

Persicaria orientalis (SHUI HONG HUA) princess feather or polygonum {R4} A native to New South Wales, the Northern Territory and Queensland and widely cultivated and naturalised outside of Australasia and Asia (1). This herb is said to possess anticancer activity (2) although this seems unsupported by accessible scientific literature. 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Persicaria tinctoria (QING DAI) Chinese indigo or polygonum indigo {R15} Persicaria tinctoria is known to have the ability to suppress inflammation. Excessive nitric oxide production by activated macrophages has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases. To clarify the mechanisms of antiinflammatory activities of P. tinctoria, extracts were evaluated in vitro and found to be potential therapeutic modulators of nitric oxide synthesis in various pathological conditions (1). Another study attempted to isolate the active compounds from P. tinctoria based on their inhibitory effects on the production of interferon-gamma, which is a well-known inflammatory cytokine (2). ‘Indirubin’ exerted its inhibitory effects not only on interferon-gamma production by human myelomonocytic HBL-38 cells but also on interferon-gamma and interleukin-6 production by murine splenocytes. When injected intraperitoneally, indirubin significantly inhibited the ear swelling of TNCB-elicited mice, suggesting antiinflammatory effects (2).

‘Tryptanthrin’, a bioactive ingredient of P. tinctoria showed potent cytocidal effects on various human leukaemia cells in vitro (3). Another study on rats found that tryptanthrin had cancer chemopreventive activity (4). Tryptanthrin also potently inhibited induction of hepatocyte growth factor production which has been shown to be involved in malignant cell transformation, and in growth, invasion and metastasis in cancer cells (5).

A water-soluble extract of fermented P. tinctoria called ‘Sukumo’, exhibited potent inhibitory activity against human immunodeficiency virus-1 in vitro (6). 1.Ishihara T., Okura T., Kohno K., Tanimoto T., Ikegami H. & Kurimoto M. (2000) Polygonum tinctorium extract suppresses nitric oxide production by activated macrophages through inhibiting inducible nitric oxide synthase expression. J Ethnopharmacol., 72(1-2): 141-150. 2.Kunikata T., Tatefuji T., Aga H., Iwaki K., Ikeda M. & Kurimoto M. (2000) Indirubin inhibits inflammatory reactions in delayed-type hypersensitivity. Eur J Pharmacol., 410(1): 93-100. 3.Kimoto T., Hino K., Koya-Miyata S., Yamamoto Y., Takeuchi M., Nishizaki Y., Micallef M.J., Ushio S., Iwaki K., Ikeda M. & Kurimoto M. (2001) Cell differentiation and apoptosis of monocytic and promyelocytic leukemia cells (U-937 and HL-60) by tryptanthrin, an active ingredient of Polygonum tinctorium Lour. Pathol Int., 51(5): 315-325. 4.Koya Miyata S., Kimoto T., Micallef M.J., Hino K., Taniguchi M., Ushio S., Iwaki K., Ikeda M. & Kurimoto M. (2001) Prevention of azoxymethane-induced intestinal tumors by a crude ethyl acetate-extract and tryptanthrin extracted from Polygonum tinctorium Lour. Anticancer Res., 21(5): 3295-3300. 5.Motoki T., Takami Y., Yagi Y., Tai A., Yamamoto I. & Gohda E. (2005) Inhibition of hepatocyte growth factor induction in human dermal fibroblasts by tryptanthrin. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(2): 260-266. 6.Zhong Y., Yoshinaka Y., Takeda T., Shimizu N., Yoshizaki S., Inagaki Y., Matsuda S., Honda G., Fujii N. & Yamamoto N. (2005) Highly potent anti-HIV-1 activity isolated from fermented Polygonum tinctorium Aiton. Antiviral Res., 66(2-3): 119-128.

Peucedanum praeruptorum (QIAN HU) hogfennel root {R17} Coumarins from the root have potential roles in improving heart function (1,2), and in combating cancer (3,4). More human trials required. 1.Ji Y. & Rao M.R. (1996) Effects of Peucedanum praeruptorum extractum on blood pressure, left ventricular hypertrophy and hemodynamic changes in left ventricular hypertrophied hypertensive rats. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 16(11): 676-678. 2.Chang T.H., Adachi H., Okuyama T. & Zhang K.Y. (1994) Effects of 3'-angeloyloxy-4'-acetoxy-3',4'- dihydroseselin on myocardial dysfunction after a brief ischemia in anesthetized dogs. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao., 15(5): 388-391. 3.Wu J.Y., Fong W.F., Zhang J.X., Leung C.H., Kwong H.L., Yang M.S., Li D. & Cheung H.Y. (2003) Reversal of multidrug resistance in cancer cells by pyranocoumarins isolated from Radix Peucedani. Eur J Pharmacol., 473(1): 9-17. 4.Zhang J.X., Fong W.F., Wu J.Y., Yang M. & Cheung H.Y. (2003) Pyranocoumarins isolated from Peucedanum praeruptorum as differentiation inducers in human leukemic HL-60 cells. Planta Med., 69(3): 223-229.

Phellodendron amurense (HUANG BAI) Amur corktree {R21} In Chinese medicine, Phellodendron amurense has been used to treat patients suffering from gastroenteritis and abdominal pain. ‘Berberine’ has been identified as a major component in this plant, and it has biological actions including bactericidal activity, anticholera toxin effects and antiinflammatory effects (1). Recent research established that berberine showed antimicrobial activity against all tested strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (2).

More up-to-date work investigating a dietary supplement containing proprietary extracts of Magnolia officinalis and P. amurense considered stress-induced weight gain in healthy, premenopausal female adults (3). This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study found a significant weight gain for the placebo group but no significant weight gain for the group receiving the herbal extracts. The results indicate that obese subjects who eat in response to stress may benefit from taking this dietary supplement. The mechanism of action appeared to be through reduction of cortisol levels and possibly perceived stress, thereby helping participants maintain body weight (3). 1.Uchiyama T., Kamikawa H. & Ogita Z. (1989) Anti-ulcer effect of extract from phellodendri cortex. Yakugaku Zasshi., 109(9): 672-676. 2.Yu H.H., Kim K.J., Cha J.D., Kim H.K., Lee Y.E., Choi N.Y. & You Y.O. (2005) Antimicrobial activity of berberine alone and in combination with ampicillin or oxacillin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Med Food., 8(4): 454-461. 3.Garrison R. & Chambliss W.G. (2006) Effect of a proprietary Magnolia and Phellodendron extract on weight management: a pilot, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Altern Ther Health Med., 12(1): 50-54.

Phyllanthus emblica (YU GAN ZI) [Myanmar- ZIBYU, India- AMLA] emblic, emblic myrobalan, embalic, Eastern gooseberry or Indian gooseberry {R9} Selected medicinal plant extracts were tested for their in vitro antioxidant capacity and cardioprotective effect against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (1). ‘Doxorubicin’ is an important and effective anticancer drug widely used for the treatment of various cancer types but its clinical use is limited by dose-dependent cardiotoxicity possibly brought about by elevated levels of cellular superoxide anion/oxidative stress. Phyllanthus emblica-ethanol showed the highest cardioprotective effect, demonstrating potential usefulness for patients who receive doxorubicin (1). Extracts from P. emblica have inhibited human tumour cell-line proliferation (2,3). 1.Wattanapitayakul S.K., Chularojmontri L., Herunsalee A., Charuchongkolwongse S., Niumsakul S. & Bauer J.A. (2005) Screening of antioxidants from medicinal plants for cardioprotective effect against doxorubicin toxicity. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol., 96(1): 80-87. 2.Khan M.T., Lampronti I., Martello D., Bianchi N., Jabbar S., Choudhuri M.S., Datta B.K. & Gambari R. (2002) Identification of pyrogallol as an antiproliferative compound present in extracts from the medicinal plant Emblica officinalis: effects on in vitro cell growth of human tumor cell lines. Int J Oncol., 21(1): 187-192. 3.Zhang Y.J., Nagao T., Tanaka T., Yang C.R., Okabe H. & Kouno I. (2004) Antiproliferative activity of the main constituents from Phyllanthus emblica. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(2): 251-255.

Phytolacca acinosa (SHANG LU) Indian poke or Indian pokeweed {R14} Phytolacca acinosa polysaccharides significantly augmented the cytotoxicity of murine splenocytes and interleukin-2 activated splenocytes against P815 tumour cells in vitro (1). In related work, the effects of P. acinosa polysaccharides on Sarcoma-180 bearing mice were comparatively investigated and results again confirmed antitumour activity (2).

1.Wang H.B., Chen W.Z., Bao E.J., Zheng Q.Y., Song H.L., Fang J., Xu Y.X. & Chen H.S. (1995) Effects of Phytolacca acinosa polysaccharides I combined with interleukin-2 on the cytotoxicity of murine splenocytes against tumor cells. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 30(6): 401-407. 2.Wang H.B. & Zheng Q.Y. (1997) Effects of Phytolacca acinosa polysaccharides I with different schedules on its antitumor efficiency in tumor bearing mice and production of IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, TNF, CSF activity in normal mice. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol., 19(2): 197-213.

Pinellia ternata (BAN XIA or BANHA) pinellia {R17} There is some evidence to support this plant’s use in combating nausea and vomiting (1). However, claims that it lowers blood cholesterol appear unsubstantiated. Pinellia ternata agglutinin from tubers is a monocot mannose-binding lectin that has gained considerable interest in recent years owing to its clinical use as a preparation against cancer (2). The compound 5alpha,8alpha-epidioxyergosta-6,22- dien-3-ol may be one of the antitumour constituents (3). An antimicrobial cerebroside, ‘pinelloside’, isolated from air-dried tubers showed inhibition of growth of Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans (4). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Lin J., Yao J., Zhou X., Sun X. & Tang K. (2003) Expression and purification of a novel mannose-binding lectin from Pinellia ternata. Mol Biotechnol., 25(3): 215-222. 3.He P., Li S., Wang S.J., Yang Y.C. & Shi J.G. (2005) Study on chemical constituents in rhizome of Pinellia ternata. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 30(9): 671-674. 4.Chen J.H., Cui G.Y., Liu J.Y. & Tan R.X. (2003) Pinelloside, an antimicrobial cerebroside from Pinellia ternata. Phytochemistry, 64(4): 903-906.

Piper kadsura (HAI FENG TENG) kadsura pepper or futo-kazura {R10} Used traditionally for rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosis, muscular contracture and aching knees (1). In an Australian study examining antiinflammatory activities of ethanol extracts from nine vine plants used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammatory conditions, extract activity was evaluated against a panel of key enzymes relating to inflammation (2). Piper kadsura showed inhibitory activity against at least one of these enzymes. Other work has supported the potential usefulness of ‘piperlactum S’ (an alkaloid) from this plant as an antiinflammatory agent (3). Piperlactum S may also help to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis, not only by protecting human low- density lipoproteins and membrane lipids from oxidative modification but also by reducing free radical-induced endothelial injury and/or dysfunction (4). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Li R.W., David Lin G., Myers S.P. & Leach D.N. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese medicinal vine plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(1): 61-67. 3.Chiou W.F., Peng C.H., Chen C.F. & Chou C.J. (2003) Anti-inflammatory properties of piperlactam S: modulation of complement 5a-induced chemotaxis and inflammatory cytokines production in macrophages. Planta Med., 69(1): 9-14. 4.Tsai J.Y., Chou C.J., Chen C.F. & Chiou W.F. (2003) Antioxidant activity of piperlactam S: prevention of copper-induced LDL peroxidation and amelioration of free radical-induced oxidative stress of endothelial cells. Planta Med., 69(1): 3-8.

Piper longum (BI BO) long pepper {R3} Alcoholic extract of the fruits of Piper longum and its component piperine have shown effective immunomodulatory and antitumour activity in cell-line and animal experiments (1,2). 1.Sunila E.S. & Kuttan G. (2004) Immunomodulatory and antitumor activity of Piper longum Linn. and piperine. J Ethnopharmacol., 90(2-3): 339-346. 2.Pradeep C.R. & Kuttan G. (2002) Effect of piperine on the inhibition of lung metastasis induced B16F-10 melanoma cells in mice. Clin Exp Metastasis., 19(8): 703-708.

Piper sarmentosum (JIA JU) pointed pepper {R6} Current commercial crop in Australia. The leaves of this plant have shown high antioxidant activity and are a good source of natural antioxidants (1). Studies have revealed that Piper sarmentosum has considerable antimalarial effects (2). Another trial demonstrated that the water extract of whole P. sarmentosum plant had a hypoglycaemic effect in rats (3). The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Najib Nik A., Rahman N., Furuta T., Kojima S., Takane K. & Ali Mohd M. (1999) Antimalarial activity of extracts of Malaysian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 64(3): 249-254. 3.Peungvicha P., Thirawarapan S.S., Temsiririrkkul R., Watanabe H., Kumar Prasain J. & Kadota S. (1998) Hypoglycemic effect of the water extract of Piper sarmentosum in rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 60(1): 27-32.

Plantago asiatica (CHE QIAN) Asian plantain or Asian psyllium {R11} Plantago asiatica (commonly used as a folk medicine in Taiwan for treating infectious diseases related to the respiratory, urinary and digestive tracts) was investigated for antiviral, cytotoxic and immunomodulatory activities (1). Results showed that the hot water extract possessed significant in vitro inhibitory activity on the proliferation of lymphoma (U937) and carcinoma (bladder, bone, cervix, kidney, lung and stomach) cells and on viral infection (HSV-2 and ADV-11). P. asiatica exhibited dual effects of immunomodulatory activity, enhancing lymphocyte proliferation and secretion of interferon-gamma at low concentrations (< 50 microg/ml), but inhibiting this effect at high concentration (> 50 microg/ml) (1). The study concluded that hot water P. asiatica extracts possessed a broad-spectrum of antileukaemia, anticarcinoma and antiviral activities, as well as activities which modulate cell-mediated immunity. Further investigations to evaluate their clinical application are warranted.

In another investigation, 68 water and methanol extracts from 34 Chinese herbal drugs, most of which are used for inflammatory diseases, were screened for their inhibitory effects on nitric oxide production in vitro (2). Methanol extracts of four, including P. asiatica, showed significant inhibition.

The induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is widely recognised as an effective cellular strategy to counteract a variety of stressful events. Curcumin and caffeic acid phenethyl ester, two naturally occurring phytochemicals that possess antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and anticarcinogenic activities, induce HO-1 in many cell types (3). This suggests that stimulation of HO-1 could partly underlie the beneficial effects exerted by these plant-derived constituents. In a study which examined the ability of additional plant constituents to up-regulate heme oxygenase activity and HO-1 in aortic endothelial cells, ‘rosolic acid’ from the rhizome of P. asiatica dramatically increased HO-1 in a concentration and time dependent manner (3). 1.Chiang L.C., Chiang W., Chang M.Y. & Lin C.C. (2003) In vitro cytotoxic, antiviral and immunomodulatory effects of Plantago major and Plantago asiatica. Am J Chin Med., 31(2): 225-234. 2.Tezuka Y., Irikawa S., Kaneko T., Banskota A.H., Nagaoka T., Xiong Q., Hase K. & Kadota S. (2001) Screening of Chinese herbal drug extracts for inhibitory activity on nitric oxide production and identification of an active compound of Zanthoxylum bungeanum. J Ethnopharmacol., 77(2-3): 209-217. 3.Foresti R., Hoque M., Monti D., Green C.J. & Motterlini R. (2005) Differential activation of heme oxygenase-1 by chalcones and rosolic acid in endothelial cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther., 312(2): 686-693.

Plantago depressa (CHE QIAN) depressed plantain {R3} Investigation of the effects of Plantago depressa extract on the metabolism of glucose and lipids found that it significantly attenuated hyperlipidaemia and hyperglycaemia in diabetic mice, probably due to its effects of antioxidation and amelioration of damaged pancreatic islet (1). 1.Wu F.H., Liang J.Y., Yu P. & Cai S.F. (2005) Studies on the hypoglycemia and lipids regulating effects of Plantago depressa var. montata. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 30(15): 1179-1183.

Platycodon grandiflorus (JIE GENG) balloon-flower or Chinese bell-flower {R22} This species is grown as a garden ornament in the West, is widely naturalised and used in traditional Chinese medicine for a range of health issues. However, research has only begun to reveal some of this plant’s more important potential in the last few years. Saponins isolated from the roots can inhibit adhesion in early atherogenesis (1), and have shown antiinflammatory (2) and antinociceptive (3) effects in rats. Root saponins may also inhibit intestinal absorption of fat (4). In vitro studies of human cancer cells have also shown that Platycodon grandiflorus saponins can inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis (5,6,7). More results from human trials would help put the value of this herb into perspective. 1.Kim J.Y., Kim D.H., Kim H.G., Song G.Y., Chung Y.C., Roh S.H. & Jeong H.G. (2006) Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced expression of adhesion molecules in human endothelial cells by the saponins derived from roots of Platycodon grandiflorum. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol., 210(1-2): 150-156. 2.Kim J.Y., Hwang Y.P., Kim D.H., Han E.H., Chung Y.C., Roh S.H. & Jeong H.G. (2006) Inhibitory effect of the saponins derived from roots of Platycodon grandiflorum on carrageenan-induced inflammation. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 70(4): 858-864. 3.Lacaille-Dubois M. (2005) Bioactive saponins from plants: recent developments, pp. 399-428. In Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 4.Xu B.J., Han L.K., Zheng Y.N., Lee J.H. & Sung C.K. (2005) In vitro inhibitory effect of triterpenoidal saponins from Platycodi Radix on pancreatic lipase. Arch Pharm Res., 28(2): 180-185. 100

5.Kim Y.S., Kim J.S., Choi S.U., Kim J.S., Lee H.S., Roh S.H., Jeong Y.C., Kim Y.K. & Ryu S.Y. (2005) Isolation of a new saponin and cytotoxic effect of saponins from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum on human tumor cell lines. Planta Med., 71(6): 566-568. 6.Park D.I., Lee J.H., Moon S.K., Kim C.H., Lee Y.T., Cheong J., Choi B.T. & Choi Y.H. (2005) Induction of apoptosis and inhibition of telomerase activity by aqueous extract from Platycodon grandiflorum in human lung carcinoma cells. Pharmacol Res., 51(5): 437-443. 7.Kim Y.S., Kim J.S., Choi S.U., Kim J.S., Lee H.S., Roh S.H., Jeong Y.C., Kim Y.K. & Ryu S.Y. (2005) Isolation of a new saponin and cytotoxic effect of saponins from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum on human tumor cell lines. Planta Med., 71(6): 566-568.

Plectranthus barbatus [India- MAKANDI] coleus or forskohlii {R22} This small member of the Lamiaceae (Labiatae) used in Ayurvedic medicine grows as a perennial on the Indian plains and lower Himalayas (1). The labdane diterpenoid, ‘forskolin’, occurs in the root of Plectranthus barbatus and could explain some of the traditional uses of this species (2). Forskolin is a powerful activator of adenylate cyclase in various tissue leading to elevations in cAMP and in the artery this causes relaxation and a resulting lowering of blood pressure (3). In congestive heart failure the possible benefit of forskolin treatment is an indirect increase in force of contraction, and human experimental and human ex vivo studies suggest that administration may be beneficial (1). Forskolin is also a potent platelet aggregation inhibitor, and can assist in bronchodilation and treatment of asthma (3). Animal and human trials have suggested that forskolin may lower intraocular pressure and thus have benefits in preventing onset of glaucoma (3,4). However, the forskolin content in coleus root is typically 0.2 to 0.3%, an amount that may not be sufficient to produce a pharmacological effect; it is therefore recommended to use standardised extracts (3). Previously identified as a potential new crop for Australia (5). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Lukhoba C.W., Simmonds M.S. & Paton A.J. (2006) Plectranthus: A review of ethnobotanical uses. J Ethnopharmacol., 103(1): 1-24. 3.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 4.Caprioli J., Sears M., Bausher L., Gregory D. & Mead A. (1984) Forskolin lowers intraocular pressure by reducing aqueous inflow. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci., 25(3): 268-277. 5.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm

Podophyllum pleianthum (PA JIAO LIAN) bajiaolian {R5} For thousands of years in China this plant has been widely used as a general remedy and for the treatment of snake bite, weakness, condyloma accuminata and lymphadenopathy (1). It possesses some anticancer activity (1,2). However, one of the main ingredients (podophyllotoxin) has been linked to poisonings (2,3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Kao W.F., Hung D.Z., Tsai W.J., Lin K.P. & Deng J.F. (1992) Podophyllotoxin intoxication: toxic effect of Bajiaolian in herbal therapeutics. Hum Exp Toxicol., 11(6): 480-487. 3.Carles M., Cheung M.K., Moganti S., Dong T.T., Tsim K.W., Ip N.Y. & Sucher N.J. (2005) A DNA microarray for the authentication of toxic traditional Chinese medicinal plants. Planta Med., 71(6): 580-584.

Pogostemon cablin (HUO XIANG) patchouli {R14} The mosquito repellent activity of the essential oil from this plant was one of four from 38 tested that was most effective (1). Some evidence of antimutagenic activity (2). Has also been used as part of a herbal decoction that might reduce airway obstruction in asthmatics (3). 1.Trongtokit Y., Rongsriyam Y., Komalamisra N. & Apiwathnasorn C. (2005) Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites. Phytother Res., 19(4): 303-309. 2.Miyazawa M., Okuno Y., Nakamura S. & Kosaka H. (2000) Antimutagenic activity of flavonoids from Pogostemon cablin. J Agric Food Chem., 48(3): 642-647. 3.Fu J.X. (1989) Measurement of MEFV in 66 cases of asthma in the convalescent stage and after treatment with Chinese herbs. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 9(11): 644, 658-659.

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Polygala tenuifolia (YUAN ZHI) Chinese senega {R23} Expectorant effects have been demonstrated in clinical studies (1). ‘Onjisaponins’ extracted from the roots of Polygala tenuifolia were found to contain potent mucosal adjuvant activity (2). The results of this study suggested that onjisaponins may provide safe and potent adjuvants for intranasal inoculation of influenza vaccines.

This plant is also traditionally used with other herbs for mental confusion and poor memory (3). Dried root extract of P. tenuifolia significantly reversed scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in rats, suggesting possible protective effects against neuronal death and cognitive impairments in Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative conditions (4). In related work, ‘tenuifoliside B’ which is one of the acylated oligosaccharides in the roots, showed cerebral protective effects on potassium cyanide- induced anoxia in mice (widely used as an animal model for cerebrovascular disease), and also had an ameliorative effect on the scopolamine-induced impairment of performance in passive avoidance task in rats (5). Another study on rats investigated whether an aqueous extract could improve rat memory and behavioural disorders produced by lesioning nucleus basalis magnocellularis (6). Results suggested that P. tenuifolia extract has some repairing effects on memory.

Amyloid beta-protein is a pivotal pathological factor in Alzheimer's disease. ‘Tenuigenin’, extracted from P. tenuifolia, has been shown to inhibit the secretion of amyloid beta-protein A beta in neuroblastoma cells in vitro (7). This suggests that tenuigenin is worthy of future study as an anti- Alzheimer's drug. Proposed as a crop for Australia (8). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Nagai T., Suzuki Y., Kiyohara H., Susa E., Kato T., Nagamine T., Hagiwara Y., Tamura S., Yabe T., Aizawa C. & Yamada H. (2001) Onjisaponins, from the root of Polygala tenuifolia Willdenow, as effective adjuvants for nasal influenza and diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus vaccines. Vaccine, 19(32): 4824-4834. 3.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 4.Park C.H., Choi S.H., Koo J.W., Seo J.H., Kim H.S., Jeong S.J. & Suh Y.H. (2002) Novel cognitive improving and neuroprotective activities of Polygala tenuifolia Willdenow extract, BT-11. J Neurosci Res., 70(3): 484-492. 5.Ikeya Y., Takeda S., Tunakawa M., Karakida H., Toda K., Yamaguchi T. & Aburada M. (2004) Cognitive improving and cerebral protective effects of acylated oligosaccharides in Polygala tenuifolia. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(7): 1081-1085. 6.Chen Y.L., Hsieh C.L., Wu P.H. & Lin J.G. (2004) Effect of Polygala tenuifolia root on behavioral disorders by lesioning nucleus basalis magnocellularis in rat. J Ethnopharmacol., 95(1): 47-55. 7.Jia H., Jiang Y., Ruan Y., Zhang Y., Ma X., Zhang J., Beyreuther K., Tu P. & Zhang D. (2004) Tenuigenin treatment decreases secretion of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid beta-protein in cultured cells. Neurosci Lett., 367(1): 123-128. 8.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Polygonatum cyrtonema (HUANG JING) {R3} Traditionally used with other herbs for treatment of diabetes (1), however, no relevant material could be retrieved from the scientific literature. In very recent work, the anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) I/II activity of a mannose and sialic acid binding lectin isolated from rhizomes of Polygonatum cyrtonema was elucidated by comparing its HIV infection inhibitory activity in MT-4 and CEM cells with that of other mannose-binding lectins (2). The anti-HIV activity of P. cyrtonema lectin was 10 to 100 fold more potent than other tested mannose-binding lectins, but without significant cytotoxicity towards MT-4 or CEM cells (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.An J., Liu J.Z., Wu C.F., Li J., Dai L., Van Damme E., Balzarini J., De Clercq E., Chen F. & Bao J.K. (2006) Anti-HIV I/II activity and molecular cloning of a novel mannose/sialic acid-binding lectin from rhizome of Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin. (Shanghai), 38(2): 70-78.

Polygonatum kingianum (HUANG JING) {R4} Traditionally taken with other herbs for treatment of diabetes (1) but literature could not be retrieved. This species has been screened recently for anti-human immunodeficiency virus constituents (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Wang Y.F., Mu T.H., Chen J.J. & Luo S.D. (2003) Studies on chemical constituents from the root of Polygonatum kingianum. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(6): 524-527.

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Polygonatum odoratum (YU ZHU) fragrant Soloman’s seal or angular Solomon's seal {R11} Traditionally used to lower blood pressure and reduce blood sugar. SG-100, a steroidal glycoside obtained from Polygonatum odoratum has been shown to have an antihyperglycaemic effect in rats by promoting peripheral insulin sensitivity without changing insulin secretion (1). 1.Choi S.B. & Park S. (2002) A steroidal glycoside from Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce. improves insulin resistance but does not alter insulin secretion in 90% pancreatectomized rats. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 66(10): 2036-2043.

Polygonatum sibiricum (HUANG JING) Siberian Soloman’s seal {R8} Traditionally used with other herbs for treatment of diabetes (1). The methanol extract of the rhizomes reduced blood glucose levels in mice four hours after intraperitoneal administration (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Miura T. & Kato A. (1995) The difference in hypoglycemic action between polygonati rhizoma and polygonati officinalis rhizoma. Biol Pharm Bull., 18(11): 1605-1606.

Polygonum hypoleucum {R5} Polygonum hypoleucum is a Chinese medicinal plant used to treat arthritis, coughs, influenza and insomnia (1); however, no relevant material could be retrieved from the scientific literature. ‘Anthraquinones’ from the stems showed activity against tumour cell proliferation in six cell-lines (1). Note: the scientific name for this plant is under review. 1.Kuo Y.C., Sun C.M., Ou J.C. & Tsai W.J. (1997) A tumor cell growth inhibitor from Polygonum hypoleucum Ohwi. Life Sci., 61(23): 2335-2344.

Poria cocos (FU LING) wolfiporia, tuckahoe, North American Indian bread or China root The sclerotium of this medicinal fungus is usually found on pine tree roots in China and North America. It is used in vast quantities in China but is collected from the wild rather than being cultivated (1). Good evidence to suggest anticancer properties through antiangiogenic activity (2). However, potentially specialised agronomic requirements and a wide natural distribution through two of the world’s leading economies probably prohibit competitive Australian commercial production. 1.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 2.Yance D.R. Jr & Sagar S.M. (2006) Targeting angiogenesis with integrative cancer therapies. Integr Cancer Ther., 5(1): 9-29.

Prunus armeniaca (XING REN) apricot Used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antiasthmatic, antibacterial, antiparasitic and analgesic. Modern research lends some support to use of Xing Ren as an antitussive and antiasthmatic (1). An existing, important commercial crop in Australia. 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp.

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Prunus davidiana (TAO REN) Chinese peach or David’s peach {R9} In traditional Chinese medicine used for invigorating blood circulation, removing blood stasis, for cough and asthma (1). Recent research (2,3) has focussed on antioxidant properties and although it showed some promise, the work was limited in its scope.

Rats with hyperlipidaemia resulting from high-fat feeding were administered with a methanol extract of Prunus davidiana stems and its flavonoid components, including (+)-catechin (4). Administration for three days produced a significant decrease of blood triglyceride and total cholesterol, and the atherogenic index was also improved (4). Other studies on rats report decreases in blood triglyceride and total cholesterol (5,6). In addition to hypolipidaemic effects, the methanolic stem extract was also effective in reducing elevated glucose levels in rats with hyperlipidaemia resulting from high-fat feeding (5). A methanolic extract of P. davidiana stems and its main flavanone glycoside component, ‘prunin’ produced a significant hypoglycaemic effect in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes (6). It was concluded that the methanolic extract contained one or more hypoglycaemic principles including prunin, that could significantly reduce the levels of blood glucose and total lipids in streptozotocin-diabetic rats (6). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Jung H.A., Jung M.J., Kim J.Y., Chung H.Y. & Choi J.S. (2003) Inhibitory activity of flavonoids from Prunus davidiana and other flavonoids on total ROS and hydroxyl radical generation. Arch Pharm Res., 26(10): 809- 815. 3.Jung H.A., Kim A.R., Chung H.Y. & Choi J.S. (2002) In vitro antioxidant activity of some selected Prunus species in Korea. Arch Pharm Res., 25(6): 865-872. 4.Choi J.S., Yokozawa T. & Oura H. (1991) Antihyperlipidemic effect of flavonoids from Prunus davidiana. J Nat Prod., 54(1): 218-224. 5.Choi J.S., Suh S.S., Young H.S. & Park H.J. (1991) Hypolipemic and hypoglycemic activities of Prunus davidiana in high fat-fed rats. Arch Pharm Res., 14(1): 44-47. 6.Choi J.S., Yokozawa T. & Oura H. (1991) Improvement of hyperglycemia and hyperlipemia in streptozotocin- diabetic rats by a methanolic extract of Prunus davidiana stems and its main component, prunin. Planta Med., 57(3): 208-211.

Prunus mume (WU MEI) mume or Japanese apricot {R18} Used in traditional Chinese medicine with other herbs for treatment of diabetes (1). In vitro testing has revealed some anticancer activity (2,3). Cardiovascular protective effects have been suggested through improved blood fluidity (4). Prunus mume is currently being evaluated in Queensland as a potential new crop (5). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Jeong J.T., Moon J.H., Park K.H. & Shin C.S. (2006) Isolation and characterization of a new compound from Prunus mume fruit that inhibits cancer cells. J Agric Food Chem., 54(6): 2123-2128. 3.Dogasaki C., Murakami H., Nishijima M., Yamamoto K. & Miyazaki T. (1992) Antimutagenic activities of hexane extracts of the fruit extract and the kernels of Prunus mume Sieb. et Zucc. Yakugaku Zasshi., 112(8): 577- 584. 4.Utsunomiya H., Takekoshi S., Gato N., Utatsu H., Motley E.D., Eguchi K., Fitzgerald T.G., Mifune M., Frank G.D. & Eguchi S. (2002) Fruit-juice concentrate of Asian plum inhibits growth signals of vascular smooth muscle cells induced by angiotensin II. Life Sci., 72(6): 659-667. 5.Topp B., Russell D. & Noller J (2004) Development of Prunus mume, a new tree crop for Australia. Assess to Asian Foods Newsletter, Issue 70, May.

Prunus persica (TAO REN) peach In traditional Chinese medicine, this species is used to invigorate blood circulation, and treat cough and asthma (1). An existing and important commercial crop in Australia. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Pseudostellaria heterophylla (TAI ZI SHEN) false starwort {R14} Animal experiments have demonstrated antitumour activity (1,2). A cheaper substitute for Panax quinquefolius with regard to antioxidant activity (3). 1.Wong C.K., Leung K.N., Fung K.P., Pang P.K. & Choy Y.M. (1992) Mitogenic and tumor necrosis factor producing activities of Pseudostellaria heterophylla. Int J Immunopharmacol., 14(8): 1315-1320. 2.Wong C.K., Leung K.N., Fung K.P., Pang P.K. & Choy Y.M. (1994) Tumor necrosis factor eliciting fractions separated from Pseudostellaria heterophylla. Int J Immunopharmacol., 16(4): 271-277. 3.Ng T.B., Liu F. & Wang H.X. (2004) The antioxidant effects of aqueous and organic extracts of Panax quinquefolium, Panax notoginseng, Codonopsis pilosula, Pseudostellaria heterophylla and Glehnia littoralis. J Ethnopharmacol., 93(2-3): 285-288.

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Pueraria montana (GE GEN) kudzu {R4} Used in the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension (1). Four glycosides have been isolated as the active principles of this herb, and one of them (‘daidzin’) has been marketed in a synthetic form (1). In a double-blind study of patients with angina pectoris, a drip of Pueraria montana extract proved to be an effective treatment (2). Identified as a potentially useful medicinal plant for Australia (3) but also a potential noxious weed (4). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp 2.Xu J., Zhengh H., Huang Z., Wu. S. & Zhou L. (1996) Intravenous infusions of puerarin treating coronary diseases. Chinese J New Drugs & Clinical Remedies, 4: 23-25. 3.Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical & industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp. 4.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Pyrola rotundifolia (LU XIAN CAO) pyrola herb {R6} The relevant traditional use is for arthralgia and arthritic diseases (1,2). Also investigated for antihypertensive effects (3) and antimicrobial activity (4). Although some results were positive, the limited number of studies preclude strong recommendation. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Kosuge T., Yokota M., Sugiyama K., Mure T., Yamazawa H. & Yamamoto T. (1985) Studies on bioactive substances in crude drugs used for arthritic diseases in traditional Chinese medicine. III. Isolation and identification of anti-inflammatory and analgesic principles from the whole herb of Pyrola rotundifolia L. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 33(12): 5355-5357. 3.Wang C.H. & Wu C.G. (1986) Clinical observation on the treatment of 101 hypertension patients with Pyrola rotundifolia preparation. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 6(10): 581, 604-605. 4.Chang J. & Inui T. (2005) Novel phenolic glycoside dimer and trimer from the whole herb of Pyrola rotundifolia. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 53(8): 1051-1053.

Pyrrosia lingua (SHI WEI) pyrrosia {R2} Traditionally for asthma due to excess lung heat (1) but efficacy literature is limited. Using tissue culture methods, the antiviral effect of 472 traditional medicinal herbs on type-1 herpes simplex virus was investigated and Pyrrosia lingua was one of 10 that were highly effective (2). In a clinical trial, among 78 cases of herpetic keratitis due to herpes simplex virus-1, treatment with P. lingua and Prunella vulgaris eye drops effected a cure in 38 patients and improvement in 37 (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Zheng M. (1990) Experimental study of 472 herbs with antiviral action against the herpes simplex virus. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 10(1): 6, 39-41.

Pyrrosia petiolosa (SHI WEI) pyrrosia {R2} Traditionally for asthma due to excess lung heat (1). The chemical constituents have been recently investigated (2) but evidence for medical efficacy is scant. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Yang C., Shi J.G., Mo S.Y. & Yang Y.C. (2003) Chemical constituents of Pyrrosia petiolosa. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 5(2): 143-150.

Pyrrosia sheareri (SHI WEI) pyrrosia {R2} Traditionally for asthma due to excess lung heat (1). Effects on bacillary dysentery have been investigated (2) but no scientific reports on asthma treatment were located. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Zhao Y.H. (1985) Analysis of the therapeutic effect of 1,148 cases of bacillary dysentery treated with Pyrrosia sheareri. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 5(9): 514, 530-533.

Rabdosia rubescens (DONG LING CAO) rabdosia {R24} This herb is typically used by traditional practitioners to treat breast and oesophageal cancer (1). In a trial of patients with inoperable oesophageal carcinoma, the addition of Rabdosia rubescens extract to chemotherapy treatment was beneficial (2). R. rubescens is one component of PC-SPES, a herbal mixture used with some success by prostate cancer patients (3). Recent research from a number of sources has confirmed the antiproliferation effects of extracts from R. rubescens in human cancer cell- lines (4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12). The drug ‘rubescensin’ is the best known anticancer compound derived from this plant (13). Note: this scientific name is undergoing review. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

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2.Wang R.L., Gao B.L., Xiong M.L., Mei Q.D., Fan K.S., Zuo Z.K., Lang T.L., Gao G.Q., Ji Z.C., Wei D.C., et al. (1986) Potentiation by Rabdosia rubescens on chemotherapy of advanced esophageal carcinoma. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi., 8(4): 297-299. 3.de la Taille A., Hayek O.R., Burchardt M., Burchardt T. & Katz A.E. (2000) Role of herbal compounds (PC- SPES) in hormone-refractory prostate cancer: two case reports. J Altern Complement Med., 6(5): 449-451. 4.Ikezoe T., Chen S.S., Tong X.J., Heber D., Taguchi H. & Koeffler H.P. (2003) Oridonin induces growth inhibition and apoptosis of a variety of human cancer cells. Int J Oncol., 23(4): 1187-1193. 5.Sartippour M.R., Seeram N.P., Heber D., Hardy M., Norris A., Lu Q., Zhang L., Lu M., Rao J.Y. & Brooks M.N. (2005) Rabdosia rubescens inhibits breast cancer growth and angiogenesis. Int J Oncol., 26(1): 121-127. 6.Liu J.J., Huang R.W., Lin D.J., Peng J., Wu X.Y., Pan X.L., Li M.Q. & Lin Q. (2004) Anti-proliferative effects of oridonin on SPC-A-1 cells and its mechanism of action. J Int Med Res., 32(6): 617-625. 7.Liu Y.Q., You S., Zhang C.L., Tashiro S., Onodera S. & Ikejima T. (2005) Oridonin enhances phagocytosis of UV-irradiated apoptotic U937 cells. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(3): 461-467. 8.Liu J.J., Huang R.W., Lin D.J., Wu X.Y., Lin Q., Peng J., Pan X., Song Y.Q., Zhang M.H., Hou M. & Chen F. (2005) Antiproliferation effects of ponicidin on human myeloid leukemia cells in vitro. Oncol Rep., 13(4): 653- 657. 9.Ikezoe T., Yang Y., Bandobashi K., Saito T., Takemoto S., Machida H., Togitani K., Koeffler H.P. & Taguchi H. (2005) Oridonin, a diterpenoid purified from Rabdosia rubescens, inhibits the proliferation of cells from lymphoid malignancies in association with blockade of the NF-kappa B signal pathways. Mol Cancer Ther., 4(4): 578-586. 10.Ren K.K., Wang H.Z., Xie L.P., Chen D.W., Liu X., Sun J., Nie Y.C. & Zhang RQ. (2006) The effects of oridonin on cell growth, cell cycle, cell migration and differentiation in melanoma cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 103(2): 176-180. 11.Hsieh T.C., Wijeratne E.K., Liang J.Y., Gunatilaka A.L. & Wu J.M. (2005) Differential control of growth, cell cycle progression, and expression of NF-kappaB in human breast cancer cells MCF-7, MCF-10A, and MDA- MB-231 by ponicidin and oridonin, diterpenoids from the chinese herb Rabdosia rubescens. Biochem Biophys Res Commun., 337(1): 224-231. 12.Liu J.J., Huang R.W., Lin D.J., Peng J., Zhang M., Pan X., Hou M., Wu X.Y., Lin Q. & Chen F. (2006) Ponicidin, an ent-kaurane diterpenoid derived from a constituent of the herbal supplement PC-SPES, Rabdosia rubescens, induces apoptosis by activation of caspase-3 and mitochondrial events in lung cancer cells in vitro. Cancer Invest., 24(2): 136-148. 13.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp.

Rauvolfia serpentina (SHE GEN MU) [Myanmar- BONMA-YAZA] serpent wood, snakewood or serpentine {R27} During the 1950s and 1960s this species underwent extensive clinical testing of its antihypertensive properties. ‘Reserpine’, an alkaloid drug isolated from Rauvolfia serpentina has been shown to be an effective antihypertensive at dosages of 0.1 to 0.3 mg daily (2,3). Several large trials have shown that either alone or in combination with ‘thiazide’, reserpine is effective in lowering blood pressure (3). Medically important R. serpentina alkaloids are now generally biosynthesised (4,5). This species is rare or endangered (6). Potential for Australian production has been recognised (7,8). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 3.Fraser H.S. (1996) Reserpine: a tragic victim of myths, marketing, and fashionable prescribing. Clin Pharmacol Ther., 60(4): 368-373. 4.Ruppert M., Panjikar S., Barleben L. & Stockigt J. (2006) Heterologous expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of raucaffricine glucosidase, a plant enzyme specifically involved in Rauvolfia alkaloid biosynthesis. Acta Crystallograph Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun., 62(Pt 3): 257-260. 5.Pasquali G., Porto D.D. & Fett-Neto A.G. (2006) Metabolic engineering of cell cultures versus whole plant complexity in production of bioactive monoterpene indole alkaloids: recent progress related to old dilemma. J Biosci Bioeng., 101(4): 287-296. 6.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 7.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 8.Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical & industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp.

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Rauvolfia verticillata (LUO FU MU) {R6} An antihypertensive herb. Approximately 1 to 2 % of the root is made up of alkaloids and the major active principle is ‘reserpine’ (1,2). In one study of 200 patients with moderate hypertension, doses of 6 to 15 mg daily for three weeks to two months, lowered blood pressure by 30 to 40% (1). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp.

Rehmannia glutinosa (DI HUANG) Chinese foxglove or rehmannia {R25} One of the 11 most important cultivated medicinal plants in China (1) and produced as an ornamental specimen in Australia. A herb with a height of 10 to 40 cm. The root of Rehmannia glutinosa is used to lower blood sugar (2,3,4). This hypoglycaemic effect has been demonstrated using rodents (5,6,7). This herb is also a traditional Chinese medicine used in therapy of dementia. Recent work has shown that R. glutinosa can improve learning and memory in dementia models using mice and rats (8,9). ‘Catalpol’, an iridoid glycoside, from the root was also found to have a neuroprotective action in gerbils subjected to transient global cerebral ischaemia (10). R. glutinosa is one component of a herbal tonic called ‘Yukmijihwang-tang’ which has recently been shown in human trials to accelerate speed of information processing and enhance cognitive ability (11). Yukmijihwang-tang treatment may help dementia patients or the elderly recover from cognition deficiencies. Traditional dosages are 2 to 6 g/day of the dried (uncured) root or 4 to 12 ml/day of the 1:2 fluid extract (12). 1.Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 2.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 4.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 5.Miura T., Kako M., Ishihara E., Usami M., Yano H., Tanigawa K., Sudo K. & Seino Y. (1997) Antidiabetic effect of seishin-kanro-to in KK-Ay mice. Planta Med., 63(4): 320-322. 6.Zhang R., Zhou J., Jia Z., Zhang Y. & Gu G. (2004) Hypoglycemic effect of Rehmannia glutinosa oligosaccharide in hyperglycemic and alloxan-induced diabetic rats and its mechanism. J Ethnopharmacol., 90(1): 39-43. 7.Zhang R.X., Jia Z.P., Kong L.Y., Ma H.P., Ren J., Li M.X. & Ge X. (2004) Stachyose extract from Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch. to lower plasma glucose in normal and diabetic rats by oral administration. Pharmazie., 59(7): 552-556. 8.Cui Y., Yan Z.H., Hou S.L. & Chang Z.F. (2003) Effect of shu di-huang on the transmitter and receptor of amino acid in brain and learning and memory of dementia model. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(9): 862-866. 9.Cui Y., Yan Z., Hou S. & Chang Z. (2004) Effect of radix Rehmanniae preparata on the expression of c-fos and NGF in hippocampi and learning and memory in rats with damaged thalamic arcuate nucleus. Zhong Yao Cai., 27(8): 589-592. 10.Li D.Q., Li Y., Liu Y., Bao Y.M., Hu B. & An L.J. (2005) Catalpol prevents the loss of CA1 hippocampal neurons and reduces working errors in gerbils after ischemia-reperfusion injury. Toxicon., 46(8): 845-851. 11.Park E., Kang M., Oh J.W., Jung M., Park C., Cho C., Kim C., Ji S., Lee Y., Choi H., Kim H., Ko S., Shin M., Park S., Kim H.T., Hong M. & Bae H. (2005) Yukmijihwang-tang derivatives enhance cognitive processing in normal young adults: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Chin Med., 33(1): 107-115. 12.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp.

Rheum tanguticum (DA HUANG) Chinese rhubarb {R13} Extracts of this plant had neuroprotective effects in rats (1,2). Rheum tanguticum polysaccharide also protected hydrogen peroxide-induced injury to human intestinal epithelial cells in vitro (3). It was concluded that the cytoprotective and antioxidant effects may act through inhibition of cell apoptosis and necrosis. This might be one mechanism for R. tanguticum action in treatment of ulcerative colitis in rats (3). Protection against colitis in rats was additionally observed in two earlier studies (4,5). 1.Gu J.W., Hasuo H., Takeya M. & Akasu T. (2005) Effects of emodin on synaptic transmission in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons in vitro. Neuropharmacology., 49(1): 103-111. 2.Wang Z.P., Liu L., Mei Q.B., Zhang R., Gu J.W., Zhang X. & Gao D.K. (2003) Protective effect of Rheum tanguticum polysaccharides (RTP) on traumatic brain injury in rats. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(10): 974- 976. 3.Liu L.N., Mei Q.B., Liu L., Zhang F., Liu Z.G., Wang Z.P. & Wang R.T. (2005) Protective effects of Rheum tanguticum polysaccharide against hydrogen peroxide-induced intestinal epithelial cell injury. World J Gastroenterol., 11(10): 1503-1507.

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4.Liu L., Mei Q.B., Zhou S.Y., Han F.H., Long Y., Liu J.Y., Li C., Meng J.R. & Wang Z.P. (2003) Effects of Tanguticum maxim polysaccharide on ulcerative colitis induced by TNBS in rats. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(3): 246-249. 5.Liu L., Wang Z.P., Xu C.T., Pan B.R., Mei Q.B., Long Y., Liu J.Y. & Zhou S.Y. (2003) Effects of Rheum tanguticum polysaccharide on TNBS-induced colitis and CD4+T cells in rats. World J Gastroenterol., 9(10): 2284-2288.

Rhodea japonica (WON NIAN QING) nippon lily {R4} The cardiac glycosides in this plant have a digitalis-like effect on the heart muscle and are used in treatment of cardiac arrhythmia (1). An isolate called ‘rhodexin A’ exerted potent inhibitory action on in vitro growth of human leukaemia K562 cells (2). There have been clinical reports of tumour regression in patients taking cardiac glycosides. Note: this scientific name is undergoing review. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Umebayashi C., Yamamoto N., Nakao H., Toi Y., Chikahisa-Muramatsu L., Kanemaru K., Masuda T. & Oyama Y. (2003) Flow cytometric estimation of cytotoxic activity of rhodexin A isolated from Rhodea japonica in human leukemia K562 cells. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(5): 627-630.

Rosa laevigata (JIN YING ZI) Cherokee rose {R4} Actions are broadly claimed to be astringent, antibacterial, antiviral and cholesterol reducing (1). Chemical components have been investigated (2,3) but scientific reporting of medical efficacy is scant. 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Gao Y., Cheng W.M. & Li G.Y. (1993) Chemical constituents of Rosa laevigata Michx. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 18(7): 426-8, 447. 3.Li X. & Wei L. (1997) Chemical components from Rosa laevigata Michx. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 22(5): 298-9, 320.

Rubus chingii (FU PEN ZI) Chinese raspberry or palmleaf raspberry {R6} Different in vitro free radical generating systems were used to assess the antioxidative activity of aqueous extracts of the five herbal components of ‘Wu-zi-yan-zong-wan’, a traditional Chinese medicinal formula. Rubus chingii fruits were found to be the most potent and may have general value in attenuating cytotoxicity of oxidants (1).

Further trials considered ‘Equiguard’, a dietary supplement comprised of standardised extracts from nine herbs, including R. chingii fruit (2). Results showed that Equiguard- significantly reduced cancer cell growth; induced apoptosis; suppressed expression of the androgen receptor and lowered intracellular and secreted prostate specific antigen; and, almost completely abolished colony forming abilities of prostate cancer cells. These data supported the interpretation that this herbal formulation contains ingredients that collectively may be efficacious in preventing or treating androgen-dependent and androgen-independent prostate carcinoma (2). 1.Yau M.H., Che C.T., Liang S.M., Kong Y.C. & Fong W.P. (2002) An aqueous extract of Rubus chingii fruits protects primary rat hepatocytes against tert-butyl hydroperoxide induced oxidative stress. Life Sci., 72(3): 329- 338. 2.Hsieh T.C., Lu X., Guo J., Xiong W., Kunicki J., Darzynkiewicz Z. & Wu J.M. (2002) Effects of herbal preparation Equiguard on hormone-responsive and hormone-refractory prostate carcinoma cells: mechanistic studies. Int J Oncol., 20(4): 681-689.

Salsola collina (CHU MAO CAI or ZHU MAO CAI) tumbleweed or saltwort {R4} An antihypertensive herb, commonly used in the treatment of early hypertension (1). Has direct vasodilatory effects (1). Potential aquatic or terrestrial noxious weed and/or noxious weed seed (2). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Salvia miltiorrhiza (DAN SHEN or TAN SENG) Chinese salvia or red root sage {R35} The medicinal properties of this plant have been very extensively studied and reported in the literature. Textbook reviews suggest the following applications- antibacterial, immunostimulant, circulatory stimulant, blood vessel relaxant, anticoagulant, tissue repair promotor (1,2,3,4). Modern uses of this herb include the treatment of angina pectoris and human clinical trials have shown an effectiveness of 81% (4). In an open study, more than 300 heart patients were treated with oral doses of Chinese salvia and angina was said to improve in 81%, and abnormal ECG in 57%, of cases (1). Injection of salvia used to treat heart attacks in Chinese hospitals reduced mortality rate from 39% to 13% (1). In other 108

clinical trials, salvia was markedly superior to nitroglycerin for ischaemic heart disease (1). The cardiovascular drug ‘sodium tanshinone IIA’ is a compound from this species and is also the basis for a semi-synthetic product (5).

Based mainly on experimental data that indicates improvement to cerebral microcirculation, Chinese salvia is widely used in the treatment of acute ischaemic stroke in China. Clinical trials show that it helps with cerebrovascular circulation (3). In a study that investigated effects on cerebral infarct in ischaemia-reperfusion injured rats, results demonstrated that salvia can reduce the area of cerebral infarct, suggesting it may be useful in the treatment of cerebral infarct in humans (6). In human trials, Chinese salvia injection for patients with traumatic cerebral infarction was found to improve blood coagulation disorder and possibly alleviate cerebral damage (7). Extracts from this plant used with shenmai reduced myocardial reperfusion injury in patients with acute myocardial infarction after percutaneous coronary intervention (8).

Nonetheless, in a recent review of evidence from randomised controlled trials of Chinese salvia agents used for acute ischaemic stroke, the reviewers concluded that there were too few patients and outcome events to draw reliable conclusions from the present data (9). They stated that methodological qualities of all included studies were poor and further high-quality randomised controlled trials should be performed (9).

Administration may be beneficial for treating glaucoma (10). And extracts are reported to have a strong inhibitory action on Staphylococcus aureus (11). Previously identified as a potential new crop for Australia (12) and possibly now produced in very limited amounts (13). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 4.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 5.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 6.Lo C.J., Lin J.G., Kuo J.S., Chiang S.Y., Chen S.C., Liao E.T. & Hsieh C.L. (2003) Effect of Salvia miltiorrhiza bunge on cerebral infarct in ischemia-reperfusion injured rats. Am J Chin Med., 31(2): 191-200. 7.Zhang R.J., You C., Cai B.W., Wan Y., He M. & Li H. (2004) Effect of compound Salvia injection on blood coagulation in patients with traumatic cerebral infarction. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 24(10): 882-884. 8.Geng Q.X., Zhu X.L. & Zhang X.H. (2004) Effect of combined therapy of shenmai and compound danshen injection on myocardial reperfusion injury after percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 24(6): 496-499. 9.Wu B., Liu M. & Zhang S. (2004) Dan Shen agents for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev., 18(4): CD004295. 10.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 11.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 12.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256- 264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.), ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra. 13.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Sanguisorba officinalis (DI YU) great burnet, burnet bloodwort or salad burnet {R19} Sanguisorba officinalis is used in traditional Chinese medicine for bleeding, burns and skin ulceration (1). A native to Asia, Europe and North America and naturalised elsewhere (2). Common in Europe (3). Cell-line trials point to some activity against cancer (4,5). Given the wide distribution of this species and lack of efficacy evidence, need for Australian production is questionable. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 3.Chiej R. (1988) The MacDonald Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants, Pub.- MacDonald (Orbis) & Co. Ltd., 447 pp. 4.Liu X., Cui Y., Yu Q. & Yu B. (2005) Triterpenoids from Sanguisorba officinalis. Phytochemistry, 66(14): 1671-1679. 5.Goun E.A., Petrichenko V.M., Solodnikov S.U., Suhinina T.V., Kline M.A., Cunningham G., Nguyen C. & Miles H. (2002) Anticancer and antithrombin activity of Russian plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 81(3): 337-342.

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Santalum album (TAN XIANG) heartwood of sandalwood {R11} Reported actions include pain relief and with other herbs it has been used traditionally for angina pectoris in coronary heart disease (1). The chemical components have been thoroughly investigated. Extracts showed antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori (2). Another study demonstrated some nitric oxide scavenging activity (3), and its Ayurvedic use is based on antioxidant activity (4). The essential oil has been tested for in vitro antiviral activity against Herpes simplex viruses -1 and -2 (5). Replication of these viruses was inhibited in the presence of sandalwood oil but it was not virucidal, and showed no cytotoxicity at the concentrations tested (5). Two studies on mice reported possible chemopreventive action on carcinogenesis (6,7). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Ochi T., Shibata H., Higuti T., Kodama K.H., Kusumi T. & Takaishi Y. (2005) Anti-Helicobacter pylori compounds from Santalum album. J Nat Prod., 68(6): 819-824. 3.Jagetia G.C. & Baliga M.S. (2004) The evaluation of nitric oxide scavenging activity of certain Indian medicinal plants in vitro: a preliminary study. J Med Food., 7(3): 343-348. 4.Scartezzini P. & Speroni E. (2000) Review on some plants of Indian traditional medicine with antioxidant activity. J Ethnopharmacol., 71(1-2): 23-43. 5.Benencia F. & Courreges M.C. (1999) Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil against herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2. Phytomedicine., 6(2): 119-123. 6.Dwivedi C. & Abu-Ghazaleh A. (1997) Chemopreventive effects of sandalwood oil on skin papillomas in mice. Eur J Cancer Prev., 6(4): 399-401. 7.Banerjee S., Ecavade A. & Rao A.R. (1993) Modulatory influence of sandalwood oil on mouse hepatic glutathione S-transferase activity and acid soluble sulphydryl level. Cancer Lett., 68(2-3): 105-109.

Saposhnikovia divaricata (FANG FENG) ledebouriella or siler {R16} One traditional use is the alleviation of rheumatic conditions (1). Four ‘furanocoumarins’ and eight ‘chromones’ isolated from the dried root of Saposhnikovia divaricata were evaluated for their effects on synthesis of nitric oxide induced by lipopolysaccharide in macrophage cell-line RAW 264.7 (2). Two of these compounds were found to be potential nitric oxide production inhibitors. In another study, the ethanolic extracts from 10 Chinese herbs were tested for their in vitro effects on K562, Raji, Wish, HeLa, Calu-1, and Vero tumour cell proliferation (3). ‘Panaxynol’ purified from S. divaricata had the highest inhibitory activity on proliferation. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Wang C.C., Chen L.G. & Yang L.L. (1999) Inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor of the Chinese herb I. Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk. Cancer Lett., 145(1-2): 151-157. 3.Kuo Y.C., Lin Y.L., Huang C.P., Shu J.W. & Tsai W.J. (2002) A tumor cell growth inhibitor from Saposhnikovae divaricata. Cancer Invest., 20(7-8): 955-964.

Sarcandra glabra (ZHONG JIE FENG) {R6} Sarcandra glabra is traditionally used in the treatment of malignant solid tumours, such as carcinoma of the pancreas, stomach, oesophagus, rectum, bladder, colon, lungs and thyroid (1). Trials with patients showed that extracts from this plant improved their sense of ‘well-being’ and decreased tumour size (1). Mouse experiments suggest that S. glabra may have activity in treatment of thrombocytopenia (ie. reduction in platelet number) following chemotherapy with 5-FU (2). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Zhong L., Liu T., Chen Y., Zhong X., Du X., Lu Z., Weng J., Wu S. & Lin W. (2005) The study on effect of Sarcandra glabra on prevention and treatment of thrombocytopenia by chemotherapy. Zhong Yao Cai., 28(1): 35-38.

Sargassum fusiforme (HAI ZAO) sargassum seaweed {R5} Polysaccharides from this seaweed exhibited antiproliferative activity against human HL-60 promyeloid leukaemia cells (1). This antitumour effect seems to be accomplished through apoptosis associated with increase in intracellular calcium concentration (2). 1.Liang Q., Li J.C. & Zhang H.F. (2004) Study on the apoptosis of HL-60 human promyeloid leukaemia cells induced by SFPS. Shi Yan Sheng Wu Xue Bao., 37(2): 125-132. 2.Ji Y.B., Gao S.Y. & Zhang X.J. (2004) Influence of Sargassum fusiforme polysaccharide on apoptosis of tumor cells. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(3): 245-247.

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Saussurea costus (MU XIANG) costus {R20} Rare or endangered (1) but a well known plant used in indigenous systems of medicine for the treatment of inflammatory conditions (2). Ethanolic extracts of this plant were screened for their effect on acute and chronic inflammation induced in mice and rats, and were found to significantly inhibit paw oedema (induced by carrageenan and Freund's complete adjuvant), and to prevent accumulation of inflammatory cells in carrageenan-induced peritonitis (2). The ethanolic extracts possessed antiinflammatory and antiarthritic activity and supported the rationale behind traditional use of this plant (2). Other in vitro and in vivo (rat) experiments supported the presence of antiinflammatory activity (3,4).

Costus is also used against cancers in East Asia. To understand the molecular basis underlying the antitumour effects one study analysed the effects on proliferation and on expression of cell growth/apoptosis related molecules, by using an AGS gastric cancer cell-line (5). It was found that treatments of costus dramatically reduced cell viabilities in a dose and time dependent manner. Another investigation reported that extracts were cytotoxic against selected human cancer cell-lines (6). The antioxidant activity of root compounds has also been established (7). Potential for Australian production has been recognised (8). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Gokhale A.B., Damre A.S., Kulkami K.R. & Saraf M.N. (2002) Preliminary evaluation of anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity of S. lappa, A. speciosa and A. aspera. Phytomedicine., 9(5): 433-437. 3.Cho J.Y., Baik K.U., Jung J.H. & Park M.H. (2000) In vitro anti-inflammatory effects of cynaropicrin, a sesquiterpene lactone, from Saussurea lappa. Eur J Pharmacol., 398(3): 399-407. 4.Damre A.A., Damre A.S. & Saraf M.N. (2003) Evaluation of sesquiterpene lactone fraction of Saussurea lappa on transudative, exudative and proliferative phases of inflammation. Phytother Res., 17(7): 722-725. 5.Ko S.G., Koh S.H., Jun C.Y., Nam C.G., Bae H.S. & Shin M.K. (2004) Induction of apoptosis by Saussurea lappa and Pharbitis nil on AGS gastric cancer cells. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(10): 1604-1610. 6.Sun C.M., Syu W.J., Don M.J., Lu J.J. & Lee G.H. (2003) Cytotoxic sesquiterpene lactones from the root of Saussurea lappa. J Nat Prod., 66(9): 1175-1180. 7.Pandey M.M., Govindarajan R., Rawat A.K. & Pushpangadan P. (2005) Free radical scavenging potential of Saussarea costus. Acta Pharm., 55(3): 297-304. 8.Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical & industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp.

Schisandra chinensis (WU WEI ZI) schisandra, magnolia vine or five flavour fruit {R19} Currently grown in Australia (1). The major active constituents in schisandra are lignans found in the seeds of the fruit. Medicinal uses include treatment for acute and chronic liver diseases, chemical liver damage, poor liver function, poor mental and sensory performance (2). Some of the compounds have been investigated in small animals for physiological activity and several of them appear to protect the liver from toxic substances (3). A review in year 2000 suggested that even though a number of schizandra products or combinations are currently marketed, their safety and efficacy for any purpose, particularly anti-hepatotoxic effects, remains unproven (3). Since 2000, this hepatoprotection has not been well investigated in human trials. However, recent work suggested that schisandra may play a role in preventing neuronal oxidative damage in rats (4,5). And, along with two other herbs, it significantly reduced memory impairment in mice (6). Schisandra is also believed to be an effective adaptogen (7). This plant was identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants with potential for production in the USA (8). 1.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.), ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.) 152 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tyler’s Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 4.Ichikawa H., Wang X. & Konishi T. (2003) Role of component herbs in antioxidant activity of shengmai san- a traditional Chinese medicine formula preventing cerebral oxidative damage in rat. Am J Chin Med., 31(4): 509- 521. 5.Kim S.R., Lee M.K., Koo K.A., Kim S.H., Sung S.H., Lee N.G., Markelonis G.J., Oh T.H., Yang J.H. & Kim Y.C. (2004) Dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans from Schisandra chinensis protect primary cultures of rat cortical cells from glutamate-induced toxicity. J Neurosci Res., 76(3): 397-405. 6.Kang S.Y., Lee K.Y., Koo K.A., Yoon J.S., Lim S.W., Kim Y.C. & Sung S.H. (2005) ESP-102, a standardized combined extract of Angelica gigas, Saururus chinensis and Schizandra chinensis, significantly improved scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice. Life Sci., 76(15): 1691-1705. 111

7.Panossian A. & Wagner H. (2005) Stimulating effect of adaptogens: an overview with particular reference to their efficacy following single dose administration. Phytother Res., 19(10): 819-838. 8.Craker L.E. & Giblette, J. (2002). Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. pp. 491- 496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Schisandra sphenanthera (WU WEI ZI) schisandra or lemon wood {R5} Lignans from the fruit may be helpful in treating viral hepatitis (1). Less well investigated than closely related Schisandra chinensis. 1.Liu C.S., Fang S.D., Huang M.F., Kao Y.L. & Hsu J.S. (1978) Studies on the active principles of Schisandra sphenanthera Rehd. et Wils. The structures of schisantherin A, B, C, D, E, and the related compounds. Sci Sin., 21(4): 483-502.

Scoparia dulcis [Myanmar- DANTA-THUKHA] sweet broomweed {R15} Distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics; potential weed and a seed contaminant (1). Used in Ayurvedic medicine for its antihyperglycaemic properties. Scientific support for its antidiabetic effects has been established in rat trials (eg. 2,3,4). Deemed a potentially useful medicinal plant for Australia based on these antidiabetic properties (5). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Pari L. & Latha M. (2006) Antihyperlipidemic Effect of Scoparia dulcis (Sweet Broomweed) in Streptozotocin Diabetic Rats. J Med Food., 9(1): 102-107. 3.Pari L. & Latha M. (2005) Antidiabetic effect of Scoparia dulcis: effect on lipid peroxidation in streptozotocin diabetes. Gen Physiol Biophys., 24(1): 13-26. 4.Pari L., Latha M. & Rao C.A. (2004) Effect of Scoparia dulcis extract on insulin receptors in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats: studies on insulin binding to erythrocytes. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. , 15(3-4): 223- 240. 5.Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical & industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp.

Scrophularia buergeriana (BEI XUAN SHEN) figwort {R7} This plant belongs in the same family as digitalis and is used to lower blood sugar levels (1). However, recent research using cultured rat cortical neurons has also demonstrated that extracts from the root exert significant protective effects against neurodegeneration induced by glutamate (2,3,4,5). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Kim S.R., Koo K.A., Sung S.H., Ma C.J., Yoon J.S. & Kim Y.C. (2003) Iridoids from Scrophularia buergeriana attenuate glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in rat cortical cultures. J Neurosci Res., 74(6): 948-955. 3.Kim S.R., Kang S.Y., Lee K.Y., Kim S.H., Markelonis G.J., Oh T.H. & Kim Y.C. (2003) Anti-amnestic activity of E-p-methoxycinnamic acid from Scrophularia buergeriana. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res., 17(2): 454- 461. 4.Kim S.R., Lee K.Y., Koo K.A., Sung S.H., Lee N.G., Kim J. & Kim Y.C. (2002) Four new neuroprotective iridoid glycosides from Scrophularia buergeriana roots. J Nat Prod., 65(11): 1696-1699. 5.Kim S.R., Sung S.H., Jang Y.P., Markelonis G.J., Oh T.H. & Kim Y.C. (2002) E-p-methoxycinnamic acid protects cultured neuronal cells against neurotoxicity induced by glutamate. Br J Pharmacol., 135(5): 1281-1291.

Scrophularia ningpoensis (XUAN SHEN) figwort or Ningpo figwort {R12} This plant belongs in the same family as digitalis and can also improve heart function and lower blood pressure (1). Scrophularia ningpoensis can lower blood sugar levels, although this effect is said to be less marked than for Rehmannia glutinosa (2). S. ningpoensis is also among the medicines which are more frequently prescribed for treating depression-like ailments in past and present traditional Chinese medical practice (3). Components of the root extracts were cytotoxic against human cancer cell-lines (4) and root glycosides have demonstrated antioxidative activity (5). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Xu. C, Luo L. & Tan R.X. (2004) Antidepressant effect of three traditional Chinese medicines in the learned helplessness model. J Ethnopharmacol., 91(2-3): 345-349. 4.Nguyen A.T., Fontaine J., Malonne H., Claeys M., Luhmer M. & Duez P. (2005) A sugar ester and an iridoid glycoside from Scrophularia ningpoensis. Phytochemistry, 66(10): 1186-1191. 5.Li Y.M., Han Z.H., Jiang S.H., Jiang Y., Yao S.D. & Zhu D.Y. (2000) Fast repairing of oxidized OH radical adducts of dAMP and dGMP by phenylpropanoid glycosides from Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 21(12): 1125-1128.

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Scutellaria baicalensis (HUANG QIN) Baical skullcap, Chinese scullcap or scute {R24} This root of this plant has been used to treat- allergic conditions such as hayfever, asthma, urticaria, eczema, allergic rhinitis; chronic inflammatory conditions especially autoimmune disorders and chronic infections; acute infections, possibly retroviral infections; hypertension; atherosclerosis; cataract and diabetic complications (1). The cardiovascular drug ‘scutellarin’ is isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis (2).

Recent research has focussed on Chinese scullcap’s role in cancer treatment. Administration as an adjunct in chemotherapy may bring benefits (3,4). By inhibiting angiogenesis, this herb also manifests anticancer activity (5,6). Some evidence for efficacy in treating prostate cancer (7,8).

Newly reported work has found that flavonoids from the stems and leaves have neuroprotective effects against hydrogen peroxide toxicity and might be important in treatment of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease (9). This plant was identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants with potential for production in the USA (10). Currently grown in Australia (11). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.) 152 pp. 2.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.), ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Smol'ianinov E.S., Gol'dberg V.E., Matiash M.G., Ryzhakov V.M., Boldyshev D.A., Litvinenko V.I. & Dygai A.M. (1997) Effect of Scutellaria baicalensis extract on the immunologic status of patients with lung cancer receiving antineoplastic chemotherapy. Eksp Klin Farmakol., 60(6): 49-51. 4.Gol'dberg V.E., Ryzhakov V.M., Matiash M.G., Stepovaia E.A., Boldyshev D.A., Litvinenko V.I. & Dygai A.M. Dry extract of Scutellaria baicalensis as a hemostimulant in antineoplastic chemotherapy in patents with lung cancer. Eksp Klin Farmakol., 60(6): 28-30. 5.Wang S., Zheng Z., Weng Y., Yu Y., Zhang D., Fan W., Dai R. & Hu Z. (2004) Angiogenesis and antiangiogenesis activity of Chinese medicinal herbal extracts. Life Sci., 74(20): 2467-2478. 6.Yance D.R. Jr & Sagar S.M. (2006) Targeting angiogenesis with integrative cancer therapies. Integr Cancer Ther., 5(1): 9-29. 7.Adams L.S., Seeram N.P., Hardy M.L., Carpenter C. & Heber D. (2006) Analysis of the interactions of botanical extract combinations against the viability of prostate cancer cell lines. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med., 3(1): 117-124. 8.Bonham M., Posakony J., Coleman I., Montgomery B., Simon J. & Nelson P.S. (2005) Characterization of chemical constituents in Scutellaria baicalensis with antiandrogenic and growth-inhibitory activities toward prostate carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res., 11(10): 3905-3914. 9.Shang Y.Z., Qin B.W., Cheng J.J. & Miao H. (2006) Prevention of oxidative injury by flavonoids from stems and leaves of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi in PC12 cells. Phytother Res., 20(1): 53-57. 10.Craker L.E. & Giblette, J. (2002). Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. pp. 491- 496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. 11.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Scutellaria barbata (BAN ZHI LIAN) barbed skullcap, barbat skullcap or scutellaria {R16} Scutellaria barbata is a perennial herb which is natively distributed throughout Korea and southern China. It has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antiinflammatory and antitumour agent (1). In vitro anticancer activity has been well demonstrated in human cancer cell-lines (eg. 2,3,4).

A crude extract prepared from S. barbata was analysed in an effort to discover compounds that would be effective against high-level strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (5). Flavonoid congeners (‘apigenin’ and ‘luteolin’) were isolated from the plant as active constituents and were selectively toxic to Staphylococcus aureus, including the methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive strains. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Chan J.Y., Tang P.M., Hon P.M., Au S.W., Tsui S.K., Waye M.M., Kong S.K., Mak T.C. & Fung K.P. (2006) Pheophorbide a, a major antitumor component purified from Scutellaria barbata, induces apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Planta Med., 72(1): 28-33. 3.Goh D., Lee Y.H. & Ong E.S. (2005) Inhibitory effects of a chemically standardized extract from Scutellaria barbata in human colon cancer cell lines, LoVo. J Agric Food Chem., 53(21): 8197-8204. 4.Chui C.H., Lau F.Y., Tang J.C., Kan K.L., Cheng G.Y., Wong R.S., Kok S.H., Lai P.B., Ho R., Gambari R. & Chan A.S. (2005) Activities of fresh juice of Scutellaria barbata and warmed water extract of Radix Sophorae Tonkinensis on anti-proliferation and apoptosis of human cancer cell lines. Int J Mol Med., 16(2): 337-341.

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5.Sato Y., Suzaki S., Nishikawa T., Kihara M., Shibata H. & Higuti T. (2000) Phytochemical flavones isolated from Scutellaria barbata and antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Ethnopharmacol., 72(3): 483-488.

Selaginella doederleinii (SHI SHANG BAI) greater selaginella {R5} This Chinese herb is used as an anticancer drug (1,2). In a 1988 investigation, the antimutagenic activities of extracts of 36 commonly used anticancer crude drugs from Chinese herbs were studied by using the Salmonella/microsomal system in the presence of picrolonic acid or benzo[a]pyrene to test whether they contain direct or indirect antimutagens (2). Selaginella doederleinii extract showed only moderate antimutagenic activity against benzo[a]pyrene. This species has received little research attention in more recent times but remains a popular alternative anticancer treatment (3). There is a report of a patient developing severe bone marrow suppression after taking this herb (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Lee H. & Lin J.Y. (1988) Antimutagenic activity of extracts from anticancer drugs in Chinese medicine. Mutat Res., 204(2): 229-234. 3.Pan K.Y., Lin J.L. & Chen J.S. (2001) Severe reversible bone marrow suppression induced by Selaginella doederleinii. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol., 39(6): 637-639.

Semiaquilegia adoxoides (TIAN KUI ZI) {R6} Commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine but a scarcity of previous phytochemical studies was acknowledged in 2005 (1). Said to possess anticancer activity (2). 1.Su Y.F., Zhang Z.X., Guo C.Y. & Guo D.A. (2005) A nobel cyanogenic glycoside from Semiaquilegia adoxoides. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 7(2): 171-174. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Senna tora (JUE MING ZI) foetid cassia or sickle senna {R12} Senna tora is said to lower plasma cholesterol and prevent the formation of atherosclerotic plaque in arterial walls (1). In the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia it has been reported that normal plasma cholesterol levels can be achieved in 80% of cases if the herb is taken continuously for two weeks; if treatment is continued for longer, a 96% success rate has been observed (1). C. tora supplements helped improve serum lipid status in type II diabetic subjects without serious adverse effects (2). This species is widely naturalised throughout the world (exact native range obscure) and a noxious weed in some localities (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Cho S.H., Kim T.H., Lee N.H., Son H.S., Cho I.J. & Ha T.Y. (2005) Effects of Cassia tora fiber supplement on serum lipids in Korean diabetic patients. J Med Food., 8(3): 311-318. 3.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Sinapis alba (JIE ZI) white mustard {R5} Widely naturalised, perhaps native to the Mediterranean region and elsewhere in Eurasia (1). A weed in parts of Australia. Used in Chinese medicine to treat asthma (1) but scarce recent scientific investigation of efficacy. 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Sinomenium acutum (QING TENG) han fang ji {R15} This plant has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis for over a thousand years (1). The active constituent is ‘sinomenine’, an alkaloid from the stems. In 1976, a Japanese researcher wrote that sinomenine was ‘known’ to be effective in neuralgia and rheumatic diseases (2). In 1994, cell-line studies in Germany showed lymphocyte antiproliferation effects of sinomenine and these were linked to antiinflammatory and antiarthritic mechanisms which were claimed to be ‘obvious’ in clinical trials (3). By 2003, even Australians were investigating this species and they found some antiinflammatory activity in enzyme trials (4). Very recent published work on rats describes a new herbal mixture containing extract from Sinomenium acutum as possessing significant antiinflammatory and analgesic effects, and implies that it would be a potential candidate for further investigation as a new antiarthritic botanical drug for humans (5). In conclusion, the evidence for this species (perhaps used in conjunction with other herbs) seems reasonably supportive but up-to-date human trials would add to its case. 114

1.Zhao Z.Z., Liang Z.T., Zhou H., Jiang Z.H., Liu Z.Q., Wong Y.F., Xu H.X. & Liu L. (2005) Quantification of sinomenine in caulis sinomenii collected from different growing regions and wholesale herbal markets by a modified HPLC method. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(1): 105-109. 2.Yamasaki H. (1976) Pharmacology of sinomenine, an anti-rheumatic alkaloid from Sinomenium acutum. Acta Med Okayama., 30(1): 1-20. 3.Liu L., Resch K. & Kaever V. (1994) Inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation by the anti-arthritic drug sinomenine. Int J Immunopharmacol., 16(8): 685-691. 4.Li R.W., David Lin G., Myers S.P. & Leach D.N. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese medicinal vine plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(1): 61-67. 5.Zhou H., Wong Y.F., Cai X., Liu Z.Q., Jiang Z.H., Bian Z.X., Xu H.X. & Liu L. (2006) Suppressive effects of JCICM-6, the extract of an anti-arthritic herbal formula, on the experimental inflammatory and nociceptive models in rodents. Biol Pharm Bull., 29(2): 253-260.

Siraitia grosvenorii (LUO HAN GUO) momordica or Monk’s fruit {R8} Glycosides are the bioactive components of many famous Chinese medicines and many biologically active triterpenoid glycosides have been isolated from Siraitia grosvenorii (1). To search for cancer chemopreventive agents from natural resources, two sweeteners (glycosides ‘mogroside V’ and ‘11- oxo-mogroside V’) isolated from S. grosvenorii were investigated. They were found to exhibit strong inhibitory effects in primary antitumour screening tests indicating induction of Epstein-Barr virus early antigen by a tumour promoter (2). These glycosides also exhibited significant inhibitory effects in two-stage carcinogenesis tests of mouse skin tumours (2). In another study, eighteen triterpenoids from the fruit were also evaluated for inhibitory effects on induction of Epstein-Barr virus early antigen by tumour promoter in Raji cells (3). All of the tested Monk’s fruit compounds showed potent inhibitory effects. 1.Zhou J. (1991) Bioactive glycosides from Chinese medicines. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz., Suppl 2: 231-234. 2.Takasaki M., Konoshima T., Murata Y., Sugiura M., Nishino H., Tokuda H., Matsumoto K., Kasai R. & Yamasaki K. (2003) Anticarcinogenic activity of natural sweeteners, cucurbitane glycosides, from Momordica grosvenori. Cancer Lett., 198(1): 37-42. 3.Ukiya M., Akihisa T., Tokuda H., Toriumi M., Mukainaka T., Banno N., Kimura Y., Hasegawa J. & Nishino H. (2002) Inhibitory effects of cucurbitane glycosides and other triterpenoids from the fruit of Momordica grosvenori on epstein-barr virus early antigen induced by tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. J Agric Food Chem., 50(23): 6710-6715.

Smilax glabra (TU FU LING) Chinese smilax or glabrous greenbrier {R21} Smilax glabra is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine that has been used clinically to prevent leptospirosis and to treat syphilis and acute bacterial dysentery; however, its extracts have also shown antitumour and antiatherosclerosis activity (1). A decoction comprised of Nigella sativa seeds, Hemidesmus indicus root and Smilax glabra rhizome is used to treat cancer patients in Sri Lanka (2). Results from trials suggest that this mixture can protect rat liver against chemical induced hepatocarcinogenesis (2). Further experiments are considered worthwhile to determine the anticancer potential of this plant decoction and its components (3). Some hypoglycaemic effects have been reported in mice (4). 1.Yi Y., Cao Z., Yang D., Cao Y., Wu Y. & Zhao S. (1998) Studies on the chemical constituents of Smilax glabra. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 33(11): 873-875. 2.Iddamaldeniya S.S., Wickramasinghe N., Thabrew I., Ratnatunge N. & Thammitiyagodage M.G. (2003) Protection against diethylnitrosoamine-induced hepatocarcinogenesis by an indigenous medicine comprised of Nigella sativa, Hemidesmus indicus and Smilax glabra: a preliminary study. J Carcinog., 2(1): 6. 3.Thabrew M.I., Mitry R.R., Morsy M.A. & Hughes R.D. (2005) Cytotoxic effects of a decoction of Nigella sativa, Hemidesmus indicus and Smilax glabra on human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Life Sci., 77(12): 1319-1330. 4.Fukunaga T., Miura T., Furuta K. & Kato A. (1997) Hypoglycemic effect of the rhizomes of Smilax glabra in normal and diabetic mice. Biol Pharm Bull., 20(1): 44-46.

Smilax sieboldii - smilax {R2} Smilax sieboldii is a climbing shrub that grows in Korea, Japan and China. The subterranean parts are used in Chinese medicine to treat arthritis, tumours and lumbago (1). The rhizomes are rich in steroidal saponins (1,2). 1.Woo M.H., Do J.C. & Son K.H. (1992) Five new spirostanol glycosides from the subterranean parts of Smilax sieboldii. J of Natural Products, 55: 1129-1135. 2.Kubo S., Mimaki Y., Sashida Y., Nikaido T. & Ohmoto T. (1992) Steroidal saponins from the rhizomes of Smilax sieboldii. Phytochemistry., 31(7): 2445-2450.

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Sophora flavescens (KU SHEN or KU SENG) sophora or shrubby sophora {R22} ‘Oxymatrine’, an alkaloid extracted from the traditional Chinese herb Sophora flavescens, has activities including- antiinflammation, immune reaction inhibition, antivirus, hepatocyte protection and antihepatic fibrosis (1). Oxymatrine has been widely used for the treatment of chronic hepatitis, by virtue of its antiinflammatory and antiapoptotic activity (2). Results from a study on rats indicate that oxymatrine may represent a potent drug to protect the liver against warm ischaemia and reperfusion injury (2).

It has been shown that ‘kurorinone’ extracted from S. flavescens, possesses antiviral properties. The efficacy and safety of kurorinone treatment in human patients with chronic hepatitis B was investigated and results suggested that kurorinone is able to inhibit hepatitis B virus replication and improve disease remission (3). A systematic review of randomised clinical trials evaluating the effects of this plant on chronic hepatitis B, showed that ‘matrine’ (aqueous extract of S. flavescens) had antiviral activity, positive liver biochemical effects, and improved symptoms compared with non- specific treatment and other herbal medicines (4). However, it was concluded that evidence was not sufficient to recommend matrine for routine clinical use due to the low methodological quality of studies; new rigorous trials are needed (4). Matrine is also used for its anticancer activity (5).

Coxsackievirus B3 is a major pathogen for acute and chronic viral myocarditis. However, ‘sophoridine’ from S. flavescens showed activity against Coxsackievirus B3 and may represent a potential therapeutic agent for viral myocarditis (6). 1.Xu G.L., Yao L., Rao S.Y., Gong Z.N., Zhang S.Q. & Yu S.Q. (2005) Attenuation of acute lung injury in mice by oxymatrine is associated with inhibition of phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. J Ethnopharmacol., 98(1-2): 177-183. 2.Jiang H., Meng F., Li J. & Sun X. (2005) Anti-apoptosis effects of oxymatrine protect the liver from warm ischemia reperfusion injury in rats. World J Surg., 29(11): 1397-1401. 3.Chen C., Guo S.M. & Liu B. (2000) A randomized controlled trial of kurorinone versus interferon-alpha2a treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis B. J Viral Hepat., 7(3): 225-229. 4.Liu J., Zhu M., Shi R. & Yang M. (2003) Radix Sophorae flavescentis for chronic hepatitis B: a systematic review of randomized trials. Am J Chin Med., 31(3): 337-354. 5.Chang Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv, Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 6.Zhang Y., Zhu H., Ye G., Huang C., Yang Y., Chen R., Yu Y. & Cui X. (2006) Antiviral effects of sophoridine against coxsackievirus B3 and its pharmacokinetics in rats. Life Sci., 78(17): 1998-2005.

Sophora tonkinensis (SHAN DOU GEN) Vietnamese sophora {R10} This herb is said to possess anticancer activity (1,2). ‘Sophoranone’ from a fraction extracted with methanol from the roots, inhibited cell growth and induced apoptosis in various lines of cells from human solid tumours (3). Results indicated that sophoranone might be a unique apoptosis-inducing anticancer agent that targets mitochondria. ‘Matrine’ from the roots showed significant inhibition of lens-protein induced ocular inflammation in rabbits, and may be a safer ocular antiinflammatory agent than corticosteroids (4). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Kojima R., Fukushima S., Ueno A. & Saiki Y. (1970) Antitumor activity of Leguminosae plants constituents. I. Antitumor activity of constituents of Sophora subprostrata. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 18(12): 2555-2563. 3.Kajimoto S., Takanashi N., Kajimoto T., Xu M., Cao J., Masuda Y., Aiuchi T., Nakajo S., Ida Y. & Nakaya K. (2002) Sophoranone, extracted from a traditional Chinese medicine Shan Dou Gen, induces apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells via formation of reactive oxygen species and opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pores. Int J Cancer, 99(6): 879-890. 4.Chuang C.Y., Xiao J.G. & Chiou G.C. (1987) Ocular anti-inflammatory actions of matrine. J Ocul Pharmacol., 3(2): 129-134.

Sparganium eurycarpum (SAN LENG) bur reed {R7} Used in Korean traditional prescriptions for inflammatory diseases. Limited research.

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Spatholobus suberectus (JI XUE TENG ) spatholobus or mi hua dou {R14} Traditionally used as a treatment for poor blood circulation, inflammation, pain in the waist and knees, numbness in the extremities and arthralgia due to wind dampness (1). Contains flavonoids (2) including ‘catechin’ (3) which are believed to have some value in fighting tumours, as well as enhancing immune system function.

Australian research examined the antiinflammatory activity of ethanol extract from this vine against a panel of five key enzymes relating to inflammation. Spatholobus suberectus extract was found to be active against four of the tested enzymes (3). In other work, S. suberectus extracts were especially potent in human epidermal melanocytes in respect to free radical scavenging effects (4). The methanol extracts also elicited significant in vitro inhibition (>90%) of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 protease activity (5).

In a clinical trial investigating the pharmaceutical effect on bone marrow hematopoiesis (ie. formation and development of blood cells) and microenvironment of aplastic anaemia, 106 cases of aplastic anaemia patients were treated with spatholobus extract (6). The pathological change in marrow was observed for 24 months and compared with 17 control volunteers. The total effective rate was 77.4% with the extract deemed to exert reconstructive action on the marrow microenvironment (6). SS8, a monomer extracted from S. suberectus also distinctly stimulated the proliferation of hematopoietec progenitor cells in a time and dosage dependent manner in mice with bone marrow depression (7). Other mouse studies report that the active components of this species promote proliferation of bone marrow cells (8,9). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Yoon J.S., Sung S.H., Park J.H. & Kim Y.C. (2004) Flavonoids from Spatholobus suberectus. Arch Pharm Res., 27(6): 589-592. 3.Liu C., Ma L., Chen R.Y. & Liu P. (2005) Determination of catechin and its analogues in Spatholobus suberectus by RP-HPLC. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 30(18): 1433-1435. 4.Wang K.H., Lin R.D., Hsu F.L., Huang Y.H., Chang H.C., Huang C.Y. & Lee M.H. (2006) Cosmetic applications of selected traditional Chinese herbal medicines. J Ethnopharmacol., 106(3): 353-359. 5.Lam T.L., Lam M.L., Au T.K., Ip D.T., Ng T.B., Fong W.P. & Wan D.C. (2000) A comparison of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 protease inhibition activities by the aqueous and methanol extracts of Chinese medicinal herbs. Life Sci., 67(23): 2889-2896. 6.Su E.Y. & Chen H.S. (1997) Clinical observation on aplastic anemia treated by Spatholobus suberectus Composita. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 17(4): 213-215. 7.Wang D.X., Chen M.L., Yin J.F. & Liu P. (2003) Effect of SS8, the active part of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn, on proliferation of hematopoietic progenitor cells in mice with bone marrow depression. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(2): 152-155. 8.Chen D.H., Luo X., Yu M.Y., Zhao Y.Q., Cheng Y.F. & Yang Z.R. (2004) Effect of Spatholobus suberectus on the bone marrow cells and related cytokines of mice. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(4): 352-355. 9.Liu P., Wang D.X., Chen R.Y., Chen M.L., Yin J.F. & Chen G.Y. (2004) Effect of catechin on bone marrow cell cycle and gene expression of hematopoietic growth factors. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 39(6): 424-428.

Stellaria dichotoma (YIN CHAI HU) starwort or stellaria {R8} Dichotomins from the roots showed a moderate vasorelaxant effect on rat aorta (1). ‘Dichotomoside D’, a new glycoside from the root inhibited the release of beta-hexosaminidase as well as tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-4 in RBL-2H3 cells (2). Findings suggest that dichotomoside D is more effective against late-phase reactions in type I allergy than in the immediate phase. 1.Morita H., Iizuka T., Choo C.Y., Chan K.L., Itokawa H. & Takeya K. (2005) Dichotomins J and K, vasodilator cyclic peptides from Stellaria dichotoma. J Nat Prod., 68(11): 1686-1688. 2.Morikawa T., Sun B., Matsuda H., Wu L.J., Harima S. & Yoshikawa M. (2004) Bioactive constituents from Chinese natural medicines. XIV.New glycosides of beta-carboline-type alkaloid, neolignan, and phenylpropanoid from Stellaria dichotoma L. var. lanceolata and their antiallergic activities. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 52(10): 1194-1199.

Stemmacantha uniflora (LOU LU or LOUR LU) rhaponticum {R14} Used in China for its anticancer (1) and antiarthritic activity (2). In animal trials, extracts exhibited an antioxidation effect which inhibited lipid peroxide production and improved membrane fluidity of cells, making atherosclerosis lesions less severe (3). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Lu Y.C. (1993) Lipid peroxide, membrane fluidity of smooth muscle cells and atherosclerosis. Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi., 22(1): 42-45. 117

Stemona tuberosa (BAI BU) stemona {R11} Medullary thyroid carcinoma is a rare calcitonin-producing tumour, derived from the parafollicular C- cells of the thyroid and it is known to be relatively insensitive to conventional chemotherapy (1). The effects on proliferation and apoptotic rates of eight cell-lines established from medullary thyroid carcinoma were investigated following treatment with 10 agents from plants of the genera Stemona, Aglaia and Artemisia. Enhancement of apoptosis was provoked particularly by Stemona tuberosa (1). 1.Rinner B., Siegl V., Purstner P., Efferth T., Brem B., Greger H. & Pfragner R. (2004) Activity of novel plant extracts against medullary thyroid carcinoma cells. Anticancer Res., 24(2A): 495-500.

Stephania tetrandra (FANG JI) stephania {R17} The root contains many isoquinoline alkaloids, the major one being a bis-ben-zylisoquinoline alkaloid known as ‘tetrandrine’ (1). Stephania tetrandra’s traditional use as an antirheumatic herb has been supported from the results of in vivo mouse experiments suggesting that therapeutic effects are exerted possibly by causing immunomodulatory effects at specific sites (2). More recently, a human study suggested that the suppressive effect of S. tetrandra administration on excessive granulocyte activation resulted in the improvement of inflammation with rheumatoid arthritis (3). At least five human trials concluded that tetrandrine can improve heart function and lower blood pressure (1). Tetrandrine is also approved by State Drugs Administration of China as a new drug for the treatment of silicosis (4). In general, the clinical results to date with tetrandrine in asthma and pulmonary hypertension have been exciting (4). Tetrandrine’s role in cancer prevention is also receiving considerable investigative attention (5,6).

This flowering plant is a member of the family Menispermaceae. The root is most commonly used and it is dug in autumn, dried in sunlight, sliced and used unprepared (7). Traditional administration: 5-10 g decocted in water for an oral dose (7). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Niizawa A., Kogure T., Hai L.X., Fujinaga H., Takahashi K., Shimada Y. & Terasawa K. (2003) Clinical and immunomodulatory effects of fun-boi, an herbal medicine, on collagen-induced arthritis in vivo. Clin Exp Rheumatol., 21(1): 57-62. 3.Sekiya N., Shimada Y., Niizawa A., Kogure T., Mantani N., Sakai S., Hikiami H. & Terasawa K. (2004) Suppressive effects of Stephania tetrandra on the neutrophil function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Phytother Res., 18(3): 247-249. 4.Xie Q.M., Tang H.F., Chen J.Q. & Bian R.L. (2002) Pharmacological actions of tetrandrine in inflammatory pulmonary diseases. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 23(12): 1107-1113. 5.Meng L.H., Zhang H., Hayward L., Takemura H., Shao R.G. & Pommier Y. (2004) Tetrandrine induces early G1 arrest in human colon carcinoma cells by down-regulating the activity and inducing the degradation of G1-S- specific cyclin-dependent kinases and by inducing p53 and p21Cip1. Cancer Res., 64(24): 9086-9092. 6.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.), ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp. 7.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Strobilanthes cusia (QING DAI or DA CHING YEH) natural indigo or Assam indigo {R7} Widely cultivated in East Asia (1). The root of Strobilanthes cusia has been commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat influenza, epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis, encephalitis B, viral pneumonia, mumps and severe acute respiratory syndrome (ie. SARS) (2). The leaf is also used in traditional Chinese medicine for inflammatory diseases. A study which investigated the antinociceptive, antiinflammatory and antipyretic effects of methanol extract of the leaf found that the extract significantly inhibited the writhing responses of mice, and decreased licking time in both early and late phases in a formalin test (3). It also reduced rat paw oedema induced by carrageenan (3). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Tanaka T., Ikeda T., Kaku M., Zhu X.H., Okawa M., Yokomizo K., Uyeda M. & Nohara T. (2004) A new lignan glycoside and phenylethanoid glycosides from Strobilanthes cusia BREMEK. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 52(10): 1242-1245. 3.Ho Y.L., Kao K.C., Tsai H.Y., Chueh F.Y. & Chang Y.S. (2003) Evaluation of antinociceptive, antiinflammatory and antipyretic effects of Strobilanthes cusia leaf extract in male mice and rats. Am J Chin Med., 31(1): 61-69.

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Strophanthus divaricatus (YANG GUO NAU) {R2} The cardiac glycosides from this plant are said to increase myocardiac contractility, slow the heart beat and increase cardiac output (1). 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Styphnolobium japonicum (HUAI HUA or HUAI JIAO) sophora, Chinese scholar tree, pagoda tree or Japanese pagoda tree {R24} Extracts from Styphnolobium japonicum are used for properties including- antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antispasmodic and antihypertensive (1,2). Antioxidative activity has been identified (3) and the antiinflammatory action of ‘sophoricoside’ from the fruits has been demonstrated in animal experiments (4). More recently, studies have found that this plant and Ginkgo biloba have the same components of ‘quercetin’ and ‘rutin’, but only Ginkgo biloba has been widely used to treat cerebrovascular disorders and dementia in humans (5). An experiment investigating the effect of S. japonicum extract on cerebral infarct in rats demonstrated that it could reduce the cerebral infarction area and neurological deficit induced by ischaemia-reperfusion, suggesting its potential as a treatment for cerebral infarct in humans (5). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 3.Tang Y.P., Li Y.F., Hu J. & Lou F.C. (2002) Isolation and identification of antioxidants from Sophora japonica. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 4(2): 123-128. 4.Kim B.H., Chung E.Y., Min B.K., Lee S.H., Kim M.K., Min K.R. & Kim Y. (2003) Anti-inflammatory action of legume isoflavonoid sophoricoside through inhibition on cyclooxygenase-2 activity. Planta Med., 69(5): 474- 476. 5.Lao C.J., Lin J.G., Kuo J.S., Chao P.D., Cheng C.Y., Tang N.Y. & Hsieh C.L. (2005) Microglia, apoptosis and interleukin-1beta expression in the effect of Sophora japonica l. on cerebral infarct induced by ischemia- reperfusion in rats. Am J Chin Med., 33(3): 425-438.

Taraxacum mongolicum (PU GONG YING) dandelion {R6} This herb is seen everywhere in China (1) and is widely used for its antibacterial activity (2). Also used as a herbal medicinal treatment against cancers in East Asia but was ineffective in trials on gastric cancer cell-lines (3). This species was one of 10 highly effective herbs (out of 472 tested) against herpes simplex virus in tissue culture trials (4). 1.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 2.Zhu M., Wong P.Y. & Li R.C. (1999) Effects of Taraxacum mongolicum on the bioavailability and disposition of ciprofloxacin in rats. J Pharm Sci., 88(6): 632-634. 3.Ko S.G., Koh S.H., Jun C.Y., Nam C.G., Bae H.S. & Shin M.K. (2004) Induction of apoptosis by Saussurea lappa and Pharbitis nil on AGS gastric cancer cells. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(10): 1604-1610. 4.Zheng M. (1990) Experimental study of 472 herbs with antiviral action against the herpes simplex virus. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 10(1): 6, 39-41.

Taxillus chinensis (SANG JI SHENG) mulberry mistletoe {R2} Used in Chinese medicine to strengthen the muscles and bones, for rheumatic and rheumatoid arthritis, and for treatment of hypertension (1). No recent medical literature was found on this species. However, the chemical constituents of other Taxillus mistletoes have been investigated in Japan for treating diabetes and hypertension (2). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Fukunaga T., Nishiya K., Kajikawa I., Takeya K. & Itokawa H. (1989) Studies on the constituents of Japanese mistletoes from different host trees, and their antimicrobial and hypotensive properties. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 37: 1543-1546.

Terminalia arjuna [India- ARJUNA] terminalia, kahua, kumbuk or white murdh {R11} A tropical woody tree found throughout India near rivers and streams and growing to 30 m. An important cardiotonic plant described in the Ayurveda and prized for treatment of heart disorders for hundreds of years (1). Extracts from the bark are used to treat angina and congestive heart failure (1,2,3). Benefits have been established in human clinical trials. Patients with acute myocardial infarction receiving adjuvant Terminalia arjuna showed significant decrease in ischaemic mitral regurgitation, improvement in E/A ratio and considerable reduction in anginal frequency (4). T. arjuna therapy for two weeks lead to significant regression of endothelial abnormality amongst smokers (5). In other research, T. arjuna bark extract given to patients with stable angina with provocable

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ischaemia on treadmill exercise, led to improvement in clinical and treadmill exercise parameters as compared to placebo therapy (6). The bark powder also showed significant antioxidant action comparable to vitamin E, and it displayed a significant hypocholesterolaemic effect (7). Proprietary herbal products containing components developed from T. arjuna are available (8). Recognised as a potential new crop for Australia (9). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 3.Miller A.L. (1998) Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease. Altern Med Rev., 3(6): 422-431. 4.Dwivedi S., Aggarwal A., Agarwal M.P. & Rajpal S. (2005) Role of Terminalia arjuna in ischaemic mitral regurgitation. Int J Cardiol., 100(3): 507-508. 5.Bharani A., Ahirwar L.K. & Jain N. (2004) Terminalia arjuna reverses impaired endothelial function in chronic smokers. Indian Heart J., 56(2): 123-128. 6.Bharani A., Ganguli A., Mathur L.K., Jamra Y. & Raman P.G. (2002) Efficacy of Terminalia arjuna in chronic stable angina: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study comparing Terminalia arjuna with isosorbide mononitrate. Indian Heart J., 54(2): 170-175. 7.Gupta R., Singhal S., Goyle A. & Sharma V.N. (2001) Antioxidant and hypocholesterolaemic effects of Terminalia arjuna tree-bark powder: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. J Assoc Physicians India., 49: 231- 235. 8.Kumar P.U., Adhikari P., Pereira P. & Bhat P. (1999) Safety and efficacy of Hartone in stable angina pectoris- an open comparative trial. J Assoc Physicians India, 47(7): 685-689. 9.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm

Terminalia bellirica [Myanmar- THIT-SEINT] bastard mybolan, bedda nuts, belleric, beleric myrobalan or beach-almond {R2} Used in Myanmar traditional medicine for heart disease and asthma (1). This species has not attracted much investigative attention but in one experiment evaluating 30 hypoglycaemic medicinal plants from indigenous folk medicines (Ayurvedic, Unani and Siddha), a blood glucose lowering effect of Terminalia bellirica was observed in alloxan induced-diabetic rats (2). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Kar A., Choudhary B.K. & Bandyopadhyay, N.G. (2003) Comparative evaluation of hypoglycaemic activity of some Indian medicinal plants in alloxan diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 84(1): 105-108.

Terminalia chebula (HE ZI) [Myanmar- HPAN-GA] black myrobalan {R10} While the traditional medicinal uses of Terminalia chebula are of little interest with respect to current Australian chronic diseases, new research points to possible value and this plant has been the focus of considerable recent research. Extracts from T. chebula showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (1). ‘Chebulagic acid’ from the immature seeds significantly suppressed the onset and progression of collagen-induced arthritis in mice (2).

Another study investigated the cancer chemopreventive potential of ‘Triphala’, a combination of fruit powder of three different plants including T. chebula (3). Triphala is a popular formulation of Ayurvedic medicine. Findings showed that Triphala in the diet significantly reduced benzo(a)pyrene induced forestomach papillomagenesis in mice. Triphala also significantly increased the antioxidant status of animals and this may have contributed to the chemoprevention (3). Other work points to significant inhibitory activity on oxidative stress of the ethanol extract from this fruit (4). 1.Aqil F., Khan M.S., Owais M. & Ahmad I. (2005) Effect of certain bioactive plant extracts on clinical isolates of beta-lactamase producing methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Basic Microbiol., 45(2): 106-114. 2.Lee S.I., Hyun P.M., Kim S.H., Kim K.S., Lee S.K., Kim B.S., Maeng P.J. & Lim J.S. (2005) Suppression of the onset and progression of collagen-induced arthritis by chebulagic acid screened from a natural product library. Arthritis Rheum., 52(1): 345-353. 3.Deep G., Dhiman M., Rao A.R. & Kale R.K. (2005) Chemopreventive potential of Triphala (a composite Indian drug) on benzo(a)pyrene induced forestomach tumorigenesis in murine tumor model system. J Exp Clin Cancer Res., 24(4): 555-563. 4.Na M., Bae K., Kang S.S., Min B.S., Yoo J.K., Kamiryo Y., Senoo Y., Yokoo S. & Miwa N. (2004) Cytoprotective effect on oxidative stress and inhibitory effect on cellular aging of Terminalia chebula fruit. Phytother Res., 18(9): 737-741.

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Tetrapanax papyrifer (TONG CAO) Chinese rice-paper plant {R8} The antiinflammatory activity of Tetrapanax papyrifer has been examined in animal studies (1,2) but other plants used for this purpose have been better investigated. 1.Sugishita E., Amagaya S. & Ogihara Y. (1983) Studies on the mechanism of anti-inflammatory activities of papyriogenin a and papyriogenin C. J Pharmacobiodyn., 6(5): 287-294. 2.Sugishita E., Amagaya S. & Ogihara Y. (1982) Structure-activity studies of some oleanane triterpenoid glycosides and their related compounds from the leaves of Tetrapanax papyriferum on anti-inflammatory activities. J Pharmacobiodyn., 5(6): 379-387.

Thalictrum faberi {R2} Thalictrum faberi is used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antiphlogistic and to treat stomach cancer (1). Alkaloids from the roots have shown cytotoxic activity against several human cancer cell- lines (1,2). Root alkaloids have also displayed antimalarial activity (2). Note: this scientific name is under review. 1.Lin L.Z., Hu S.F., Zaw K., Angerhofer C.K., Chai H., Pezzuto J.M., Cordell G.A., Lin J. & Zheng D.M. (1994) Thalifaberidine, a cytotoxic aporphine-benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from Thalictrum faberi. J Nat Prod., 57(10): 1430-1436. 2.Lin L.Z., Hu S.F., Chu M., Chan T.M., Chai H., Angerhofer C.K., Pezzuto J.M. & Cordell G.A. (1999) Phenolic aporphine-benzylisoquinoline alkaloids from Thalictrum faberi. Phytochemistry, 50(5): 829-834.

Thevetia peruviana (HUANG HUA JIA ZHU TAO) yellow oleander or lucky nut {R3} The seed of this herb contains several cardiac glycosides and the pharmacological effects are similar to those of digitalis (1). Clinical trials on 357 cases of congestive heart failure showed a 78.4% effective rate (1). The cardiovascular drug ‘peruvoside’ is extracted from Thevetia peruviana (2). This plant is grown as an ornamental in Australia. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.), ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press- Haworth Press, 500 pp.

Tinospora cordifolia [Myanmar- SINDONE-MA-NWE] heart leaved moon seed {R24} A medicinal plant used in Myanmar for arthritis and heart palpitations (1). Also an Ayurvedic herb used historically for infections, arthritis and fever (2). It may be effective in improving survival rates after high risk surgeries by enhancing the immune response (3,4).

Since year 2000, this species has been extensively investigated for its anticancer and antidiabetic properties. The diabetic research has focussed on animal trials. Oral administration of an aqueous Tinospora cordifolia root extract to alloxan-induced diabetic rats resulted in a significant reduction in blood glucose and brain lipids (5). The extract caused an increase in body weight, total haemoglobin and hepatic hexokinase but also lowered hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase and serum acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactate dehydrogenase in the rats. Thus T. cordifolia root extract has hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effects (5). In other work on alloxan-induced diabetic rats, T. cordifolia ethanolic extracts again showed significant blood glucose lowering activity (6). Blood glucose values were brought down close to normal fasting level using herbal samples at a dose of 250 mg/kg once, twice or thrice daily, as needed. An alcohol extract of T. cordifolia roots had hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic actions in yet another rat study (7). Root extract also acted as an antioxidant defence in diabetic rats (8).

Cancer research on this plant has also been based on rodents. Alcoholic extract of T. cordifolia activated tumour associated macrophages of Dalton's lymphoma and thus may have clinical implications (9). The dichloromethane extract of T. cordifolia exerted cytotoxic effect on tumour cells by reducing glutathione concentration and increasing lipid peroxidation simultaneously (10). In vivo administration of alcoholic extract to mice bearing spontaneous T cell lymphoma retarded tumour growth and prolonged survival (11). T. cordifolia was found to augment proliferation of thymocytes with a concomitant decrease in thymocyte apoptosis. Another study indicated that extracts of this plant can influence the myeloid differentiation of mouse bone marrow progenitor cells and the recruitment of macrophages in response to tumour growth in situ (12). 1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp.

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2.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 3.Kapil A. & Sharma S. (1997) Immunopotentiating compounds from Tinospora cordifolia. J Ethnopharmacol., 58(2): 89-95. 4.Rege N., Bapat R.D., Koti R., Desai N.K. & Dahanukar S. (1993) Immunotherapy with Tinospora cordifolia: a new lead in the management of obstructive jaundice. Indian J Gastroenterol., 12(1): 5-8. 5.Stanely P., Prince M. & Menon V.P. (2000) Hypoglycaemic and other related actions of Tinospora cordifolia roots in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 70(1): 9-15. 6.Kar A., Choudhary B.K. & Bandyopadhyay N.G. (2003) Comparative evaluation of hypoglycaemic activity of some Indian medicinal plants in alloxan diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 84(1): 105-108. 7.Stanely Mainzen Prince P. & Menon V.P. (2003) Hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic action of alcohol extract of Tinospora cordifolia roots in chemical induced diabetes in rats. Phytother Res., 17(4): 410-413. 8.Prince P.S., Padmanabhan M. & Menon V.P. (2004) Restoration of antioxidant defence by ethanolic Tinospora cordifolia root extract in alloxan-induced diabetic liver and kidney. Phytother Res., 18(9): 785-787. 9.Singh N., Singh S.M. & Shrivastava P. (2004) Immunomodulatory and antitumor actions of medicinal plant Tinospora cordifolia are mediated through activation of tumor-associated macrophages. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol., 26(1): 145-162. 10.Jagetia G.C. & Rao S.K. (2006) Evaluation of the antineoplastic activity of guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma bearing mice. Biol Pharm Bull., 29(3): 460-466. 11.Singh N., Singh S.M., Prakash & Singh G. (2005) Restoration of thymic homeostasis in a tumor-bearing host by in vivo administration of medicinal herb Tinospora cordifolia. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol., 27(4): 585- 599. 12.Singh S.M., Singh N. & Shrivastava P. (2006) Effect of alcoholic extract of Ayurvedic herb Tinospora cordifolia on the proliferation and myeloid differentiation of bone marrow precursor cells in a tumor-bearing host. Fitoterapia., 77(1): 1-11.

Tinospora crispa {R11} Used in traditional Malaysian medicine for malaria, bacterial infections, high blood pressure, diabetes and cholera (1). Extracts were able to inhibit more than 50% of the growth of malaria parasite (2), and another study reported that the antimalarial effects were considerable (3). The efficacy of Tinospora crispa extract for treatment of diabetes has been supported in animal models (4,5). However, a more recent randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled human trial has considered T. crispa as an additional treatment for patients with type II diabetes mellitus who did not respond to oral hypoglycaemic drugs, and refused insulin injection (6). There were no significant changes in fasting plasma glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and insulin levels among the patients within the treatment group and between the treatment and placebo groups. It was concluded that there was no evidence to support the use of T. crispa (at rates of 3 g a day) (6). Based on animal studies, Tinospora extract has been recommended for clinical treatment of various types of inflammation (7). 1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Bertani S., Bourdy G., Landau I., Robinson J.C., Esterre P. & Deharo E. (2005) Evaluation of French Guiana traditional antimalarial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol., 98(1-2): 45-54. 3.Najib Nik A., Rahman N., Furuta T., Kojima S., Takane K. & Ali Mohd M. (1999) Antimalarial activity of extracts of Malaysian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 64(3): 249-254. 4.Noor H., Hammonds P., Sutton R. & Ashcroft S.J. (1989) The hypoglycaemic and insulinotropic activity of Tinospora crispa: studies with human and rat islets and HIT-T15 B cells. Diabetologia., 32(6): 354-359. 5.Noor H. & Ashcroft S.J. (1989) Antidiabetic effects of Tinospora crispa in rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 27(1-2): 149-161. 6.Sangsuwan C., Udompanthurak S., Vannasaeng S. & Thamlikitkul V. (2004) Randomized controlled trial of Tinospora crispa for additional therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Med Assoc Thai., 87(5): 543- 546. 7.Higashino H., Suzuki A., Tanaka Y. & Pootakham K. (1992) Inhibitory effects of Siamese Tinospora crispa extracts on the carrageenin-induced foot pad edema in rats (the 1st report). Nippon Yakurigaku Zasshi., 100(4): 339-344.

Tinospora sagittata {R3} Australian research examined the antiinflammatory activities of ethanol extracts from nine vine plants used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammatory conditions (1). They were evaluated against a panel of key enzymes relating to inflammation. The root and stem from Tinospora sagittata showed inhibitory activity against at least one of the enzymes. 1.Li R.W., David Lin G., Myers S.P. & Leach D.N. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese medicinal vine plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(1): 61-67.

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Tinospora sinensis - Chinese tinospora {R6} The antiinflammatory activities of ethanol extracts from nine vine plants used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammatory conditions were examined in Australian research (1). They were evaluated against a panel of key enzymes relating to inflammation. The root from Tinospora sinensis showed inhibitory activities against at least one of the enzymes (1). Water and ethanol extracts of the stems inhibited immunosuppression produced by cyclophosphamide, and ethanol extract also inhibited cyclophosphamide-induced anaemia (2). 1.Li R.W., David Lin G., Myers S.P. & Leach D.N. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese medicinal vine plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(1): 61-67. 2.Manjrekar P.N., Jolly C.I. & Narayanan S. (2000) Comparative studies of the immunomodulatory activity of Tinospora cordifolia and Tinospora sinensis. Fitoterapia., 71(3): 254-257.

Toona sinensis - Chinese mahogany cedar, Chinese cedar, Chinese mahogany or Chinese toon {R6} The effect of substances extracted from Toona sinensis leaves with 50% alcohol on lipolysis (breakdown of fats) was investigated in cultured 3T3-L1 differentiated adipocytes (fat cells) (1). Glycerol release was increased by the leaf extract in a dose and time dependent manner ie. a positive lipolytic effect (1). In related work, cellular glucose uptake was also enhanced by the leaf extract (2).

‘Methyl gallate’ has been shown to be an effective antioxidant in a variety of acellular experiments (3). Methyl gallate extracted from T. sinensis was effective in preventing hydrogen peroxide-mediated oxidative stress and DNA damage in cultured Madin-Darby canine kidney cells (3). Another study investigated the effect of crude extract from T. sinensis leaves on the proliferation of A549 human lung cancer cells and found that cell cycle progression was blocked (4). The extract’s antiproliferative action was specific for tumour cells. 1.Hsu H.K., Yang Y.C., Hwang J.H. & Hong S.J. (2003) Effects of Toona sinensis leaf extract on lipolysis in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Kaohsiung J Med Sci., 19(8): 385-390. 2.Yang Y.C., Hsu H.K., Hwang J.H. & Hong S.J. (2003) Enhancement of glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes by Toona sinensis leaf extract. Kaohsiung J Med Sci., 19(7): 327-333. 3.Hsieh T.J., Liu T.Z., Chia Y.C., Chern C.L., Lu F.J., Chuang M.C., Mau S.Y., Chen S.H., Syu Y.H. & Chen C.H. (2004) Protective effect of methyl gallate from Toona sinensis (Meliaceae) against hydrogen peroxide- induced oxidative stress and DNA damage in MDCK cells. Food Chem Toxicol., 42(5): 843-850. 4.Chang H.C., Hung W.C., Huang M.S. & Hsu H.K. (2002) Extract from the leaves of Toona sinensis Roemor exerts potent antiproliferative effect on human lung cancer cells. Am J Chin Med., 30(2-3): 307-314.

Torreya grandis (FEI ZI) torreya, Chinese torreya, grand torreya or Chinese nutmeg-yew {R9} The preventive effect of oil from Torreya grandis seed on experimental atherosclerosis in rats was investigated and found to reduce levels of serum total cholesterol, triglyceride and the atherosclerosic index (1). Levels of serum high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol were increased (1). 1.Chen Z., Chen Z., Hou L., Xu Z. & Zheng H. (2000) The preventive effect of the oil from the seed of Torreya grandis cv. merrillii on experimental atherosclerosis in rats. Zhong Yao Cai., 23(9): 551-553.

Trachelospermum jasminoides (LUO SHI TENG) star jasmine {R6} One traditional use of this herb has been for rheumatoid arthritis, especially with muscle contracture (1). Recent research in Australia investigated the antiinflammatory activities of ethanol extracts from the stem of this plant against a panel of key enzymes relating to inflammation (2). Trachelospermum jasminoides showed potent inhibitory activity against two enzymes. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Li R.W., David Lin G., Myers S.P. & Leach D.N. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of Chinese medicinal vine plants. J Ethnopharmacol., 85(1): 61-67.

Trichosanthes kirilowii (TIAN HUA FEN or GUA LOU) Chinese snake gourd or Chinese cucumber {R30} ‘Trichosanthin’, a ribosome-inactivating protein extracted from the root tuber of Chinese medicinal herb Trichosanthes kirilowii, has multiple pharmacological properties including abortifacient and antitumour. Recently, trichosanthin has been found to induce apoptosis, enhance the action of chemokines and inhibit human immunodeficiency virus-1 integrase (1). Other compounds from this plant have also been effective in clinical treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection (2,3).

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‘Bryonolic acid’ from T. kirilowii was observed to induce programmed cell death and therefore arrest proliferation of cancerous cells (4). Antitumour activity has been demonstrated in animal trials in vitro (5) and in vivo (6), and against human cancer cell-lines (7).

Another study was carried out to elucidate the antiinflammatory effect of 50% ethanol extract obtained from the fruit (8). Antiinflammatory activity was investigated on acetic acid-induced vascular permeability in mice, carrageenan-induced oedema and cotton pellet-induced granuloma formation in rats, as well as writhing symptoms in mice. The whole fruit and seed extractions showed antiinflammatory activity and analgesic activity (8).

‘SKI 306X’, a purified extract from a mixture of three oriental herbal medicines including T. kirilowii, has been widely used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases such as lymphadenitis and arthritis in East Asia. A double-blind, controlled study was performed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of SKI 306X with placebo in 96 patients with classical osteoarthritis of the knee (9). SKI 306X demonstrated its clinical efficacy, as assessed by 100 mm visual analogue scale, Lequesne index and patient and investigator opinions of the therapeutic effect compared with placebo (P<0.01). No significant adverse events were observed in patients treated with SKI 306X. The study concluded that SKI 306X provided clinical efficacy in patients with osteoarthritis (9).

In related work, the protective effects of SKI 306X on articular cartilage was examined and compared with other osteoarthritis drugs using in vitro and in vivo rabbit models (10). Results indicated that SKI 306X inhibited proteoglycan degradation in cartilage explant culture, and its prophylactic administration significantly protected the knee joint of rabbit from osteoarthritis-like change in collagenase-induced experimental osteoarthritis model. This strongly suggests that SKI 306X can be a good osteoarthritis agent with some cartilage protection activity (10). T. kirilowii extracts are also used in angina pectoris with an effective rate of 78.9% depending upon the length of drug administration (11).

This plant has been identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants that have potential for production in the USA (12). Also, previously identified as a potential new crop for Australia (13). T. kirilowii (family Curcurbitaceae) is a perennial climber growing to 6 m at a fast rate. It is frost tender and should not be grown in the shade. The root is harvested in late autumn and male plants are favoured for root production. T. kirilowii prefers a rich well-drained, sandy-loam soil and plenty of moisture in the growing season. Plants may be trained on a trellis once vines reach 1 m in length. Spacing of plants should be 90 cm within rows. Traditional administration: 10 to 15 g of the dried root decocted with water for an oral dose or used in pills or powder (14). 1.Shaw P.C., Lee K.M. & Wong K.B. (2005) Recent advances in trichosanthin, a ribosome-inactivating protein with multiple pharmacological properties. Toxicon., 45(6): 683-689. 2.Zheng Y.T., Ben K.L. & Jin S.W. (2000) Anti-HIV-1 activity of trichobitacin, a novel ribosome-inactivating protein. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 21(2): 179-182. 3.Zhao J., Ben L.H., Wu Y.L., Hu W., Ling K., Xin S.M., Nie H.L., Ma L. & Pei G. (1999) Anti-HIV agent trichosanthin enhances the capabilities of chemokines to stimulate chemotaxis and G protein activation, and this is mediated through interaction of trichosanthin and chemokine receptors. J Exp Med., 190(1): 101-111. 4.Thatte U., Bagadey S. & Dahanukar S. (2000) Modulation of programmed cell death by medicinal plants. Cell Mol Biol., 46(1): 199-214. 5.Takemoto D.J. (1998) Effect of trichosanthin an anti-leukemia protein on normal mouse spleen cells. Anticancer Res., 18(1A): 357-361. 6.Yasukawa K., Akihisa T., Tamura T. & Takido M. (1994) Inhibitory effect of karounidiol on 12-O- tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced tumor promotion. Biol Pharm Bull., 17(3): 460-462. 7.Akihisa T., Tokuda H., Ichiishi E., Mukainaka T., Toriumi M., Ukiya M., Yasukawa K. & Nishino H. (2001) Anti-tumor promoting effects of multiflorane-type triterpenoids and cytotoxic activity of karounidiol against human cancer cell lines. Cancer Lett., 173(1): 9-14. 8.Ozaki Y., Xing L. & Satake M. (1996) Antiinflammatory effect of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim, and its effective parts. Biol Pharm Bull., 19(8): 1046-1048. 9.Jung Y.B., Roh K.J., Jung J.A., Jung K., Yoo H., Cho Y.B., Kwak W.J., Kim D.K., Kim K.H. & Han C.K. (2001) Effect of SKI 306X, a new herbal anti-arthritic agent, in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee: a double- blind placebo controlled study. Am J Chin Med., 29(3-4): 485-491. 10.Choi J.H., Choi J.H., Kim D.Y., Yoon J.H., Youn H.Y., Yi J.B., Rhee H.I., Ryu K.H., Jung K., Han C.K., Kwak W.J. & Cho Y.B. (2002) Effects of SKI 306X, a new herbal agent, on proteoglycan degradation in cartilage explant culture and collagenase-induced rabbit osteoarthritis model. Osteoarthritis Cartilage, 10(6): 471-478. 124

11.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 12.Craker L.E. & Giblette J. (2002). Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. pp. 491- 496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. 13.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm 14.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Trigonella foenum-graecum (HU LU BA) fenugreek or Greek hay {R14} Current commercial crop in Australia (1). Although its use as a medicinal plant largely originated in the Mediterranean region, this species has a long history of use in Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine (2). Hydrolysed saponins in fenugreek seeds are partly responsible for the hypocholesterolaemic effects of this plant (3). Animal and human trials suggest possible hypoglycaemic and antihyperlipidaemic properties of orally ingested fenugreek seed powder (3,4). The seeds of debitterised fenugreek seed powder may be effective in improving glucose tolerance (supported from results of several human trials) and improving lipid profiles (3). In an experimental double-blind study with human diabetic type I patients, food intakes with or without defatted fenugreek seed powder were incorporated into the diet (5). The fenugreek diet significantly reduced fasting blood sugar and improved the glucose tolerance test. Fenugreek diet also reduced serum total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein and very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides (5). 1.Jongebloed M. (1998) Coriander & fenugreek, pp. 467-471. In, Hyde K.W. (Ed.), ‘The New Rural Industries- a Handbook for Farmers and Investors’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra, 570 pp. 2.Basch E., Ulbricht C., Kuo G., Szapary P. & Smith M. (2003) Therapeutic applications of fenugreek. Altern Med Rev., 8(1): 20-27. 3.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 4.Pinn G. (2005) Herbal medicine in endocrinology and metabolic disease, pp. 383-398. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) ‘Handbook of medicinal plants’. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 5.Sharma R.D., Raghuram T.C. & Rao N.S. (1990) Effect of fenugreek seeds on blood glucose and serum lipids in type I diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr., 44(4): 301-306.

Tripterygium regelii {R3} Tripterygium species are used in Chinese medicine for the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases. ‘Regelin’, ‘regelinol’ and an oleanene-type triterpenoid ‘wilforlide A’, isolated from Tripterygium regelii roots, showed antitumour activity in a screening test (1). However, to date other species have been better investigated for antitumour effects. 1.Hori H., Pang G.M., Harimaya K., Iitaka Y. & Inayama S. (1987) Isolation and structure of regelin and regelinol, new antitumor ursene-type triterpenoids from Tripterygium regelii. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 35(5): 2125-2128.

Tripterygium wilfordii (LEI GONG TENG) thunder god vine {19} Preparations of this species have traditionally been used in China to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Administration may have potent immunosuppressive and antiinflammatory effects based on in vitro and human patient studies (1,2,3,4,5,6). Of 132 patients with severe joint pain before therapy, 124 said the pain was reduced or gone following treatment with the glycoside extract of Tripterygium wilfordii (7). In another study of 95 human patients, relief from pain was accomplished in 98% of cases and some reduction in joint swelling and improved joint function was noted in 87% (7).

An up-to-date systematic review of randomised clinical trials of T. wilfordii for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis symptoms found two reports indicating beneficial effects (8). However, the reviewers suggested that T. wilfordii is associated with serious adverse events which make the risk- benefit analysis for this herb unfavourable. They concluded that its use cannot be recommended (8).

Based on animal and in vitro experimental studies, various biochemical components from T. wilfordii may have anticancer effects (1,9,10). Trials with animals showed that ‘triptolide A’ is a major active principle with ability to inhibit mouse L-615 leukaemia cells and prolong the survival time (11). However, triptolide A is a toxic agent that can damage the cardiovascular system and the central nervous system (11).

Recognised as a potential new crop for Australia (12).

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1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Ho L.J., Chang D.M., Chang M.L., Kuo S.Y. & Lai JH. (1999) Mechanism of immunosuppression of the antirheumatic herb TWHf in human T cells. J Rheumatol., 26(1): 14-24. 3.Tao X., Schulze-Koops H., Ma L., Cai J., Mao Y. & Lipsky P.E. (1998) Effects of Tripterygium wilfordii hook F extracts on induction of cyclooxygenase 2 activity and prostaglandin E2 production. Arthritis Rheum., 41(1): 130-138. 4.Chang D.M., Chang W.Y., Kuo S.Y. & Chang M.L. (1997) The effects of traditional antirheumatic herbal medicines on immune response cells. J Rheumatol., 24(3): 436-441. 5.Tao X.L., Sun Y., Dong Y., Xiao Y.L., Hu D.W., Shi Y.P., Zhu Q.L., Dai H. & Zhang N.Z. (1989) A prospective, controlled, double-blind, cross-over study of Tripterygium wilfordii hook F in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Chin Med J., 102(5): 327-332. 6.Yu D.Y. (1983) Clinical observation of 144 cases of rheumatoid arthritis treated with glycoside of Radix Tripterygium wilfordii. J Tradit Chin Med., 3(2): 125-129. 7.Deyong Y. (1981) Tripterygium wilfordii hook F in rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. Chin Med J., 7: 405-412. 8.Canter P.H., Lee H.S. & Ernst E. (2006) A systematic review of randomised clinical trials of Tripterygium wilfordii for rheumatoid arthritis. Phytomedicine, 13(5): 371-377. 9.Ushiro S., Ono M., Nakayama J., Fujiwara T., Komatsu Y., Sugimachi K. & Kuwano M. (1997) New nortriterpenoid isolated from anti-rheumatoid arthritic plant, Tripterygium wilfordii, modulates tumor growth and neovascularization. Int J Cancer, 72(4): 657-663. 10.Ujita K., Takaishi Y., Tokuda H., Nishino H., Iwashima A. & Fujita T. (1993) Inhibitory effects of triptogelin A-1 on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13- acetate-induced skin tumor promotion. Cancer Lett., 68(2-3): 129-133. 11.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 12.Fletcher R. (1997) Listing of Potential New Crops for Australia, ISBN 0 86776 734 0, Second Edition, June 1997, 553 pp. Or, http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/listing/listingindexc.htm

Tylophora indica [India- ANTHRAPACHAKA] Indian ipecac {R27} The leaves of this species have been used extensively in Ayurvedic medicine for asthma and other respiratory disorders (1,2). In one experimental, double-blind, crossover study of 103 human patients, those receiving the dry alcoholic extract of Tylophora indica demonstrated significant improvement in asthma symptoms compared to a placebo group (3). T. indica also had a more gradual and longer lasting effect than a standard antiasthmatic drug (4). However, despite the positive results from these earlier clinical trials, supportive anecdotal evidence and widespread use, a review of herbal medicines for asthma has raised doubts (5). The authors claim that there is no definitive evidence for efficacy of any herbal preparations (including T. indica), and suggest that considering the popularity of herbal medicine with asthma patients, there is an urgent need for stringently designed clinically relevant, randomised trials for evaluating herbal preparations used in asthma treatment (5).

Extracts from ipecac are potent agents for scavenging of nitric oxide and could be used in the regulation of pathological conditions caused by excessive generation of nitric oxide and its oxidation products (6). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 3.Shivpuri D.N., Singhal S.C. & Parkash D. (1972) Treatment of asthma with an alcoholic extract of Tylophora indica: a cross-over, double-blind study. Ann Allergy, 30(7): 407-412. 4.Thiruvengadam K.V., Haranath K., Sudarsan S., Sekar T.S., Rajagopal K.R., Zacharian M.G. & Devarajan T.V. (1978) Tylophora indica in bronchial asthma (a controlled comparison with a standard anti-asthmatic drug). J Indian Med Assoc., 71(7): 172-176. 5.Huntley A. & Ernst E. (2000) Herbal medicines for asthma: a systematic review. Thorax., 55(11): 925-929. 6.Jagetia G.C. & Baliga M.S. (2004) The evaluation of nitric oxide scavenging activity of certain Indian medicinal plants in vitro: a preliminary study. J Med Food, 7(3): 343-348.

Typha angustata (PU HUANG) {R4} Traditionally Typha species have been used in cardiac treatment and Typha angustata has received some attention in this area (1). The effective components have been identified as flavonoids (2). 1.Huang S.Y. & Wang Y.J. (1985) Effect of Typha angustata on acute experimental myocardial infarction in rabbits. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi., 5(5): 261, 297-298. 2.Gao G., Liao M. & Feng Y. (1998) Determination of flavonoids and quality evaluation of Chinese traditional drug "puhuang". Yao Xue Xue Bao., 33(4): 300-303.

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Typha angustifolia (PU HUANG) cattail, lesser reed-mace, nail-rod, narrow-leaf cattail or small reed-mace {R8} Traditionally for promoting circulation of the blood and relief of cardiac pain (1). The effective components have been identified as flavonoids (2,3). Extracts of Typha angustifolia lowered serum cholesterol levels in artherosclerotic rabbits (4). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Gao G., Liao M. & Feng Y. (1998) Determination of flavonoids and quality evaluation of Chinese traditional drug "puhuang". Yao Xue Xue Bao., 33(4): 300-303. 3.Xi X.R. & Li S.X. (2000) Analysis on contents of flavonoids and polysaccharides in pollen of Typha angustifolia L. and its different processed products. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 25(1): 25-28. 4.Tao B., Li X. & Hei L.J. (2004) The influence of Typha angustifolia on vascular endothelium cell injury of arherosclerotic rabbits. Chin J Int Med on Cardio-Cerebrovascular disease, 4: 17-19.

Typha orientalis (PU HUANG) cat tail {R3} Traditionally for promoting circulation of the blood and relief of cardiac pain (1). Water extract of this species injected into rats prevented ventricular fibrillation, sudden death caused by isoproterenol, and arrhythmia induced by infusion of BaCl2 (2). Used today in China to lower plasma cholesterol, lower peripheral blood pressure and to treat angina pectoris (3). Naturalised in SW Australia (4) and grows widely there but efficacy literature is lacking. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Zheng R.X., Fang S.M., Li Z.M. & Zhang X.M. (1993) Prevention of arrhythmia in rats by puhuang. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 18(2): 108-110, 127. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 4.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Typhonium giganteum (BAI FU ZI) giant typhonium {R7} The response of hepatocellular carcinoma cells to extracts of this plant has received limited attention (1). Insufficient evidence to recommend use. 1.Wang S.Q., Ni H., Cheng H., Wang G.L., Wang T.S. & Chen L. (2004) Detection of differentially expressed genes in hepatocellular carcinoma cells SMMC-7721 treated with Typhonium giganteum extract by mRNA differential display. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(10): 974-977.

Uncaria rhynchophylla (GOU TENG) {R19} Traditionally used for treatment of convulsions, epilepsy and hypertension. The pharmacological actions of the alkaloids, ‘rhynchophylline’ and ‘isorhynchophylline’ extracted from Uncaria rhynchophylla have been reviewed (1). These alkaloids mainly act on the cardiovascular system and central nervous system inducing hypotension, brachycardia, antiarrhythmia and protection against cerebral ischaemia.

Gou teng’s antihypertensive, vasodilator action has been supported by in vitro findings using rat blood vessels (2,3). Results from other trials suggest that U. rhynchophylla could potentially be used to accelerate vascular wound healing or to promote the growth of collateral blood vessel in ischaemic tissues (4).

In a study using rats, the anticonvulsant effect of U. rhynchophylla was attributed to its suppressive effect on lipid peroxidation in the brain (5). A further rat study evaluated the neuroprotective effects of U. rhynchophylla after transient global ischaemia using 4-vessel occlusion (6). Methanol extract administered intraperitoneally significantly protected hippocampal CA1 neurons against transient forebrain ischaemia. Measurement of neuronal cell density in the CA1 region at seven days after ischaemia by Nissl staining revealed more than 70% protection in U. rhynchophylla treated rats compared to saline-treated animals (6). Pretreatment with U. rhynchopylla extract also reduced the degree of neuronal damage and cell death induced by N-methyl-D-aspartate exposure in cultured rat hippocampal slices (7,8).

Attenuation of monoamine oxidase B activity may provide protection against oxidative neurodegeneration. For this reason, inhibition of monoamine oxidase B activity is used as part of the treatment of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's patients. In latest research, compounds (+)-catechin and (-)- epicatechin from U. rhynchophylla inhibited monoamine oxidase B, as measured by an assay of rat

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brain (9). This suggests that these two compounds might be able to protect against neurodegeneration in vitro, and the authors suggest that the molecular mechanism deserves further study. Potential for Australian production has been recognised (10). 1.Shi J.S., Yu J.X., Chen X.P. & Xu R.X. (2003) Pharmacological actions of Uncaria alkaloids, rhynchophylline and isorhynchophylline. Acta Pharmacol Sin., 24(2): 97-101. 2.Kuramochi T., Chu J. & Suga T. (1994) Gou-teng (from Uncaria rhynchophylla Miquel)-induced endothelium- dependent and -independent relaxations in the isolated rat aorta. Life Sci., 54(26): 2061-2069. 3.Zhang W.B., Chen C.X., Sim S.M. & Kwan C.Y. (2004) In vitro vasodilator mechanisms of the indole alkaloids rhynchophylline and isorhynchophylline, isolated from the hook of Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miquel). Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol., 369(2): 232-238. 4.Choi D.Y., Huh J.E., Lee J.D., Cho E.M., Baek Y.H., Yang H.R., Cho Y.J., Kim K.I., Kim D.Y. & Park D.S. (2005) Uncaria rhynchophylla induces angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(12): 2248-2252. 5.Hsieh C.L., Chen M.F., Li T.C., Li S.C., Tang N.Y., Hsieh C.T., Pon C.Z. & Lin J.G. (1999) Anticonvulsant effect of Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq) Jack. in rats with kainic acid-induced epileptic seizure. Am J Chin Med., 27(2): 257-264. 6.Suk K., Kim S.Y., Leem K., Kim Y.O., Park S.Y., Hur J., Baek J., Lee K.J., Zheng H.Z. & Kim H. (2002) Neuroprotection by methanol extract of Uncaria rhynchophylla against global cerebral ischemia in rats. Life Sci., 70(21): 2467-2480. 7.Lee J., Son D., Lee P., Kim D.K., Shin M.C., Jang M.H., Kim C.J., Kim Y.S., Kim S.Y. & Kim H. (2003) Protective effect of methanol extract of Uncaria rhynchophylla against excitotoxicity induced by N-methyl-D- aspartate in rat hippocampus. J Pharmacol Sci., 92(1): 70-73. 8.Lee J., Son D., Lee P., Kim S.Y., Kim H., Kim C.J. & Lim E. (2003) Alkaloid fraction of Uncaria rhynchophylla protects against N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced apoptosis in rat hippocampal slices. Neurosci Lett., 348(1): 51-55. 9.Hou W.C., Lin R.D., Chen C.T. & Lee M.H. (2005) Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibition by active principles from Uncaria rhynchophylla. J Ethnopharmacol., 100(1-2): 216-220. 10.Jane Parker, Research Manager for the Australian Herb & Spice Industry Association - pers.comm.

Uncaria sinensis (GOU TENG) {R10} The phenolic compounds epicatechin, catechin, procyanidin B-1, procyanidin B-2, hyperin and caffeic acid from the hooks and stems of Uncaria sinensis were studied for their protective effects against glutamate-induced neuronal death in cultured rat cerebellar granule cells (1). Cell viability evaluated by MTT assay was significantly increased by application of epicatechin, catechin, procyanidin B-1 and procyanidin B-2 compared with exposure to glutamate only. These compounds appear to be the active components of U. sinensis and protect against glutamate-induced neuronal death by inhibition of calcium influx (1).

Uncaria sinensis is the main plant composing the medicine ‘Choto-san’ (or ‘Diao-teng-san’). Two different multicenter studies on the efficacy of Choto-san on patients with vascular dementia, one a well-controlled but non-double blind (60 patients), the other a double-blind controlled study (139 patients), were performed (2). In both the well-controlled study and the double-blind study, Choto-san was superior in global improvement rating, utility rating and improvement of subjective symptoms, psychiatric symptoms and disturbance in daily living activities (2). These results suggest that Choto- san is effective in the treatment of vascular dementia.

In additional work to clarify effects in vivo, oral administration of Choto-san extract or U. sinensis extract was investigated in gerbils (3). Results suggested that the oral administration of both extract types provided a protective effect against transient ischaemia-induced delayed neuronal death by reducing oxidative damage to neurons. The ethanol extract from the hooks and stems of U. sinensis also exhibited significant inhibitory activity on oxidative stress and age-dependent shortening of telomeric DNA length in vitro (4). 1.Shimada Y., Goto H., Kogure T., Shibahara N., Sakakibara I., Sasaki H. & Terasawa K. (2001) Protective effect of phenolic compounds isolated from the hooks and stems of Uncaria sinensis on glutamate-induced neuronal death. Am J Chin Med., 29(1): 173-180. 2.Itoh T., Shimada Y. & Terasawa K. (1999) Efficacy of Choto-san on vascular dementia and the protective effect of the hooks and stems of Uncaria sinensis on glutamate-induced neuronal death. Mech Ageing Dev., 111(2-3): 155-173. 3.Yokoyama K., Shimada Y., Hori E., Sekiya N., Goto H., Sakakibara I., Nishijo H. & Terasawa K. (2004) Protective effects of Choto-san and hooks and stems of Uncaria sinensis against delayed neuronal death after transient forebrain ischemia in gerbil. Phytomedicine, 11(6): 478-489. 4.Na M., Kim Y.H., Min B.S., Bae K., Kamiryo Y., Senoo Y., Yokoo S., Miwa N., Song K.S. & Seong Y.H. 2004) Cytoprotective effect on oxidative stress and inhibitory effect on cellular aging of Uncaria sinensis Havil. J Ethnopharmacol., 95(2-3): 127-132. 128

Vigna angularis (CHI XIAO DOU) adzuki bean or red bean {R12} Rats fed with adzuki starch experienced a lowering of serum cholesterol (1,2). 1.Han K.H., Fukushima M., Shimizu K., Kojima M., Ohba K., Tanaka A., Shimada K., Sekikawa M. & Nakano M. (2003) Resistant starches of beans reduce the serum cholesterol concentration in rats. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol. (Tokyo), 49(4): 281-286. 2.Han K.H., Fukushima M., Kato T., Kojima M., Ohba K., Shimada K., Sekikawa M. & Nakano M. (2003) Enzyme-resistant fractions of beans lowered serum cholesterol and increased sterol excretions and hepatic mRNA levels in rats. Lipids, 38(9): 919-924.

Vincetoxicum atratum (BAI WEI) swallowwort {R7} Sometimes used in the treatment of asthma but has been shown to only have some expectorant effect without antitussive or antiasthmatic actions (1). More recent work has revealed pregnane glycosides, including ‘cynatroside B’, in the roots that significantly inhibited acetylcholinesterase activity (2). Cynatroside B significantly ameliorated memory impairments induced in mice by scopolamine, and it is suggested that the antiacetylcholinesterase and antiamnesic activities of cynatroside B may ultimately hold significant therapeutic value in alleviating certain memory impairments observed in Alzheimer's disease (2). 1.Liang A., Xue B., Yang Q., Li Z., Wang J. & Fu M. (1996) Pharmacological comparative study on baiqian and baiwei. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 21(10): 622-625 2.Lee K.Y., Yoon J.S., Kim E.S., Kang S.Y. & Kim Y.C. (2005) Anti-acetylcholinesterase and anti-amnesic activities of a pregnane glycoside, cynatroside B, from Cynanchum atratum. Planta Med., 71(1): 7-11.

Vincetoxicum pycnostelma (XU CHANG QING) paniculate swallowwort {R10} Traditionally for pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis (1). Contains ‘paeonol’, an important active component present in traditional Chinese medicines (2). In recent years Vincetoxicum pycnostelma has been used to alleviate cancer pain and post-operative pain (1) but this usage is not well documented in scientific/medical literature. A phenanthroindolizidine alkaloid derived from the root was highly active in growth inhibition of human cancer cells in culture (3). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Deng C., Yao N., Wang B. & Zhang X. (2006) Development of microwave-assisted extraction followed by headspace single-drop microextraction for fast determination of paeonol in traditional Chinese medicines. J Chromatogr A., 1103(1): 15-21. 3.Lee S.K., Nam K.A. & Heo Y.H. (2003) Cytotoxic activity and G2/M cell cycle arrest mediated by antofine, a phenanthroindolizidine alkaloid isolated from Cynanchum paniculatum. Planta Med., 69(1): 21-25.

Vincetoxicum stauntonii (BAI QIAN) willowleaf swallowwort {R7} Used traditionally with other herbs for treating asthma (1). Decoctions of Vincetoxicum stauntonii have been show to have antiasthmatic and antiinflammatory effects (2). Volatile oil from the roots has exhibited in vitro activity against influenza virus, and in vivo experiments showed that it prevented influenza virus-induced deaths in a dose-dependent manner (3). ‘Stauntonine’ from the roots showed dose-dependent relaxation of aortic rings with endothelium contracted by phenylepherine or KCl (4). 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Liang A., Xue B., Yang Q., Li Z., Wang J. & Fu M. (1996) Pharmacological comparative study on baiqian and baiwei. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 21(10): 622-625 3.Zai Chang Y., Bo Chu W., Xiao Sheng Y. & Qiang W. (2005) Chemical composition of the volatile oil from Cynanchum stauntonii and its activities of anti-influenza virus. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces., 43(3-4): 198-202. 4.Wang P., Qin H.L., Zhang L., Li Z.H., Wang Y.H. & Zhu H.B. (2004) Steroids from the roots of Cynanchum stauntonii. Planta Med., 70(11): 1075-1079.

Viola prionantha (ZI HUA DI DING) violet herb {R2} Petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts showed activity against Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas syringae using a bioautographic assay (1). 1.Xie C., Kokubun T., Houghton P.J. & Simmonds M.S. (2004) Antibacterial activity of the Chinese traditional medicine, Zi Hua Di Ding. Phytother Res., 18(6): 497-500.

Viola yedoensis - Tokyo violet {R7} Ethyl acetate and petroleum ether extracts showed activity against Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas syringae using a bioautographic assay (1). Extracts of Viola yedoensis also demonstrated high inhibitory activity toward human immunodeficiency virus in vitro (2,3). At a subtoxic concentration, growth of human immunodeficiency virus was typically completely stopped (3).

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1.Xie C., Kokubun T., Houghton P.J. & Simmonds M.S. (2004) Antibacterial activity of the Chinese traditional medicine, Zi Hua Di Ding. Phytother Res., 18(6): 497-500. 2.Ngan F., Chang R.S., Tabba H.D. & Smith K.M. (1988) Isolation, purification and partial characterization of an active anti-HIV compound from the Chinese medicinal herb Viola yedoensis. Antiviral Res., 10(1-3): 107-116. 3.Chang R.S. & Yeung H.W. (1988) Inhibition of growth of human immunodeficiency virus in vitro by crude extracts of Chinese medicinal herbs. Antiviral Res., 9(3): 163-175.

Viscum coloratum (HU JI SHANG) Korean mistletoe {R13} Traditionally used as an antihypertensive agent (1) but has also been employed for several decades as an anticancer immunomodulating agent in clinical fields (2). In the past 10 years, Korean mistletoe has been the subject of many trials investigating its anticancer properties. Mistletoe lectin has been reported to induce apoptosis in different cancer cell-lines and to show antitumour activity against a variety of tumours in animal models (3). ‘Agglutinin’, isolated from Korean mistletoe, is a strong inducer of apoptosis in a variety of tumour cells in culture (4). The underlying molecular mechanisms responsible continue to be investigated. Despite an apparent history of clinical use and excellent results from cell-line and animal work, reports on human clinical trials with this species could not be retrieved from the scientific literature. 1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Park R., Kim M.S., So H.S., Jung B.H., Moon S.R., Chung S.Y., Ko C.B., Kim B.R. & Chung H.T. (2000) Activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) in mistletoe lectin II-induced apoptosis of human myeloleukemic U937 cells. Biochem Pharmacol., 60(11): 1685-1691. 3.Choi S.H., Lyu S.Y. & Park W.B. (2004) Mistletoe lectin induces apoptosis and telomerase inhibition in human A253 cancer cells through dephosphorylation of Akt. Arch Pharm Res., 27(1): 68-76. 4.Kim W.H., Park W.B., Gao B. & Jung M.H. (2004) Critical role of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial membrane potential in Korean mistletoe lectin-induced apoptosis in human hepatocarcinoma cells. Mol Pharmacol., 66(6): 1383-1396.

Vitex trifolia (MAN JING ZI) [Myanmar- KYAUNG-BAN] Indian privet or Indian three-leaf vitex {R17} Native to tropical Asia, temperate Asia, Australia and Polynesia; cultivated and naturalised elsewhere (1). Shrub to 2.5 m, the essential oil contains several terpenes (2). Used in folk medicine to treat rheumatic arthralgia (3), cancer (4) and asthma (5). In an examination of 12 plants, Vitex trifolia was one of five containing active compounds that inhibited mast-cell degranulation, suggesting a role in new drugs for treating asthma and/or allergic disease (5). Most recent work on V. trifolia has focussed on anticancer properties. Hexanic and dichloromethanic extracts, when prepared from stems and foliage, have proved to be very toxic against several cancer cell-lines in culture (6). Recent in vitro trials have identified some of the V. trifolia anticancer components that exert their antiproliferative effect through inducing apoptosis and inhibiting the cell cycle (4,7). ‘Vitexicarpin’, a flavonoid from this privet, induced apoptosis in K562 cells via the mitochondria-controlled apoptotic pathway (8). V. trifolia is common in coastal areas of Queensland and of the Northern Territory (9). 1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 3.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 4.Li W.X., Cui C.B., Cai B. & Yao X.S. (2005) Labdane-type diterpenes as new cell cycle inhibitors and apoptosis inducers from Vitex trifolia L. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 7(2): 95-105. 5.Ikawati Z., Wahyuono S. & Maeyama K. (2001) Screening of several Indonesian medicinal plants for their inhibitory effect on histamine release from RBL-2H3 cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 75(2-3): 249-256. 6.Hernandez M.M., Heraso C., Villarreal M.L., Vargas-Arispuro I. & Aranda E. (1999) Biological activities of crude plant extracts from Vitex trifolia L. (Verbenaceae). J Ethnopharmacol., 67(1): 37-44. 7.Li W.X., Cui C.B., Cai B., Wang H.Y. & Yao X.S. (2005) Flavonoids from Vitex trifolia L. inhibit cell cycle progression at G2/M phase and induce apoptosis in mammalian cancer cells. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 7(4): 615- 626. 8.Wang H.Y., Cai B., Cui C.B., Zhang D.Y. & Yang B.F. (2005) Vitexicarpin, a flavonoid from Vitex trifolia L., induces apoptosis in K562 cells via mitochondria-controlled apoptotic pathway. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 40(1): 27-31. 9.Lassak E. & McCarthy T. (2001) Australian Medicinal Plants. Pub.- Reed New Holland, JB Books, 240 pp.

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Xanthium sibiricum (CANG ER CAO or CANG ER XI) xanthium or Siberian cocklebur {R7} Traditionally used to alleviate arthritic pain (1). A sesquiterpene lactone, or ‘xanthatin’, isolated from leaves of this herb displayed outstandingly potent activity against Staphylococcus aureus strains (2). Other bacteria, eg. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi, were also susceptible at the concentrations tested but the compound had no inhibitory effect on some other bacteria, including Escherichia coli. 1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Sato Y., Oketani H., Yamada T., Singyouchi K., Ohtsubo T., Kihara M., Shibata H. & Higuti T. (1997) A xanthanolide with potent antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Pharm Pharmacol., 49(10): 1042-1044.

Xanthium strumarium (CANG ER ZI) cocklebur or large cocklebur {R14} Used as an antibacterial, antifungal, antirheumatic and analgesic (1). Some antibacterial properties have been verified (2) and recent in vitro and rat trials have supported antiinflammatory claims (3). Two xanthanolide sesquiterpene lactones, isolated from the leaves of Xanthium strumarium demonstrated significant inhibition on proliferation of cultured human tumour cells (ie. lung, ovary, melanoma, central nervous system and colon) (4). Another study considered the antihyperglycaemic effect of ‘caffeic acid’, one of the phenolic compounds contained in the fruit (5). Intravenous injection of caffeic acid into diabetic rats decreased plasma glucose. Increase of glucose utilisation by caffeic acid seemed to be the mechanism for lowering of plasma glucose. Possible invasive species, noxious weed (6). 1.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 2.Mehta P., Chopra S. & Mehta A. (1983) Antimicrobial properties of some plant extracts against bacteria. Folia Microbiol (Praha)., 28(6): 467-469. 3.Kim I.T., Park Y.M., Won J.H., Jung H.J., Park H.J., Choi J.W. & Lee K.T. (2005) Methanol extract of Xanthium strumarium L. possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(1): 94-100. 4.Kim Y.S., Kim J.S., Park S.H., Choi S.U., Lee C.O., Kim S.K., Kim Y.K., Kim S.H. & Ryu S.Y. (2003) Two cytotoxic sesquiterpene lactones from the leaves of Xanthium strumarium and their in vitro inhibitory activity on farnesyltransferase. Planta Med., 69(4): 375-377. 5.Hsu F.L., Chen Y.C. & Cheng J.T. (2000) Caffeic acid as active principle from the fruit of Xanthium strumarium to lower plasma glucose in diabetic rats. Planta Med., 66(3): 228-230. 6.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Zanthoxylum bungeanum (HUA JIAO) Sichuan pepper {R10} This Chinese traditional medication from the dried pericarp of ripe fruit has been used for- epigastric pain and vomiting; abdominal pain due to intestinal parasitosis; and, eczema (1). In a research study of 68 water and methanol extracts from 34 Chinese herbal drugs which screened for effects on nitric oxide production, Zanthoxylum bungeanum showed significant inhibition (2). 1.Xiong Q.B. & Shi D.W. (1991) Morphological and histological studies of Chinese traditional drug "hua jiao" (pericarpium zanthoxyli) and its allied drugs. Yao Xue Xue Bao, 26(12): 938-947. 2.Tezuka Y., Irikawa S., Kaneko T., Banskota A.H., Nagaoka T., Xiong Q., Hase K. & Kadota S. (2001) Screening of Chinese herbal drug extracts for inhibitory activity on nitric oxide production and identification of an active compound of Zanthoxylum bungeanum. J Ethnopharmacol., 77(2-3): 209-217.

Zanthoxylum piperitum (CHUAN JIAO or HUA JIAO) Japanese pepper, red pepper or sansho {R13} The dried red peppercorns from Zanthoxylum piperitum are a commonly used spice in Asian cooking. Extracts have exhibited radical-scavenging activity and may be promising agents for scavenging free radicals and treating diseases associated with excess free radicals (1,2). Latest research on this plant has revealed that polymeric proanthocyanidins from the fruit peel suppressed the antibiotic resistance of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (3). Work in Australia determined that an extract of this pepper selectively inhibited the growth of neurofibromatosis-deficient malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumour cells, without affecting the growth of normal fibroblasts; and suppressed the growth of neurofibromatosis-deficient human breast cancer xenograft in mice (4). 1.Cho E.J., Yokozawa T., Rhyu D.Y., Kim S.C., Shibahara N. & Park J.C. (2003) Study on the inhibitory effects of Korean medicinal plants and their main compounds on the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical. Phytomedicine, 10(6-7): 544-551. 2.Cho E.J., Yokozawa T., Rhyu D.Y., Kim H.Y., Shibahara N. & Park J.C. (2003) The inhibitory effects of 12 medicinal plants and their component compounds on lipid peroxidation. Am J Chin Med., 31(6): 907-917.

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3.Hatano T., Kusuda M., Inada K., Ogawa T.O., Shiota S., Tsuchiya T. & Yoshida T. (2005) Effects of tannins and related polyphenols on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Phytochemistry, 66(17): 2047-2055. 4.Hirokawa Y., Nheu T., Grimm K., Mautner V., Maeda S., Yoshida M., Komiyama K. & Maruta1 H. (2006) Sichuan Pepper Extracts Block the PAK1/Cyclin D1 Pathway and the Growth of NF1-Deficient Cancer Xenograft in Mice. Cancer Biol Ther., 5(3): 305-309.

Zanthoxylum schinifolium (HUA JIAO) Sichuan pepper {R7} In animal experiments extracts from Zanthoxylum schinifolium significantly inhibited tumour development (1). Extracts have also shown strong inhibition of platelet aggregation in vitro (2,3). 1.Paik S.Y., Koh K.H., Beak S.M., Paek S.H. & Kim J.A. (2005) The essential oils from Zanthoxylum schinifolium pericarp induce apoptosis of HepG2 human hepatoma cells through increased production of reactive oxygen species. Biol Pharm Bull., 28(5): 802-807. 2.Tsai I.L., Lin W.Y., Teng C.M., Ishikawa T., Doong S.L., Huang M.W., Chen Y.C. & Chen I.S. (2000) Coumarins and antiplatelet constituents from the root bark of Zanthoxylum schinifolium. Planta Med., 66(7): 618- 623. 3.Chen I.S., Lin Y.C., Tsai I.L., Teng C.M., Ko F.N., Ishikawa T. & Ishii H. (1995) Coumarins and anti-platelet aggregation constituents from Zanthoxylum schinifolium. Phytochemistry, 39(5): 1091-1097.

Zingiber montanum [Myanmar- MEIK-THALIN] Bengal ginger or cassumunar ginger {R7} Rhizome extracts of this plant have antioxidant properties (1,2). In vitro studies found that cassumunins A and B from Zingiber montanum gave greater protection to cells suffering from H2O2- induced oxidative stress than did curcumin, a recognised natural antioxidant (3). The rhizome also contains compounds that have shown antiinflammatory activity (4), and rat trials in vivo and in vitro suggested that the activity of (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) butadiene was potent in this respect (5). 1.Chirangini P., Sharma G.J. & Sinha S.K. (2004) Sulfur free radical reactivity with curcumin as reference for evaluating antioxidant properties of medicinal zingiberales. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol., 23(3): 227-236. 2.Nakatani N. (2000) Phenolic antioxidants from herbs and spices. Biofactors, 13(1-4): 141-146. 3.Nagano T., Oyama Y., Kajita N., Chikahisa L., Nakata M., Okazaki E. & Masuda T. (1997) New curcuminoids isolated from Zingiber cassumunar protect cells suffering from oxidative stress: a flow- cytometric study using rat thymocytes and H2O2. Jpn J Pharmacol., 75(4): 363-370. 4.Ozaki Y., Kawahara N. & Harada M. (1991) Anti-inflammatory effect of Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. and its active principles. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 39(9): 2353-2356. 5.Jeenapongsa R., Yoovathaworn K., Sriwatanakul K.M., Pongprayoon U. & Sriwatanakul K. (2003) Anti-inflammatory activity of (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) butadiene from Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. J Ethnopharmacol., 87(2-3): 143-148.

Zingiber officinale (SHENG JIANG - fresh, GAN JIANG - dried) ginger Current commercial crop in Australia. One of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). Traditionally used to relax blood vessels (2). There is evidence indicating that ginger can be effective in preventing motion sickness and nausea in some circumstances (3,4,5). Research has also suggested that ginger root inhibits production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are involved in pain and inflammation. It is now known that ginger modulates biochemical pathways activated in chronic inflammation (6). In an uncontrolled 1992 Danish study, 56 patients who had either rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis or muscular discomfort took powdered ginger (7). All of those with musculoskeletal pain and three-quarters of those with osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis reported varying degrees of pain relief and no side-effects. More recent work has shown benefits in treating osteoarthritis (8,9). 1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Ody P. (2001) Secrets of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Pub.- Dorling Kindersley-Ivy Press, 224 pp. 3.Lien H.C., Sun W.M., Chen Y.H., Kim H., Hasler W. & Owyang C. (2003) Effects of ginger on motion sickness and gastric slow-wave dysrhythmias induced by circular vection. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol., 284(3): 481-489. 4.Vutyavanich T., Kraisarin T. & Ruangsri R. (2001) Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol., 97(4): 577-582. 5.Willetts K.E., Ekangaki A. & Eden J.A. (2003) Effect of a ginger extract on pregnancy-induced nausea: a randomised controlled trial. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol., 43(2): 139-144. 6.Grzanna R., Lindmark L. & Frondoza C.G. (2005) Ginger-an herbal medicinal product with broad antiinflammatory actions. J Med Food., 8(2): 125-132. 7.Srivastava K.C. & Mustafa T. (1992) Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders. Med Hypotheses, 39(4): 342-348.

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8.Altman R.D. & Marcussen K.C. (2001) Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum., 44(11): 2531-2538. 9.Shen C.L., Hong K.J. & Kim S.W. (2005) Comparative effects of ginger root (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) on the production of inflammatory mediators in normal and osteoarthrotic sow chondrocytes. J Med Food, 8(2): 149- 153.

Ziziphus jujuba (DA ZAO or SUAN ZAO REN) Chinese date or Chinese jujube {R12} Widely used in Chinese traditional medicine for the treatment of insomnia and anxiety, and as a hypotensive (1). The methanol extract of the seeds prevented N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced rat neuronal cell damage in vitro (2). In other work, 50 Korean traditional natural plants were screened to measure the activation effect on choline acetyltransferase and attenuation of scopolamine-induced amnesia (3). Methanolic extracts from Ziziphus jujuba showed the highest activatory effect (34.1%) on choline acetyltransferase in vitro. The active component was identified as cis-9-octadecenoamide (‘oleamide’). Administration of oleamide (0.32%) to mice significantly reversed the scopolamine- induced memory and/or cognitive impairment in the passive avoidance test and Y-maze test (3). These results suggest that oleamide should be a useful chemo-preventive agent against Alzheimer's disease.

Compounds from the fruits of Z. jujuba also suppressed the antibiotic resistance of methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (4). Potential as a crop for Australia has been previously recognised (5). 1.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 2.Park J.H., Lee H.J., Koh S.B., Ban J.Y. & Seong Y.H. (2004) Protection of NMDA-induced neuronal cell damage by methanol extract of zizyphi spinosi semen in cultured rat cerebellar granule cells. J Ethnopharmacol., 95(1): 39-45. 3.Heo H.J., Park Y.J., Suh Y.M., Choi S.J., Kim M.J., Cho H.Y., Chang Y.J., Hong B., Kim H.K., Kim E., Kim C.J., Kim B.G. & Shin D.H. (2003) Effects of oleamide on choline acetyltransferase and cognitive activities. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem., 67(6): 1284-1291. 4.Hatano T., Kusuda M., Inada K., Ogawa T.O., Shiota S., Tsuchiya T. & Yoshida T. (2005) Effects of tannins and related polyphenols on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Phytochemistry, 66(17): 2047-2055. 5.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) ‘The New Crop Industries Handbook’. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

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5. Discussion The study considered around 500 Asian medicinal plant species and directly reviewed and documented information on over 400 with links to some of Australia’s chronic diseases. Ninety-eight percent of these were higher plants (ie. angiosperms and gymnosperms). Over 3,500 scientific reference items were reviewed and over 1,000 of these were directly referenced and documented in species summaries.

It was established that there is a general lack of recent and rigorous human efficacy testing. Conclusive positive human results from RDBPC trials are only available for a handful of these plants. Less than 20% of the 400+ species considered here had undergone some type of ‘scientific’ evaluation on humans. This makes it difficult to strongly recommend that growers start producing more types of these Asian medicinal crops. However, many of these species are being actively researched and future results from long-term studies could quickly establish medicinal credentials. To date, at least 6% have yielded phytochemicals used in commercial drugs relating to chronic ailments.

Some clinically important types of information were particularly scarce in the literature, such as results of negative trials, drug interactions, toxic reactions and effects in special populations. In some cases, good evidence about short-term side-effects was available from well-controlled human trials. However, information about the effects of long-term use was often based on case reports rather than prospective studies; a situation unchanged since 1998 (1).

Table 1. Percentage of reviewed and documented plant species that had undergone some form of positive scientific evaluation with links to chronic ailments. Includes plants used in Chinese and non-Chinese Asian medicine. MEDICAL ACTIVITY % of reviewed species Anticancer 41% Antiinflammatory 22% Cardiovascular protective 20% Antioxidant 12% Antidiabetic 11% Hypotensive 10% Neuroprotective 9% Antihyperlipidaemia 7% Antiarthritic (predominantly rheumatoid) 5% Hepatoprotective 3% Nitric oxide inhibitor 3% Antiasthma 3% AntiHIV* 3% Antimalaria* 2% Note- These terms were the predominant ones used in pertinent pieces of scientific literature. The interrelationships between eg. antioxidation and nitric oxide inhibition are recognised; as are the close linkages between eg. antiinflammatory and antiarthritic actions, and eg. antioxidant and anticancer effects etc. ** HIV and malaria information was noted only when a species had been targeted for Australia’s chronic diseases. A primary search for these conditions would undoubtedly have yielded more data.

In addition, the efficacy data generated for many species has been based on ‘extracts’ rather than whole fruit or vegetables. There often remains the question of how much fresh material needs to be ingested to supply sufficient levels of phytochemical to generate biochemical changes in the human body. Cooking plant products can also effect the availability of actives in different ways, sometimes positively and at other times detrimentally. Here the importance of human experimentation is critical and for the vast majority of species that are not current commercial mainstream crops, these issues often need resolution. Concentration of bioactive compounds can also vary with growing conditions and of course genotype/cultivar. Sometimes luxurious and healthy vegetative plant growth is inversely related to levels of phytochemical content.

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Cardiovascular uses and in particular compounds for hypertension (high blood pressure) have a long and relatively rigorous history of investigation and plant products have provided benefits. Antiasthma and antidiabetic activities in plants and their derivatives have also undergone considerable analysis but with lesser success and there are believed to be only a handful of species that are truly functional in these respects. Over the past decade there has been considerable interest in the isolation of potent antioxidant compounds to treat diseases involving oxidative stress (eg. cancer and aspects of cardiovascular disease). A high proportion of plant extracts exhibit some level of antioxidant activity and therefore current prospecting aims only to identify extracts with the highest levels of activity. Marketing a plant product solely on the basis of ‘some’ antioxidant activity may have been commonplace and an adequate description of functionality ten years ago (even five) but current requirements of botanicals are more stringent. Modern research has a large focus on anticancer properties of plants and some successes have been obtained. Forty-one percent of the Asian medicinal plant species documented in this review had been investigated for anticancer effects (Table 1). Given this high level of activity, if Asian and in particular Chinese medicinal species are to make new impacts on human health in Australia, there is a strong chance that this will be as anticancer agents.

Garlic (Allium sativum) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) are two existing Australian commercial crops that are important Chinese medicinal plants with strong support from medical efficacy trials. Other Chinese plants supported by efficacy evaluations are turmeric (Curcuma longa), green tea (Camellia sinensis), ginseng (Panax ginseng), Astragalus membranaceus and Ginkgo biloba but these are relatively small, new crops in Australia. However, given their strength of linked evidence-based data and the considerable recent Australian research investment that most of these plants have attracted, there are good opportunities to develop these into much more important commercial crops, either as fresh or value-added products.

Health of the Australian populace could benefit simply through increased consumption of our existing Asian medicinal plant products without the need to further develop new crops. In Australia, there is a general awareness of the need to increase dietary fruit and vegetables for health benefits. However, for maximum benefits it is essential that there is a focus on those types of plant product that have superior and proven medicinal qualities. All vegetables are not created equal! Many ‘Asian’ products like ginger, turmeric, green tea and ginkgo are not currently large components of Western diets. They have lower profiles than for example lettuce, zucchini and cauliflower but are often better supported than our mainstream traditional crops by medical efficacy data for enhancement of human health. There is a tendency for existing agricultural/horticultural industries to support and justify the health promoting properties of the plant species that they currently produce commercially. However, this should not be allowed to mask and prejudice opportunities for niche species that can provide superior health benefits. There is belief that human health in the West may have suffered in the last thirty years through a decrease in biodiversity associated with diet.

There are good opportunities to better market some of our existing commercial crops. It is possible to add value to a crop or product by simply marketing it with a new dimension. Existing crops backed by human trial evidence could be better marketed with health benefits in mind, eg. fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) and shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes). There are many false and misleading public health claims in the marketplace, so that existing crops with strong causality evidence deserve promotion and further exploitation, in addition to the introduction of new species and products. The Australian Medical Association recently suggested that Australians were wasting almost AU$1.8 billion a year on alternative medicines (such as herbal supplements) and therapies that do not work (2).

Other Chinese medicinal plants that are smaller Australian commercial crops include - Salvia miltiorrhiza, Schisandra chinensis and Scutellaria baicalensis. Centella asiatica and Houttuynia cordata are commoner commercial crops in Australia but are also species that are used medicinally in Asia. Their associated health data is building but needs additional support. However, in those instances where efficacy data is not complete (eg. animal trials conducted but not human), if the plant and its derivatives are safe to consume, then incorporation into the diet may well be beneficial.

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Young leaves of Centella asiatica can be consumed uncooked and incorporated into salads, while the older leaves are suitable for stirfries. Centella asiatica is also an Australian native species (see page 141). Houttuynia cordata is now commonly produced in Australia by growers with a Vietnamese background, and the leaves and smaller stems are used uncooked for salads and food garnishes. Fresh or pickled strips of ginger rhizome could be included in stirfry mixes.

Other Asian species currently produced commercially in Australia are safe to consume and have medicinal ‘potential’ - lotus, peach, litchi, la lot (Piper sarmentosum), mangosteen, holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), longan, Perilla frutescens (a healthy oil seed alternative) and others.

A few Asian medicinal plants like Catharanthus roseus, Gardenia jasminoides, Ophiopogon japonicus, Paeonia lactiflora, Paeonia suffruticosa and Rehmannia glutinosa are currently produced in Australia as ornamental crops. These might be further investigated and developed for their medicinal properties. Good knowledge exists with regards to climate requirements and growing practices for these species.

The summaries presented here for potential ‘new’ crops are a basis and guide for decision-making and follow-up investigations. There is a need to keep surveying the medical literature, an important activity given the ever changing and advancing nature of this industry and its affiliated research activities. It would be advisable to formalise this monitoring, with possibly RIRDC sponsoring the process and making results available in the public domain.

The selection of potentially useful new options for medicinal plant production in Australia was based on the reviews of species presented in the results section. A plant was more likely to receive favourable support when these criteria were met- • superior efficacy data (~ the key requirement) • requirements for production systems suited existing Australian systems • not a weed/invasive species or disease organism.

A systematic approach for choosing potential crops could also include - plant material that is fresher or of higher quality than imported products (specifically aromatics and leaf crops), and herbs that are expensive due to over-harvesting or loss of habitat in China (3).

Potential ‘new’ crops (Chinese and/or non-Chinese Asian; regardless of previous recommendation; not existing Australian crops) - Apocynum venetum (antioxidant, hypertension, cholesterol), Codonopsis pilosula (dementia), Fallopia multiflora (cholesterol, dementia), Huperzia serrata (dementia), Lycium barbarum (cardiovascular, cholesterol, diabetes, cancer), Lycium chinense (liver), Stephania tetrandra (cardiovascular, arthritis) and Trichosanthes kirilowii (cancer, HIV, inflammation, cardiovascular, osteoarthritis).

In some instances the efficacy evidence was good but the plant was a risk. For example, a potential weed species, associated toxicity (eg. Tripterygium wilfordii) or as with Ganoderma lucidum (reishi mushroom), a history as a potent root rot organism. Gastrodia elata (for dementia) is another with supportive efficacy data but this orchid relies on a symbiotic relationship with a dangerous tree root pathogen. Others like bitter melon (Momordica charantia) which is now a popular northern Australian crop, await the final piece in their medical efficacy jigsaw, an elusive human trial that will confirm or reject their status as life-savers!

The majority of these potential ‘new’ medicinal species yield tubers-rhizomes-roots, leaves or fruits and are generally suited to extant cropping systems. However, often the root yield (sometimes for ‘root bark’ is from perennial plants rather than the annuals that are the basis of our current root crop industry. Mechanisation of plant production, harvest and postharvest handling is likely to be an increasingly important element in competitive Australian agriculture/horticulture and requires consideration in developing industry around new crop species.

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The leaves of Apocynum venetum and Eucommia ulmoides (tochu tea) can be brewed as decoctions (or teas). Lycium barbarum (wolfberries) berries can be eaten fresh or dried and provide functional levels of active phytochemicals when consumed in this form. The dried leaves of Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense can also be used as teas and, in addition, their young shoots and leaves can be consumed raw in salads, or cooked.

While this favoured list largely comprises fruit, leaf and root-rhizome crops, there are other more unusual opportunities that could be explored, for example Viscum coloratum (Korean mistletoe) and Monascus purpureus (red yeast). The mistletoe would require unique production systems (like host trees), but opportunities to investigate a tissue-culture based production system that avoids host issues could be pursued. Red yeast, also has good supportive medical evidence and is traditionally processed as a fermented product; another novel option for the Australian food processing industry to further develop.

There is also a need to monitor prospective new crops and maintain a list of species that are currently attracting considerable research with good results. The publication of results from a single well planned, human trial can be enough to launch these species into the medical spotlight. ‘Asian’ options to watch include - Actaea heracleifolia (cardiovascular), Albizia lebbeck (asthma, dementia), Alpinia oxyphylla (dementia, cancer), Anemarrhena asphodeloides (diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular), Angelica keiskei (cancer, cardiovascular), Cinnamomum verum (antioxidant, diabetes), Cnidium monnieri (cancer), Commiphora wightii (arthritis, cholesterol), Coriolus versicolor (cancer), Corydalis yanhusuo (cardiovascular), Cuscuta chinensis (immune response, cancer), Eucommia ulmoides (cardiovascular, cancer, diabetes), Gleditsia sinensis (cancer), Gymnema sylvestre (diabetes), Ligusticum sinense (cardiovascular), Polygala tenuifolia (dementia), Rabdosia rubescens (cancer), Sinomenium acutum (arthritis, inflammation), Spatholobus suberectus (HIV, inflammation, bone), Tinospora cordifolia (diabetes, cancer, immune response), Uncaria rhynchophylla (cardiovascular, dementia), Uncaria sinensis (antioxidant, dementia), Ziziphus jujuba (dementia). Definitive, positive results from future human trials would establish these plants as bona fide medicinals.

Of the prospective crops currently under investigation in Australia, one of the most interesting is Camptotheca acuminata which is used to treat cancer. Opportunities require on-going investigation.

The potential for new neuroprotective (ie. antidementia) plant products to be further developed and have an impact on Australian health is another exciting possibility, especially given that dementia effects one in four Australians over the age of 60 (4). Leaf extracts from Ginkgo biloba certainly appear to counter memory loss and improve cognition but the prospect of identifying a new fruit or vegetable that could be consumed fresh (or with minimal home processing) and have ginkgo’s same powers is alluring. There is an increasing research trend to seek herbal remedies for neuroprotection and many animal studies have recently been completed.

This review identified three species of potential ‘new’ Chinese medicinal crops that have not been previously proposed for production in Australia - Apocynum venetum, Huperzia serrata, Stephania tetrandra. Of the prospective species that should be monitored, a further seven Chinese crops had not been previously proposed for Australian production - Actaea heracleifolia, Alpinia oxyphylla, Anemarrhena asphodeloides, Corydalis yanhusuo, Sinomenium acutum, Spatholobus suberectus, Uncaria sinensis. An additional three ‘Asian’ crops - Angelica keiskei (Japan), Commiphora wightii (India), and Tinospora cordifolia (India/Myanmar), have not been previously proposed for production in Australia but deserve further consideration.

At least seventeen species of ‘Asian’ medicinal plants are also Australian indigenous species, these include - Bacopa monnieri, Brucea javanica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Centella asiatica, Crotalaria sessiliflora, Cuscuta chinensis, Dioscorea bulbifera, Diospyros maritima, Entada phaseoloides, Erythrina variegata, Melia azedarach, Morinda citrifolia, Murraya paniculata, Oenanthe javanica, Orthosiphon aristatus, Persicaria orientalis and Vitex trifolia. Note: Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) have prohibited the incorporation of Crotalaria spp. and Melia azedarach into foods, and Entada phaseoloides (or matchbox bean) can be toxic if untreated (5).

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Most of these species are tropical or subtropical and in the majority of cases their range includes regions of coastal Northern Territory and Queensland. Melia azedarach and Persicaria orientalis have a wider distribution that extends further south. Centella asiatica also ranges further south, extending from the East coast through to Adelaide, and including the far SW coast of Western Australia. The Centella asiatica plants of temperate Australia differ from those of the north, and are possibly different subspecies (6); a factor that may need consideration in commercial production.

Brucea javanica, Calophyllum inophyllum and Morinda citrifolia have been used as medicinal plants by the Australian aborigines (6). Of the 17 Australian native species - Bacopa monnieri, Brucea javanica, Centella asiatica, Cuscuta chinensis, Morinda citrifolia, Oenanthe javanica and Orthosiphon aristatus have either some associated efficacy data or warrant on-going investigation whether this be as an ‘Asian medicinal plant’ or ‘Australian bush-food’.

One Asian medicinal plant and also a rare Australian native, Oenanthe javanica is a member of the celery family and although previously identified with potential for Australian production has remained largely uncommercialised here. Opportunities for its inclusion into stir-fry or salad mixes should be considered to give them a unique ‘Australian-Asian’ component. Very few Australian indigenous species are currently incorporated into these types of food products. Oenanthe javanica is an edible herb (7) which can potentially enhance cardiovascular health. It does not contain poisonous ‘oenanthotoxin’, which is present in some other species in the genus (7), making them prohibited additives for food (FSANZ).

The investigation did not search specifically for phytochemicals with inhibitory effects on Staphylococcus aureus (ie. the bacterium ‘golden staph’). However, during the course of data retrieval it was found that eighteen species had been investigated and activity against Staphylococcus aureus established. These plants included - Alstonia macrophylla, Angelica dahurica, Arnebia euchroma, Caesalpinia sappan, Ecklonia kurome, Erythrina variegata, Garcinia mangostana, Lycium chinense, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Orthosiphon aristatus, Phellodendron amurense, Pinellia ternata, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Scutellaria barbata, Terminalia chebula, Xanthium sibiricum, Zanthoxylum piperitum and Ziziphus jujuba.

Prospective introduction of new species into the Australian medicinal ‘herbs’ industry requires an associated thorough and complete understanding of markets, both domestic and overseas. Marketplace competitiveness of any one species will vary with production site, production techniques and value- adding, and needs to be explored to assist in focusing research efforts and effective industry development.

Stories among growers that tell of crops being down-priced or even rejected by value-adders are commonplace, eg. growing conditions didn’t generate sufficient levels of active compounds, there was local over-supply, cheap imports from China, problems with quality loss following harvest. Local production might also be constrained by limited product demand within our relatively small population. This might not seem to be an issue for cases relating to chronic disease but if the needs of the nation for a particular phytochemical can be met from small plantings, then clearly investment in that crop should be limited. However, export opportunities for well produced, safety regulated plant products should be an alternative worth investigation. Rather than the onus being on RIRDC or state departments of agriculture to define these market options, investors in this industry need to focus their commitment based on their unique circumstances, including those linked to follow-on arrangements and contracts with value-adders. Australian based pharmaceutical companies will generally seek to use high quality Australian produce if it is competitively priced.

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Discussion references 1. O’Hara, M., Kiefer, D., Farrell, K. & Kemper, K. (1998) A review of 12 commonly used medicinal herbs. Arch Fam Med., 7: 523-536.

2. ‘Be warned, urges AMA’, Sunday Herald Sun, June 4, 2006, page 19.

3. Craker, L.E. & Giblette, J. (2002) Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. pp. 491-496. In, Janick, J. & Whipkey, A. (Eds.), ‘Trends in new crops and new uses’. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

4. Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare website, http://www.aihw.gov.au/

5. Parsons, M. & Faragher, J. (2004) Food safety for the native plant food industry. Department of Primary Industries, Victoria. 41 pp.

6. Lassak, E. & McCarthy, T. (2001) Australian Medicinal Plants. Pub.- Reed New Holland, JB Books, 240 pp.

7. Samy, J., Sugumaran, M. & Lee, K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions - Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp.

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