The Effect of Soil Water Content and Temperature
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DIVERSITY AND MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY OF THE LICHEN GENUS GRAPHIS (GRAPHIDACEAE) IN THAILAND Arunpak Pitakpong A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Biology Suranaree University of Technology Academic Year 2015 ความหลากหลายและสายสัมพนั ธ์ทางววิ ฒั นาการเชิงโมเลกลุ ของไลเคน สกลุ Graphis (Graphidaceae) ในประเทศไทย นางสาวอรัณย์ภัค พิทักษ์พงษ์ วิทยานิพนธ์นี้เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของการศึกษาตามหลกั สูตรปริญญาวิทยาศาสตรดุษฎบัณฑิตี สาขาวิชาชีววิทยาสิ่งแวดล้อม มหาวทิ ยาลัยเทคโนโลยสี ุรนารี ปีการศึกษา 2558 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deep gratitude to my advisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nooduan Muangsan for her help, kindness, and support for training about the molecular technique at The Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, USA. My great thank goes to my co-advisor, Asst. Prof. Dr. Khwanruan Naksuwankul (Makasarakham University), for her valuable suggestion and support throughout my work, and for connecting with The Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, USA. I am grateful to Asst. Prof. Dr. Pongthep Suwanwaree, my thesis co-advisor, for his suggestion and kindness. I would like to thank Dr. H. Thorsten Lumbsch at the Field Museum of Natural History for his great advice on the molecular work. I would like to thank Dr. Robert Lücking at the Field Museum of Natural History for providing specimens in this study. My sincere thank is extended to Dr. Ekaphan Kraichak (Kasetsart University) for his generous help and guidance throughout the period of molecular work at the Field Museum of Natural History, and for his help on research publication and statistical analyses. I would like to express my gratitude to the chairperson of my defense committee, Asst. Prof. Dr. Duangkamon Mansiri, and committee member, Asst. Prof. VI Dr. Wanaruk Saiphankaew (Chiang Mai University, my co-advisor in master degree) for their help, comments and suggestions in this thesis. I received a scholarship for the Ph.D. study from Suranaree University of Technology and National Research Council of Thailand. I am very much grateful for both organizations. I am grateful to Suranaree University of Technology and Ramkham University for providing instruments in laboratory for lichen identification. I would like to thank the Department of Botany and the Pritzker Laboratory for Molecular Systematics and Evolution at the Field Museum of Natural History for allowing me to use the instruments and facilities. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the lecturers and staff members of the School of Biology for their help and assistance throughout the work, especially Dr. Chokchai Chuea-nongthon for his help data analyses, and Mrs. Pluemjit Boonpueng for her kindness. I would like to thank the RAMK herbarium staff for their kindness and support for specimens. The most important, I would especially like to thank my family for all their support of everything in my life. Arunpak Pitakpong CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT IN THAI .................................................................................................... I ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH ......................................................................................... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... V CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... VII LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... XI LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... XII CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Research Objectives .................................................................................. 3 1.3 Research Hypotheses ................................................................................. 3 1.4 Scope and Limitations ............................................................................... 3 1.5 Expected Results ....................................................................................... 4 1.6 References ................................................................................................. 4 II LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 7 2.1 Lichens ...................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Occurrence of Lichens ............................................................................... 8 2.3 Reproduction and Dispersal of Lichens .................................................... 9 2.4 Benefits of Lichens ................................................................................... 10 2.5 Influence of Environmental Parameters to Lichen Diversity ................... 11 VIII CONTENTS (Continued) Page 2.6 Family Graphidaceae ................................................................................ 12 2.7 Genus Graphis .......................................................................................... 19 2.8 References ................................................................................................ 25 III IDENTIFICATION OF LICHEN GENUS GRAPHIS IN THAILAND ..... 32 3.1 Abstract..................................................................................................... 32 3.2 Introduction .............................................................................................. 33 3.3 Materials and Methods ............................................................................. 35 3.4 Results and Discussion ............................................................................. 41 3.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 116 3.6 References .............................................................................................. 116 IV PHYLOGENY OF LICHEN GENUS GRAPHIS IN THAILAND ............ 120 4.1 Abstract................................................................................................... 120 4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................ 121 4.3 Materials and Methods ........................................................................... 123 4.4 Result and Discussion............................................................................. 130 4.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 136 4.6 References .............................................................................................. 136 V THE POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OF GRAPHIS (GRAPHIDACEAE) IN THAILAND ............................................................................................... 144 5.1 Abstract................................................................................................... 144 5.2 Introduction ............................................................................................ 145 IX CONTENTS (Continued) Page 5.3 Materials and Methods ........................................................................... 146 5.4 Results and Discussions ......................................................................... 149 5.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 184 5.6 References .............................................................................................. 184 VI FACTORS INFLUENCING SPECIES RICHNESS OF LICHENS IN THE FAMILY GRAPHIDACEAE AT SAKAERAT ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH STATION, NAKHON RATCHASIMA ........................................................................... 190 6.1 Abstract................................................................................................... 190 6.2 Introduction ............................................................................................ 191 6.3 Materials and Methods ........................................................................... 192 6.4 Results and Discussions ......................................................................... 197 6.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 218 6.6 References .............................................................................................. 219 VII CONCLUSTION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................ 225 7.1 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 225 7.2 Recommendation .................................................................................... 227 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 228 X CONTENTS (Continued) Page APPENDIX A DESCRIPTION OF THE FAMILY GRAPHIDACEAE IN SAKAERAT ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH STATION ....................................................................... 229 APPENDIX B THE PROBABILITY OF LICHEN SPECIES OCCURRENCE IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS .................................. 255 APPENDIX C ACTUAL OCCURRENCE AND PROBABILITY CURVES OF LICHEN SPECIES WITH ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS .................................. 260 APPENDIX C ANALYSIS