LONDON I~ Jan-Peter Edited Muslim Court Seventh ~~o~&t!r:n~~~up AND Court Cultures in the NEW by YORK to

MuslimCultures World Albrecht Hartung nineteenth SeventhWorld to nineteenth centuries Fuess centuries in Edited by Albrecht Fuess and the

and Jan-Peter Härtung

Routledge Taylor &Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK ISBN ISB edited Coun Typeset Printed A writing ~ British Library editors from 77 information The an 2 270 mechanical, A reproduced by Simultaneously invented, First Wiltshire by Roulledge Hartung; II Park 956'.0]-Jc22 catalogue DS36.855.C682010 I. Includes 2011 I. and lnformo Routledge Routledge rights Fuess, Madison right p. Islamic published the 978--D-203-844I 978-{)-4 cultures by Square, em. Library 78 ofth.is from and of editorial in British individual Albrecht of including reserved. Contents of Congress is Times Albrecht. bibliographical - or business bound storage or record Albrecht Empire--Court un the the (SOAS/Routledge Avenue, work utilized in I other Milton Catalof(Uin}; 20 5-57319-1 published imprint Library Copyrigh~ publishers. selection the New II in Fuess for No photocopying or has chapters, Cataloging Muslim means, II. Great Fuess in New Park, retrieval this Roman 0-6 part of been Hartung, any and and in the references book Britain (hbk) (ebk) of and York, and Designs Abingdon, now in the world: asserted form Jan-Peter the Taylor this matter, by Publicalion system, studies courtiers. Jan-Peter in USA is contributors. Jan-Peter. known and RefineCatch NY or book available by Publication seventh and & by and by and CPI Albrecht recording, 10016 Hartung. Oxon on without Francis may any or Patents them 2. index. Hartung Canada Antony the Dolo hereafter to COlUts electronic, be OX Middle in Limited, nineteenth Data Fuess permission reprinted Group, Act accordance or 14 Rowe, to and in

4RN X

1988. List offigures Firstpublished2011 be and any East; courtiers. by Routledge Bungay, identified List of Contributors xiii Chippenham, or Jan-Peter 2 Park Square, Miltocenturies n Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN in 13) with 2010011865 Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

Suffolk Introduction sections

by Routledge as I 270 Madison Avenue ,New York, NY 10016 ALBRECH TFUESS AND JAN-PETER HÄRTUNG Routledge is an imprint ofthe Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business PARTI © 2011 editorial selection and matter, Albrecht Fues sand Jan-Peter Härtung; individual chapters the, contributors. Politics 19 The right of Albrecht Fuess and Jan-Peter Härtung to be identified äs The Prophet and the early Caliphates 21 editors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 ofthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 1 Did the Prophet Muhammad keep court? 23 Typeset in Times New Roman by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, MICHAEL COOK Wiltshire All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or 2 The representation of the early Islamic Empire reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, ' and its religion on coin imagery 30 mechanical ,or other means, now known or hereafter invented ,including photocopyin gand recording, or in any • STEFAN HEIDEMANN information storage or retrieval System, withou tpermission in Contents The PARTI Politics 3 2 1 4 Muslim 5 writing from the publishers. 3 Great estates and elite lifestyles in the Fertile Crescent

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data List List ALBRECHT Introduction The Court Did HUGH MICHAEL STEFAN and Great from Abbasid NADIA CHRISTIAN 54 centuries Umayyad Redressing from Byzantium and Sasanian Iran to Islam A catalogue record for this book is available Prophet HUGH KENNEDY of offigures

from the British Library the its representation court Byzantium Contributors estates and KENNEDY

Library ofCongress Cataloging in Publicationreligion Data MARIA Prophet HEIDEMANN terminology 4 Court and courtiers: A preliminary investigation of

CE) Court cultures in the Muslim world: seventh to nineteenth centuries / and court COOK courtiers: cultures injustice: edited by Albrecht Fuess and Jan-Peter Härtung. FUESS 80

MULLER Abbasid terminology

p. cm. - (SOAS/Routledg estudieand s on the Middle East; 13) the on EL NADIA MARIA EL CHEIKH

of Includes bibliographical references and index. Mu~ammad and elite

Islamic Empire—Cour ant d courtiers. 2. Courtcoin s and courtiers.

C6rdoba l. early CHEIKH D A I. Fuess, Albrecht .II. Härtung, Jan-Peter. of of A Sasanian Ma.Ziilim

the 91 DS36.855.C682010 lifestyles Muslim court cultures of the Middle Ages imagery preliminary the JAN-PETER

956'.01—dc22 2010011865Caliphates early Middle

(eighth-eleventh 5 Redressing injustice: Majjälim jurisdictions at the

ISBN 978-0-415-57319-1 (hbk) keep jurisdictions Iran

Islamic Umayyad court of Cördoba (eighth-eleventh ISBN 978-0-203-84410-6 (ebk) in the court? centuries CE) 93 to investigation Ages HARTUNG CHRISTIA NMÜLLER Fertile Islam Empire at Crescent the of xiii 23 21 30 80 54 93 91 19 x 15 viii ContentsPatronage 14 Networks PART Contents ix 13 12 11 Muslim 8 9 10 6 7 viii HENNING LUCIAN Favouritism The Global court CHRISTOPH FELIX

6 Taming Court

Social elites Fatimid courin t at the EVA 105 subaltern Humayiin ANDREW The Monolithic 293 SUNIL PAUL HEND ALBRECHT between Social Courts, indoor in ScienceBetween s Contents II eighteenth

PAUL E . WALKER the administration Mongol court ORTHMANN of thirteenth E. culture of GIlLf-ELEWY 16 the Rule of On of Enacting elites Islam: patronage

KONRAD courtly and KUMAR royal capitals the the REINFANDT local dihllz

7 Courts, capital sand kingship :Delh iand its sultans WALKER patronage 295 1.

SIEVERT religious scholars in pre- and early modern times in and clllhi or local tribal Egyptian FUESS at NEWMAN in the thirteenth and fourteent hcenturies CE 123 at the WERNER court JAN-PETE RHÄRTUNG representation centu court and dynamic: the the the SUNIL KUMAR and late and patterns and res native: Ottoman foundations cosmology Fatimid in ry of 1dar 7 Ayyubid prince sand their scholarly clients from the and seventeenth of kingship: Baghdad: fourteenth Shiraz khedives welfare 8 Between dihttz and dar al-adl: Form sof outdoor and ancien tsciences 326 a/-'ad/: early The indoor royal representation at the Mamlu kcourt in Egypt 149 central Court of SONJA BRENTJES court court at ALBRECH TFUESScommu Safavid in modernity under Forms the (1840-1880) Delhi of The court the culture centuries century 357 the Literature in

9 The Mongol cour tin Baghdad :The Juwaynl brothers Mamluk nication Mughal JuwaynI the the and court dfn-i

between local court and central court 168 of 18 Royal dishes :On the historical and anthropology and literary eighteenth outdoor Mamluks HEND GILLI-ELEWY its CE ilahT 359 and of the Near and Middle East court sultans Empire: at politics brothers STEFAN LEDER the Muslim court cultures of early modernity the 183 and in century

Egypt 19 The Guidancefor Kingdoms: Functio nof a "mirror 10 Monolithic or dynamic :The Safavid cour tand the for princes" at court and its representation of a court 370 subaltern in the late seventeenth Centur y 185 SYRIN XVON HEES ANDRE WJ. NEWMAN

11 Court cultur eand cosmology in the Mughal Empire: Art and architecture 383 263 273 259 261 235 202 221 185 168 183 149 123 105 H nmayü ann d the foundation os f the dln-i ilähl 202 EVA ORTHMANN 20 Art and architecture of the Artuqid courts 385 LOREN ZKORN 12 Taming the tribal native: Court cultur ane d politics in eighteent hCentur yShiraz 221 21 Court patronag eand public space: Abu '1-Hasan §anl' CHRISTOP HWERNER al-Mulk and the art o fPersiantfin gthe Other in Qajar Iran 408

ABBA SAMANATSciences 16 17 Literature 18 Art 19 20 21 22 13 Global and loca lpatterns of communicatio atn the JAN-PETER Enacting Ayyubid SONJA ancient religious of Royal STEFAN SYRINX for The LORENZ Art Court culture Theatres ABBAS al-Mulk HUSSEIN Index court of the Egyptian khedives (1840-1880) and 235 22 Theatres of power and piety: Architecture and court the princes" and FELI XKONRAD Guidance culture in Awadh, India 445 architecture Near dishes: patronage BRENTJES sciences

in HUSSEI NKESHANI AMANAT architecture scholars LEDER and VON princes the KORN of KESHANI Awadh, and HAR PART II power at Rule the On for HEES

Patronage court 259 Middle Index 472 rUNG and art and the in Kingdoms: oflslam: India and pre-

Networks of patronage of 261 and their historical of public PersianiLing piety: East the and its

14 TheadministrationofwelfareundertheMamluk s 263 scholarly On Artuqid representation space: Function early

LUCIA NREINFANDArchitecture T and courtly modern literary Abii the clients

15 Favouritism at the Ottoman cour tin the eighteentcourts h Centur y 273 of

HENNIN GSIEVERT patronage Other '1-l;Iasan a "mirror and from times of anthropology a in court court the Qajar ~anI' of Iran Contents 293 295 326 357 359 370 383 385 408 445 472 ix List of figures xi 2.16 2.15 2.14 2.13 2.12 2.11 2.10 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.1 List 2.17 Anonymous, dinär, without mint [Damascus], year 77AH Anonymous, Anonymous, year [73-74/692-694] drahm, Anonymous, (685-686 drahm, Anonymous, 'Abd year

drahm, (696 CE) 43 'Abd abbreviation 43AH 'Abdallah Georgia, [TiflIs?], "Yazdgard regnal ycar 'Abdallah date 692]; Khusraw Anonymous, II Anonymous,Jals, Anonymous,fals, Anonymous,Jollis, Heraclius without List of figures Sketch-plan of

(643-644 2.18 Abd al-Malik, fals, Qinnasrln (in northern Syria), without date [c. 60 29 [c. al-'AzTz ai-Malik [immobilized

validating [74-77/693-696] 43 year figures abbreviation late YE (618--{)19 abbreviation 660-680 without abbreviation Bagratids, date 2.19 Anonymous, drahm, without mint [Damascus], year 75AH II, CE) ibn and ibn (72/692) "20 111", 60s-72/late drahm,

drahm, CE) 44

nomisma, (694-695 drahm, CE) DP of nomisma, [c. :A.mir, nomisma, Hcraclius ibn al-Zubayr, YE" ibn Muhammad

posthumous, 2.20 Anonymous, drahm, without mint [Damascus], without date date mark 616-625 (probably CE] CE) Stepanos Damascus, Emesa.fl:lim~,

'Abdallah [c. [immobilized 75-79/694-698] 45 date, mint 'Abdallah mint SK Constantinople, Damascus, governor D'J KAAON BYSh 2.21 The Bab al-Ämüd in Jerusalem on the Madaba map 46 without 680s-691-692 (Sijistan), Constantine, without abbreviation c.

without 93AH 'KWL' 2.22 Anonymous, dinär, without mint [Damascus], year "amlr CE] (Jahrum II 43-47/663-668] Fasa 's CE) 47 (r. (711-712 drahm, (BTshapur ibn mosque without ibn of and 639-663 mint 2.23 Anonymous, dirham, Kufa, year 79AH CE) 48

year (698-699 (Aqula), date, in of without mint the year 'Amir, mint 8. l Ottoman encampment after the fall of Szigetvär, Southwest tayyib 'Amir, 1. l Sketch-plan of Muhammad'the s mosque in Medina 24 in the [Damascus], abbreviation regnal 72AH nomisma, 31--c. Basra-prefecture,

'HM Hungary, 1566 152 date

2. l Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine, Constantinople, in

CE] nomisma, Darabjird the 72AH [Damascus?], CE), believers" [Damascus?], in year Medina 8.2 Cairo in Mamluk times 154 without date [c. 616-625 CE] date 31 Zubayrid Zubayrid (691-692 (Hamadhan), 41 [c. Darabjird drahm, year 2.2 AnonymousFars), , follis, Constantinople, regnal year 3 of Constans 8.3 The Citadelof Cairo 155 (691-692 70AH AH/65I--c. 50s/660-74/692] [c.

II (643-644 CE) 3Constantinople, 1 8.4 Iwan of the Citadel 158 3 district), SK without 50s/660s-74/ 8.5 Sultan al-Näsir Muhammad on his throne 159 of without

2.3 Anonymous,/a/5year , Damascus, without date [c. 33

(689-690 50s/660-74/692] in governor, governor, CE) (Sijistlin), Constans

district), 8.6 Qänsawh al-Ghawr! with the nä 'üra 162

2.4 Anonymous, fals,PahlavT, Emesa/Hims, without date [c. without 50s/660s-74/ CE) without drahm, 661 regnal

692]66AH ; validating mark KAAON and tayyib 33 8.7 ReceptionoftheAmbassadors 163 date year mint

2.5 Anonymous, nomisma, without minCE] t [Damascus?], without 11.1 Le Grand Mogol 211 CE) date [c. 660-680 CE] 34 11.2 Picture of Jahänglr 212 2.6 Khusraw II, drahm, mint abbreviation 'HM (Hamadhän), regnal 11.3 Layout of the Carpet of Mirth 213 year 29 (618-619 CE) 35 11.4 The Horoscope of Iskandar S ultän 214 42 42 41 40 39 39 38 37 36 36 35 34 33 33 31 31 2.7 "Yazdgard III", posthumous, drahm, abbreviation S7C(Sijistän), 24 11.5 The Ceiling of the dawlatkhänah-yi khäss at Fathpür STkrT 215 regnal year "20 YE" [immobilized date, 31-c. 41 AH/651-c. 661 CE] 36 11.6 Standard Horoscope Scheme 215 2.8 Georgia, Bagratids, Stepanos II (r. 639-663 CE) ,drahm, without mint 12. l Kartm Khan Zand and his Court 224 [Tiffis?] ,without date 36 12.2 KarTm Khan's mistress Shäkhnubät, äs portrayed by E. Scott 2.9 Abdalläh ibn Ämir, governor of the Basra-prefecture, drahm, Waring(1807) 225 abbreviation DP (probably Fasä in the Daräbjird district), year 12.3 The two-sided court at Shiraz 231 20. l Batman Suyu (Malabadi) Bridge, view frorn East bank 388

21.3 43AH 20.8 20.7 21.2 21.1 [immobilized date, c. 37 20.6 20.5 20.4 43-47/663-668] 20.2 20.3 20.1 1 12.2 11.6 12.3 12.1 11.3 11.1 I 11.2 8.7 8.5 8.3 8.2 8.4 2.23 1.5 2.21 8.6 8.1 2.20 2.19 2.18 2.22 1.4 2.10 Abdalläh ibn al-Zubayr, "amir of the believers" in PahlavT, 20.2 Batman Suyu (Malabadi2.17 ) Bridge, relief of South side 389 drahm, abbreviation D'J (Jahrum in the Daräbjird district), 20.3 Diyarbakir, Urfa Gate, relief above lintel 391 Nights): Scenes One the Title WI-Malik Muhammad Scenes Diyarbaklr, Bronze Diyarbaklr, Diyarbaklr, The Diyarbaklr, Balman Batman The The Layout KaIim Waring [wan Standard (711-712cE) Cairo Qan$awh The Hungary, Picture KarTm Sultan Ottoman The Le Reception Anonymous, Anonymous, (694-695 Anonymous, Anonymous, Anonymous, ~~ [c. [74-77/693-696] year 60 YE (72/692) 38 20.4 Diyarbakir'Abd , citadel, north gate, interior 393 Shaykh; Grand 75-79/694-698] two-sided Ceiling Citadel Horoscope 2.11 Abd al-Malik ibn Abdalläh ibn Ämir, Zubayrid governor, Bab 20.5 Diyarbakir, citadel, south gate, exterior 395 al-Malik,Jals, page, of Nights): in Khan al-Na~ir Khan's door of of (1807)

from 20.6 Diyarbakir, citadel, palace, ground plan 396 Suyu

Suyu 66AH

drahm, abbreviation BYSh (Blshäpür in Färs), year the from Mamluk raj al-'Amiid Horoscope ai-Sa encampment al-GhawrT 1566 Mogol CE) JahangTr the (685-686 CE) of 39 20.7 Title page, Muhammad ibn Talha al-AdawI. al-'Iqd al-farid citadel, citadel, Mubammad citadel, UrfaGate, Citadel in Shah, of of from Zand al-MulUk, dirham, the Hazar (Malabadi) (Malabadi) drahm, Carpet

li'l-Malikal-Sa'iddrahm, 398 dinar, dinar, the 2.12 Anonymous, drahm, mint 'KWL' (Aqülä), year 70AH CE) 39 court (689-690 Cairo Hazar the mist.~ess 'Id Muhammad ofIskandar Zaw Ambassadors 2.13 Abd al-AzTz ibn Abdalläh ibn 'Ämir, Zubayrid governor, times 20.8 Bronze doorfrom the Great Mosque ofCizre 400 the bathhouse; oil and dawlatkhanah-yi in south north palace, QinnasIin

at oil with 21.1 Muhammad Shäh, on canvas, 1458/1842 412 drahm, abbreviation SK (Sijistän), yeaScheme r 72 AH (691-692 CE) 40 of Jerusalem va on Great Kufa, without without without relief his Shiraz without va

after from Thousand the 21.2 Scenes Hazär va yak shab (One and One Mirth al-Makan 2.14 Anonymous, nomisma, withouShakhnubat, t mint [Damascus?], without ibn yak canvas, gate, gate, Bridge, Bridge, the

Court Nights): Täj al-Mulük, the vizier, and AzTz conversing with year [cground . late 60s-72/late CE] 41 yak 680s-691 -692 Sultan vizier, Mosque year on above Taiba na the out shab 2.15 Anonymous, drahm, Damascus, year 72AH CE) 42 the Shaykh; in the bathhouse; out in the street 418 (691-692 (in mint exterior interior mint mint his OR mint 'ura shab 79AH 1458/1842 21.3 Scenes from Hazär va yak shab (One Thousand and in relief fall 2.16 Anonymous, nomisma,view without mint [Damascus], without date northern plan throne the and lintel al-'AdawT. (One the fighting kha$$

[Damascus], One Nights): Zaw' al-Makän fighting the Europeans ofCizre [73-74/692-694] 42 as [Damascus], [Damascus], of [Damascus], Madaba (698-699 from of (One street 'AzTz portrayed . Szigetvl1r, Thousand South at Syria), East Fatbpiir conversing the ai- Thousand map side CE) bank without 'Jqd without by year year year Europeans Southwest and STkrl E. al-farld List Scott 93AH 77AH 75AH with One and date date offigures 4 400 412 398 396 395 393 389 388 391 225 23 224 214 215 215 212 213 211 162 163 159 158 154 152 155 18 46 47 45 44 48 43 ~ xi I xii List offigures 22.7 22.6 22.5 22.4 22.2 22.3 21.12 22.1 21.11 21.10 21.9 21.8 21. 21.6 21.5 21.4 (rümiyän); prince Hardüb Consulting with Zät al-Dawwähl; xii 7

prince Afridün rewarding the troops 419 List of ContributorList s Great Gravesite from or The View Imambatah View View Plan Plan by lithographic Abii a Illustrations Miracle the the Illustrations Portraits Story Ni?amiyyah Prince sons Ghanirn al-Quliib Nights): chamber Nights): Scenes Scenes capital; (romlyan); prince dishonest

21.4 Scenes from Hazärjilawkhanah va yak shab (One Thousand and One Nawwab-vazTr offigures Portrait First naqqarkhanah of of Nights}: Nuzhathe t al-Zamän's nocturnal party; Illumination of the and Imambafah of of of '1-l:Ias8O of the 'Abd Afrldiin MachhI

capital; Nuzhat al-Zamän exterior and prince Shirkän in the wedding the from interior RiimT Nuzhat from with Nuzhat Shiite in 'A{:Im of with of Ghlinirn's on chamber Great 420 dervish of press al-Samad third a Asaf 'Ali prince panels: from from his his Nasir Mirza Hazar Darvazah Hazar 21.5 Scenes from Hazär va yak shab (One Thousand anlocal d One Khan Imam, Bhavan Khan rewarding Imambafah of ibn al-Zaman's of ai-Zaman mother A~af al-Dawlah Nights): Ghänim's mother anforecourt d sister along with Qawt the bedside; the seen the Ruznamah-yi l:Iardiib AbT ai-DIn Na~ir shrine

al-Qulüb on his bedside; the caliph converses with Ja'far; Aqa M"IIZii mother va Rianamah-yi va SarlI' al-Dawlah 1277/1861 first

Ghänim with his mothefirst r and his sister 422 and Talib from yak yak Khan the al-DIn

21.6 Nizämiyyah panels: Näsir Shäh on the throne with his and forecourt al-Dln with Shah; complex the around forecourt nocturnal 'Izz consulting in his al-Mulk's with troops sons and Mlrzä Äqä Khan Nun and his son 425 shab shab the and in central' prince Niin sister caliph the al-Dawlah 21.7 Story of Azlm Khan and 426 Abbas Amanat is Professor of History at Yale University and Director of the an the Shah dawlat-i inside dawlat-i Friday Rasht; ofLucknow (One sister

Iranian Studies(One Initiative at Yale MacMillan Center for International and Area

21.8 Prince Abd al-Samad Mlrzä 'Izz al-Dawlah and his attendants 42illuminated 7 completed and or Lion party; or interior Shirkan jilawkhanah

21.9 Portraits of All ibn Abi Tälib in an illuminated page revering converses Studies. self on with jilawkhiinah his of

and Qajar Thousand Recent publications include: Pivot ofthe Universe: Näsir al-Dm Shäh the First Shiite Imam, 1277/1861 430 Thousand and the Mosque along Sudden the Illumination son 'alliyyah-yi portrait 'alliyyah-yi 21.10 Illustrations from the Rüznämah-yi dawlat-i 'alliyyah-yi Iran: and the Iranian Monarchy,Zat 1831-1896 (Berkeley, CA: UCP, 1997)and/f/7oc- chamber the throne in his in first commissioned the Portrait of Näsir al-Dln Shäh; the Lion and the Sun logo 43page 1 alyptic Islam and Iranian Shi'ism (London: I.B. Tauris, 2009). He is 179 al-DawwahI; the Sun with attendants with

21.11 Illustrations from Rüznämah-yiand dawlat-i 'alliyyah-yi Iran: presently writing In Search of Modern Iran: Memory, Authority and Nation- forecourt death with and I and revering wedding as with

Miracle in a local shrine around Rasht; Sudden death fologo r hoodfrom the Rise ofthe Safavid Shi'ism to the Islamic Revolution for Yale of Ja'far; Great Iran: ofthe Iran: seen Qawt the One a dishonest dervish 432 University PressOne . his for his 21.12 Abu '1-Hasan Khan Sani' al-Mulk's seif portrait with his Sonja Brentjes is a senior researcher in a project of excellence ofthe Junta de lithographic press 434 Andalucia at the Department of Philosophy and Logic, University of Seville, 22. l Plan of the Great Imämbäfah complex of Lucknow commissioned 465 462 461 460 459 458 446 434 432 431

430 Spain. She is currently working on an edition ofthe oldest extant Arabic manu- 426 427 422 425 420 by Nawwäb-vazT rÄsaf al-Dawlah and completed in 1791 446 419 script of Euclid's Elements., the Byzantine elements in fourteenth-century por- 22.2 PlanofMachhTBhavan 458 tolan charts and various aspects of a cultural history of the mathematical 22.3 View of the third forecourt with the Friday Mosque and Great sciences and cartography in Islamic societies until the eighteenth Century. Imämbäfah 459 Recent publications include: 'Revisiting Catalan Portolan Charts: Do They' 22.4 View of exterior of the first forecourt orjilawkhänah 460 Contain Elements of Asian Provenance?', in: P. Foret and A. Kaplony (eds), 22.5 The naqqärkhänah seen from the inside of the first forecourt The Journey of Mops and Images on the Silk Road (Leiden: Brill, 2008: orjilawkhänah 461 Nadia Sonja Abbas pp. 181-201) and List 'Patronage ofthe Mathematical Sciences in Islamic Socie- East (2005),

al·Muqtadir', 22.6 View of interior of the first forecourt or jilawkhänah äs seen century. Beirut. MA: 1. an the OUP, ties: pp. Contain presently The sciences script and tolan Andalucia Spain. alyptic hood University Iranian Studies. ties: Structure and Rhetoric, Identities and Outcomes', in: E. Robson and Stendall Recent Recent Recent

exam from the Rüml Därväzah 462 Center Maria 181-20 Oxford Brentjes J. Stendall (eds), The Handbook ofthe History ofMathematics (Oxford: the Journey Women's Amanat Structure Harvard 22.7 Gravesite of Äsaf al-Dawlah in central • interior chambefrom r of the of 2008: charts of

She OUP, 2008: pp. 301-27). She pp. Studies Iranian ination Islam Elements Euclid's Great Imämbäfah and 465 publications writing publications publications (eds), for Contributors EI at is 234-52 Press. the I) Nadia Maria El Cheikh is Professor of History and she has served äs Director of is pp. cartography and currently the Journal Cheikh of is and Arab currently is Studies

UP, the Center for Arab and Middle Eastern Studies at the American University of Rise and and Initiative of 301-27). Monarchy, a The Professor Maps Department Elements, various In

senior Beirut. She is currently exploring the workings of the Abbasid court through 'Patronage the of and 2004); and Rhetoric, of Search Iranian Oxford an examination ofthe interaction of harem and court in the early fourth/tenth Asian is interaction 1 of working include: include: the include: and 'Re-Visiting exploring Middle (2005), Professor Century. researcher at the in aspects Safavid of

'Servants Recent publications include: Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs (Cambridge, 1831-1896 Yale Provenance?', the Islamic Handbook of Images Social of Shi'ism of History Identities MA: Harvard UP, 2004); 'Servants at the Gate: Eunuchs at the Court of Pivot Modern Byzantium on 'Revisiting Eastern By7.antine pp. Philosophy the MacMillan

of al-Muqtadir', Journal ofthe Social and Economic History ofthe Orient 48 of the an of Shi'ism 1-J societies in and harem Mathematical the on History of (2005), pp. 234-52 and 'Re-Visiting the Abbasid Harems', Journal of Middle edition a at workings at a (London: of (Berkeley, 9. the Studies Iran: cultural

Abbasid East Women'sStudies l (2005),pp. 1-19. the project and the Economic Yale the elements in: Viewed Universe: to and Catalan and Silk Center and of Gate: History until Outcomes', Memory, the P. University the court at of of history Logic, she Foret Harems', Road Islamic I.B. the CA: the the Sciences oldest by excellence Eunuchs Portolan in History for has of Nii.$ir in American eighteenth the fourteenth-century Abbasid and Tauris, VCP, Authority Mathematics International (Leiden: the University served of extant Revolution Arabs and in: Journal ai-Din A. early the of in Charts: at 1997) E. of Kaplony Director Islamic the court 2009). as Arabic the University mathematical (Cambridge, Robson century. the Brill, fourth/tenth and Shah Director Orient of of and Court Do (Oxford: and Junta for through Middle Seville, Nation­ Socie­ manu­ He Apoc­ 2008: of Qajar (eds), They' Yale Area por­ and 48 the of of of de is The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 31 (see establishment the state Empire tion: In monetary The 1. deities as development Word and dously The independent Increasingly, more Neo-Platonism Since Islamic because Hellenistic much The How 2 [n the it ThThe e representation of the early money figure its expenditure, first extreme in is the crucial did ofGod. the important scepticism seventh was early empire. and the discussed Stefan coin The since Islamic tradition.

Islamic Empire and its religiothere n on Byzantine beginning circulation the decades: 2.2). centre replaced in utilized Romano-Iranian and phase: orcoin sources 3 theology points

the coin imagery early the of are century The In and than representation imagery primary 2 Heidemann the and west the of today. few the In 1990s. territories, of present Imitation for imagery by the decades of and Representation Zoroastrianism? have ever this gold

Taurus Stefan Heidemann first polemic this Empire of undisputed of Muslim an view former daily Ultimately took source Germanic discourse, Coins Islam been discussion, and "iconic" decades solidus contribution and foundation, taken I border of over the purchases against knowledge studied Byzantine armies for and the coinages offer workhorse or Arabic after representation much in North the

the Figure 2. l Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine, nomisma, Constantinople, without date representation the its

nomisma The crucial early decades in zone, and This this

"established" [c. 616-625 CE] ,Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena inv. no. 2007-04-001 (4.21 grams). that of swiftly the period Hellenistic the idea the attempts imagery of was in sources p,ower Africa

territories, How did the theology of Islam and its idea of an empire evolve, base don the of controversy are only 1970s, much Byzantine battle their the of of of

Hellenistic Romano-Iranian foundation , in thethese face of Christianity, Judaism, its of almost the conquered (see an the Neo-Platonism and Zoroastrianism? This much debated questio nhas raised and face continuous the and fiscal the to and of of on much of debated copper empire coinages much scepticism and polemic againsiconography t knowledge and its sources.

fiscal "established" religion figure provide knowledge the genesis YarmOk the Spain. in the independent text

The extreme points of view taken in this controversy are possible to maintaiof n religion gold are and the progress empire evolving early first cycle, because there are few undisputed Arabi csources on the firs tdecades ofChristianity, Islam. three 2.1) on foUis evolve, possible east question monetary of an has and Since the beginning of this discussion, in the 1970s, much progress has been made. and in coins decades was the overview by of major and of Increasingly, sources hav beee n studied that are almost independen tfrom the Arab 636 with grown has (plural Islamic copper from contemporary the taxation based 2 the

Islamic tradition. In this the imagernew y and text on coins has become discourse, on used, has to CE its been has images organiza­

Sasanian more important than eve rand knowledge of these coinage shas grown tremen- zones of Qur'anic Judaism, maintain the and sources. religion tremen­ become folies) pulity, dously since the 1990s. Coin s offe r the only continuous and contemporaron y while of Islam. coins made. raised Arab and the

independen tand primary for ththe e period of the of the new religion

source genesis the of of and its empire. The present contribution attempt tso provide an overview of the developmen tof coin imagery and the representation of the evolving Islami cpolity, äs it is discussed today. Ultimatel thy e Hellenistic iconography with images of Figure 2.2 Anonymous, follis, Constantinople, regnal year 3 of Constans II (643-644 CE), deities was replaced by an "iconic" representation of the empire by the Qur'änic Oriental Coin Cabine Jent a inv. no. 303-D05 (4.80 grams). WordofGod.3 about modem about cross itself the mia. newly (r. emperors-here of wearing remained Figure Figure 685-705 value

lost remained in circulation in Syria, probably until the reforms of Abd al-Malik The as in

655 of religion 641 The first decades: Representation power and 2.2 minted 2./ (r. 685-705 CE) in 77-9/696-9. The obverse of the folles shows the emperor or the the sense provinces the a of importation in crown Oriental to Anonymous,follis, Heraclius [c. emperors—here (see figure 2.2) the Standing figure of Constans II (r. 641-68 CE) CE other. CE) the universal /. The early phase: Imitation of coinages 658 circulation 616-625 wearing a crown with a cross, holding a globus cruciger in one hand and a long copper with on, in standard In the sevent(see h Century swiftly major of cross in the other. On the reverse the m indicates the Greek numera 40l , the mark with Muslim armies conquered three zones CE. The 77-9/696-9. On Coin Constantinople be well-defined monetary circulation and took over much of their fiscal and monetary organiza- and of value of the Standard copper coin. Archaeologica lfindings show that from 4 figure CEl, coins the early How of world interpreted a

tion: in the centre of the formeCabinet r Byzantine territories ,in the east of the Sasanian about 641 CE on ,Constantinople continue dto supply substantia lquantities of Heraclius cross, in Constans reverse Oriental Empircopper e and in the west of Germanic North Africa and Spain. newly minted copper coin sto its lost province sof Syria and northern Mesopota- to should 2.2) Islamic Syria, Constantinople, empire, fiscal mia. The importation of Constans II folles slowed dow nand came to a halt in its In the Byzantine territories the, workhorse of the cycle, of taxation and lena holding The

the 4

borders CE. lost about 655 to 658 How should this continued importatio onf copper coins to the state expenditure ,the gold solidus or nomisma (see figure 2.1) was used, while Constantine, Coin coin. politically? continued probably this II obverse inv. Empire the money standing utilized for daily purchases was the copper follis (plura l folles} the lost provinces be interpreted politically? Rome-Byzantium still thought of m folies but provinces Cabinet

a itself äs the universa lworld empire, but with soft borders , not äs a state in the continued no. after (seArchaeological e figure 2.2). In the firs tdecades the battle of Yarmük in 636 CE and the indicates globus that with modern sense wit hwell-define dborders that provide Separatio in a number of regnal

establishmen tof the Taurus 303-D05 border zone, Byzantine gol dand copper coins and ofthefolles slowed until figure nomisma, lena to provide Rome-Byzantium soft of its cruciger supply year the importation inv. the Syria religion (4.80 borders, of down Greek 3 no. separation Constans reforms Constantinople, of findings shows substantial and grams). Cons 2007-04-00 in and numeral on one not northern tans of the coin came of II as hand show still copper in II emperor (r. 'Abd a imagery quantities I (643-{)44 a 40, (4.21 to state 641--68 without thought Mesopota­ number and that the a ai-Malik coins halt grams). a in orthe mark from long CF), date CE) the of 31 of of to in 32 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 33 the represented We tions mints until stock.! ing denomination. local ment would al-Bukhari conquer of time northern until sis? Despite Rome the with universal a Islamic of challenge can origin. gion. ing migration such as menacing neo-Platonic noticed ~ophisticated sessed 32 military respects. respects .Early Islam, outsid the e Hijaz ,was th eelite religio nof a tribally organ- ized universal Already Rome the For mainstay a emperor" know ized military Durin. g the period of conquest ,thefiitüh, the Islami creligion pos- body. First, new be

about 2. The phase of dissociation: Umayyad "Imperial Image coppers

of " military. Stefan it~ were will the new imitations cannot as Uprisings, be all-embracing 5 sesseWhen d only a rudimentar theologyy whic, hwas probably eve morn e basic among for compared only these the Neither capital leaders their the Constantinople. units. Ottoman Mesopotamia, Judaism, Prophet, after

The next phase, importatioEarly ann d imitation ca, n be assumed to have begun in the no from come rule (Constantinople), the during and militar yunits A. t tha ttime Islam would almos tcertainl ynot As have been perceived and 670 rebellion struck (d. almost uprising empire during the Heidemann a religious CE during the reign of Mu'äwiya I.t ended around the years CE ,the Day yet of 660-70s 691-4 of the form. äs a new an dequa lreligio nby Outsiders, especiallsuccessful y when compare wit dhthe idea and early leaders rudimentary could 256/870) During conquest At CEo the equal at cities the only Islam, 10 Cons developed Marwäni dreforms. perception years of the Luke Treadwell assumed that therwas esome sort of be sophisticate and d diverse Christian theolog anyd th eothe rcontemporar religiony s inlport territorial the of diverse Constantinople. in in that of The period. they reports current is early the

of coordinatioZoroastrianism, nin the main provincial mint in sSyria ,if not acentra lpolicy .His 80r) located. Contemporary decades of only such äs Judaism Judgement. ,Zoroastrianism o,r th epagan pantheo nturned into its late certain resulting much after Rome more tans different Roman when religion of dimension the time

assumptio ncomplementoutside ths e picture of a more proriounced rol bey Mu'äwiy ain state the most

neo-Platoni occupation Persian cform. Contemporary Byzantiu mighm thave see nthe conques täs a relates were of ofthe years. especially the conquests, were Umayyad be II.

6 building tha, t is now becomin gapparen tfrom inscription sand papyr i(see figures 2.3 Christian the period on caliph

menacin grebellion resultin ign a temporar yloss of authorit yand—i fthey hathan d The an Byzantine the theology, larger 9 would losses Islam was dealing respects achieved commonly saying These victorious We and 2.4).11 These so-called "Imperia lImage" coppers still depict Byzantin emperore s there thejUtub Empire, noticed the religioucreation s dimensio ant all—ä san Arab heres yof Judaeo-Christian probably imperial in the aforementioned ventured by Western trom a Secondly, millennium Arab 7 widespread and crosses .Officiall recognizey dregulär mints wer seet up an dnamed on the coins, do origin.5Neithe rperceptiobadith n would have necessarily challenge the universad clail m a This of 'Abdallah quantities at would outsiders, have Hijaz, and What coins Byzantium temporary

is in Greek and/o rArabic .Validating expression ins languages suc, h kalön or civil both äs not theology the that with the conquest, of the all-embracin Romag n Empire, sinc thee idea of Rome wahaving s neutra lto reli- or all-as with which population within no copper since of can tayyib (both meaning bismi 'lläh ("in the name of God")12 or others were gains, that "good"), know ideology Arab necessarily Ghassanids, ofthe

imitated gion. Uprisings, territoria lossel s and gains ,and heresies constitute ad recurrent Roman the Arab-Islamic at in administration. almost evidence are the until was Islamic

contemporary included in the design .This establishe dArabi cäs the languag eof the validating the be

challeng eduring the more tha nmillenniuthe mof Roman history Thi. s early Situation first the frequent a of ibn of was pagan and the probably encountered (Roman) especially an the authority. Almos not attemp wat s made to represen tthe new state or religion on coins. and armies, state, who read and the coins Prophet can be compare din certain respects with the historica Situatiol nof the Germanihistorical c that the Roman Christian loss period Syria Constans might al-Zubayr Empire. content certainly Arab idea Petty coinage firs, t and foremost serve, d äs a means of exchange. historically type framework probably of

migration and and conques tof the Western Roman Empire. the elite military jUtub, heresies the would to with challenged had of pantheon their Forsupplemented these early decades there is no contemporary evidence thathe tArab- and were other of and mean was inspired tribes have elite regulating under until universal heresy who authority history. Islami cleaders develope adn imperia ideologl y of their own .The idea of having religion Rome when been situation institutions with urhan evidence IIfoUes own. the support in not large-scale the northern even tribal in exposed a universal empir ise differen frot m having a state, with institution ands a govern- contemporary constituted called may that seen the a in of powerful study the Islamic then-current have broad accomplished of

ing body. As leader sof the victorious Ara armiesb ,inspire dby the teaching sof turned their by compared This The BiUid was the of and the more mid-660s the empire have 680s leaders and-if the authorities Judaeo-Christian

thefaded new Prophet ,they were probabl yat firs tcontent with thei dre facto rule. of the a such for Roman universal been that the until paroch.ial Mesopotamia, neutral idea Day tribally early to de variety. and the Despite thei successfur conquestsl ,the Arab-Islami elitc e may have though tthat conquest ai-Sham the religion basic teachings thought into CPo attempts also the circulating a a out, universal could within facto rule ofIslamic only be achieved the framework of theRoman Empire the Germanic and of about of perceived a conquest recurrent hypothe­ they situation religions Thirdly, with or govern­ "stand­ Empire idea in

with its capita lat ConstantinopleJudge­ Wha. tevidence woul suppord tsuch a hypothe- its to among having organ­ imita­ were. Their Arab­ claim were there even elite Asia rule. pos­ reli­

powerful as

sis? First the, idea of Rome was widesprea dand historicallthat y also in Asia and had late the the of of to

unti lthe Ottoma nperiod.6 The Arab populatio ann d tribe sin Biläd al-Shäm and a norther nMesopotamia especiall, ythe Ghassanids, were exposed to the idea of Rome for almos t800 years . Secondly ,frequen tand large-scal eattempt sto Figure 2.3 Anonymous,fals, Damascus ,withou tdate [c. 50s/660-74/692], Oriental Coin conque rConstantinople wer venturee din the period under stud untiy labou tthe Cabinet Jena inv .no. 303-D09 (3.84 grams). time of th euprisin gof th ecaliph Abdallä ibhn al-Zubay rin th e680s CE .Thirdly, al-Bukhär (dl . 256/870) relate as hadlth of the Prophe twho called for the conquest 2. The 66G-70s of years and assumption .tayyib building, and Petty authority. included in Figure Figure of Rome (Constantinople), sayin thag tunti ltha t had been accomplishe therd e Greek coordination The 2.4).11 crosses. would be no Day o Judgement.f 7 This can be to mean that the Day ofJudge- next of read coinage, (both 2.3 2.4 phase

men twil lcome only afte rthe creatio nof the (Roman) universal empir of Islamie c the CE phase, that and/or in Almost These Cabinet Anonymous,fals, (3.85 Anonymous,fals, mark complements during

denomination. Marwanid Officially the meaning is first Alread ydurin gthe Persian occupatio onf Syria and northern Mesopotamia, of now after in design. Arabic. grams). so-called KAAON dissociation: ., no The i \ , I I \ t loca limitation osf curren tByzantin ecopper coinI s supplemente thde circulating Jena and tht: the I , becoming attempt I 8 importation stock. When the impor ot f the aforementioned Constans \\folles fade imitad out,- "good"), early recognized reforms.'" reign main foremost, inv. rc'· J This Validating

tions were struck in much larger quantities probabl untiy lthe mid-660 sor even the \ , "Imperial and j , , no. ) \ Damascus, Islamic Emesa/I:Iim~,

unti labou t670 CE .The most commonl imitatey d typ wae s th ethen-current"standwas - i~.·.4:{/' of picture provincial established '. ,) apparent ;, !G)yib; I 303-009 bismi Umayyad .1J ing emperor "of Constan sII. These coin ares encountere din a broad variety Thei. r Mu'awiya and made served ,It. Luke regular mint scanno tyet be located.9 We do no knot w who th eregulatin{ gauthoritie weres . expressions I.. of Image" , Empire imitation, . , We from the on the and 'Uiih Oriental know reports theßitüh that Christian urban parochial elite a without to Figure 2.4Treadwell Anonymous./a/s, Emesa/Hims ,withou tdate [c. 50s/660s-74/692]; validating mints from (3.84 as more represent without mints

represente dthe cities when dealing with Islamic military triba l anleaderd werseArabic

mark KAAON"Imperial and tayyib; Orienta lCoin Cabinet Jena inv . no. 303-C08 a ("in It coppers means the mainsta yof the early Umayya civid ladministration. (3.85 grams). and inscriptions grams). ended pronounCed in date can Coin the were in date Syria, its as assumed both the [c. be of name aruund religion the still set Cabinet Image" [c. 50s/660-74/692], exchange. assumed new languages, if up 50s/660s-74/692]; language depict and of role not state that and the God")'2 on Jena papyri coppers a by to Byzantine years there named or coin central Mu' have of religion inv. such (see or was 69l-4 imagery the awiya on Oriental begun no. others policy. as figures validating some the emperors validating on kal6n 303-C08 CE, in coins, coins. in were state Coin sort His the 2.3 the 33 or 34 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 35 Zoroastrianism, his drahm their the 34 administration Nihiiwand CE) attacked of intact. the 3. How cross.1 with perceived probably suggests of (see Greek nomisma series Figure 34 In Heraclius' mints. Mu'awiya. portrait The royalty. An newly in portraits figure the the did Stefan of 4 The 628 of awareness 2.5 former legends at rival Sasanian the about a The of conquered imitative regarded as of Anonymous, Islamic in date its 2.1) centralized and On Heraclius Heidemann currency are the more 641 victory. JJ typical apogee, Byzantine swiftly. 4.2 Sasafliafl (see for At the the was the shiihiinshiih---either almost Coin of CE, Empire grams this these first gold than dualistic reverse almost transformed figure the lands late and institutions Even nomisma, Auctions despite and stage Sasanian of cross identical-with merely Empire. coins, imitations realm that Sasanian visual of the his all 2.5). complete side after and Iranian Iraq was as the coinage son as (2006), without probably a a The representation in the state into Thus the a and devastation and Christian struck symbol Heraclius drahm not this mutilated fire religion. assassination Khusraw prominent no. a Iran? alUlihilation

Figure mint 2.the 5 Anonymous, nomisma, without mint without date [c. CE], enabled of [Damascus?], 660-680 it much "bar iconographic an could during Islamic 13 13 Coin Auctions (2006) ,no. (4.42 grams). struck altar the (see can monetary [Damascus?], enormous Thc (4.42 religious on Constantine, fiscal later and cross. Priest be served figure [[ also the a of centralized the

in Figure 2.6 Khusraw II, drahm, mint abbreviation 'HM (Hamadhän), regnal year 29 "cross grams). or pole seen chaos than power of

Damascus, CE), Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena inv .no. 302-B05 (3.46 grams).

of (618-619 cycle conquerors reign Yazdgard An awareness of the cross äs a symbobe l can be seen in a comparatively limited The economy attendants context 2.6) symbol winged Khusraw the as on in

series of imitative gold coins, probably termed struck in Damascus, closely copying a 680 without on caused a and was of the cross steps". nomisma of Heraclius and his son Heraclius Constantine, withwith slightly blundered shows army comparatively steps" Sasanian CE, Khusraw side. Beside them are abbreviations indicating the mint and the regnal year of the

Greek legends (see figure 2.5). The prominent "crosthe s on Steps" on the reverse central religioll crown and the JII date a slightly closely remained around to might by II

de-Byzantinized ruler. Few coins were minted between the decisive battle of Nihäwand in 641 CE stand

(see figure 2.1in ) was transformed into a "bar on a pole on steps". Hoard evidence new (r. Hoard on uniform on (r. identified take [c. the

suggests a datthe e for these imitations not much later than 680 CE, around the period (regnal year 10) and the assassination of Yazdgard III in his last retreat in Marw 632-51 the as Empire 660-680 symbol 590/1--628 the design II develop have on 13 in 651 CE (regnal year 20). Coins struck in the conquered territories are almost aftermath the of Mu'äwiya. At this stage and in this iconographic context the newcopying design was blundered a battle over evidence in obverse sign largely

reverse indistinguishable from those struck under the authority of Yazdgard III, except probably regarded first of all äs a mutilated cross. The cross mighlimited t have been either period silver about CE); been was also 15 was that the mints lay outside his shrinking realm. perceivethe d äs more than merely a Christian religious symbo land identifie dalso CE], of of of in

with the rival Byzantine Empire. Thus it could also be termed a de-Byzantinizea d The next phase lay between regnal year 20 of Yazdgard and about 30 Yazdgard cross.14 Era (YE) corresponding with 31-41/651-61. In contrast to Byzantium, the Sasanian Empire collapsed completely and the shähänshäh'?, claim to universal rule ended. The Islamic conquerors did not attempt to maintain this claim until the Abbasids. The 3. Theformer Sasanian realm outlook of the Syrian Umayyads was different ,following from the Roman tradition. How did the currency and visual representation of power and religion develop in Coins continued to be struck in the names and with the portraits of "Khusraw II" or PahlavL Arab connotation. importance representation situation obverse the but "Yazdgard God") Coins additional outlook ing Islamic Empire Era that side. (regnal indistinguishable ruler. Figure the newly conquered lands of Iraq and Iran? The centralizein d Sasanian Empire was "Yazdgard III" and with the fire altar and its attendants. The dating remained accord- Contemporary 651 The functioned 30sl650s to (YE) attacked at its apogee, despite the devastatiothe n and chaos caused by the aftermath ing to the regnal years of Yazdgard (see figure 2.7). Frequently, but not always, elite Beside continued Few the or 2.6 CE collapsed next I7 year ofthe conquerors margin of Heraclius' victory. Even after the assassinatiomints n of Khusraw II (r. 590/1-628 additional Arabic validating expressions appear (they are still here and appear) in the in jayyid corresponding The Arabic were regnal (regnal (618---{j19 Khusraw III" coins CEwhich )in 628 and the almost complete annihilation of the army in the battle of obverse margin usually in the second quadrant, such äs bismi 'lläh ("in the name of in phase n1e them 10) the of Syrian introduction only lay God") orjayyid ("good"). These general expressions have no specifically Islamic coin Nihäwand in 641 CE ,institution sand the monetary economy remained largely and usually becoming to ("good"). the and completely were validating mint resulting years the connotation. The resulting picture for the early decades seems to correspond to a

intact. The centralized Sasanian state enableoutside d the conquerors to take over the from The Georgia are year lay be with at did CE), II, imagery Islamic administration swiftly. Situation in which the Sasanian administration remained operational or lagely intact, Sasanian Umayyads the a struck abbreviations between early minted authorities provincial in drahm, not of those the 20). with but functioned only at a provincial level and was responsible to Arab governors.16 In

In the Sasanian Empire the coinage of the fiscal cycle was the uniforOriental m silver assassination the his aware These Yazdgard of picture

fire the 30s/650s the mint authorities began dating coins wit hHijri years written in shows attempt drahm of about expressions 4.2 grams that was struck during the reign of Khusraw II in about religion and Islamic in Coins 31--41/651~1. second elsewhere. shrinking the

struck 17 administration 34 mints .The typical late Sasanian drahm (see figure 2.6between ) shows on the obverse PahlavI. The introduction of the new era in coins indicates that the administrative altar the regnal mint the was Coin of new general Arab elite were becoming aware of its Islamic identity but there was stil lno overt level the portrait of the shähänshäh—either Khusraw II or Yazdgard III (r. 632-51 CE); began for names that struck to shiihanshiih's its and and Empire abbreviation indicating different, quadrant, representation of the Islamic religion and its empire. (see

their portraits are almost identical—with an enormouunder s winged crown äs a sign of Cabinet year era the maintain Islamic of and appear the religious realm. his royalty. On the reversits e side the fire altar served äs the central symbol of Contemporary Georgia shows that religious iconographic Symbols wer eof its dating Christian expressions and in figure Yazdgard early in tedns The attendants. 20

was importance in coin imagery elsewhere. Christian Georgi ahad belonged to the decisive empire. Zoroastrianism, the dualistic Iranian religion. Priest attendants stand on either the coins In and lena remained the with ofYazdgard ll following (they such identity contrast the responsible authority decades this coins 2.7). its conquered 'HM claim iconographic inv. indicates the mint Georgia as religion are claim battle III have no. Frequently, bismi portraits with (Hamadhiin), operational but to to still in and seems from 302-B05 of Byzantium, universal dating his until ofNihawand there and no to that here Hijn the had territories on Yazdgard 'Uiih Arab the last specifically of about to the symbols the coin was regnal and remained belonged Roman years ("in "Khusraw (3.46 correspond retreat but or rule govemors. administrative Abbasids. regnal appear) still imagery lagely 30 the the not grams). year ended. are III, written Yazdgard in tradition. no Sasanian in were name always, accord­ Islamic year 641 almost except to intact, Marw of overt in II" to 16 The The the the the of [n of CE 35 or in 29 a The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 37 40-72/661-81, obverse reverse supplementing inscription Sasanian Figure Figure 36 The Stefan 2.8 the 2.7 third a realm. portrait Georgia, without fire names lena "20 "Yazdgard and Heidemann altar YE" that the inv. A fourth resembling the date; Bagratids, [immobilized was strong no. circulating is, Bagratid 1If", the Oriental 304-C04 distinctly phases SufYanid sense posthwnous, Stepanos that king Coin '8 date, stock (3.49 of of replaced ofHormizd Cabinet Stepanos religious development 31-<:. period grams). II of drahm, (r. drahms 41 639--663 by up lena AH/65 a who IV identity abbreviation to Christian inv. (r. the (see cover 1-<:. Figure 2,7 "YazdgarCE), d III", posthumous, drahm, abbreviation SK (Sijistän), regnal year reigned 579-90 no. "20 YE" [immobilized date, 41 AH/651-c. 661 CE], Oriental Coin Cabinet Figure 2.9 'Abdalläh ibn 'Ämir, govemor of the Basra-prefecture, drahm, abbreviation

Secondfitna. 31-c. 661 is drahm, DP (probably Fasä in the Däräbjird district), year 43AH [immobilized date, figure

302-C04 Jena inv. no. 304-C04 (3.49 grams). altar approximately found c. 43-47/663-668], Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena inv .no. 2005-15-002 (4.04 grams). CEl. SK 18--43/639--63. CE), with without (Sijistan), 2.8), Oriental here. (3.03 but

a gradual regularization of the administration, including minting, is visible on the As cross show the mint

grams). coins. The names ofKhusraw and Yazdgard were replaced, at first occasionally New Coin in Georgian regnal the and then regularly from 50/671, with the names of the provincial governors in Syria, on [TillIs?], On on Cabinet coins,

years PahlavT script (see figure 2.9). At many mints the Yazdgard era ceased to be used top. the year the and was replaced with the HijrT year. a Some years after the Firstfitna ,between 656 and 661 CE, Umayyad governors began to affirm their rule with a reference to God in Arabic in the obverse margin. The first was the governor of the East, Ziyäd ib-n Abi Sufyän (r. 670-84 CE) .Since 47/667-8 he regularly promulgated his authority with the legend bismi 'lläh rabbi, "In the name of God, my Lord". Other governors followed this example.19 ers" In strongly parts sized a al-Zubayr with and The 4. rabbi, between The 47/667-8 Pahlavi' coins. and and began gradual Figure clear 64/684, In Some The 697 (see was first then the Second of 62/681-2 4. The Second fltna—Zubayrid and Khürijite challenges the to "In The 2.9 Second the CE script iconographic regularization opposed figure replaced 681 was affirm principles religious years

regularly The Second fitna—the Zubayrid movement and caliphate of Ibn al-Zubayr was the DP c. he the 'Abdallah constitute names empire. CE), Figure 2.8 Georgia, Bagratids, Stepanos II (r. 639-663 drahm, withou43-47/663-668], t mint [Tiflls?], between 681 and 693 CE—and the much fiercer Khärijite challenge between 687 and the fitna-the regularly name (see coins a (probably

2.10). without date; Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena inv .no. 302-C04 (3.03 grams). after 'Abdallah their fitna-Zllbayrid

close, and 697 CE constitute the fifth phase, and mark a watershed in the progress towards governor the 693 with The of character figure a clear iconographic expression of the new religion and state. Abdalläh ibn from of of show ibn the rule SufYanid the Khusraw In cE-and expression venerated al-Zubayr was a close, venerateearly d member of the family of the Prophet. He empha- Islam. God, the of promulgated Firstfitna, the Fasa 'Arnir, fifth Zubayrid ibn with 50/671, 2.9).

Sasanian realm .A strong sense of religious identity is founthe d here. New coins, sized the religious character of the caliphate and demanded a state in accordance of that Hijri' Oriental year Islamic my of al-Zubayr's

the with the principles of Islam. After Mu'äwiya's death in 60/680, Ibn al-Zubayr

supplementinphase, g the circulating stock of drahms figure show on the (see 2.8), in administration, After a At he claim governor the and the year. reference Lord". obverse a portrait resembling that of Hormizd IV (r. CE) ,but the the Georgian strongly opposed the Sufyänid claim to the caliphate and was supported in many 67/687

East, 579-90 member and many with assumed of caliphate much between Coin parts of the empire. Darabjird movement inscription names the Bagratid king Stepanos who reigneYazdgard d 18^3/639-63. On the Mu'awiya's and Empire to the Khiirijite his reverse the fire altar was distinctly replaceZiyad d by a Christian altar with a cross on top. In 62/681-2 Abdalläh ibn al-Zubayr's name first appeared on coins of Kirmän. Other the the CabinetJena mints of mark his name fiercer of new to The third and fourth phases18authority of development cover approximately the years In 64/684, the coins show that he assumed the imperial title "amir of the believ- the names the caliphate brother 656 the and God and itn

that is, the Sufyänid period up to the Szcond fitna. Adistrict), s in Syria, a ers" (see figure 2.10). In the year 67/687 his brother Mus'ab secured Basra in Iraq 40-72/661-81, g~vernors including a were the Basra-prefecture, first religion imperial watershed challenges and family Kharijite Abi' and its demanded death in Yazdgard of appeared inv. Mu~'ab replaced, religion Arabic with caliphate SufYan 661 and the year ofthe no. in and minting, title followed CE, provincial was the challenge in 2005-15-002 60/680, 43AH in secured a era (r. on the "amir state. Umayyad on Prophet. at the state supported legend drahm, of 670-84 coin ceased progress first coins [immobilized obverse is this Ibn Ibn in of 'Abdallah visible Basra between imagery governors occasionally accordance ofKirman. (4.04 bismi He example. the abbreviation al-Zubayr al-Zubayr to governors CE). in towards empha­ margin. be believ­ in grams). on many Since used Iraq 'Uiih date, 687 ibn the 37 19 in 38 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 39 gious essential attempts Mul:lammad of opposed munity the probably ger the step 90, the struck according ger Aqiila, profession God"-in placed and almost their its Figure 38 attendants. Between the new name an of obverse of the further. cause. Stefan and God" God" anonymous in 2./0 state. built the the the territories Islamic groups for in under Bishapiir of imperial Arabic to older of same coin legend Cabinet tionD'J(Jahrwn The 20 'Abdallah margin God, Heidemann the on in in was the The a faith Coins place front Islamic Kharijite numismatic legitimization referred imperial coin years twin as protocol obviously there in to acknowledgement self-image coin in and Mu/:1ammad Jena before, (see of the were the of designs ibn the city 66/685 the principles, is the the with obverse inv. east to figure al-Zubayr, rule control. Fars no created which just portrait him governor's unity with in fundamental no. analysis deity as the ofthe with the of of province and north 2.12): 2005-15-004 far in rasul margin the the 22 Pahlavl power. Darabjird of heralded with this the other reference of as "amlr The 69/688-9, Zubayrid God, portrait elite. of the by Sijistiin. bismi representation and way. Alliih-"Mu1:Jarnmad name the Zubayrids the (see 2 than of of ' shiihiinshiih Lutz inscription to the These district), the name the invocation the important (4.12 With the 'lliih to of figure was God, governors shahiida, The the believers" Ilisch, coins next the the

new Figure 2. W 'Abdalläh ibn al-Zubayr, "amTr of the believers" in PahlavT, drahm, abbrevia- changes of"Mul:lammad grams). struck Iii the Figure 2.11 'Abd al-Malik ibn 'Abdalläh ibn 'Amir, Zubayrid governor, drahm, abbrevia- Zubayrid and year Prophet He Umayyads tion D 'J(Jahrum in the Däräbjird 6shOhiinshah, 0 YE "Orienta lCoin 2.11). district), year (72/692), decisive iliiha "Mul:lammad oflslam tion BYSh (BTshäpür in Färs), year 66AH CE) ,Ashmolean Museum, for

religion. (685-686 growing and-for the

Cabinet Jena inv .no. 2005-15-00garrison 4 (4.12 gratns). is Kharijites of 60 21 Oxford ,in: Album/Goodwin (2002), no. 152. in in the in aJone"). was were YE Zubayrid Probably illii the Pahlavl, Kirrnan Iraq and first governor (72/692), changes is and

and the territories to theplaced east äs far äs Sijistän .The Umayyads seemed to have lost seemed debate Even messenger-ship 'lliih the town the putative and the time. their cause. The coin designs of the Zubayrid governorthe s in Iraq and Iran remained Also thus [is] its drahm, first is first province, wafidahu in Ir~n messenger authorities fire ideologically almost the same äs before, with the portrait of the shähänshäh, the fire altar, and state Kufa, the over in briental the These 70/689-90, propagated in to of in successful 23 its attendants. time-the Arabic altar, remained have Messen­ the 70/689­ abbrevia­ messen­ the became founder

a Between the years 66/685 and 69/688-9, the Zubayrid governor of the East went com­ were rei then Coin ("In placed the legend Muhammad rasül Allah—"MuhammadEast is the messenger of and lost of of of in i­ God"—in Arabic in the obverse a margin of the coins for the firs ttime. These were struck in BTshäpü rin the Färs province (see figure 2.11). Probably in 70/689-90, according to a numismati canalysis by Lutz Ilisch, the Zubayrid authoritie sof Aqülä ,the older twin city just north of the important garrison town Kufa ,went a step further.20 Coins were created wit hthe name of "Muhammad [is ]the messen- ger of God" in front of the portrait of the shähänshäh and—fo rthe first time—the Figure shahiida "Seventy-two/One a the Figure East, in

profession 21 south-eastern profession of faith and the unity of God, the shahäda, was placed in Arabic in In messenger went thethe obverse margin (see figure 2.12): bismi 'lläh lä üäha illä 'lläh wahdahü ("In 2. 2. JJ J appears the name of God, there is no deity other than God ,He is alone"). Also in year 70/689- 2 a tion (1983). Oxford, Anonymous, 90, an anonymous coin with the Pahlavl inscription "Muhamma dis the 'Abd Messen- Figure 2.12 Anonymous, drahm, mint 'KWL' (Aqülä), year 70AH (689-690 CE) ;Sotheby's step of 72/691-2, of

the ger of God" in place of the governor's name was struck in Kirmän province, then (1983), no. 80. BYSh ai-Malik Iran, further God/SK here probably under Khärijit econtrol.22 The Zubayrids and Khärijite sthus propagated The new o 80. no. in: God

(BTshapur 23 founder the new Islamic imperia lrule with reference to the Prophet and putative early in Album/Goodwin brother faith; drahm, by Pahlavl the invocation of the state. The acknowledgemen tand of the messenger-shiibn p of In the year 72/691-2, the Zubayrid governo rof the remote province of Sijistän but [mint replacing Muhammad was obviously fundamenta lto the new religion. Even ideologically in south-eastern Iran, brotheIslamic r of the aforementioned innovative governo ofr the Zubayrid 'Abdallah Iraj he/another of mint opposed groups referred to him in this way. With the growing debate ovein r a com- East, went a step furthe rby replacing the Zoroastrian fire altar and attendants with abbreviation script Fars), Mochiri the munity buil ton Islamic principles, the representation of Islam and its state became a profession of the new faith ;Iraj Mochiri transcribed the PahlavT inscription thus: 'KWL' Empire aforementioned the 24 essential for the legitimization of power. These changes were the first successfuibn l "Seventy-two/One God but he/another God does not exist/Muhammad [is] (2002), governor year and

Zoroastrian attempts in coin protocol which heralde dthe next decisive change sin the reli- the messenger of God/SK [mint abbreviation for Sijistän]" (see figure 2.13).25 The 'knir, (Aqiila), transcribed God in 66AH gious and imperial self-image of the elite. shahäda appears here in Pahlavand l scrip tand in the Persian language. Replacin gthe for no. the of Zubayrid does its Sij (685-686 152. Persian year70AH the religion istiin]" fire the innovative remote not governor, altar Pahlavl language. CE), (see exist/Muhammad (689-690 on province and Ashmolean figure coin inscription governor drahm, attendants Replacing imagery CE); 2.13)25 ofSijistiin Sotheby's abbrevia­ Museum, of thus: with The [is] the the 39 40 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 41 sities and choice sentative ai-Malik challenge. probably a ernor The Empire to symbolic Finding make the coins acceptable, and secondly, the need to create a rhetoric for Kharijite Suryanid illa fire gious Marwanids Zubayrid 'Abdallah is Figure 40 'I-amr forceful The integrate the both Islam and its empire. Between 72/691-2 and 77/696-7, the Marwänid admin- Christianity altar li'llah reforms Stefan had of

propaganda istration experimented with new Symbols and designs; not all the imagery is fully first 2./3 of elements ("In in the built in imperial the movement, understood today. A recurrent theme was the inclusion of the formula Muhammad Jerusalem Umayyad a to governors reaction At its ibn ("Guidance/Sovereignty the known the tionSK Stuart new reconquered 'Abd Heidemann East, be

and rasül Allah, and increasingly the profession of the unity of God. These legends the first own the the al-Zubayr same balanced: defeated were the symbol of Islam comparable to the cross, fire altar and menorah. and of activities al-' name ideological latest Sears). al-l;.la,Uaj present architectural religious addressed (Sijistiin), ideological to traditional "iconic" Muhammad, the all-but-human messenger of God, was raised to a position almost regime. AzTz placed in had way though, the äs sacred äs the divine revelation itself .The anachronistic iconographic Symbols the at of moderate targeted Iraq, ibn' first, ongoing were -in

as on the secondary terms and had to Dome coins, however, ideological serve äs this in of centre God, ibn the cult year In symbol the value. Based Zubayrid coins, Abdallah recognizable marks of on the slogans on the search Mecca the still 'Abd coin and formula time, the the right Yiisuf, imperial

manifestations for appropriate new designs and symbolic representations of the Marwänid Empire altar 72AH(691-{;92 of to crucial the of the controlled and conservatism ai-Malik Zubayrid provinces in design seems to have started in Damascus in 72/691-2. With the exception of some the be the if arose. belongs of 73/692, with ideological master The ibn'

successfully were anonymous. experiments followed differ- can coppers the new emissions These a not ideologically Rock the medieval state for question ent but related course in Syria, in the super-provinces of Kufa and Basra and in the Amir, were a before, be ideologically Mecca Islamic ibn cross movement

much provinces Armenia Azerbaijan).27 the northern and under (Jazlra, and only brutally seen of religion CE), of Marwan reconsidered Figure 2.13 'Abdal-'AzT zihn 'Abdalläh ibn Zubayrid drahm,'abbre\\a-Zubayrid At the latest in 72/691-2, Abd al-Malik began to experiment with coin designs of 'Amir, governor, authority").26 and Umayyad the world. rrom of coil. the to the oflran. was SKon 72AH CE), precious tion (Sijistän), year (691 -692 coll. Mohsen Faroughi (courtesy of Kharijite in Syria. His administration chose yet another circulating type of Heraclius' controlled. religion much Aq~a God") legitimate Stuart Sears). religious suppressed the idea in nomisma a model, initially leaving the anachronistic Greek inscription in new äs place Mohsen Georgia too and and governor, the

much (see figure 2.14). The obverse shows three Standing emperor sstil lwearing tiny one Mosque of more far Islamic on metal and tradition control,

his on top of their crowns. On the reverse the the symbol of the and as fire altar in the same way äs the altar with a cross from Georgia did, the shahäda, crosses cross, äs Empire a hand Faroughi deficiencies away In the In well. universal power: is the first known symbol of the Islamic religion did, and its empire. The Christian Byzantine Empire ,was replaced by a "bar on a pole on steps". The

"iconic" more omnipotent bismi potent its the drahm, 72/691-2 coin 72/691-2, Zubayrid governorother s had targeted the ideological and religious deficiencies of the emblems of the rival Christian Empire were gradually removed, while the recog- as in Empire. the empire. Two Islamic for caliphate of

Jemsalem, 28

Sufyänid an reli- nizable design pattern of the circulating Byzantine gold coinage was retained.

Umayyad regime. In the provinceaggressive s under Khärijite control, Islamic (courtesy 'llah design la Kharijite shahiida, Judaism abbrevia­ hand, a

attempt Before silver drahms were not known to be minted in Syria. The gious Islamic Propaganda addressed the crucial question of legitimate power: lä hukma 72/691-2, neces­ bukma repre­ of 'Abd gov­ 'Höh new Marwänid Damascus drahms (see figure were modelled on the current The illä li'lläh ("Guidance/Sovereignty belongs wall only to God") and bismi wall 2.15) reli­ The the the to as of 'l-amr ("In the name of God, the master of authority").26 In 72/691-2of , the Sasanian drahm retaining the images of the shähänshäh and the fire altar with Marwänids reconquered Iraq, and in 73/692, brutally suppressed the caliphate of attendants. The coins are anonymous; the invocation Muhammad rasül Allah in 'Abdalläh ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca The ideologically much more aggressive Arabic is placed in front of the portrait, however at first without the profession of Khärijite movement, though, still controlled muc hof Iran. the unity of God.29 The Zubayrid Propaganda was adopted äs suitable for the ongoing power struggle with the Khärijites. From 72/691-2 to 74/693^4, the Figure ongoing the Sasanian attendants. Arabic (see ent emblems Christian crosses nomisma nizable new seems as coppers on rasUi Mubammad, northern for in make recognizable were understood istration Finding a new ideological formula for the Umayyad Empire both sacred Before At Syria. appropriate the but unity Marwanid figure

The reforms and activities of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwän and bis omnipotent gov- Islam Allah, the the 2./4 the coins, to related is design on ernor of the East, al-Hajjä jibn Yüsuf, can be seen on the one band äs an attempt the experimented provinces power as coins placed of drahm latest as of Byzantine His have symbol 72/691-2, and 60s-72/late Anonymous, The 2.14).

to integrale the defeated moderate Zubayrid movemen tand top on the other band, äs today. new a the the and God. the marks however, model,

a forcefu lreaction to the ongoing and ideologically much more poten tKhärijitcourse e administration pattern new its acceptable, of in Damascus started coins rival struggle emissions divine in all-but-hUlllan retaining challenge .At the latest at this time, if not before, the idea of a universal Islamic increasingly 72/691-2, 29 The The empire. A their of front (JazTra, designs of The

Empire in its own ideological right arose. Mecca was too far away for a repre- recurrent Christian Empire, silver initially in are 680Hi91-{;92 early of Islam obverse value. with revelation in were nomisma, successfully sentative imperial religious cult to be controlledcrowns. . In Abd

72/691-2 Syria, of the Zubayrid with anonymous; Between drahms Damascus were the and

al-Malik built the present Dome of the and the Aqsä Mosque in JerusalemArmenia ,

the Rock and drahms Islamic new 'Abd circulating comparable secondary Based leaving was theme the chose

probably the first architectural manifestations of the new Islamic Empire. Thin e images the portrait, secondly, Empire shows messenger symbolic nnmu.These anonymous. symbols On the ai-Malik without choice of Jerusalem placed the imperial state religion in the tradition of Judaism itself. profession (see replaced Kharijites. 72/691 propaganda CEJ, Empire were on and super-provinces the Christianity was and and in the centre of the medieval world. yet the in three of the were figure the however Spink ·in The elements of traditional coin design were reconsidereByzantine d äs well. Two neces- FigureThe 2.14 Anonymous, nomisma, withou t mint [Damascus?], without year [c. late Azerbaijan).27 72/691-2. reverse the anachronistic the another representations the and mint not -2 to of invocation began 60s-72/late 680

year Coin Cabinet Jena inv. no. 303-A02 (4.45 grams). central God on removed supplemented of In 72AH MuJ~ammad [Damascus], the to and the on

Probably Figure 2.15 Anonymous drahm,, Damascus, year 72AH (691-692 CE) ;Peus (2004), ho. 988 also of the symbol drahms (3.8 grams). (691-692 the year the the from silver on reverse invocation portrait the 73/692-3 with in the of without (set: on issue CE); undated 73/691 Kufa conventional the an was figure so Peus of margin, Arabic date that of too. the ~2, 73/69 replaced (2004), gold the [73-.74/692~ 2.16). the invocation but shahada messen­ coins 1-2, remains design, before mean­ 00.988 by The the of a

Figure 2.18 'Abd al-Malik,/a/5, Qinnasrin (in northern Syria), withou t date [74-77/ 693-696], Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena inv .no. 303-F08 (3.15 grams). Figure 2.16 Anonymous, nomisma, withou tmint [Damascus], without date [73-74/692- "globe aI-Malik coins dfniir, motif; messenger-ship bling gold "globe for ent, long, used Figure

694],Spink(1986) ,no. 87. Figure "globe on a pole on Steps" and these invocations had by then become frequently Between Syria, indeed and symbols. used Symbols.32 the broad are 2.18 2.17 the on on the name Khusraw in PahlavT is again found in-fron tof the portrait so that the design, Between the years 74/693^ and 77/696, the next ideologically more consist- (see Greek copper in a a anonymous, design almost

caliph unified, with the exception of the Arabi693-696], c invocation of Muhammad on the margin, remains ent, indeed almost iconographic representation of the empire was created pole sword Coin 'Abd Anonymous, pole the gold, figure the recognizable StandarJ2 d drahm design.30 In the year 73/692-3 the invocation for Syria, in gold, copper and silver (see figures 2.17 to 2.19). The obverse of the ofMubammad. letter years coins on Cabinet on ai-Malik,

of gold and copper coins showThe s the image of the Standing caliph. The precious metal the messengecopper r of God, Muhammad, was supplemented with an Arabic shahäda was sheathed unified, is steps" 2.18). steps"

phi. in the obverse margin of the silver, and probably also on the undated gold coins of coins are anonymous, giving only titles, but some copper issues name Abd Oriental surrounded 74/693-4 shows early modified giving dinar, Damascus (see figures 2.16 and 2.17), and on the drahms of Kufa too. Jena al-Malik (see figure 2.18). An important mark of the figure's imperial Status is his and The An Jals, design iconographic The gold coinage and followed the same course. Probably in 73/691-2, but before long, broad sword sheathed in a scabbard, the hilt firmly in his grip. On the gold in Islamic the inv. Coin silver important without precise a the year 74/693-4, the crosses were finally removed from the conventional mean- dinär, the caliph is surrounded by the shahäda and the invocation of the only these The Qinnasnn and scabbard, on image no.

but ingless image of the emperors and the symbol on the reverse was replaced by a messenger-ship of Muhammad. The reverse repeats the "globe on a pole on Steps" Cabinet by (see reverse Empire copper 303-A02 77/696, titles. 31 "globe on a pole on Steps".invocations Probably parallel to the silver issue of 73/691-2, the motif; the design was modified on copper coins. The reverse uses the familiär with mint rendering the of mark representation professiofigures n of faith ,including the unity of God and the invocation of the messen- "globe on a pole on steps" design but with the addition of an ellipse, thus resem- (in .rena the the the [Damascus], shahiida but coins. repeats ger of God, Muhammad, encircled the central symbol (see figure 2.16). The bling the Greek letterpA/. The precise rendering of the "globe (or other tops) on a and the (4.45 northern standing of hilt addition inv. some of 2.17 next the its had grams). firmly The no. the the religion figure's and to ideologically 303-F08 by Syria), "globe copper caliph. year "globe of of reverse 2.19). then in the the an 77m his on imperial ellipse, without (or empire The (3.15 on The invocation become issues coin grip. uses (696 other a precious obverse pole grams). more imagery On the thus was date status CE), name frequently tops) on the familiar consist­ created resem­ Oriental [74-77/ of steps" of metal is gold i\bd on the the his 43 a 44 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 45 "deputy spear, Allah On design. similar as become distinctive. front new 75/694-5 appearance design bears as The ment half standing and image, the pole" Figure language 44 Treadwell the The either shahanshah the title half-length bust ofthc Siefan ("May as with and neither representation 2./9 (see depiction The to the western the of well, enhanced ruler and and and on the side ellipse God", portrait, The title figure and Anonymous,drahm, of margin norm Hc:idemann God either suggested. script. standing 79/b97-8. the mint the drahms is of Masch figure's JazTra. amlr portrait remained of give motifvaried placed divination 2.20). as by arch. the his side carries has a nor A on then. of ruler al-mu (2007), assistance"). arch claim second On caliph but been is the date. It hand It The Instead the was on the was the on The the on nevertheless did are 'minfn standing caliph the of to reduced solution no. created. inscription type. both firmly the title silver considerably without It shahiida also not politico-religious the reverse the of reverse 5599 was obverse is was sides the emperor entirely anonymous, This Treadwell type. imperial coins found holds to caliph mint (3.34 presumably was It conventional shows and a inscribed created was may (see nasr newly The meaningless (Damascus],year75AH in as probably grams). the here at the deviate drahms. as Damascus close titles, the not Allah figure the name discarded Figure 2.19 Anonymous,drahm,withoutmint[Damascus],year75AH(694-695cE),Gorny an hilt khalifal created reference Figure 2.20 Anonymous, drahm, without mint [Damascus] ,without date [c. 75-79/694- an for and Moschbut (2007), no. 5599 (3.34 grams). leadershipH different have iconic arch for 698], Baldwin's (2001), no. 1569. struck of to ideologically the ("Victory "amlr with portrait a "Khusraw", from 2.l9). The the his Sasanian new part on b.::en first Allah image in mark earlier imperial first to broad, columns arch 75/694-5, in the

mints the arch äs a prayer-niche (mihrab) for art history reasons. This kind of decoration of of type On time a Mu!:Jammad pole" with ellipsof e motif varied considerably at the differen tmints in Bilädal-Shäm Damascus a

satisfactory was mainly part of a late Roman convention to frame any image, here a lance, of ("deputy the time accepted of can (694-695cE), conventional the covers either interpretations and the western Jazlra. On the silver coins in Damascus in the Image of iconography, 75/694-5, with God") sheathed, in on which is, according to the inscription, a symbol of victory.34 more placed the titles, believers" shahanshah, the shähänshähbe remained on the obverse äs the iconic mark of the drahm. The Biliid with a in The iconographic significance of the "bar/globe on a pole on Steps" and its the drahm. the dated

Standinunderstood g ruler is placed on the reverse (see figurside e 2.19). On either side of his the a consistent ;.

or variations is no longer known. The different representations must be considered of though Sasanian image again capitals. lance between that ai-Sham

image, the title amir al-mu 'minincaliph's was inscribed for the first time in the Arabic na.~ara design, God").

Arabic äs a group, but they lack an unambiguous counterpart in the growing corpus of sword of docu­ title found Gorny coin language and script. A second is here for the first time on a dated docu- and had The early Islamic imagery. Various interpretations have been suggested bu, t none is but his of or in khalifat of

ment äs well, the divinatioit n of the emperor äs Allah ("deputy of God"). a entirely satisfactory because of the lack of parallel sources in literature and ico- The title enhanced his claim to politico-religious leadership.33 nography. In 1967 George C. Miles saw it äs a qadTb, a ceremonial staff or rod.35 The depiction of a ruler on both sides may not have bcen a satisfactory design, Alternatively, in 1999 Nadia Jamil interpreted the symbol äs the qutb or ompha- äs Treadwell suggested .The solution was probably a nevv type with the caliph's los, the lynchpin of the world, a parallel to the cross of Golgatha, which is seen on half bust and the arch. It did not entirely deviate from the accepted Sasanian Byzantine gold nomisma (see figure 2.1). This would point to Jerusalem, the

appearance ofdrahms but nevertheles, s created an ideologically more consistent Figure the which was early as variations entirely los, Alternatively, nography. centre Byzantine world serious 2.18). centre imperial religious cult. According Nadia Jamil, rotation Roman of the to the of the famous globe?) Damascus to columns Roman specific the knew design (see figure 2.20). It was also anonymous, but with imperial titles, though it a The Hanswulf arch world might be visually expressed in the ellipse on the copper coins (see figure have the pole mainly bears neither min t nor date. It was presumablgroup, y struck in Damascus between Islamic

2.20 2.18). The Suggested foreshortening perspective of a movement, though, raises is, of might the The iconographic Iyncnpin doubts as satisfactory column and 75/694-5 mosaic and 79/697-8. Instead of the conventional portrait of the shähänshäh, a standing been allusion according on the serious doubts about such a theory.36 symbolized is a In nearby gold 698], Gate) Anonymous,

new half-length portraisuggested t was created. It was close to Sasanian iconography , but but part prayer-niche 37

the Hanswulf Bloedhorn suggested another plausible Interpretation. On the no even imperial be 1967 imagery. Bloedhorn in

still distinctive. The figure's hand firmly holds the hilt of his broad, sheathed, sword about

they famous mosaic map of Jerusalem in Madaba (sixth Century CE) a monumental longer coins visually map Baldwin's The nomisma of ofthe is 1999 (see

to similar to the Standing caliph type. This newly created image can be understood on gate Umayyad

George Roman column is depicted äs a pole on Steps with something on top (capital, depicted a a to because early Jerusalern lack

äs the representatiosuch n of the caliph type. The name "Khusraw", placed again in significance of landmark. late the religious urban figure foreshortening globe?) standing on the plaza before the northern gate of the city (today the the might Nadia known. world, Various as front drahm,

of thJerusalem e portrait, has been reduced to a meaningless part of a conventional coin expressed (mibrab) Damascus Gate) (see figure 2.21). In the early Islamic period this column seems an plaza suggested inscription, Roman (2001), a that Islamic (see design. The margin carries the shahädaC. and the reference to Muhammad that had theory.36 and 2.21). 38 as to have been still a landmark. Al-MuqaddasI (d. 381/991) and other writers cities, represent unambiguous of Jamil Miles a without of

39 become the norm by then. The reverse shows an arch on columns with capitals. The cult. figure parallel a the

interpretations knew the nearby gate äs that of the "column," Bäb al-Amüd. Such monolithic before AI-Muqadda~T civic no. pole the In

On either side of the arch are the imperial titles, "amir ofconvention the believers" and of Empire for

In columns symbolized urban and civic pride and were a common feature in late interpreted in and in different lack saw According 1569. this "deputy of God"another , äs on the Standing caliph drahms. The arch covers a lance or the perspective "column," the a mint art Madaba the Roman and even Umayyad cities, and therefore understandable even withou ta 2.1). a pride on the symbol to therefore spear, and on either side is the inscription nasr Allah ("Victory of God") or nasara it of globe "bar/globe history specific allusion to 39 In this interpretation the pellet on the top of

early Jerusalem. interpretation ellipse the and steps as [Damascus], counterpart

Allah ("May God give assistance"). Treadwelparallel l discarded earlie rinterpretations of northern This the pole on the coins might represent a globe without a cross and the bar might and a representations cross to plausible qar,lfb, the without its havc (sixth Islamic to ofvictory.34 (d. with reasons. frame Bab were on would of Nadia religion undcrstandable symbol of sources 381/991)38 a on been the gate century something al-iimiid. Golgatha, a movement, without a a pcriod in any ceremonial a the Jamil, copper interpretation. point common cross This pole suggested, the of on as in image, pellet must the the coin growing date CE) this kind literature the and to and on coins Such which qu!b on city even Jerusalem, a imagery be colwl1n though, rotation steps" [c. feature on of staff the here other monumental top but 75-79/694­ considered decoration monolithic (see or (today 37 the corpus is bar without and or a (capital, ompha­ seen On none and writers in lance, top seems figure of raises might rod. ico­ 45 late the the the the on Its . ~f of IS J a ' 46 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 47 after Abd al-Malik's reforms .The lance and the globe/bar on a pole on steps or obviously shahiinshiih. "steps". considered Whatever thus on tinct to previous semisses. only North serve standing ination the religious represent Fi[!;Ure Photo: column should be seen äs 46 non-venerated objects of pride, powe rand victory and steps" interpret Islamic simply gold design

äs a substitute for the SymbolStefan s of the other religions. David as 2.21 African was a It on Byzantine symbol had The coin an the recognizable secondary Bjorgen as became The not thulth a element be Heidemann it empty

The profession faith religion probably The of äs the symbol of and the original globe; sign a struck regarded as gold necessary, Bab

mere Word of God äs the symbol of the Universal Empire and (2005), phi-shaped other into for al- a platform nomisma. this of coins. was to

close Between late 77/696 and 79/699, the definitive symbolic representatio onf Islam symbolic mark conservative the iimiid appeared the the mark as their Wikipedia, was than and the Islamic Empir ewas introduced1 on coinage. Thi soccurred immediately the Byzantine but early reverse. being enough The after the victory the Khärijite calip hQatarT ibn al-Fujä 'a (r. of over 69-79/689-99), in continued nomisma/dlniir. of or function a a symbol The Jerusalem value and must be seen äs an attempt to legitim ize Marwänid rule in the entire empire meaning recognizable value. capital. de-Christianized for mark Islamic a Madaba with Islamic Propaganda commo tno all Muslim factions. Thi refors m was organ- Greek "steps" to In the symbol tremissis,

too. ized by the caliph in Damascus in close cooperation with al-Hajjä jibn Yüsuf, the the the This for on as as first The on (Dec.

of supreme governor of the former Sasanian east. In 77/696 new dinärs were struck "bar Byzantine phi a period replacing marks steps the of the these "globe time function (see figure 2.22), probabl yin Damascus. They bea thr e new religious Symbol osf for urban design 2007). A forfollis the on a Madaba Byzantine Islam and the empire, the shahäda, encircled by the Qur anic risäla, the prophetic distinguishing cross on the (see of of a images cross

or mission of Muhammad (shortened version of Qur an 9:33), and on the opposite on column pole Mu' the value connected the Christian of value figure

de-Byzantinized side the Word of God, the beginning of the sürat ikhläs (shortened variet yof a potent, map. as the pole potent awiya Greek copper on Qur an 112), surrounded by the date of the striking. might semissis John and symbol of would 2.5); steps".40 Late in the year 78/697-8 al-Hajjä jibn Yüsuf ordered the reform of the dirhams on was "cross the mark the was the in his realm .The new coins weighed abou 2.t 8 to 2.9 grams with slight regional M fell Walker steps" have coins it transformed

or differences .The new design was very similar to that of the new dinärs, but in then "bar dInar coin, is was is into the for been, In not m. on apparent addition carried the min tname. As fa räs we can currently teil, the reform began

Figure 2.21 The Zto& al-Ämüdfor in Jerusalem on the Madaba map. should object alluded. most on a be Syria the steps" oblivion

It in Kufa, and in the Jibäl .The fol-

possible Azerbaijan ,Armenia ,Jayy Shaqq al-Taymara with like denom­ Photo: David Bjorge n(2005)Islamic , Wikipedia, Madaba (Dec. 2007). a a it might lowing yea rsaw the adoption of the new design by more than 40 mints all over the cross non­ pole was dis­ the the the on be on on east (see figure 2.23), many of them in the former region sof Khärijite domi- to 41 represen tan empty platform or capital .The urban column would then be a non- nance—and in the imperial capita lDamascus.42 religious symbo anl d close enough to the Byzantine Christia n"cross on Steps" to Until the time of the A'bbasid calip hal-Mansür (r. 754-75 CE), precious metal serve äs a recognizable mar kof value. This function of the symbol is apparen ton coins remained anonymous .Not only the name of the ruler but also his image was North Africa ngold coins. The mark for the Byzantine semissis was the cross removed from any representation of the empire on precious metal coins. This

Standing on a globe; this wa/ s continued äs a "globe on a pole on Steps" for Islamic constituted a historically unprecedented breach wit Hellenistih c coin imagery Figure coins constituted removed (see east after addition and and Qur'an after as column differences. The Between mission with supreme side ized in Islam Word nance-and lowing semisses. The sign for the Byzantine tremissis, a cross potentin , was transforme don Kufa, his a Late Until must substitute the figure by (see

the 40 the Islamic thulth into the early Islamic "ba ron a pole on Steps". In Syria the Islamic the profession 'Abd remained and realm. 2.22 year of 112), the in only gold coin struck was the nomismaldinär. A distinguishing mar kfor a denom- should Islamic of the carried victory Azerbaijan, Word governor late figure from be , the the God ai-Malik's '.' 2.22), \ Oriental Mul;Jammad caliph Anonymous, ination was not necessary ,but a recognizable design connected the dinär with the . ' " a saw > time The in '" seen propaganda The surrounded ;l.'tJ' I 77/696 year empire, "J historically ... for /\mH'.(-~~~J _'" previous Byzantine nomisma. The "steps" of the cross poten twas the most dis- the any ,\1 1/,,' anonymou< of be . as the 2.23), Empire over the , '. I , new of probably

tinct The

design elemen otf the reverse .In the period of Mu'äwiynew a the "bar on a pole of as the in I 78/697-'j1, )\ seen God, I of imperial Coin the 1. {' I representation adoption the mint Damascus .\ on had for the firs ttime figure it is not an

probably appeared (see 2.5); possible faith

"~"+' ~ steps" Armenia, t, and the \.'·lj the symbols reforms. the early \ design coins i , many symbol as A'bbasid attempt dinar, - (shortened Cabinet to Interpre tit äs other than a de-Christianize dor de-Byzantinized objec ot n the 1ft \ was ) former common by name. Kharijite ". shahiida, \. 79/699, .... 1'), unprecedented non-venerated .. as "steps". It became a conservative symbo l for the value of the coin, likin e the capital t. Islamic \ Not the \ al-I:Iajjaj beginning weighed '. : . of introduced Damascus. was \-f'" ,,\S ~ of '\~"Jt1, ' the f',~ r~

without shähänshäh. The p/z/-shape dsymbo l on steps on the copper coins shoul dbe of The I.i.~~~ .. Jayy lena in ' the date ....!.. to As ~ only Sasanian '. of caliph them the

,! considered äs a mere mark of value too, replacin gthe Greek M or m. It might the close lo'!f to very symbol caliph legitimize of Damasclls encircled new version far lance the Empire inv. r and ,I 41 thus simply be regarded being a Greek/?// /forfollis Johof n Walke ralluded.

. äs äs all other the ibn definitive about the mint in as of the al-Man~Ur similar

original cooperation Whatever the symbolic meaning of these images might have been it, was Muslim Figure 2.22 Anonymous, dinär, without mint [Damascus], year 93AH (711-712 CE), design Universal no. Shaqq on name They YUsuf objects and Qatari' the we east. breach empire

the Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena inv no. . 306-A02 (4.23 grams). religions. obviously secondary to their functio näs marks of value anstriking. d fei linto oblivion 306-A02 of of and [Damascus], 2.8 coinage. by 42 can Marwanid the former surat Qur'an religion of bear In by to ordered symbolic al-Taymara the to its factions. ibn of currently the globe/bar with 77/696 on more that (r. 2.9 religion Qur'iinic the pride, (4.23 Empire with aI-Fujii ikhla$ ruler 754-75 This precious regions 9:33), grams of Hellenistic new than the year and rule al-I:Iajjiij grams). This new representation the but power occurred tell, reform (shortened on on 'a in religious 40 risala, and 93AH in with eE), the of new (r. also dinars reform the coin metal a the mints the Kharijite pole 69-79/689-99), on and precious slight Jibal. of his ibn (711-712 dinars, coin reform entire imagery the immediately the the were coins. victory all symbols on was image YUsuf, variety prophetic opposite of The imagery dirhams regional over steps empire organ­ struck domi­ but began metal Islam This er), was fol­ and the the 47 of of or in 48 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 49 and Second ship. of cerned. Khiirijite sal Coin that Empire Summary than ing the modesty, sion aniconism iconic the surrounded and portrait ofshähänshäh and the symbol of Zoroastrianism ,the fire altar, remained for complete Figure going 48 the Islamic On the Standard designs until the reign of Abd al-Malik. The most serious political, ,ltr: of districts. ultimately profession Hellenistic the the khalifat From to " i iconography Stefan '\: then-new i the \ military and ideological challenge to the Umayyad regime was the Second fitna, back 'J:, the symbols: 2.23 .. Repeated • Khiirijite fitna, \./ change Arabic I / . ' and wars, the caliphate of Abdalläh ibn al-Zubayr between and 73/692 and the because 62/681-2 separation role • silver Empire about I .;, ', of I "'/,.; about lena Anonymous, by of . Heidemann

Allah even aggressive Khärijite movement between and IS/691. For the more '. 68/687 But ./ 1 , , the 1,,'d/l.;;)J minting led religion / of J' the the ,.' of inscriptions II almost /"1 ") tradition was Arab-Islamic first time, äs a manifestatio nof the new Islamic imperia lself-consciousness ,in inv. coins the thinking. the attempts the " the to precious a reveals in the faith risiila (deputy ., 1 history 66/685-6),\1 , Zubayrid governors put the invocation of the messenger-ship of millennium \'I} a Quranic late no. 1 laid its Islamic of .• images suitable , new .•. the Muhamma~ d on the coins; then, presumabl yin extended it with the

'::';;:;;/ 70/689-90, no was own '/. the 305-HIO as I '1 dirham, 650s ,).:> that , during the the to profession of the unity of God. In 72/69 K2, one Zubayrid governor even replaced ruler's The distinct of an Islamic metal meaningless carrying :~ conquer of .~ gradually ideological .) Empire the fire .. altar of Zoroastrianism with these invocation isn the Persian language and early God). .! represents of elite latter CE \.,.:.,. Word forn1Ula J . ... expression shahada \\\) coinage \ I Kufa, in

(2.87 written in the Pahlavl script. These iconic Statement sare indeed the first symbols a until the \ side coins I Byzantine the to search imperial universal . '

This of Islam and comparable to the cross, fire altar and menorah. is of Constantinople ideological and Zubayrid year inherit grams). the bears Roman the to In the period between 72/69 1and 77-78/694-8, the experiments of Abd regulated God for right. is the images, presupposes and represent its uprising

for al-Malik and al-Hajjä jibn Yüsuf can be seen äs a response to these challenges ,in 79AH found of- side circulation sovereignty the religion. representation as the an attempt to integrale the Zubayrid movemen tand to face the ideological Khärijite emperor an religion. emperor Until the west

Figure 2.23 Anonymous ,dirham, Kufa, year 79AH CE)and , Oriental Coin Cabinet

an (698-699 (698--699 Word used menace. After the suppression of the Khärijites in the years 77-78/696-8, coin identity Roman messages. on serving

at Jena inv. no. 305-H10 (2.87 grams). of representation expression the

the design was radically changed. Precious metal coinag finalle y became anonymous; and K1liirijite the can the 'Abdallah an for of new, claimed iconographic representations were abandoned. The Islamic Empire had finally period with Anonymity was opposite the be entirely of claim of God, CE), as level going back abou ta millennium in the Romareligious n west and the Iranian east. The path found its distinctive symbolic form of representation: the bare iconic Word of interpreted God, the all-embracing on Iranian the mere a for the change was laid during the Zubayrid and Khärijite wars by the almost God, the süra 112, representing the sovereignty of the new universal empire ,along Oriental wars of of cross the to Arab coins ibn to of result

the complete Separation of the meaningless images ,serving äs mere marks of value, with the prophetic mission of Muhammad (Qur'än 9:33) and the profession of side. almost new sovereignty universal marks be surat al-Zubayr, the symbols. did by and the Arabic inscription scarrying ideological messages. east. faith ,the shahäda, which symbolize dthe new distinct religion. Zubayrid of insignia, Islamic nothing can understand­ Coin On as of

On the silver coins the ruler's side bears the Word of Godthe , the sürat al-ikhläs, provinces not al-ikhlii$, a of The the the coins conces­ univer­ be surrounded by the risäla that represents the sovereignty of God, almost a conces- Cabinet almost ruler­ value, Notes mean wish state dis­ new sion to Khärijite thinking .The shahäda is found on the oppositpath e side .On coins in and The less and the the

the Hellenistic tradition the latter is the sidin e used for religious Symbols. The 1 A detailed and fully annotated Version of this contribution can be found in Heidemann aniconism of the precious meta lcoins for circulation was the result of the new (2009). 2 See Sivers (2003); Hoyland (1997); Johns (2003). iconic symbols: the Qur anic Word of God äs an expression of sovereignty and 3 For an introduction to the numismatics of this transition period ,see Sears (1997); the profession of faith äs an expression ofreligion. Anonymity did not mean Heidemann (1998); Treadwell (2000); Foss (2004) ; Album/Goodwi n(2002) Oddy modesty, because the new Islamic universal emperor claime dto be nothing less (2004); Phillips (2004) ;Goodwin (2005). than khalifat Allah (deputy of God). This presupposes an entirely new understand- 4 See Phillips/Goodwin (1997); Heidemann (1998); Foss (1994-9); Walmsley (1999); 19 18 17 16 14 15 first faith, even ai-Malik menace. 13 12 Notes of God, design an II J Muhammad the the the military written with portrait profession 66/685--6, found iconographic Pottier/Schulze/Schulze (2008). 8 9 0 5 6 7 4 3 2 ing of the role of the Islamic Empire and A itI s religion. Islam attempt The See See In See See See These In the See See See See See See See See Heidemann Pottier/Schulze/Schulze See (2009). (2004); For 5 See Hoyland (1997) ,523-47, esp. 535-8. fire standard caliphate time, the the detailed Byzantium more the 6 See Humbach (1983); idem (1987) Thora; u (2004). emperor the Sears its Treadwell Tyler-Smith ibid., ibid., Donner Foss Hoyland Pottier Album/Goodwin Abel phases Humbach was Sivers Phillips/Goodwin an altar in 7 SeeAbel(1958). of and and sura short After and prophetic Summary of the history of coinage and the representatioshahiida, n of distinctive the introduction Phillips period to as shiihiinshiih of 8 See Pottier (2004); Goodwin (2004); Pottier/Schulze/Schulz (2007)e ; idem (2008). Zubayrid t2002b). radically aggressive (1958). 8f. 12-5; (1997), of comparable on

Empire and religion designs and ideological integrate (2003); al-ijajjaj (2004); are the a

9 See Album/Goodwiof n (2002); Pottier/Schulze/Schulze (2008). expressions 112, representations (1986); Pahlavi over (1998); the (1997), Zoroastrianism manifestation the (1983); the (2000), 10 See Treadwell (2000) ,2-6. according fully Abdallah unity

Sears Coin iconography reveals the early search for an identity of the Arab Islamic state (2004); The between (2000). representing his

which 11 suppression See Donner (1986); Foss (2002b); Hoyland

377-402; (2006). cross mission Hoyland coins; Goodwin

that ultimatel yled to a suitable formula to represent the new, all-embracinchanged. g univer- Foss until symbolic

annotated 12 These short expressions have no specific religious connotation. enemies. governors Treadwell script. the to early 523-47, (2002); ibn of (2003a) Kharijite and idem 2--6. sal Islami cEmpire in its ow(1997); n ideological right .Until the period of the Zubayrid and 13 See Foss (2002b). became challenge the Goodwin have to (2008). God. symbolized Zubayrid (2002b); to Yfisuf 14 In Byzantium the crosthe s became almost an imperial symbol that denote dthe victory of ibn Khärijite wars, almost no distinct imperial representatio non coins can be dis- then, the 72/691 the Islamic of Album/Goodwin (1987); Album numismatics (1997); These

(2004); the emperor over bis enemies. See Moorhead (1985), 178. Pottier/Schulze/Schulze no . were of esp. Precious reign See cerned. Repeated attempts to conquer Constantinople can be interpreted äs the wish In version with Muhammad Heidemann cross, al-Zubayr symbol form the of almost

(2000); 15 See Tyler-Smith (2000). specific movement presumably the can of the then-new Arab-Islamic elite to inheri tthe Roman claim to universa lruler- put 72/691~2, (2005). Hoyland Moorhead 535-8.

the 16 sovereignty See Sears (1997), 377^02; Album/Goodwin (2002), 34-7. to in movement Thorau iconic and Jolms abandoned. these Empire of

ship. From abouPottier/Schulze/Schulze t the late 650s CE until the uprising of Abdalläh ibn al-Zubayr ,the new of be fire 17 See 8f.

ibid. ibid., the the the of an Kharijites metal Abd of

minting Foss Seconreligious d fitna, was gradually regulated at the level of the provinces

seen 18

representation: The phases are according to Album in ibid. 77-78/694--8, this of imperial aitar new (2003). Umayyad invocations between Islamic Zoroastrianism, (1998); statements invocation (2006). and districts. But (2004). the images of a Byzantine emperor wit ha cross insignia, the 19 See ibid., 12-5; Sears (2003a). this (2002), and (1985), between (Qur'iin one contribution aI-Malik. (2004); as coinage in distinct and and of transition a The Zubayrid connotation. its 70/689-90, symbol in the Foss response imperial to menorah. 62/681-2 34-7. religion 178. (2008). regime the Album/Goodwin face 9:33) 68/687 new Islamic are finally in religion. of The (1994-9); the can the years the that the period, indeed the universal governor the (2007); and to most self-consciousness, was be experiments on Persian bare denoted extended became ideological and and Empire these 77-78/696--f5, fire messenger-ship fOlUld coin the Walmsley the see the serious iconic 78/697. 73/692 idem altar, empire, challenges, even profession imagery language Secondfitna, in the first Sears (2002) anonymous; had Heidemann it (2008). victory remained Kharijite Word political, with symbols replaced of and For (1999); (1997); finally along Oddy Abd coin and the the the of 49 of of of in in 50 Stefan Heidemann The early Islamic Empire and its religion on coin imagery 51 20 See Ilisch (2007). Baumann, P. (2000) 'Ein spätantikes Säulenmonumen tam Jerusalemer Nordtor ?Zu --(1992) Bates, Bales, Balaguer Amould, Amould, Album, Bibliography Abel, 42 41 40 38 37 36 39 35 34 33 32 31 29 28 25 30 26 24 27 23 50 20 22 21 In this contribution the term shahäda denotes only the profession of the unity of God. 21 Numismatics Jarique Coinage', Museo d'urbanisme', Hispania, einem Detai lauf der Mosaiklandkarte von Madaba/Jordanien', Das Münster: Zeitschrift Pre-Reform romaine) Arabica 114:2,pp.179-83. See See (1976); also church For See See intra-mural Jamil Briefpersonal See (1987), For For See See Balog); See See See 22 See Foss (2005) .For the history of the Khärijites, see idem For See See (2002). See Sec Ottoman As [n See m für christliche Kunst undKunstwissenschafl 53, pp. 38-46. A. Stefan M. this

M. 23 As founde rof an empire, the Prophet Muhamma dis äs putative äs Osmän for the Klat founder al-Muqaddasi" Walker(1941), the this thc Miles the Arnould Sears S. Bates Miles (73h); Miles Foss Donner Mochiri !lisch have Foss Walker Crone, P. and Hinds, M. (1987) God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centwies (1958) Arqueol6gico C. C.

Ottoman Empire and Romulu sand Remus or Aeneas for the Roman Empire(1999). . Prunes, (1986) de 5, contribution and (1996) and controversial Hahn developments 4-23, dans Byzantine Miles of

'The Islam, Cambridge: CUP. (1999) type, Schweizerische Barcelona: (1998) 24 See Donner (2002-3), 40f. (2002). Empire (2005). (2002a); pp. Heidemann numismatica stood. (1995); (I (1967), (1967), (2007). (1967), Coinage Jazzar

8, Donner, F.M. (1986 )'The Formation of the Islamic State', Journal of the American side in Goodwin, 25 See Mochiri (1986) ,168-72'Un ; Ilisch (l992). (86),246. (2002-3), of Revue (1941),23 (1986),168-72; (1998); Coinage la 1-14. see (1981); 'History, pp. esp. St (1957),

conununication, Oriental Society 106 pp, . 283-96.

26A.M. See Foss (2002a); Sears (2003a). 'Roman 'La an cite of 'Remarques I)adi"! See Stephen's and 9-17. Treadwell For (2000), (2002-3) 'From Believers to Muslims. Confessional Self-Identity in the Early Islamic 208;

developments (1906), 27 For the in the provinces, see Treadwell (1999), Sears (2003b). idem 209f, 21Of. Sears 20f tile denominations, empire, Biblique Nacional, of xxiii. Asociaci6n porte the d' 28 SeeMiles(1967),209f,nos.4f. Harding idem discussion Community', Al-Abhath 50:1, pp.

the 9-53. Romulus Bates sur (1976) 191 the gate in of Aelia and T. 40f. hispano-arabe 212. Geography term 29 See Sears (1995); idem (2003b); Ilisch (2007). (2003b); Numismatische nos. no. Foss(2003a). , C. (1994-9) "The Coinage of Syria 'in the Seventh Century :The Evidence of the and Spain history (72h); de la f (2002) Early 167. n. (1999), is 30 See Walker (1941) ,23 no. DD1 (74h); Miles (1952), pl. xxviii no. 4 (74h, coll. P. no. church the prise (1992), Excavations', Israel Numismatic Journal 13, pp. 119-32. (1999); DDI provinces, 106, shahada Capitol Damas 4f. sur visible. 81; (1949), lIisch pp. Las Early Balog); Miles (1957) ,191f no. 6 (72h); Bates (1986), 243f; Sham Ishräs q (1990), 95 no. 6 (2002a) 'The Khärijites and Their Coinage', Oriental Numismatic Society and email Prophet Under Numism

(73h); (72h); Album/Goodwin (2002), (72h), (73h). lIisch JazzaIa r (2000), no. 278 no. 279 Madelung Sylloge pp. 271-89.

(74h); Newsletter 171, pp. 24-34. see in emisiones 109; and Remus the 272f, place 31 See Bates (1986), 246. (1992). ina' Rome (porte idem In Muslim 101-11.

Umm (2002b) Syrian Coinage of Mu'äwiya', Revue Numismatique 158, pp. pl.

dated 'A

14. 353-65, denotes the

Of. this fll 32 See Miles (l 967), 21 Bates Walker (2007). Kharijites, see the , Numismatics Period, Rundschau Baumann xxxvii-xxxviiiMul)ammad . Zeitschrift Miles 282;

33 For the controversial of discussion about this title, see Rotter (1982), 33-5; Crone/Hinds et (2005). Umayyad dans (Madrid title, romaine) centre or Treadwell 3 (1997), (1987), esp. 20f and n. 81; Madelung (1997), 46 n. 51al-Rasas . (2004) 'Fixed Points in the Coinage of Seventh Century Syria', Oriental Numismatic

4-23, la Islamic (1986), March Espanola. Aeneas only Coinage transicionales Bates

(1956), Society Newsletter 181, pp. 2-5. fonction

34 For this type, see Treadwellla (1999); idem (2005). (1952), Oxford: see (2002), of tradition

(2005) 'A Nesee w and Unusual Kharijite Dirham', Oriental Numismatic Society News- 35 See Miles (1967) ,208; 212. (2000). the /' 65, 46 13-/6 Rotter des the caliphs 243f; Ii 2007. (1996). in 36 Jamil (l999). Coins letter pp. 11-13is .

m, for (1999). in idem ~usalem: n. profession xxxii, Jordan pp. forum as in pI.

37 Brief personaDeutschen l communication emai, l dated 3 March 2007. de Ashmolean

the Goodwin, T. (2004) 'The Dating of a Series of Early Arab-Byzantine Coins', Oriental the 51. no. Shams On eschatologique diciemhre (1982),33-5; 23 38 Seeal-MuqaddasT(1906), 167. putative North (2002). xxviii in la Numismatic Society Newsletter 181 ,pp. 5-9. in First Roman 278 xl-xli, Sears 1-61. the 396rabe-musulmanas See Arnould (1998); idem (1999), 109; Baumann (2000) .On the mosaics in the Lion of porte the a the (2005) Arab-Byzantine Coinage, London Th: e Nour Foundation. similar

church and in S tStephen's church in Umm al-Rasäs inJerash Jordan a similar column at the (72h), Ishraq Quelques of mosaics Century no. Hahn, W. Moneta Imperii, Byzantini, Rekonstruktion des Prägeaufbaues auf Ashmolean (1981) Africa', East Palastina-Vereins (2003b). intra-mura lside of the gate is visible. In the centre of the forum of Jerash a column may as de the Museum. Empire. 64-7R;

1990), synoptisch-tabellarischer Grundlage 3. Teil: Von Heraclius bis Leo H I./Alleinregierung also have See Harding 14. 4 stood. (1949), Osman 711-750', Damas a no. column (1990), unity

(7411, (610-720), Wien: Verl .der Österr. Akad. d. Wissenschaft. Harding ,L. (1949) 'Recent CronelHinds 40 For the Byzantine denominations se, e Walker column xxxii, Balaguer de (1956), xl-xli, 64-78; in of 279 questions

Yarmouk Work on the Jerash Forum', Palestine Exploration Quarterly 81, pp. 12-20.

(1976); Hahn (1981); Bates (1992), 272f, 282;Balaguer Bates (1996). Madrid: l'lslam', the Islamic of coil. i:

Heidemann ,S. (1998for ) 'The Merger of Two Currency Zones in Early Islam .The Byzantine 41 See Walker (l941)(porte , xxüi. 95 (73h). at God. Lion may The and Impact on the Circulation in Former Byzantine Syria and Northern in: 42 See Klat (2002). Sasanian the de no. the P. Mesopotamia', Iran 36, pp. 95-112. Development ofthe Representation ofthe Early Islamic Empir eand Its Bibliograph^ —(2009) 'The Religion on Coin Imagery', in: A. Neuwirth (ed.) The Qur'an in Context: Entangled

Abel, A. (1958) 'Un hadlt sur la prise de Rome dans la tradition eschatologique de l'Islam', • Histories and Textual Palimpsests. Leiden Brill: , 2009, pp. 149-95. Arabica 5, pp. 1-14. Hoyland, R.G. (1997) Seeing Islam äs Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of the Album ,S. and Goodwin ,T. (2002) Sylloge of Islamic Coins in the Ashmolean i: The Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam, Princeton NJ, : PUP. --(2007) Jamil, --(1987) Jlisch, --(2006) --(2009) Humbach, Hoyland, --(2005) --(2005) Heidemann, --(2004) --(2002a) --(2002b) Goodwin, I-Ialm, --(2002-3) Foss, Crone, Donncr, Pre-Reform Coinage ofthe Early Islamic Period, Oxford: Ashmolean Museum. (2006) 'New DocumentarBaumann, y Texts on the Early Islamic State', Bulletin ofthe School of Maqdis. of Mesopotamia', Eggermont Oriental und Leuven: World-History Christian, fill' synop/isch-tabellarischer Histories and Rcligion Mesopotamia', Numismatic xxxvii-xxxviii. Work Society Newslel/er (610-720), letter Oriental einem Community', of Excavations', Arnould, the C. (1998) 'Remarque ssur la place et la fonction de la porte de Damas (porte Oriental Islam, andAfrican Studies 69, pp. 395-416. N. chris/fiche L. C. Geschichte, Sasanian W. romaine) dans la cite d'Aelia Capitolina' ,Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins Humbach ,H. (1983P. ) 'Phrom Gesar and the Bactrian Rome', in: P. Snoy (ed.) Ethnologie 182, on (1992) Byzantine (I Detail F.M. R.G. (1994-9) Newsletter and Jerusalem H. T. Dep. 999) 114:2,pp .179-83and . und Geschichte, Festschrift für KarlJettmar, Wiesbaden :Harrassowitz, pp. 303-9. (J981) P. Society on the Cambridge: and 'The 'New Arab-Byzantine 'New 'The S. 'Fixed 'A Jewish, pp. (1983) (2004) 'A 171, Wien: Jubilee

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