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Municipal Wastewater Treatment with Pond Technology Historical Review

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Municipal Wastewater Treatment with Pond Technology Historical Review Ecological Engineering 148 (2020) 105791 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ecological Engineering journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng Review Municipal wastewater treatment with pond technology: Historical review T and future outlook ⁎ Long Ho , Peter L.M. Goethals Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: Facing an unprecedented population growth, it is difficult to overstress the assets for wastewater treatment of Waste stabilization pond waste stabilization ponds (WSPs), i.e. high removal efficiency, simplicity, and low cost, which have been re- High algal rate pond cognized by numerous scientists and operators. However, stricter discharge standards, changes in wastewater Pond upgrade compounds, high emissions of greenhouse gases, and elevated land prices have led to their replacements in many Pond modeling places. This review aims at delivering a comprehensive overview of the historical development and current state Greenhouse gas of WSPs, and providing further insights to deal with their limitations in the future. The 21st century is witnessing Emerging contaminant Climate change changes in the way of approaching conventional problems in pond technology, in which WSPs should no longer be considered as a low treatment technology. Advanced models and technologies have been integrated for better design, control, and management. The roles of algae, which have been crucial as solar-powered aeration, will continue being a key solution. Yet, the separation of suspended algae to avoid deterioration of the effluent remains a major challenge in WSPs while in the case of high algal rate pond, further research is needed to maximize algal growth yield, select proper strains, and optimize harvesting methods to put algal biomass pro- duction in practice. Significant gaps need to be filled in understanding mechanisms of greenhouse gas emission, climate change mitigation, pond ecosystem services, and the fate and toxicity of emerging contaminants. From these insights, adaptation strategies are developed to deal with new opportunities and future challenges. 1. Introduction and one-third of the WWTPs in Germany (Mara, 2009). WSPs are also the most popular application of wastewater purification in New Zealand Although wastewater treatment is considered a recent technology, with over 1000 anaerobic ponds (APs) (Heubeck and Craggs, 2010). its first application was implemented as early as 4000 B·C when ancient Despite the global presence of WSPs, this low-cost technology is Sanskrit and Greek applied water treatment methods such as filteration currently facing a junction of either being upgraded or being replaced through charcoal, light exposure, and water boiling and straining (US as a result of stricter regulation on the standard of effluent discharge. EPA, 2011a). Later on, pond-based technology was employed over Moreover, it becomes more challenging for pond treatment technology 3000 years ago (US EPA, 2011a). The first man-made treatment pond, due to the fast development of other wastewater treatment technologies named Mitchell Lake with 275 ha of surface area and 1.4 m of average for the last decades, including activated sludge, membrane technology, depth, was accidentally built in San Antonio, Texas, the US in 1901 and anaerobic digestion technology (Fig. 1). Although the number of (Gloyna, 1971). Since then, waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) have been publications related to WSPs occupies 10% of the total number of sci- progressively applied for municipal wastewater treatment worldwide. entific publications studying on wastewater treatment technology, this WSPs can be found in many countries located from polar areas, e.g. number is only half of the publications related to activated sludge (AS) North America or Europe, to the equator, e.g. Africa or South Asia, technology or one-fourth of the publication studying on advanced treating wastewater from large metropolitan to small municipal areas. membrane technology. In fact, in contrast to the slow pace of pond In fact, above half of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are WSPs in technology development, AS-based systems continue to apply in- the US, accounting for 8000 facilities, which are also the first choice for novative design and controlling processes, such as Instrumentation, nearly all remote communities in Northern Canada due to their low Control, and Automation (ICA) technology, aerobic granular sludge costs and simplicity (Ragush et al., 2015; US EPA, 2011b). In Europe, system, nutrient recovery technology (NRT) to increase both removal WSPs contribute to 20% of the total number of urban WWTPs in France and energy efficiencies, and minimize space requirement. The stagnant ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Ho). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105791 Received 2 January 2020; Received in revised form 28 February 2020; Accepted 8 March 2020 0925-8574/ © 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V. L. Ho and P.L.M. Goethals Ecological Engineering 148 (2020) 105791 Fig. 1. The number of scientific published documents related to main wastewater treatment technologies on Scopus databases from 1990 to 2019. Details ofsearch queries can be found in Supplementary materials. Fig. 2. Milestones in the chronological evolution of pond treatment technology. Related references can be found in this section. development reflects the negative impact of being labeled as a low-cost the case of As-Samra WSP in Jordan, one of the largest WSPs in the 90s' technology with basic operation and maintenance, leading to a highly serving near 2.6 million inhabitants (Pearson et al., 1996; Saqqar and conservative approach towards accepting and applying innovative Pescod, 1991), pond engineers need a novel and comprehensive ap- technologies. Most of the guidelines for pond operation and main- proach, which should be an integration of maximizing the merits of tenance were written around three decades ago, i.e. Pearson et al. pond technology while avoiding its negative drawbacks. Recent reviews (1987a), and Mara and Pearson (1998) while the newest guideline from have been conducted to deliver an overview on different subjects re- US EPA (2011b) overlooked the benefits of the integrated mechanistic lated to pond technology, such as design and operation (Ho et al., models or intelligent monitoring, communication and control in system 2017), pathogen removal (Dias et al., 2017b; Liu et al., 2018), hydro- management. dynamics (Li et al., 2018a; Passos et al., 2016), micropollutants To avoid being replaced due to the overload and odor nuisance as (Gruchlik et al., 2018), virus removal (Verbyla and Mihelcic, 2015). 2 L. Ho and P.L.M. Goethals Ecological Engineering 148 (2020) 105791 However, a complete picture of research status and current challenges period (Fitzgerald and Rohlich, 1958; Ludwig and Oswald, 1952; of pond technology remains unclear. To this end, this review aims at Ludwig et al., 1951; Malchow-Møller et al., 1955; Marx, 1956; Oswald delivering an overview of the historical development and current state and Gotaas, 1957; Oswald et al., 1957; Oswald et al., 1953a,b). As a of wastewater pond technology from which valuable lessons and in- result of taking into account the algal biomass in the BOD measurement novative ideas are withdrawn for their future. Specifically, the chron- of the system effluent, Malchow-Møller et al. (1955), Merz et al. (1957), ological history of pond development is systematically and critically and Silva and Papenfuss (1953) believed that the algae exerted con- inspected from early development to modern times. Subsequently, the siderably the amount of organic matter in the receiving streams. Con- potential future of pond technology in the 21st century is thoroughly versely, William J. Oswald had a different thought. Recognizing the discussed with the most urgent issues related to design and operation, symbiosis between bacteria and algae, he concluded that “the principal pond modeling, energy recovery, greenhouse gas emissions, and work of treatment is accomplished by aerobic bacteria, which oxidize emerging contaminants. These perspectives are finally summed up in the organic carbon contained in the sewage to carbon dioxide. The the last section which serves as a guideline for the development of pond algae, through photosynthesis, convert much of this carbon dioxide to technology for pond engineers and operators. algal cell material … through photosynthesis, produce an excess of oxygen above their own respiratory requirement” (Ludwig and Oswald, 2. Chronological history 1952; Ludwig et al., 1951; Oswald and Gotaas, 1957; Oswald et al., 1957; Oswald et al., 1953a,b). Due to these findings, Oswald pioneered In this section, a description of the historical development of pond the use of algae in wastewater treatment, which was intensively applied treatment technology is written in detail with its milestones being il- in the US as well as many countries in the world. Until 1963, a total of lustrated in Fig. 2. 1647 stabilization ponds were used for sewage water treatment from around four million inhabitants, and 827 industrial ponds treated 2.1. Early development wastewater from 31 industries in the US (Porges and Mackenthun, 1963). In Melbourne, Australia, pond technology was also applied for Pond technology was invented in Texas in 1901, which is the same purifying the sewage of a population of 1,250,000 as a replacement of year when Cleophas Monjeau received
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