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Home , Appius Claudius Caecus, Appius Claudius Crassus, Cimbrian War, Gnaeus Naevius, Latin War, Latin War (498–493 BC)

THE REPUBLIC OF

507: Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus (who is rapid- Tarquinius Superbus, last Wars in ly displaced) lead a popular revolt – or more likely a Publius Publius Lucius palace coup – to overthrow king Tarquinius Superbus, Wars in the West establishing the Republic. Horatius Valerius Junius 506: Brutus and Poplicola elected first . Cocles Poplicola Brutus Monarchy Wars in the East Intermittent Wars Almost 200 years of intermittent warfare with their central 2nd Servile War Manius Aquillius suppresses Sicilian slave revolt. Italian neighbours—the , Hernici and —and their Civil Wars and Raids against Defends the northern neighbours, the Etruscans. 493: B. Lake Regillus. Sublician Neighbours 1st Cilician Pirates 500 BC bridge Gaius The last king, Tarquinius, supported by the and Etrus- Mob violence against the Marcius cans, is finally def. in his attempts to retake the throne. 455: Social War Marius and defeat Italian uprising. Etruscan B. Mons Algidus. Cincinnatus defeat Aequi. 443: B. Corbio. 491: League formed. Coriolanus T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus defeats Aequi and Volsci. 1st Mithridatic 85: B. Orchomenus. Sulla defeats Mithridates VI of Pontus. Wars Persian Proscriptions, state violence king Lars 491: Start of the . First secession of the Porsenna. War Mithridates' invasion of Greece stopped.

plebs, who withdraw to the Mons Sacer. They create two offices to War of Fidenae/ Etruscans ejected from the Roman side of the Tiber. 20 year StruggleOrders: the of 1 Stage Dictator defend their rights against the patricians: two of the Thwarted in his 2nd War of Veii truce. 2nd Mithridatic Local clash.

plebs and two pleb to assist them. Spurius ambitions, Coriolanus War leads the Volsci 3rd War of Veii 393: M. Furius Camillus defeats, sacks, and enslaves 483: Sedition of the former consul Spurius Cassius Vicellinus, Cassius against Rome, but is Rome's greatest enemy to date, Veii, wealthiest city in Sullan Civil Wars 82: B. Colline Gate. Sulla defeats Republicans under L. , tribunician power who proposes agrarian reforms. Vicellinus defeated by the , after a long siege. Start of the Roman slave-based Cornelius Cinna. virtue of Roman economy. women. defeats the last Marians, led by Quintus Sertorius, in 468: Lex Publilia. Until this time the tribunes had been elected by the Comitia Curi- Censor . Marian resistance destroyed. Sertorius murdered by his ata, an assembly completely dominated by patricians. Plebs succeed in creating a 1st Celtic Invasion 387: B. the Allia. sack Rome. Many records lost. Lucius subordinate, prefiguring the later fates of emperors. second and more democratic body, the Comitia Tributa, to elect the tribunes and Gauls paid off by Camillus. Quinctius Republics (Princeton, 2010); G. pass plebiscites (non-binding resolutions). Number of tribunes increased to five. 3rd Mithridatic 72: B. Cabira/Sivas, L. L. Lucullus defeats Mithridates VI. 69: B. This work by Garry Stevens is Cincinnatus 2nd Celtic Invasion Camillus defeats Gauls. licensed under Creative Commons Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Titus Rome (University of California 448-7: The , a board of ten commissioners with absolute power, War Tigranocerta, Lucullus defeats Tigranes of Armenia. 66: B. the licence CC-BY-NC-ND, and is Quinctius available for free from Press, 2005) and The History of led by the arrogant Crassus, are appointed to codify and 1st Samnite War 339: B. Mount Gaurus. M. Corvus defeats Lycus, Pompey defeats Mithridates VI. Pompey sweeps through www.garryscharts.com. See terms Rome podcasts (thehistoryofrome .typepad.com). publish the laws. They attempt to cling on to power, ruling through oppres- Capitolinus Samnites. Stalemated when Latins revolt. the East, on the back of Lucullus' victories. Rome's most of use there. Version 1.8. Barbatus tenacious opponent since Hannibal destroyed. Main source: Brian Taylor's series The timelines for individuals are sion, but are eventually expelled. The result of their work is the Twelve Ta-

not lifespans, but career lengths; Latin War 336: B. Vesuvius. P. Decius Mus I sacrifices himself. 335: B.

of books (Spellmount, 2008), bles, which would remain the foundation of for centuries. which correct the traditional usually starting from their first Trifanum. T. Manlius Torquatus defeats Latins. War of Crassus and Pompey defeat Spartacus. Last of the great slave Varronian dating in many cases position in the cursus honorum. Appius prior to 300 BC. Other sources Maps show the largest cities at 446: Leges Valeriae Horatiae. Tribunes declared sacrosanct, plebiscites give Spartacus/3rd revolts. include H. Fowler, Roman each time. the force of law. 442: Lex Canuleia legalises -plebeian intermarriage, Claudius 2nd Samnite War 319: B. Caudine Forks. Samnites defeat Romans. 308: 1st Servile War formerly prohibited by the . 440: Office of censor created. Crassus B. Lake Vadimo: Q. Fabius Rullianus defeats Etruscans. 304: War of Fidenae/ 2nd War of B. Bovianum. L. Papirius Cursor defeat Samnites. First use Gaius defeats Gauls. In one of history's great 437-6: Sedition of Spurius Maelius, who buys Etruscan grain to of Roman naval forces (in Adriatic). genocides, Caesar kills perhaps one-third of the population, and Veii Tribunes Military alternate with Consuls distribute to the populace. Thwarted by elderly Cincinnatus. Archetype of Roman enslaves one million.

leadership, civic 3rd Samnite War Grand coalition of Etruscans, Umbrians, Samnites and PeloponnesianWar 442-367: Boards of military tribunes with consular powers often elect- virtue and Italian Gauls. 295: B. Sentinum. Rullianus & P. Decius Mus II Caesar's Civil War 48: B. Pharsalus. Caesar defeats Republicans under Pompey. modesty, but a defeat coalition. 293: B. Aquilonia. M. Curius Dentatus 46: B. Thapsus. Caesar def. Republicans under Metellus Scipio.

ed instead of two consuls as the chief magistrates. The office is ob- RepublicPatricians the of bitter opponent of defeats Samnites. Samnites admitted as allies. In acts of magnanimity unusual for a Roman victor, Caesar scure. It lacked the religious authority granted to consuls, and seems the plebs. to have been devised to deny the plebs the consulship proper. consistently forgives his enemies (with some notable exceptions) Wars of Survival Wars Gallic and Etruscan 283: 2nd B. Lake Vadimo. P. Cornelius Dolabella defeat the Marcus War of Sextus 36: B. Naulochus. Agrippa defeats the last Republican, Sextus Furius Revolt Italian Gauls and Etruscans in their last stand Pompeius Pompeius, son of Pompey, who had threatened Rome's grain

Mythic Mythic Camillus 275: B. Beneventum. Dentatus defeats Pyrrhus of . supply from . The demonstrates it can hold its own against the Greek phalanx. Italy secure from Hellenistic threats. Civil War of Antony 43: B. Forum Gallorum. Octavian sides with the Republicans to Republic defeat Antony. 400 3rd War of Veii Armies maintained in the field for more than one season, and paid. Conquest of Rapid conquest of southern Italy after Pyrrhus leaves. At the Etruria's largest city razed to the Southern Italy end, Rome controls all of Italy. War of the 42: B. Philippi. Octavian & Antony def. the Liberatores (M. Junius ground. Sack of Veii marks start of the decline of the Etruscans. Liberators Brutus and G. Cassius Longinus). Largest battle fought between 1st Punic War 242-241: B. Aegates Islands. G. Lutatius Catullus defeats Romans (36 legions), save possibly the B. Lugdunum (197 AD). 1st Celtic Invasion . First overseas military engagements. Octavian defeats L. Antonius, brother of Antony. Gauls sack Rome. Last violation 382: Sedition of Marcus Manlius Capitolinus – saviour of the Capitol during the Gallic siege – of Rome for 850 years. 1st Illyrian War Punitive expedition against pirates. who argues for plebeian debt relief. Assasinated. War of Actium 31: B. Actium. Octavian & Agrippa defeat Antony and . 3rd Celtic Invasion 222: B. Clastidium. M. Claudius Marcellus defeats Gauls. Camillus, after a lifetime of military achievement against the Etruscans and Celts, is hailed as Octavian now sole master of the Roman world. the second founder of Rome. He straddles the transition from a mythic Rome to historical fact. 2nd Illyrian War Punitive expedition.

Cantabrian War completes conquest of northern Spain. 371-367: Obscure period of near-anarchy led by pleb agitation. 2nd Punic War 202: B. Zama. P. def. Hannibal. Rome's only 363: Leges Licinae Sextia (traditionally held to be supported by Camillus). Gaius rival in the West vanquished after an epic life-or-death German Wars T. Claudius Nero and his brother N. Claudius Drusus, sons of 2nd Celtic Invasion Permanent restoration of the consulate. One consul to be a pleb, but only Marcius struggle. Syracuse, the last great Greek city-state, captured. Augustus' wife Livia, defeat Germans. Borders of empire in observed intermittently in the next 20 years. Praetorship created to assist Europe mostly stabilised, although Rome will soon move from the consuls and curule aediles. 362: Lucius Sextus Lateranus is elected the Rutilus 1st Macedonian Philip V of Macedon defeats Greek alliance. Rome plays little the Elbe to the Rhine as a border.

first pleb consul, although records indicate pleb consuls decades before. War part. Intermittent wars and raids against neighbours in central Italy neighbours against central in raids wars and Intermittent 352: Gaius Marcius Rutilus elected the first pleb Titus 2nd Macedonian 197: B. Cynoscephalae. T. Quinctius Flaminius defeats Philip soldiers who man Rome's armies. dictator, then in 347 the first pleb censor. Manlius War V. 196: Liberation of Greece from Macedonian threat. Greek Republic of the Patricians phalanx decisively defeated by Roman legions. Philip loses Dominated by the patricians, a group of The nobiles are not only incapable of Torquatus understanding the economic changes StruggleOrders: the of 2 Stage 1st Samnite War 342: Hereafter, at least one consul is always a pleb. 335: Leges all non-Macedonian territory. Greek cities in Asia Minor families traditionally held to be the de- Publiliae. At least one censor must be a pleb. Plebs have now placed under Roman protection. scendants of the senators chosen by the transforming Rome, but also of governing made a dependency. achieved permanent access to the highest magistracies. first king, Romulus. Eligibility for office is the burgeoning empire created after the 2nd Punic War. The constitution that Latins crushed & War of Antiochus/ 190: B. Magnesia. Cnaeus Domitius & P. Scipio Africanus strictly hereditary with this class. Latin War 330: Rome's most intractable central Italian foes, the Volsci, ex- evolved to govern the city of Rome is dissolved. Campania annexed. Lucius Syrian War defeat Antiochus III of the Seleucid kingdom. pelled from the valley. They disappear from history. The (the vast majority of the inadequate to administer provinces many Rome controls all its neighbour- Papirius 1st Celtiberian War T. Sempronius Gracchus defeat in Spain. First of population) wage a slow-burning cam- weeks or months distant from Rome; the ing states. Corvus is renowned for holding six consulships, a Cursor a long series of revolts in Spain. paign over centuries, the Struggle of the governors sent to these provinces suc-

record not exceeded until Marius. Orders, to open up the high offices of Marcus cumb to venality and corruption; and the Romans adopt the maniple military system from the Samnites. Valerius 3rd Macedonian 168: B. Pydna. L. Aemilius Paulus def. Perseus of Macedon. state. So opposed are the patricians at legions that depended on Roman citizen- Maximus War Macedon subdivided. Greece and Anatolia made every turn, that the plebs are forced to farmers are obliged to draw on Italian

312: builds the road Via Appia to create their own parallel legislative as- 2nd Samnite War in Campania for military purposes, and the aqueduct . Corvus protectorates. Antiochus IV of the Seleucid kingdom manpower instead. sembly (the Comitia Tributa) and officers Rome is now much more socially and technologically sophisticat- acknowledges Roman suzerainty over eastern (the tribunes and plebeian aediles). Even- politicians repeatedly attempt ed than its neighbours. Mediterranean. Huge numbers of slaves taken from Epirus. tually the patricians are forced to con- to address the long-running issues of the Etruria made a dependency. cede even their most precious privileges, status of the non-Roman Italians, the use 303: The Aequi, last of Rome's age-old central Italian enemies, 3rd Illyrian War 168: L. Anicius Gallus defeats Genthius. Illyria subdivided. the religious offices of state. of the public land, and the status of the are finally destroyed. Lusitanian War Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus supp. revolt in Spain. Roman landless. Republic of the Nobiles

Early Early 300 300: Lex Ogulnia. After defending their monopoly on the religious Fall of the Republic 4th Macedonian Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus supp. revolt of Andriscus. With offices open to both classes, the offices of state for centuries, the patricians open the pontifices 3rd Samnite War War & Achaean L. Mummius sacks Corinth. Macedon made a province. ruling families are reconstructed as the An enduring pattern that would last until and to the plebs. the end of the empire in 476 AD is estab- Samnites admitted as allies. Appius War Corinth destroyed, Greece subjugated: end of Greek political descendants of dictators and consuls of 287: Lex Hortensia. The plebiscites of the Comitia Tributa, previ- history. Vast numbers of slaves taken from Greece. both patricians and plebs: the nobiles. lished: warlords (Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Gallic & Etruscan Revolt ously only held to be binding on the plebs, are given the force of Quintus Manius Claudius The eminence of families now derives Caesar, Augustus) commanding armies Conquest Italy of Conquest owing loyalty to themselves, and not any Rome controls all northern and central Italy. law. The Struggle of the Orders ends, and the Republic of the Fabius Curius Caecas 3rd Punic War 146: S. Aemilianus sacks Carthage, razing it to the ground. from repeated election to high office, Nobiles begins. Maximus rather than mere heredity. Further, per- sense of a polity, take control of the state Republic Dentatus Marcus Numantine/ S. Aemilianus finally defeats Celtiberians in Spain. Marked sonal achievement comes to be defined by militarily destroying their rivals. Pyrrhic War Appius Claudius is the first Roman whose political biography and Rullianus Celtiberian Wars decline in Roman military competence. by success in war, the pinnacle of which Monarchy agenda we know in detail. Atilius Regulus is the award of a triumph. The patrician-plebeian distinction is now Conquest of Southern Italy 1st Servile War P. Rupilius suppresses Sicilian slave revolt. Roman Revolution only of religious and antiquarian signifi- Rome controls all of Italy. cance. The last Republican standing war- 105. B. Arausio. Teutones and def. Romans. Possibly Rome's conquests in Greece and Asia the greatest battle casualties in Roman history (80,000). Minor bring a massive influx of wealth lord, Augustus, creates a monarchy, co- 255: After his defeat and capture by the Carthaginians at the B. of Panormus, M. 102-101: B. Aquae Sextae, B. Vercellae. They are destroyed and slaves, transforming the ancient opting the ancient Republican nobiles. Atilius Regulus is paroled to Rome, where he argues against peace. He honours his by Marius. Italy made safe from invasion for over 200 years. citizen-farmer economy to one dominated These families' influence will only end with the fall of Augustus' dynasty in 68. 1st Punic War parole, returning to Carthage, where he meets his death. Hailed as the model of by ruthless nobile exploitation of the very

Roman integrity. Q. Caecilius Metellus Numidicus replaced by Marius and his subordinate L. Cornelius Sulla, who defeat the Numidians.

Although suffering crippling losses in men, material, and money in the 1st Punic war, the Romans refuse to accept Quintus anything other than total victory. Where other nations would surrender after a massive defeat, the Romans would raise Gaius Fla- another army and return for the next campaign season. However, the war produces no great generals or statesmen. Fabius minius Maximus Earliest : Lucius , a Greek freedman, Nepos Verrucosus 1st Illyrian War translates the Odyssey into Latin, and writes the first Latin plays. Marcus Claudius Gaius RepublicNobiles the of 227: First steps towards an imperial administration, as Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica Marcellus Lutatius 3rd Celtic Invasion are established as the first non-Italian provinces, governed by . Catulus First native Roman dramatist: Gnaeus Naevius, comic playwright. 2nd Illyrian War Unlike the 1st Punic war, Rome fields many excellent generals for the 2nd Punic War, such as Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus,

G. Flaminius Nepos, M. Claudius Marcellus, and P. Cornelius Scipio. Although shorter than the first struggle against Carthage, the 2nd war is mainly fought in Rome's own backyard, and against one of the great captains of history, Hannibal. 1st Macedonian War Publius First Roman historian: Q. Fabius Pictor, who wrote in Greek. Cornelius Scipio 2nd Punic War The 2nd Punic War ravages the independent citizen-farmers who had manned the Roman armies for years on end. As they fall into debt, their lands are confiscated by their creditors, and they swell the numbers of the urban poor in Rome. 200 2nd Macedonian War P. Scipio Africanus is the first general to acquire a personal following and be hailed as Imperator (‘victorious gen- eral’, which became our 'Emperor'), an epithet that would haunt the late Republic and provide a template for the Tiberius entire history of the Empire as the loyalty of the soldiers transfers from the state to individual leaders. Sempronius Lucius War of Antiochus Gracchus Aemilius

Africanus and Flamininus extend the traditional Italian patron-client system to the peoples of conquered Paullus Greek cities. They are philhellenes, championing new philosophies, creeds, and practices. Macedonicus Domination of Mediterranean the Domination 175 BC 180: codifies the cursus honorum, establishing set periods between the holding of offices. Publius 1st Celtiberian War Cornelius Terms used in the late republic to denote those senatorial advocates either defending the age-old M. Porcius Cato the Censor is the archetype of Roman integrity and incorruptibility, a symbol to later generations of Marcus Hellenistic kingdoms effectively neutralised. Optimates privileges of the nobiles (the Optimates) or those championing the vast populace (the Populares). everything that was good and great about Rome: a farmer, soldier, statesman, and zealous defender of ancient Ro- Scipio The distinction lies deeply rooted in the ancient Struggle of the Orders, and can be traced back to man values against decadent innovations. But he is also merciless to his enemies, inhuman to his slaves, and spite- Titus Africanus Porcius

3rd Macedonian War Populares the supposed sedition of the consul Spurius Cassius Vicellinus (483 BC). Over 400 years, ending ful to his political opponents. Author of the first history of Rome to be written in Latin rather than Greek. Quinctius Cato 3rd Illyrian War with Gaius Julius Caesar, the nobiles assassinated politicians advocating land reform, debt relief, Flamininus

Lusitanian WarMIddle and Italian rights; each time claiming that the Populares intended to restore the despised rule of Others kings (which was quite likely true only in Caesar's case). S. Sulpicius Galba, a general and governor in Spain, comes to symbolise the venality, incom- petence and treachery of Roman generalship and administration in the Spanish wars. 4th Macedonian & Achaean Wars Scipio

Republic Servius S. Aemilianus — general, statesman, orator, intellectual, philhellene— is a moderate in radical times, and the last Aemilianus great Roman not involved in the fall of the Republic. His death is one of the minor mysteries of Roman history. 3rd Punic War Sulpicius Tiberius Galba Growing civil disorder, exacerbated by impoverished veterans of the Spanish wars returning to Rome. Growth of the latifundia, large estates run by slaves, created by buying up the lands of the citizen farmers Gracchus

133: Tribune T. Gracchus introduces legislation redistributing public lands to the plebs, including the Numantine Wars Gaius lands of King Attalus III of Pergamum, who had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. In a radical move, Sempronius he takes his proposal direct to the Comitia Tributa, bypassing the traditional (but informal) prerogatives of the Senate. Enraged by this threat to their customary powers, the nobiles, led by the Pontifex Gracchus

Pergamene Bequest b Maximus Scipio Nasica, lead a mob to assassinate him. Nonetheless, his legislation is passed, and his

brother G. Gracchus works on the Land Commission to implement his reforms. RomanRevolution

Quintus 1st Servile (Slave) War 123-122: Tribune G. Gracchus promotes land, judicial and military reforms. He introduces tax- Quintus farming, subsidies for grain, and payments for military clothing. Assasinated by the Optimates. Caecilius Caecilius Metellus

Cimbrian War Metellus 107-104: Marius reforms the military, recruiting from the landless poor for the first time. This creates a profession- Macedonicus Jugurthine War al army owing loyalty to its general, not the state. In his first consulship, he persuades the Comitia Tributa to over- Numidicus Lucius Cornelius rule the Senate and assign him the command assigned to Numidicus; a tactic to be used by later generals. Lucius Sulla 2nd Servile War 104-100: Marius is elected consul for an unprecedented five consecutive terms, violating the Lex Vatinia, winning Appuleius military glory by defeating the Germans in what was to be the last invasion of Italy for over 200 years. War of the Cilician Pirates

Saturninus 102-100: Mob violence of Saturninus, eventually controlled by his former ally Marius, Marcus who falls from grace. Electoral process hereafter corrupted by bribery and violence. Aemilius 100

Cyrenaican Bequest 91: In an attempt to forestall further Populares action, and to preserve the Scaurus Social War Gaius Optimates' dominance, tribune M. Livius Drusus introduces numerous

1st Mithraditic War reforms, including extension of citizenship to the Italians. Misunderstood by all Eminent Marius

75 BC classes, he is assassinated. In reaction, the Italians revolt in the Social War. Marcus Optimate. Lucius Sullan Civil Wars 88: Incited by Marius and intimidated by the militia of Sulpicius, the Comitia Tributa strips the elected consul, Livius Publius L. Cornelius Sulla, of his command for the Mithraditic War. In an unprecedented move, Sulla marches his army 87-82: Marian Terror: Marius returns to Italy while Sulla is in the east, effectively Licinius Marcus 2nd Mithraditic War Lucius Drusus Sulpicius into Rome and spends a year consolidating the Optimates' position. Marius flees. overthrowing the Senate. Mass proscriptions as a deranged or senile Marius (in Lucullus Tullius

pursuit of a prophesised 7th consulship) and his co-consul Cinna annihilate the

Cornelius Rufus Fall Sertorian War Gaius 82-79: Returning to Italy from the Mithraditic War, Sulla again marches on Rome and defeats the Marians. Optimates. Cinna eventually stops the violence by murdering Marius' slave followers. Cinna Julius

War of Spartacus Following Marius' example, he conducts bloody proscriptions of the Populares. Sulla becomes Dictator, an

office unused since the , to revise the constitution in favour of the Optimates. Caesar 70: Pompey and Crassus overturn Sulla's reforms. Senate enfeebled by years of proscriptions. Publius Wars of Empire Wars 3rd Mithraditic War Gnaeus Marcus

66-63: Pompey completes conquest of the east, brilliantly reorganising the provinces and clients. Clodius Pompeius Licinius

Late Late Pulcher 60: Pompey, Crassus and Caesar reach an informal arrangement, the 1st triumvi- Magnus Rome's Crassus rate, to manipulate the state for their ends. Effective end of Republican politics. 58-52: Mob violence of Clodius. greatest Pompey appointed sole consul. orator, who 1st Gallic Wars 49-46: Caesar marches on Rome. The Republicans, under Pompey and Cato, flee. attempted to Triumvirate Caesar progressively defeats all the Republican armies arrayed against him. Marcus Caesar's Civil War preserve the 46-44: Caesar is consul, dictator, censor and tribune simultaneously, destroying the constitu- Porcius republic, but 43: Last independent consuls, Pansa Antony's Civil War tion. He institutes a Populares program, but is assassinated by the Liberatores in 44. Cato was outfoxed and Hirtius, die in the Civil War of Antony.

by Caesar, 43-42: Octavian (Caesar's heir), Antony (Caesar's chief lieutenant) and Lepidus (a grandee

War of the Liberators Sextus then by Octa-

taken on board to placate the conservatives) take formal control of the state in the 2nd vian. War of Sextus Pompeius Triumvirate. They defeat the Liberatores at the B. of Philippi. Mass proscriptions of the Pompeius 2nd Triumvirate

Republic Marcus Perusine War Republicans, most notably Cicero. Senatorial class further debilitated. 31: Octavian and Agrippa defeat Antony and establish a military dictatorship. Antonius War of Actium 27: 1st constitutional settlement of Octavian. Perpetual consul, proconsular imperium over many provinces, and hence command of most legions (20, compared to the Senate's 5). Awarded titles of Augustus Nero Cantabrian War (Illustrious) and Princeps (First Citizen). Transition from ruthless Octavian to benign Augustus. Claudius Tiberius 23: 2nd constitutional settlement. Maintaining the veneer of the Republican constitution, Augustus de- Marcus Drusus Claudius 22: Last elec- clines the perpetual consulship but acquires imperium over all and the consuls in Rome, and Aemilius Nero Gaius therefore becomes head of all the legions. Granted the tribunician and censorial powers for life. He also tions for the Lepidus Julius ancient office Danube Wars manoeuvres to make this unique position hereditary in his family (initially to his nephew M. Claudius Mar- cellus), a concept alien to Rome since the kings, but familiar from the Hellenistic monarchies. Marcus Caesar of censor. 19: L. Cornelius Balbus is the last general outside the imperial family to be awarded a triumph. Vipsanius Augustus Agrippa 12:MonarchY Upon the death of Lepidus, Augustus becomes . All the offices and functions of state – civil, judicial, military, and religious – are now unified in one person for the first time since the 1 BC kings, in an office that will later be known as the emperor of Rome. 1 BC