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PROTOTYPES IN LESSER SEAL SCRIPTS
(CHINA, ca 220BC-AD220)
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Jian Tang, M.A.
*****
The Ohio State University
1996
Dissertation Committee: Approved by
Professor Marjorie K. M. Chan, Advisor
Professor Richard W. Yerkes
Professor Charles J. Quinn Advisor D épartent of East Asian Languages and Literatures UMI Number: 9639354
Copyright 1996 by T ang, J i a n All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 9639354 Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 ABSTRACT
The nature of categories in cognition and the establishment of the cognition-based methods relevant to interdisciplinary studies are the pivotal issues under consideration by modern philosophers, psychologists, archaeologists, paleographers, linguists, and scholars in many of the other principle fields of academic studies. The main direction of the trend is to adopt the prototype theory for scientific research.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the semantic radical system of Lesser Seal S crip ts (China, ca 220BC-AD220) and to trace the system atic interpretation of the Shang oracle bone scripts (1750BC-1100BC), the Zhou bronze scripts (1100BC-475BC), and various Warring States scripts (475BC- 221BC). The philosophy of the research is to use cognition based prototype theory in opposition to both the Aristotelian discrete categorization and Wittgensteinian contingent categorical model. The methodology adopted is the hypothetical deductive methods which first generate a legitimate hypothesis, then gather facts and observations permitting the testing of this hypothesis. The approach of this study takes an interdisciplinary orientation at the junction of the academic boundaries of several principle fields in philosophy, archaeology, cognitive psychology, linguistics, paleography, and history. The data base is a monumental work Shuo Wen Jie Zi [ The Interpretation of Graphs and Anatomy of Scripts] written by a great Chinese paleographer Xu Shen (AD58-147) during the first century, his brilliant theory known as The Six Principles of Writing (Zhi Shi [Indicative], Xiang Xing [Pictographic], Hui Yi [Joined Semantics], Xing Sheng [Semantic-Phonetic], Jia Jie [Mutual Loan], Zhuan Zhu [Shift-Install), and his famous 540 semantic radical system for the interpretation of the structures of the Lesser Seal Scripts. The archaeological evidence and the true Chinese paleographic legacy are important to this study.
Since the prototype theory at the present stage remains a general idea based on some new concepts or new perspectives, how humans categorize the natural world from their cognitive structures is, and will be a question for long time to come. The present study establishes a theoretical model with a set of six plausible principles formulated on the basis of analyzing the true Chinese paleographic legacy. These six principles are as follows: [1] Categorical centralities; [2] Legitimate intersections; [3] Distinct gradations; [4] Fuzzy boundaries; [5] Flexible imaginations; and [6] Chaining linkages. These principles are regarded in this study as the basic principles which coherently structure a mosaic system from which
u conceptualization and cognitive categorization of the world reflected in the behavioral patterns of the semantic radical system can be traced, reconstructed, and better understood. The first five principles have been analyzed in detail. The results explored five cognitive processes with ranges of paleographic instances and archaeological evidence as follows:
The first cognitive process is the process of most minimum forms of semantic radicals for categorical centrality. The process of most minimum forms of semantic radical is a process whereby the limited set of 154 semantic radicals within the 540 semantic radical system, which can not be further decomposed into any smaller script units, are formed on the basis of the conceptualization of human exploitation of the natural world by cognitive capacity. This process is operated by three rules as follows:
[1] The Limited 154 semantic radicals out of 540 semantic radicals are the most minimum forms, they can not be further decomposed structurally. These most minimum forms of semantic radicals are the base-stones and building blocks for the construction of the 540 semantic radical system by which all Chinese concepts in written forms are composed. They are the semantic categorical centers; hence, categorical centralities.
[2] All the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals representing 154 semantic categories can be further grouped into sixty-four cognitive categories which reflect Chinese conceptualization of the natural world. These sixty-four cognitive categories are drawn from the invisible psychological realities upon which 154 linguistic semantic categories are formed. On the basis of these 154 invisible linguistic semantic categories, the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals, in clear and distinguishable visible written shapes, are originated.
[3] The proposed sixty-four cognitive categories are developed as mental processes through seven factors and twenty-one internal sub factors involving the interrelationship between the exploitation of the environment by humans. The anthropological model for the reconstructed schema of these cognitive categories is a deviated anthropological model. The factors are listed as follows: [i] Environment (Nature, Flora, Fauna); [ii] Human (Human Population, Human Behavior, Human Relation); [iii] Technology (Agriculture, Industry, Techniques); [iv] Subsistence (Trade, Transportation, Subsistence Practices); [v] Settlement (Architecture; Spatial, Settlement Patterns); [vi] Organization (Government, Law, Military); [vii] ideology (Arts, Sciences, Beliefs).
The second cognitive process is the process of cognitive licensing for legitimate intersection. The process of categorical intersection is a process whereby semantic categories represented by semantic radicals in written forms intersect with each other productively forming scripts for written communication. This process is operated by three rules as follows:
[4] The categorical intersection of semantic radicals is legitimate only when the intersection is cognitively licensed. The legitimate categorical intersection must be permitted by Chinese cognition and cognitive categorization of the world, otherwise unexpected script forms will occur.
iii [5] The cognitive licensing is legitimate only when the conceptualization is mapped with human exploitation of the given environment. The capacities of conceptualization is the only resource to motivate the cognitive licensing by which semantic radicals are legitimately intersected to create scripts to form a consistent system for written communication.
[6] Conceptual mapping, which is understood as a developing historical notion, is legitimate only when it realizes itself in visible written forms. The cognitive licensing for different semantic radicals to form the new script reflects clearly the historical conditions for its creation.
The third cognitive process is the process of gradate reduplication for distinct gradations. The process of gradate reduplication is a process whereby a semantic category represented by a semantic radical in written form reduplicates itself within a categorical configuration to produce scripts with distinct gradations indicating the quantitative differences and comparative degrees with distinctly gradated ranges within a categorical domain. This process is operated by three rules as follows:
[7] The gradate reduplication operates on limited inventories within a categorical domain, technically taking the most minimum form of semantic radicals as the prerequisite, and the legitimate intersection as the antecedent. These inventories include verbs, adjectives, nouns, and numerals with consistent patterns to indicate changes of numbers; changes of degrees; and changes of combined issues for frequency levels.
[8] The categorical domain shows distinct gradations by the gradate reduplication of a semantic radical. Normally, with the first gradation as equal initial footing indicating the singular number or the first comparative degree or frequency levels; with the second gradation indicating dual number or second comparative degree or frequency levels; and with the third gradation indicating plural number to infinite or third comparative degree or frequency levels. The fourth gradation only occurred for innumerable or extremely high degree or high frequency levels.
[9] The gradate reduplication of semantic radicals within a categorical domain is of patterned morphological change and is of morphological inflection in nature, with motivation from conceptualization of the human exploitation of the environment for cultural adaptation. Relevant evidence has been found from archaeological remains, particularly from primitive art which also depend on conceptual mapping of the exploitation process. These artifacts were done theoretically by the same population with the means and ways from consistent and patterned behaviors structured by cognitive capacity expressing abstract dimensions along a certain continuum.
The fourth cognitive process is the process of layout integrity for fuzzy boundaries. The process of layout integrity is a process whereby the traditional paleographic commands operated by the cognitive capacities install all the necessary script components into the correct positions for a structural and semantic integrity within fuzzy boundaries to form correct scripts. This process is operated by three rules as follows:
IV [10] Layout integrity determines the correctness of scripts formed in fuzzy boundaries which are originated from legitimate categorical intersections, or from gradate reduplication of the semantic radicals, representing the fuzziness of conceptualization.
[11] Layout integrity installs all script components to the correct positions in a computational distributive way to form hierarchical mosaic structures for creating correct scripts with complex semantic properties by a set of paleographic commands within fuzzy boundaries.
[12] Layout integrity operated by the cognitive capacity may change the positions of the semantic radicals within a script. Such structural change distinguishes the semantic properties that the script originally carry, and is of morphological change by a process of metathesis in nature.
The fifth cognitive process is the process of imagery organization for flexible imaginations. Imagery organization is a process whereby the changes of perceptual organization of the objects that once existed as substances, or that never concretely existed, or that can be reversed from obverse to reverse, or that can be turned from down-side up to up-side down, are organized by the imagery organization for creating scripts from flexible imagination of the salient properties of various objects existing visibly or invisibly in the natural world. As a mental process, the process of imagery organization is closely related to different types of human capabilities of imaginations and their flexibility, and is controlled by the cognitive capacity whose operation has every relation with the human exploitation of the environment. This process is operated by three rules as follows:
[13] When the image is of an object that existed or has existed as a stimulus-object but now may or may not be present in the visual field, the structure of the semantic radical or script is formed by the capability of memory image as visual experience in either direct or generalized fashion.
[14] When the image is of an object that never existed or never has existed as a stimulus-object for undergoing human experience, the structure of the semantic radical or script is formed by the capability of created image for imagined visual or auditory experience in either abstract or synthesized fashion.
[15] When the image is an object that has already been symbolized as a semantic radical or script which is now present in the visual field as written form, the structure of the semantic radical or script may be formed by the capability of reversible image to turn the written form in either a horizontal or vertical direction along its axis for semantic antonym; with visual or auditory experience of the objects in imagination either going from obverse to reverse, or going from down-side up to upside-down.
Different from the Western people who spell the speech sounds regularly to create their alphabet writing systems, the Chinese people systematically spell the meanings to create the script writing system realizing a highly logical fashion for the alphabet of human thought. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank my adviser, Professor Marjorie K. M. Chan, Chairperson of my dissertation committee, for her intellectual support, encouragement, enthusiasm, and responsibility, which made this dissertation possible, and for her patience in correcting both my stylistic and scientific errors.
I am grateful to Professor Richard Yerkes, member of my general exam and dissertation committee, for bringing me into the field of archaeology from the beginning to the higher levels, and for his academic support, consistent encouragement, and high sense of responsibilities.
A special thanks goes to Professor Emeritus Arnold M. Zwicky, former Chairman of the American Linguistic Society, and member of my general exam committee, for teaching me his theory of level-ordered morphology and syntax, and for commenting on dozens of my works in great detail.
I thank Professor Charles Quinn, member of my dissertation committee, for stimulating discussions in the defence meeting, and for his letter to me concerning modern philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, and for making available the pages of my draft which he has proofed.
I thank Professor Galal Walker, former Chairman of the Graduate Committee, Chairman of the Department, for his support of my doctoral studies. I thank Professor Kirk Denton and his wife Xiao Bi, and Professor Robert Sanders, for their concerns for the completion of this dissertation.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Jack Rouzer, Academic Program Specialist of ESL Composition at the Ohio State University, for his true friendship and any-time-help for a decade, for his careful reading of each line and each page of the entire draft for two months, for all his corrections, rephrasings, commentaries, and new thoughts on each page of the draft which he has proofed. I am also deeply indebted to his beautiful wife, Hong Qi, and his lovely daughter, Lois, for their hospitality, patience, and sacrifices. Because of their timely help, this dissertation becomes possible.
Grateful acknowledgments are also made to the eminent scholars who taught me in different US institutions: Professor Emeritus W. Pachow in Buddhism and Chinese Civilization at the University of Iowa; Professor Emeritus Allyn W. Rickett in Asian Political History and Pacific Studies at the University of Pennsylvania; Professor Sara Kimball in Historical Linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania; Professor Nathan Sivin in
v i History of Science and Chinese Thought at the University of Pennsylvania; Professor Emeritus Benjamin Schwatz in Political History, Philosophy, and International Relations at Harvard University; Professor Marry Beckman in Experimental Phonetics at the Ohio State University. I have greatly benefitted from their classroom teachings, office discussions, advice, and support. Particularly, I thank Professor Emeritus Pachow and Professor Kimball for their concern and support of my studies for many years.
Appreciations are also made to all the eminent scholars and department secretaries who have been supporting my studies and academic research in the United States. Among them, I am grateful to Mrs. Oney Rafferty of the Department of Asian Studies at the University of Iowa, for her letter communication for four years before I was permitted by the Chinese government to come to the US in 1985. I am grateful to Professor Emeritus Henry Tiee, former Chairman of the Department of Asian Studies at the University of Southern California, for his support and concern for my studies for many years; I thank Professor Edward Shaughnessy, Chairman of the Department of East Asia at the University of Chicago, for offering me some of his works in paleographic studies. I am grateful to Professor Emeritus Paul L-M Serruys of Princeton University, for sending me his monograph on Shuo Wen Jie Zi with extensive handwritten notes on almost every page, and for his strong recommendation to the National Endowment of Humanities for supporting another of my research prospectus.
Acknowledgments are made to the US government representatives; US institutions of military strategies; US Senators and House Representatives, US University Presidents, for their letters, visits, concerns also for the completion of this doctoral degree. I appreciated that more than a dozen of US leading institutions accepted me with financial support before I came to this country, and during the years when I study in this country. I appreciate that foundations of the United States offered me the financial support which enables me to complete this degree. The financial support includes the Assistantship which I received from the University of Iowa (1985-86); the Educational Fellowship which I received through the University of Pennsylvania (1986-88); and the Associateship from the National Endowment of Humanities which I received through The Ohio State University (1988-91). I thank Foreign Student Advisor Violets Hughes at the Ohio State University, for her patience, justice, and goodwill.
Finally, I wish to thank all my friends who have shown concern for me and in my years in the United States. Particularly, Trudy Walter, Lori Futrell, Cindy Willits, Chris Tjaden, Nancy Peterson, Lorie Vandeventer of the University of Iowa; Barbara Hoekje, Tanya Brion, Jennifer Shockro of the University of Pennsylvania; Zhong Peng of Bryn Mawr College; P’eng Hsiu-chen of Harvard University; Elaine Beldon, Sherry Taylor, Colleen Wood of The Ohio State University; Song Yan of Australia Office; Zhang Min of Shanghai Office, for their love, passion, care, and humanities.
I am glad, with sincere appreciation, to write acknowledgments to thank all of these wonderful people. There are many wonderful people who are not acknowledged, I hope they will also accept my sincere appreciation.
v u VITA
November 15, 1960 ...... Born. Shanghai, China
1979 ...... B.A. Fudan University Shanghai, China
1981 ...... M.A. Linguistic Theory Fudan University Shanghai; China
1986 ...... Graduate Certificate Asian Studies The University of Iowa Iowa City, lA USA
1988 ...... M.A. Oriental Studies University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA USA
1988 ...... Graduate Student The Ohio State University Columbus, OH USA
PUBLICATIONS
Research Publication
1. Jian Tang, "The origin of Chinese scripts for the concept zero." Chinese Philology (Beijing: The Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 1994): 361-367.
vm 2. Jian Tang, "Remarks on ‘zero’." New China Digest 7 (Beijing: Xihua Wenzhai, 1994): 167-170. Reprint.
3. Jian Tang, "Remarks on 'zero’." Chinese Language Learning 2 (Jilin: Yanbian U niversity. 1994): 44-49.
4. Jian Tang, "On the origin of Sumerian and Mesopotamian writings and its relationship with the cultural environments of the ancient Middle East" Fudan Journal 4 (Shanghai, Fudan University, 1993): 110-112.
5. Jian Tang, "Theoretical significance of the oracle bone scripts excavated at the Neolithic site of Jiahu in Northern China." New China Digest 8 (Beijing, Xinhua Wenzhai 1993): 65-73.
6. Jian Tang, "Theoretical Significance of the Oracle Bone Scripts Excavated at the Neolithic Site of Jiahu in Northern China." Fudan Journal 3 (Shanghai, Fudan Univ., 1992): PP. 94-107.
7. Jian Tang, "Ancient song-fragments of Tang China (AD. 699-814): concerning musical tunes and word tone changes." Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Symposium on Asian Studies 1992, (Vancouver: Asian Research C enter, 1992): Vol.l, 117-127.
8. Jian Tang, "Medieval Chinese and Sanskrit: Historical Linguistic Contacts through Translations of Mahayana Buddhist Scriptures." Proceedings of the XXXIII Congres International des Etudes Asiatiques et Nord-Africaines, ed. Oxtoby. Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1992, Vol. IV, 1-7.
9. Jian Tang, "Historical stages of the Buddhist religious movement before the seventh century China and the translation processes of the Mahayana Sutras." Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Symposium on Asian Studies. Hong Kong: Asian Research Center, 1991, 159-171.
10. Jian Tang, "The Sian incident 1936: an international perspective." Asian Profile 4 (Hong Kong: Asian Research Center, 1991): 385-398.
11. Jian Tang, "Types and orders of vowel assimilatory processes in the ancient Tibetan language." International Journal of Linguistics [Acta Linguistics Hafniensia] (Copenhagen, 1991): Vol. 23, 129-144.
12. Jian Tang, "Internal reconstruction of some archaic Chinese initials with the comparative evidence from early Chinese translations of the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures [Part I]." Proceedings of the Twelveth International Symposium on Asian Studies. Hong Kong: Asian Research Center, 1990, 265-278.
13. Jian Tang, "Phonological nativization of the Sanskrit Buddhist loan words in the early seventh century medieval China," Proceedings of 11th International Symposium on Asian Studies, Hong Kong, 1989, PP. 147-171.
IX 14. Jian Tang, "Historical evolution of six script forms in ancient Chinese expressing the concept zero since the Shang and Zhou dynasties [ca. 1750 BO]," Fudan Journal 2 (Shanghai, Fudan U niversity, 1989): 84-92.
15. Jian Tang, "Linguistic and stylistic features of the Tang transformational manuscripts: Dunhuang Bianwen." Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Asian Studies. Hong Kong, 1988, 387-409.
16. Jian Tang, "China’s Confucianism and Japan’s Taika Reform," Fudan Journal 1 (Shanghai Fudan U niversity, 1987): 61-67.
17. Jian Tang, Dictionary entries of 2,756 items written for A Great Chinese Dictionary. [A group research participated. National Focal-Point Language Research Bureau, Shanghai. The State Department, The People’s Republic of China]. Shanghai: Dictionary Press, Vol. I-XIV. 1986-94.
18. Jian Tang, "The influence of aphasia to the semantic imagination [Part I]," Chinese Studies 4 (Jinlin: Y anbiin U niversity, 1985): 46-52.
19. Jian Tang, ""The influence of aphasia to the semantic imagination [Part II]," Chinese Studies 5 (Jinlin: Yanbian University, 1985): 52-58.
20. Jian Tang, "A study on the comparison of children’s ability to transform active and passive forms in Chinese sentence structure," Acta Psychologica Sinica, Beijing: The Institute of Psychology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1984): Vol. 16, No. 2. 182-192.
21. Jian Tang, "Western theories and methods on the relationship between language and thought," Fudan Journal 1 (Shanghai, Fudan University, 1984): 108-112.
22. Jian Tang, "Linguistic psychology and non-linguistic thinking," Yearbook of Philological Studies 2 (Shanghai, Shanghai Education Press, 1983): 21-30.
23. Jian Tang, "Language and Thought," Experimental Psychology, Chapter IV. ed. Yu-Wen Zhao. Shanghai: East China Normal U niversity P ress, 1982, 220-278.
24. Jian Tang, Language and Thought: An Experimented Psychological Study. MA Thesis, Fudan U niversity. Shanghai: Fudan L ibrary, 1982, 151p.
25. Jian Tang, "The Origin of Language and The Origin of Thought," Yearbook of Philological Studies 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai Education Press, 1981): 3-9.
26. Jian Tang, The Origin of Language, Shanghai Linguistic Society Monograph, Shanghai Education Press, 1979. 34p. FIELD OF STUDY
Major Fields: East Asian Languages and Literatures
Studies in: Archaeology, Historiography, Historical Linguistics
Philosophy, Buddhism and Asian Civilizations
Asia and Pacific Studies
XI TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract...... ii Acknowledgments ...... »...... w...... w....-...... v i Vita...... ix
List of Tables...... ,.x List of Figures...... xi List of Plates...... xvi List of Portraits...... xviii
Chapters:
1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background...... 1 1.2 Desideratum ...... 4 1.3 Foundation...... 8
2. Theories...... 18 2.1 M ethods ...... 18 2.2 A ristotelian Greek A ntiquity ...... 20 2.3 Wittgensteinian Modern Philosphy ...... 46 2.4 American Prototype Theory ...... 63
3. Principles ...... 82 3.1 Categorical C entralities...... 84 3.2 Legitimate Intersections ...... 112 3.3 Distinct Gradations ...... 147 3.4 Fuzzy Boundaries...... 182 3.5 Flaxible Imaginations ...... 215
4. Conclusion...... 246
Appendix. The 540 Semantic Radical System by Xu Shen (AD 58-147) ...... 259 Notes...... 262 Abbreviations...... 292 Bibliography ...... 293
XU LIST OP TABLES
Table
1. The 154 Most Minimum Forms of the Semantic Radicals ...... 89 Within the 540 Semantic Radical System as Semantic Categorical Centralities
2. Reconstructed Schema for the Motivation of the Origin of ...... 103 154 Most Minimum Forms of Chinese Semantic Radicals Through Anthropological Ecological Model for the Interrelation Between Chinese Conceptualization and Exploitation of the Given Environment
3. Paradigms of Inflected Chinese Scripts Formed by the ...... 149 Process of Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals within A Categorical Domain th ro u g h Morphological Inflection (1750BC-AD986) Changes of Numbers
4. Paradigms of Inflected Chinese Scripts Formed by the ...... 151 Process of Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals within A C ategorical Domain th ro u g h Morphological Inflection (1750BC-AD986) Changes of Comparative Degrees
5. Paradigms of Inflected Chinr3e Scripts Formed by the...... 153 Process of Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals within A Categorical Domain th rough Morphological Inflection (1750BC-AD986) Changes of Frequency Levels
6 Traditional Chinese Paleographic Commands Operated ...... 190 by the Layout Integrity Installs All Semantic Radicals into Correct Positions in Fuzzy Boundaries to Create Scripts with Hierarchical Mosaic Structures with Complex Semantic Properties
l u i LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Aristotle Discrete Categories Set-Inclusion...... 22
2 Aristotle Discrete Categorical Distribution...... 22
3 Aristotle Discrete Categorization for Analyzing ...... 24 Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals Insect Category
4 Aristotle Discrete Categorization for Analyzing ...... 31 Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals Fish Category
5 Wittgenstein Contingent Category Model ...... 48
6 Wittgenstein Contingent Categorical Distribution ...... 48
7 Wittgenstein Contingent Category Model for Analyzing ...... 50 Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals Fish Category, Insect Category, Ghost Category with S cripts {7620}, {7616}, (8859}, {8867}, {NE}
8 Wittgenstein Contingent Category Model for Analyzing ...... 54 Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals Fish Category, Insect Category, Ghost Category with S cripts {7627}, {7603}, {5786}, {5783}
9 Givon’sPrototypeModel ...... 70
10 (Svon’s Prototype Categorical Distribution ...... 10
11 Modern American Prototype Model for Analyzing ...... 72 Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals Insect Category, Ghost Category, Fishnet Category with S cripts {8742}, {8867}, {NE}
12 Prototype Model for Triple Categorical Intersection...... 76 to Compose a Chinese Script Script {9386}
XIV 13 Prototype Model for Categorical Intersections of ...... 79 Fish Category, Ghost Category, Spacial Category, Color Category, Dog Category, and Scripts {7627}, {7603}, {5786}, {5783}
14 An Anthropological Ecological Model for th e Interrelation ...... 108 Between Human Exploitation to the Given Environment and the Interrelation Among Reconstructed Schema for the 154 Most Minimum Forms of Chinese Semantic Radicals
15 Illegitmacy Resulted from True Bipolar Oppositions of ...... 115 Categorical Intersections without Cognitive Licensing Category Heavenly Stem/Category Ghost
16 Illegitmacy Resulted from True Bipolar Oppositions of ...... 115 Categorical Intersections without Cognitive Licensing Category Fire/Category Water
17 Legitmacy Resulted from False Bipolar Oppositions of ...... 117 Categorical Intersections with Cognitive Licensing Category Fire/Category Water
18 The Cognitive Licensing in Alignment with Level ...... 132 Orderings is Legitimated by the Chinese Cognitive Categorizations and the Mapping of Conceptualization and Human Exploitation of the Given Environment
19 Cognitive Licensing for the Categorical Intersection ...... 136 is Legitimate When the Historical Condition is Met. Categorical Intersection Permitted After 771BC Only Script {3978} jun 20 Cognitive Licensing for the Categorical Intersection ...... 137 is Legitimate When the Historical Condition is Met. [OR] Sheep/Ox Categorical Intersection Permitted During 1155BC-221BC Only 21 Distinct Gradations Achieved through the Process of ...... 155 Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals Operate within Only One Categorical Domain with th e Equal Initial Footing and Sectioned Gradate Distances along Certain Continuum for Morphological Changes beyond Categorical Intersection 22 Early Chinese Cosmological Philosophy Takes the ...... 167 Number of Three as the Totality of Heaven, Earth, Man, Yang Force, and Yin Force. It Represents A Complete Plural Range with Numbers to the Infinite. XV 23 The Process of G radate Reduplication of th e Semantic...... 175 Radicals for Morphological Inflections Is the Conceptual Mapping of the Human Exploitation of the Environment for Cultural Adaptation: How Chinese Use Gradate Reduplication of One Script Form to Denote Two and Many. 24 Layout In teg rity Determ ines the C orrectness of...... 188 the Scripts Created in the Fuzzy Boundaries Originated from Legitimate Categorical Intersections representing the fuzziness of the conceptualization 25 Layout Integrity Determines the Correctness of ...... 188 the Scripts Created in the Fuzzy Boundaries Originated from the Process of Gradate Reduplication representing the fuzzineas of the conceptualization 26 How Does Layout Integrity Install 21 Components ...... 198 into Highly Fuzzy Boundaries to Create [273] Meng 27 How Does the Layout Integrity Change the Positions ...... 203 of the Participating Semantic Radicals within Scripts by Paleographic Commands for the Alterations of the Semantic Properties through A Process of Morphological Metathesis. [22] kou 28 Layout Integrity Installs the Criteria Feature ...... 207 Represented by the Semantic Radical in Eight Possible Positions in Different Scripts Whose Structures Are Resulted from the Overlapping Area of Fuzzy Boundaries 29 Layout Integrity Installs the Criteria Feature ...... 208 Represented by the Semantic Radical in Eight Possible Positions in Different Scripts Whose Structures Are Resulted from the Overlapping Area of Fuzzy Boundaries 30 How the Semantic Antonym Can Be Achieved through ...... 236 Reversable Image of the Scripts (Part 1) 31 How the Semantic Antonym Can Be Achieved through ...... 237 Reversable Image of the Scripts (Part 2) 32 How the Semantic Antonym Can Be Achieved through ...... 238 Reversable Image of the Scripts (Part 3) XVI LIST OF PLATES Plates I Exerpts of Chen Chang-zhi’s Version o f ...... 14 Xu Shen’s Shuo Wen Jie Zi (Completed ca. AD. 100), Block-carved in 1873 Source: Beijing: Zhonghua photo reprint, 1963 II. Exerpts of Duan Yu-cai’s (1735-1815) Shuo Wen J i e ...... 15 Zi Zhu (S tarted in 1776, Completed in 1807, Block-carving finished in 1815) Source: Shanghai: Classical Books photo reprint, 1988 III A Bronze Vessel Lei of the Western Zhou ...... 35 (ca 1100BC-771BC) Depicted Along the Shoulder of the Vessel Is A Circle of Eight Auspicious Feng Niao [Phoenix Birds] Cast as Divine Symbols Approximately Cast during the Western Zhou Phase I to Phase II (ca 1000BC-869BC) Unrecorded. Unpublished. Height: 32.5cm; Diameter: 37.3cm. Previously the Property of A Fine American Collection (ca 1800-1995) Property of the Tang China Foundation 1996 IV One of A Pair of Zoomorphic Bronze Lions in th e ...... 56 Shape of Live Dog Cast as An Auspicious "Guarding Animal" Representing the Cognitive Categorization Based on Behavioral Patterns Rather than Biological Entities Approximately cast in the Early Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907). Unrecorded. Unpublished. Height: 28cm; Length: 43cm. Previously the Property of A Fine American Collection (ca 1930-1995) Property of the Tang China Foundation 1995 xvu V A Cast Bronze Vessel Zun by Gold and Silver Inlay ...... 75 and Lost-Wax Technology Depicted Divine Symbol Cicada Signifying the Process of Rebirth from Pupa and Cognitive Relations Between Insect and Ghost Categories Approximately Cast during the Warring States Period (ca 475BC-221BC). Unrecorded. Unpublished. Height: 21cm; Diameter: 15cm. Previously the Property of A Pine American Collection. Property of the Tang China Foundation 1992. VI One of the Pair of Huge Bronze Horses Cast during ...... 99 the Early Tang Dynasty (618-907) Depicting an Existing Image of the Military Horse Traceable to the Cognitive Basis of the Pictorial Script Forms Created Accordingly as One of the Most Minimum Forms of the Semantic Radicals. Unrecorded. Unpublished. Height: 95cm; Length: 119cm; Width: 31cm. Previously the Property of A Fine American Collection Property of the Tang China Foundation 1994. VII The "Do or Die" Situation of Seasonal Agricultural...... 124 Activities in the Eastern Han (AD 25-220). The Cognitive Licensing of Semantic Radicals is Legitimated by the Mapping of Conceptualization and Human Exploitation of the Environment. Upper: Plate 288 (Ht: 24cm, Wd: 38.5cm); Lower: Plate 289 (Ht: 25cm, Wd: 39cm) Source of Stone Rubbing: Shi Yan (Shanghai 1983: 242-243) VIII The National-Run Salt Industrial Base In West China...... 142 For Human-Made Salt Productions During The Eastern Han (AD 25-220) Reflected Eastern Zhou (770BC-476BC) Policies And Administrations. The Cognitive Licensing Of Semantic Radicals For A New Script Became Legitimate When The Historical Condition Is Met. Length: 46.7cm, Width: 45cm. Cf. Shi Yan (Shanghai 1983: 239. Plate 285.) Original Stone Rubbing. Property of the Tang China Foundation 1993. IX A Unique Shang Bronze Zun Vessel Approximately Cast ...... 172 during the Shang Phase IV-V (ca 1143BC-1066BC) Depicting 100 Base Rings and 100 Hanging Rings Arranged According to A Certain Regulated Continuum Along All Dimensions, R epresenting the Motivated Behaviors for Changes of Numbers, Changes of Degrees, and Change of Frequencies by Reduplicating the Same Initial Footing Through Morphological Inflections. Inscriptions. Height: 34cm; Diameter 28cm. Previously the Property of A Fine American Collection. Property of the Tang China Foundation 1994. xviii X The Motivation of the Process of Gradate Re duplication...... 176 of the Semantic Radicals for Morphological Inflections Is the Conceptual Mapping of the Human Exploitation of the Environment for Cultural Adaptation. Configuration Unit of Category Fish Where Morphological Inflections Formed from Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals for Written Scripts Show Identical Cognition, Conceptual Mapping, and Patterned Consistency. Excavated at Banpo, North China (5500BC). Source: CASS (1963: 166-185). XI The Cognitive Capacity and Mental Process Seen from ...... 178 These Abstract Changing Patterns Painted on Excavated Pottery Vessels Show the Direction Along A Certain Continuum and Motivation to Denote Changes of Abstract Dimensions by Morphological Inflection through Gradate Reduplication of Initial Footings within A Categorical Domain. Excavated a t Machang, North China (5500BC) Source: CASS (Beijing 1984; Vol II, Selected from Plate 43-163) XII The Reconstructed Forms of the Abstracted Changing ...... 179 Patterns Painted on the Pottery Vessels Excavated from Machang, North China. 414 Individual Types of Changing Patterns within the Set-Inclusions Painted with Certain Regulations Are Found. They Can Be Classified into 59 Groups. Excavated at Machang, North China (5500BC) Source; CASS (Beijing 1984: 138) XIII An Unusual Rectangular Fang Yi Bronze Beverage Vessel...... 213 with Zoomorphic Decorations on the Surface Having the Shape of A Dwelling, Whose Structures in Architecture Are Revealed in the Structure of the Script for "Dream". Approximately Cast during Shang Phase V (ca. 1300BC-1030BC). Height: 60cm; Length: 88.2cm; Width: 17.5cm. Excavated in Tomb No.5 (Fu Hao Tomb) a t Anyang in 1976. Source: Kaogu Xuebao [Journal of Archaeology] 2 (1972): P. 67; PI. 21, No. 1. XIV A Zoomorphic Bronze Guang Vessel in Ox Image for...... 219 Beverages Containing Alcohol with Anatomical Composition Showing the Ox As Sacrificial Animal for Portioned Share. The Conceptualization for Casting This Vessel is the Same as That of the Creation of the Script for Ox by Direct Memory Image from the Process of Imagery Organization. Two Bronze Inscriptions Casted Inside of the Vessel Advocating the Aristocratic Ownership. Representative Piece of Shang at Anyang Period of Shang Ruin in Henan, China. Casted Approximately in Shang Phase II-III (1195-1143BC). Height: 15cm; Length: 24cm; Width: 8cm. Unrecorded. xix XV How the Direct Memory Image of the Head of Snake Was ...... 223 Applied As A Generalized Image of the Head of Three Different Animals Snake, Turtle, and Prog Shown on Cast Bronze Vessels in Accordance with the Creation of Scripts by the Process of Imagery Organization. Upper: Snake on Fu Hao Zun Shang Phase II (1195BC- 1155BC); Middle: Turtle on Bao Pan Shang Phase IV (1143BG-1136BC); Bottom: Frog on Ti Liang You Shang Phase V (1136BC-1100BC). Source: Ma Chen-yuan and Shanghai Museum (Beijing 1984: PP 219, 220; 226. Plate 611, 612, 635) XVI A Four-legged Fang Ding with Leafwork Legs in ...... 229 Standing Dragon Shape Showing One of the Earliest Created Image of the Divine Animal Dragon Which Does Not Exist in Human Visual Field. The Image of The Standing Dragon Is Based on the Dragon Described in the Folklore, and Directly Correspond to the Image of Dragon from the Shang Bronze Fang Ding Excavated Fu Hao Tomb in 1976 (The In stitu te of Archaeology CASS, Yinxu Tomb No. 5, No. 813). XVII A Silk Painting Excavated from Han Tomb (ca 200BC) ...... 233 Showing the Image of the Sun with A Black Bird Standing within. Corresponding to the Script Form which Was Created by the Imagery Organization. Source: Hunan Provincial Museum and The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1973: PI.38 Reconstructed. P1.72 Original) XX LIST OP PORTRAIT P ortrait Xu Shen (AD58-147), A Great Chinese Scholar ...... 11 and Court Official of the Eastern Han (AD25-220). Author of the First and Unprecedented Chinese Paleographic Dictionary for the Writing System of that time, the Lesser Seal Scripts Shuo Wen Jie Zi [The Interpretation of Graphs and Anatomy of Scripts], Reconstructed Image. Wood lithographic Carving by Professor Wang Wei of The Henan University, Hefei, China. Source: Dong Xihe et al 1986. XXI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The classical view of categorization formed by Plato and Aristotle postulates that all members of each category possesses the defining properties of that category. ^ This theory is known as discrete categorization. The challenge to this discrete theory originated in the field of philosophy in the early 1950s as seen in the work done by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austin,^ Putnam,^ and Johnson.® They criticize the Platonic- Aristotelian view as not compatible to the reality of human categorization. Important issues under consideration by philosophers, psychologists, archaeologists, and linguists in recent years is the nature of categories in cognition, the relevance of cognitive categorization to interdisciplinary studies, and the establishment of cognition-based methods. The key to these issues is to take prototype theory as one of the main approaches in scientific analysis. In the 1960s, linguists started to adopt this new philosophical view as seen in the work done by Bolinger® who criticized the Aristotelian approach to meaning espoused in the work done by Katz and Fodor.^ In the same decade, the research was developed into anthropology with studies of color categories by Berlin, Kay, and McDanial.® In the early 1970s, the research was further developed by to lexical semantics.® In the late 1970s, psychologists did crucial research in the cognitive studies of concrete objects with the perspective of prototype theory by Rosch.^° Furthermore, in the study of linguistic classifiers in more than fifty natural languages, linguists Allan proposed a cognition-based categories of classification as the bases for noun classification.^^ These representative works generated a hypothesis that the prototypes are the direct sources from which human categorization is achieved. The theory of prototype has been expanded from lexical semantics to the area of grammar since the mid 1980s. The studies indicate that certain grammatical phenomenon which until recently have been analyzed as absolute grammatical categories can be best accounted for by the prototype approach. These works were mainly done by Hopper and Thompson in the case of the traditional categories of transitivity and noun/^ by various authors on the aspects of classifier systems in different languages,and by Givon in speech acts, language change and language acquisition in Indo-European languages. Some linguists devoted serious studies to the establishment of cognitive grammar in the world’s languages in order to better understand and explain linguistic structures, as seen in some brilliant research works done by Langacker,^® Jackendoff,^® Lakoff,*^^ and Taylor.^® These works made system atic explorations on prototypes in language investigations, linguistic categorizations, and linguistic theory. As an absolute necessity to the research of prototype theory, and also as a striking response to modern linguistics which stands firm to hold three basic grounds that grammar of human language is essentially arbitrary and symbolic by Saussure,^® linguistic analysis should be focused on the structural abstraction and algebraic properties of the natural language by Bloomfield,Harris, ^ Hockett,^^ and our interpretation of the world is based in part on the representational systems that derive from the structure of the mind itself and do not mirror in any direction the form of things in the external world, therefore human language is autonomous and innate by Chomsky,a group of psychologists, archaeologists, and linguists have raised a joint revolution which provides crucial research works to demonstrate sharply that linguistic structures correspond to the conceptual structure of the human mind which reflects the natural world, therefore is nonautonomous, nonarbitary, and iconic. The researches toward this direction were first carried out in cognitive psychology by some most famous experimental psychologists including Vygotsky, Piaget and Inhelder, Luria and Yudovich, Lenneberg, Cromer, Rosch, etc. Their experiments showed that human languages are non-autonomous and non-innate. By adopting theories from the cognitive sciences, cognitive archaeology yielded great discoveries in the decipherment of symbol systems created by ancient people in different cultures. A group of archaeologists, Marshack, Schmandt-Besserat, Renfrew, Senner, and Hooker, proved that the symbol systems of the human past were non-arbitrary and were created on the basis of different historical ethnographic contexts.^® While the research has been continuing in the area of language and thought within the domain of experimental psychology and cognitive archaeology, semanticians and syntacticians have started their advance in re-understanding of the world’s languages and in reconstructing linguistic theory, as seen the works by a group of linguists, Talmy, Haiman, Campbell, Hopper and Thompson, Langacker, Lakoff, Chan, Taylor, etc. in the 1970s onwards.^® They have verified that linguistic structures are overall originated and developed by means of iconicity. In testing the existing boundaries of several principle academic fields with a developmental interdisciplinary approach, these fundamental works and critical analyses have revolutionized our understanding of human cognition. the world’s languages and symbol systems, and have pointed out a promising new direction for linguistic research in synthesis with cognitive psychology, cognitive archaeology, and philosophy of human categorization. In connection with the linguistic analysis along the line of the theory of nonautonomous, nonarbitary, and iconicity, with new understanding of linguistic structures in formulae with the structures of culture and society, social linguistics yield great opportunity in explanations of language structures on vast cultural spectrums. A group of social linguists have proposed a hypothesis that the elaborated code and the restricted code are correlated with social class distinction, as seen in the works done by some social linguists in their studies on diglossia and bilingualism.^^ Research taking a similar approach was developed in anthropology in the studies of American Indian languages and cultures as seen in the work of Gumperz.^® In the studies on women’s speech, Haas and Lakoff find that the bias in markedness of sexual preference in professional and social categories is clearly embedded in the terms used by American women.^® In the studies of nominal classifiers and semantic classification underlying them, Berlin and Romney reinforced the intimate relationship among language, culture, and society.®® In studies of the Southeast Asian classifier constructions by Jones,®^ the semantic structures of Philippine creole Spanish by Frake,®® and the linguistic co-variants of cultural assimilation in Chinese by T’sou,®® linguists find that linguistic borrowing may not be a totally random phenomenon as assumed in the past, but may reflect position and status as well as cultural compatibility of the language in contact. These research provided a new approach for linguistic analysis on different cultural bases developed in different human societies. The prototype theory is a philosophy which emphasizes the compatibility of human cognition with the natural world. In this theory, human cognitive categorization of the natural world is achieved through association of prototype members. Association is discriminated by different human perceptualization and conceptualization of the functional features and salient properties of the objects. Members of a category may be associated with one another in family resemblance. Family resemblance brings some of the members of a category as typical or better examples known as categorical centralities. Categorical centrality forms a category through typicality conditions. The typicality condition shows clear categorical gradations within a category. Categorical gradations account for complicated categorical extensions. Categorical extensions show distributional patterns and stand on the basis of categorical imaginations. Categorical imaginations result from different experiences and interactions between the human and physical environment in different socio-cultural contexts. Conventional imaginations may result in interchangebility of a member on fuzzy boundaries of several categories. All categories may show a patterned continuum with categorical linkage. Categorical linkage is formed on the basis of the conceptual structure of the people, and symbolization of the conceptual content structured according to cultural convention in a given society. The principles of the prototype theory applying across languages for cognitive grammars arise the notion that linguistic structure overtly categorizes the world in terms of various types of interactions that human beings carry out with the objects of their environment. These interactions are social, physical and functional interactions. In other words, the importance of conceptualizing the same object in different ways based upon the different conceptual systems in different cultures is crucial to the linguistic structure, and linguists ought to construct different grammars for different languages rather than constructing one grammar universally accounting for all human languages. 1.2 Desiderata Within the range of the philosophy of prototype theory, large scale investigations across languages have been carried out, and theoretical linguistic generalizations in aspects of linguistics from phonetics, phonology, to morphology, syntax, and to semantics have been put forth. However, attention is also drawn to the question of how to obtain a better understanding of the nature of human writing systems, in particular, the system of what Chinese termed "Yi Fu"-^ (Semantic Symbol)^^ in Chinese writing. The traditional Chinese paleographic term "Yi Fu" has several English translations, i.e. "signifie" as seen in Karlgren;^^ "radical" as seen in Barnard;^® "logographic radicals" as seen in T’sou;®’ "semantic components" as seen in Rude,®® and "classifier" as seen in Keightley.®® The choice of the present study is a better convention: "semantic radical". As a structural feature and as a classification parameter of the semantic properties of a Chinese script, various semantic radicals have been used to compose scripts since the Chinese writing system originated during the Neolithic Age, in about 8,000 years ago. Although the semantic radical system has gone through developmental processes for thousands of years, it has remained a consistent system as revealed in Oracle Bone Scripts (1750-1100 BC), Bronze Scripts (1100-476 BC), Warring States Scripts (476-221 BC), Great Seal Scripts (400-221 BC), Lesser Seal Scripts (221 BC-AD 220), and subsequent Chinese characters. However, it was not until AD 100 that an eminent Chinese scholar and court official Xu Shen (AD 58-147) first collected and analyzed 9,353 Chinese scripts (not including 1,163 variations) used before and during the Han D ynasty (206BC-AD221). He developed a brilliant theory known as Liu Shu "The Six Principles of Writing" (Cf. Xu Shen’s order: Zhi Shi [Indicative], Xiang Xing [Pictographic], Hui Yi [Joined Semantics], Xing Sheng [Semantic-Phonetic], Jia Jie [Mutual Loan], Zhuan Zhu [Shift-Install]). He then abstracted 540 radicals known as Bu Shou [semantic radical as the head of each script division] from the Lesser Seal Scripts for destructuring and recomposing all scripts in Chinese writing.^® The 540 semantic radical system has been used for over one thousand eight hundred years since that time. Primarily for the purpose of simplification, this system was reduced to 214 semantic radicals in the 1710s in the pre-modern time. However, after this new system had been in use across China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and South Asia for almost three hundred years, the Chinese semantic radical system was re-analyzed according to modern Chinese scholarship, and was necessarily expanded to 250 semantic radicals in 1979, with new additions and arrangem ents for a better command of Modern Chinese characters in both the complicated and simplified forms. Although times have changed, the 540 semantic radical system has always been one of the most important research areas within the domain of traditional Chinese paleography, with a constant stream of continuous traditional scholarships in different aspects ranging from sound systems, semantic systems, and structural systems of the scripts throughout history. The research has been in the greatest details in all aspects of semantic radical system within the traditional Chinese scholarship. In the West, among all the scholarship concerning the semantic radical system, T’sou attempted to offer a social linguistic analysis of what he termed the logographic radical system of 214 radicals which were widely used after the 1710s.^^ Within the framework of social linguistics, and by the light of an social anthropological approach, T’sou analyzed the constituents of the radicals on the basis of natural and hierarchical classification, and the social and cultural context associated with the inception of the semantic radicals. In this study, T’sou made a semantic scheme for the classification of radicals, grouping the 214 radicals into four natural classes: Nature, Flora, Fauna, and Man. Each of the natural classes contains many subclasses which counted twenty-nine in total, with some overlapping membership across more than one natural classes. T’sou believed that although there are some interesting changes, the 214 radical system of the 1710s was basically a synthesis of the 540 radical system of AD 100, and therefore that the 540 radicals would also fall naturally into his semantic schematic classification for the 214 semantic radical system. As a result of his research, T’sou reported that the inception of the radicals may be placed at the time of transition from nomadic hunting communities to the more sedentary agricultural communities, and that a matrilineal society should be postulated for prehistorical Chinese society since an imbalance between masculine and feminine categories is shown. T’sou’s interesting approach provided an insight for the semantic classification of the radicals in relation with the culture and society of ancient China. However, two questions remain unanswered as to if the ancient Chinese perceived the salient properties of the natural world to form such natural classes of semantic radicals which are unique to any other writings; and if the categorization of the natural classes of the semantic radicals is a reflection of the cognitive conceptual structure of the natural world from ancient Chinese within a given culture. In recent years, the theory of cognitive categorization has been employed to the research of the world’s writing systems. Rude indicates that one type of categorization exists only in the writing system but not in the speech of any natural languages.^^ This type of prototype-oriented categorization is presented with reference to the graphemic classifiers of Egyptian hieroglyph and Mesopotamian Cuneiform. In analyzing the semantic determinative by applying the cognitive- oriented prototype theory, Rude indicates that "Chinese semantic radicals should not be treated the same as the semantic determinative in Egyptian hieroglyphic system and Mesopotamian Cuneiform" which, according to Rude, can be viewed as "classifiers". Rude indicates that semantic determinative dealt with in her research should not be confused with the semantic components of logographic symbols. Although the research is not detailed, according to the research from Rude, "Chinese characters are typically composed of smaller units, many of which have semantic value. The Chinese character hao ( 40" ) The analysis done by Rude is interesting in that the differentiations between semantic determinative in Egyptian hieroglyph and Mesopotamian Cuneiform and semantic radicals in Chinese writing system are made on the basis of the understanding of different ways of conceptualization of the physical world by different people. However, there are also two questions remain unanswered as to how Chinese semantic radicals reflect the Chinese perception of the salient properties of the physical world; and how these semantic radicals can be viewed as the output of the classification and categorization of these properties by the people of ancient China. The recent cognitive-based studies of the Chinese semantic radical system in relation to Chinese grammar, and in particular, to the Chinese classifier systems, are represented by Yau.^® In dealing with the research on the genesis of archaic Chinese classifiers, Yau indicates that "some scripts functioning as the archaic Chinese classifiers in 1400 BC are one type of the grammatical category which were [sic] motivated by a mnemonic necessity, and later evolved into what is now called classifiers".'*® In analyzing the conceptual structure of emotional experience in Chinese by means of a cognitive-based approach, some facts of the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts have been observed to be the reflection of the categorization, and do have the categorical formations.*^ According to the observation from Tai and Wang, "the character yu ( ) While Tai and Wang tried to view the Chinese characters in a perspective of cognitive categorization, the key instance xia ( ) In the same vein, W. S-Y Wang observed that the ordering of the 540 semantic radicals of AD 100 and the characters within each radical were largely based on and grouped by semantic criteria. Such semantic grouping of radicals and characters is a cognitive map. W. S-Y Wang also observed one of the puzzles which had large amount of evidence but little systematic analysis; the character wen (j^) The aforementioned analyses are important in that they have observed some interesting facts, provided some new thinking, raised some new questions for the continuous exploration of the Chinese semantic radical system outside the scope of traditional Chinese scholarship. Indeed, the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts are potentially great resources for analysis by means of cognitive-based prototype theory; however, in dealing with the research in this area, a systematic study has to be carried out to answer seven fundamental questions summarized as follows: [1] What is the plausible theoretical model for the semantic radicals? [2] What are the categorical centralities of the semantic radicals? [3] What are the categorical intersection in semantic radical system? [4] What are the distinct gradations reflected in semantic radicals? [5] What are the fuzzy boundaries of the semantic radical categories? [6] What are the categorical imaginations and flexibilities? [7] What are the chaining linkadges as revealed from the system? Aiming toward the desiderata for a cognitive based prototype analysis, the first six questions will be cohesively pursued in this research with theoretical interpretation. Along with evidential representation, logical analogy, and a proper organization, this research will explore the cognitive principles and conceptual basis revealed in semantic radicals of the Chinese writing system. 1.3 Foundation The control of the data base is important to this study in that there is a variety of Chinese script types in different historical stages, each with a sizable amount of analysable scripts. Having tested the feasibility with the consideration of the theoretical purpose, the ground landing is on the study of the prototypes, human categorizations and cognitive basis of the semantic radicals appearing in Chinese Lesser Seal Scripts known as Xiao Zhuan 0 '-^ of ancient China. The ancient writing known as Lesser Seal Scripts is a fully developed official Chinese w riting system used since the Qin Dynasty (221BC- 206BC) when China started to become a unified country and launched a series of strict reforms on aspects of the nation including a complete elimination of the Six Script Systems of the Warring States known as Liu Guo Wen Zi l51 "SC that had developed in each of the six different states, and also including the normalization of the Eight Writings of the Qin known as Qin Shu Ba Ti ^ that had flourished during the first decade after the Qin unified China. The reform of the writings was proposed by and relied heavily on a great statesman Li Si (280BC?- 208BC) with imperial court order which stands firm on three manifestos: that the writing system be established as a universal common in all China; that the writing system be utilized as a power of absolute political control; and, that the writing system be perpetuated as a permanence for the totalitarian rule of any existing cultural entities in China.®^ The Lesser Seal Scripts continued to be a formal official writing in the subsequent Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) although fu rth e r development was made. In modern times this writing is still in use within certain social contexts for credit authenticity, ancient aesthetics, and cultural pretension. The first reason the Lesser Seal Scripts should be chosen for this study is because of its solid indigenous symbol base deeply rooted in the soil of realistic cultural context. The Lesser Seal Scripts is not a foreign borrowing system, nor is it a sudden appearance. It was developed on the basis of a w riting used during the Warring Stetes Period (475BC-221BC), the Great Seal Scripts known as Da Zhuan (Cf. Zhou Wen ^ ^ ), The Da Zhuan writing system was originally a writing known as Zhou Qin Xi Tu Wen Zi jîl^v57i.-3C ^ [Writing of West China] which was originally used only in the Warring State of Qin, located in West China with the feoff land from N ortheast of Gan Su Li Xian -M"to Southwest of Shuan Xi Feng Xiang • This writing was in cultural contrast to Dong Tu Wen Zi [Writing of East China] also known as Gu Wen è iL [Ancient Scripts] which was used in the other six independent Warring States known as Wei , Han , Zhao , Chu % , Yan -fit » Qi before they were defeated by the Qin State in 221 BC. In the first decade of the Qin Dynasty, the Great Seal Scripts were designated as official writing, and at least three textbooks entitled Gang Jie Yuan Li and Bo Xue were composed to provide a standard.®’ The amount of individual scripts in these three books exceeded 3,300 which were most basic to a learner. But this writing was soon preempted by the Eight Writings of the Qin known as Qin Shu Ba Ti ^ /\, • This includes the Tally Engravings Ke Fu for both official and private contracts; the Bird-Insect Scripts Niao Chong Shu ^ for sacred imperial decorations; the Print S cripts Mo Yin ^ v f for authenticity of official seals; the Law Scripts Shu Shu '% for government documents; the Military Scripts Shu Shu ^ for military orders and expediter actions; the Prisoner Scripts Li Shu for written records in jails; and the Lesser Seal Scripts Xiao Zhuan for simplification of the Great Seal Scripts Da Zhuan Each of these eight writings are similar in terms of the concept, but differ sharply in terms of their structures, appearances and styles. They performed as backwater, flooded and immersed out of control in every in terio r zones of cultural aspects.®® As a result of the necessary process of standardization, normalization, and simplification of the Great Seal Scripts, the transformation of the Great Seal Scripts into Lesser Seal Scripts and the designation of the latter as a new formal official writing were traditionally regarded as completed in 213 BC by the Qin Imperial Court and Li Si (280BC7-208BC) in particular. The reform did not involve major conceptual changes of the earlier scripts, but the stroke of the scripts became modulated, the shape of the script took on a uniform width, the structure of the scripts was made certain, and the overall appearance of the scripts showed austerity, dignity, balance, and geometric symmetry.®® There is yet a second reason why the Lesser Seal Scripts should be chosen; it is because this writing system is clearly a significant interlink in the development of Chinese writing. On one hand, it represents systematic correspondence and consistent resemblance to its earlier esoteric writing systems including various Warring States Scripts Zhan Guo Wen Zi iSl "i. (221BC-475BC) (Cf. Appendices III; the Bronze S cripts of the Western and Eastern Zhou Liang Zhou Jin Wen ^ "dC. (475BC- llOOBC) (Cf. Appendices II; and the Oracle Bone Scripts of the Shang Jia Gu Wen 'P "dC (1100BC-1750BC) (Of. Appendices I).®° Therefore this writing is regarded as a unique strategic key to interpreting any surviving script evidence anterior to it, and these ancestral scripts have only partly been interpreted even today. On the other hand, the Lesser Seal Scripts have continuously undergone a process of stylistic change for script literacy known as Li Bian and progressive refinement for script clerical known as Kai Hua - ^ 4(3 , which further simplified the structure of Lesser Seal Scripts, transformed it into a stroke-directed system with straighter lines, sharper angles, and maximum clarity. As a result of this gradual change, the Lesser Seal Scripts were ultimately supplanted by new writings before AD 300, and finally became a new standardized writing known as Zhen Shu [True Writing] before AD 400. This writing has been continuously used in stability and is the basis of the modern Chinese writing. Hence, the Lesser Seal Script system is regarded as an indispensable bridge to the explanation of both the further transitional scripts as well as the entire modern Chinese writing system. Since the Chinese writing is such a cohesively developed system throughout history to the present time, choosing the Lesser Seal Scripts as the research subject will directly concern the writings developed before and after this writing including the modern Chinese writing system. The third reason that the Lesser Seal Scripts is chosen as the research target is because the 540 radical system was formed on the basis of analyzing the Lesser Seal Scripts by the ancient Chinese master philologist Xu Shen (AD58-147) in his unprecedented paleographic dictionary work Shuo Vf en Jie Zi ^ ÿ [The Interpretation of Graphs and Anatomy- of Scripts] {SWJZ), and all the Lesser Seal Scripts with their variations which we know so far are well documented in this monumental book.®^ Xu Shen was a co u rt official of th e E astern Han (AD25-220), and is the best and the brightest Chinese paleographer so far in history (Portrait I). He started to write this work in Dong Han Jian Chu Wu Nian i - ^ (AH 80) to analyze honestly the structures and semantics of the system of the Lesser Seal Scripts with great responsibility.®^ His first purpose was to launch a paleographic study for the Classical School of Confucianism known as Gu Wen Jing Xue Pai ^ , and to deliver the coup de grace to the New School of Confucianism known as Jing Wen Jing Xue Pai -jC é i which, according to Xu Shen, would cause serious political chaos and the splitting of the nation into pieces. His second purpose was to provide the people with an expedient dictionary and an infinitely more practical lexical compendium to stop the evil dissemination of idiosyncratic interpretations of the Chinese writing system at the time.®® The draft of the book was completed after twenty years bv AD 100, Dong Han Yong Yuan Shi Er Nian ^ + =• ^ ® and was revised many times before being submitted to the court when Xu Shen was seriously ill, (but he was cured and lived until AD 147). The manuscripts of this book written on tons of stringed bamboo slips were conveyed by a range of chariots to the Imperial Court by his son Xu Chong (?- ?).®® Among many painstaking works written by Xu Shen, this work is the only one handed down after almost 1,900 years and has been well preserved in the libraries of the world. The compositional structure of this dictionary, according to his son Xu Chong, who wrote a declaration to the court Shang Shuo Wen Jie Zi Biao 3" [Memorandum To The Throne For The Submission of Shou Wen Jie Zif^ in September of AD 121 Dong Han Jian Guang Jiu Nian Jiu Yue ^ "to ^ ^ ^ , was divided into fifteen sections and total scripts used in this work for interpretation were 133,441.®^ The main text of the book was divided into fourteen sections, with an extremely important introduction Xu Mu ^ @ maintained as an additional section located as a postface containing brilliant thought and theoretical principles forever influencing Chinese paleographic analysis. 10 r< /^ îjV/ÿ^ / * /■/' /'-' ‘W.-v/. .\ ,u : Sff -U ^ " y-.- S» T'i •.•../.••.,'•..> ••••>;;. >>:>Av-$>'tVi/##yv»zZ'/>#«>y>^.v>5>«^®l5Zi2l«»k*> Portrait I. Xu Shen (AD58-147), A Great Chinese Scholar and Court Official of the E astern Han (AD25-220). Author of the F irst and Unprecedented Chinese Paleographic Dictionary for the Writing System of that time, the Lesser Seal Scripts Shuo Wen Jie Zi [The Interpretation of Graphs and Anatomy of Scripts]. Reconstructed Image. Wood lithographic Carving by Professor Wang Wei of The Henan University, Hefei, China. Source: Dong Xihe e t al 1986. i l Based on the theory of the Six Principles of Writing, Xu Shen was the first person emphasized the anatomy of the various structures of the scripts, carefully interpreted all the scripts of his time each by each. He abstracted 540 radicals from the Lesser Seal Scripts. These radicals are the most basic script-parts which a certain amount of scripts have in common (Cf. Appendices IV). He then grouped all the scripts into this 540 radical system according to their structural features and etymological semantics. He further defined the type of the structure of the scripts, the sound of the readings, and their original meanings and sources of their etymologies. In order to better interpret the scripts, Xu Shen cited various live and published resources in or before his time for attestations. In his interpretation of the scripts, he preserved a great amount of precious materials on various aspects, including agriculture, industry, science and technology, botany and zoology, medicine and pharmacology, trade and commercial, political system, economic life, social customs, military events, philosophy, ideology, historical events, ancient arts, various dialects, primitive ceremonies, folk beliefs, mythology, etc. and particularly, the ways of thinking of the people in ancient China. As a corollary, Xu Shen recorded his view on how and why a script was structurally formed in a certain way but not in other ways, and by what reasons certain semantic contents and phonetic sounds were conceived in a script. By grouping all the scripts under an abstract, clear-cut 540 radical system which can not be mixed or disordered, he was the first in history to show that the great amount of Chinese scripts are not arbitrary, ambiguous, confused, or random graphic symbols, but were composed by a certain amount of very basic radicals which can be systematically arranged and logically analyzed in a very consistent fashion. In view of the interest of the present study, this monumental dictionary of Lesser Seal Scripts is the best and an invaluable historical foundation. The authenticity of the version is considered seriously. Two of the best versions have been chosen for the present study. One of the best and officially recognized versions is entitled Shuo Wen Jie Zi [The interpretation of Graphs and Anatomy of Scripts]. This version was block-carved in AD 986, Song Yong Xi San Nian ^ 2 J?- by the Imperial Academy of the Song Dynasty % jjpfl (AD960-1279) under court- order and royal auspices. It is known as Song Guo Zi Jian Diao Ban Ben ^ ^ Since the court-designated editor and commentator of this version was a renowned paleographer of the tenth century Xu Xuan 4'$! (AD 916-991),®® this version is also known as Da Xu Ben A44^ ^ [Elder Xu Version].’® There is yet another best version entitled Shuo Wen Xi Zhuan Tong Shi [A Complete Introduction and Interpretation to Shuo Wen], This version was block-carved by at least AD 974 before the Elder Xu Version was issued.’^ Since the editor and commentator of this version was a famous paleographer Xu Jie (AD 920-974), a younger brother of Xu Xuan, this version is also known as Xiao Xu Ben [Younger Xu Version]’^. 12 The main text of the original book Shuo P/en Jie Zi by Xu Shen in these two versions are the same, but the comments and interpretations written by the two brothers for each script are different.’® The differences were rooted in the different world-views of the two brothers, as well as their theories and treatments of the Chinese scripts. The Elder Xu Version focused on the interpretation of the structures of the scripts, whereas the Younger Xu Version emphasized the interpretation of the scripts by Taoist theory and the theory of Five Elements. Although the Elder Xu Version has been regarded as the more authentic secession of Xu Shen’s tradition and more authoritative version in history,’^ and the Younger Xu Version has been less used and often ignored traditionally,’® both the two versions with a stream of invaluable research contributions established in the late ages should serve as the bases. Among the later resources, the most valuable will be the works of the famous Four Great Schools of Shuo Wen historically known as Shuo Wen Si Da Jia -X -K of the Qing Dynasty ^ (1644-1911). This school was established through the life-time efforts of four scholars and their brilliant works: Duan Yu-cai (1735-1815) with his Shuo Wen Jie Zi Zhu [Commentaries to Shuo Wen Jie Zi\, Zhu Ju n - sheng ^ (1788-1858) with his Shuo Wen Tong Xun Ding Sheng 'èiiX. [A Complete Semantic Antdysis and Phonology System o f Shuo Wen], Wang Yun 2. (1784-1854) with his Shuo Wen Shi Li [Interpretative Exemplifications of Shuo Wen], and Gui Fu (1736-1805) with his Shuo Wen Jie Zi Yi Zheng [Semantic Verifications of Shuo Wen].’® The b est work among the four schools is the work from Duan Yu-cai (1735-1815) whose high attainment and reliable scholarship have been widely recognized as the direct succession and great development of the tradition established by Xu Shen in AD 100. Duan Yu-cai’s work, will serve as the fundamental resource. In addition, there exists later-discovered very important Tang manuscript fragments written in Tang Dynasty (AD 589-618) known as Tang Xie Ben Shuo Wen Mu Bu Can Juan ^ ^ M [Tang Hand-Written Manuscript Fragments of Radical Division Mu Wood o f Shuo Wen]. This manuscript was discovered and corrected by Mi You-ren (1074-1153), and was re-discovered by Mo You-zhi 1863.” This precious manuscript will be consulted. The researches along this line done by various modern scholars starting from the turn of the century to the 1960s have been reflected and concluded in another important work entitled Shuo Wen Jie Zi Liu Shu Shu Zheng [Critical Analysis on the Six Principles of Writing in Shuo Wen] by Ma Xu Lun ^ • This work represents the scholastic achievements made by modern Chinese scholars. The consideration of the versions for practical convenience leads the present study to use the version of the book Shuo Wen Jie Zi reprinted by Fan Yu Chen Chang Zhi % >6 in 1873, Tong Zhi Shi Er 13 Hr I ■se 3 Î 4 - m 111 S! i^iR R « % , KITS |fâ: S « i til *■«&■ .A: Î! I f:s % :_! g % « Ml i S i l ’ i^ lA % 3cl = lS!^!5c ^1::.1 « _ J T ?%*!» fiK iK.Z —ÎI + 9: is i m « ^ i^r"C ^ l!«:Si i a ; S i wtfi-gri—i i j 'S f p - " ii'î 't\ !|i 5 |f$ @ IMk IÜ . fk « '* ! f? iSi BRB I: ,>W.| \± \ - 2. ' 1 S i i i i j l - j : I 'ii?i«:'g^.«riis£>!iSliB # # 1 * ; ,« B '* J5 _k:^!m : a m!-!!!-&"& m -tn -mUBitl m #1 WME, _ 4L TP 7p:Tp;7p;TP:^::^.g; TP Sil:l!^ TO » « 3 1 »R=m:%ij[Uigr m a # 4 « ^ 'i; |W0 « A! at”tf IT 4LW&; IWÆi , ,44 tÈ \ % ;* {|!S| a ik q ri w I m Bi Plate I. Exerpts of Chen Chang-zhi’s Version of Xu Shen’s Shuo Wen Jie Zi (Completed ca. AD.lOO), Block-carved in 1873. Source: Beijing: Zhonghua photo rep rin t, 1963: 7. This version was based on Sun Xing-yan’s version block-carved in 1809. Sun’s version was based on the original Elder Xu Version block-carved in AD 986. Chen’s version gives one script for one entry. The first form in each e n try is the Lesser Seal S cript form used during ca 220BC-220AD. The character above the frame is the latter added equivalent form in modern Chinese writing. The big scripts in one vertical lines are the commentaries written by Xu Shen (AD 58-147). The small scripts in two vertical lines are the commentaries written by Xu Xuan (Elder Xu) (AD 916-991). The original size of the book is not reported. 14 7C I'l?; A — ■ - % P(t^«+iA?nJîi.«'P (t X A # # t i :? : : k $ X p#9#e^4:m%$.a4Kj% & — M - # m # ll& fSSSIlî^ïlSÎ ^|Eiiffi^È-t:A$,7t:t.^ Æ ± îSAÆ'U5ff»4t^=£ffi=î6^ — ■ } £ 4LA3EAX@% mma^*^#A%Ê8A% 9( •. » *%8#mK@#îë=gjRAm. A ± AAA# ^A: WML â;)Aif@3E*»ai.W4$ 3£ S& g w% A $*aSAAM:?T:;±%-%%Ü § ^in m m z • %«:& Æ) S:ï.^f3tAT m m Æ*^A.c- ;a /A -ër & # # iWl^ZA» 4Km#g| '^♦a -rtt'iS» dbrt^nAfe- A _ ^A. m # )ÇiLja*T . %%gÆ i;# =L.mé^xnz^m ■ s.mi teü •■!ï“ît î l 2 / l S i i : i - .T K%)t z# &mjW#e[iz?Kigg9! z$^g3i:)@A-(â%# fi|X$a i£A 4K^4r&Æ@l? Plate II. Exerpts of Duan Yu-cai’s (1735-1815) Shuo Wen Jie Zi Zhu (S tarted in 1776, Completed in 1807, Block-carving finished in 1815). Source: Shanghai: Classical Books photo reprint, 1988: 1. This book is the most authoritative book among the famous Four Great Schools of Shuo Wen established in the nineteenth centruy. It also represents another academic peak on the studies of the Chinese scripts after Xu Shen (AD 58-147). The first form in each entry is the Lesser Seal S cript form used during ca 220BC-220AD. The ch ara cter above the frame is latter added equivalent form in modern Chinese writing. The big scripts in one vertical lines are the commentaries written by Xu Shen (AD 58-147). The small scripts in two vertical lines are the commentaries written by Duan Yu-cai (1735-1815). The original size of the book is not reported. 15 Nian . Chen’s version was based on the Sun Xing-yan version block-carved in 1809, Jia Qing Shi Si Nian , which was based on the original Elder Xu Version block-carved in AD 986. One of the merits of Chen’s version is that this edition gives one script for one entry known as Yi Hang Yi Zhuan Ben ^ - 4^ which provides many conveniences. Also by providing with original texts w ritten by Xu Shen (AD58-147) in larger scripts, together with commentaries from Xu Xuan (Elder Xu) (AD916-991) in smaller scripts, this version provides the best original and reliable source for the research. Moreover, since the analysis done by Duan Yu-cai (1735-1815) in his Shuo Wen Jie Zi Zhu [Commentaries to Shuo Wen Jie Zi] is so important to any research of the kind, his book should also be frequently consulted in the process of theoretical interpretation. Both these two major references are available in handy modern photo reprint from the best original wood-block carving versions.’® The excerpts from these two block-carved books are displayed in Plate I and Plate II, in a reduced fashion. In order to make the citations of the scripts and commentaries from these two original references possible, all the Lesser Seal Scripts appearing in the above verions of Shuo Wen Jie Zi have been ordered in a consecutive numerical ordering (with [ ] denoting the semantic radical; { } representing the script; ( ) indicating the modern Chinese character, < > signifying the English gloss of a brief interpretation of the original semantics of the scripts and commentaries). The modern readings of all the Lesser Seal Scripts also have been reconstructed according to the available data from the research results of Chinese historical phonology. The definition of semantic radical in this study, as indicated before, is an equivalent of the traditional Chinese paleographic term Yi Fu îlf • Before any theoretical interpretation, a semantic radical is a basic semantic structure within a script. A semantic radical alone can be a script. It may appear as a minimum graph depicting a concrete image or abstract indication of an object in the natural world. It may also appear as a complicated structure composed by more than one semantic radical. A semantic radical must appear in scripts as a semantic feature. It carries its original semantic contents with it into the script for a joint semantic properties and also indicates the semantic radical divisions where the scripts should belong. A semantic radical is a device denoting the basic semantic categorization of any scripts which have such a semantic radical. There is yet another kind of radical known as phonetic radical. The phonetic radical provides the sound pattern of a script. According to the investigation of the present study, all phonetic radicals were originally semantic radicals. When a semantic radical was used for a long time, it would gain certain stable reading, and then would be used as a phonetic device denoting the basic sound-scope as well as basic meaning-scope of any scripts which have such a radical within their structures. Hence, in all cases, the function of a phonetic radical within a script is of dual nature. It partly denotes the sound of the script, and partly the semantic contents of this script.’® On the basis of this understanding, and in consideration of the theme of this research, the differences between the 16 semantic radical and phonetic radical are leveled out, because both types of radicals were originally semantic in nature. All the 540 radicals set up by Xu Shen (AD 58-147) form a complete and unified system, and are necessarily the subject of the analysis. Although research on traditional Chinese scholarship on the analysis of the 540 semantic radical system and Chinese scripts at various historical stages is advancing continuously, there is no systematic study on Chinese semantic radicals as a system of cognitive categorization in relation with the human exploitation of the environment as a process of cultural adaptation, nor is there a work that searches out the adaptive behavioral patterns and cognitive basis of the Chinese semantic radicals and scripts.®® This research will s ta rt th e cognitive exploration of the semantic radicals on important aspects that can contribute to a systematic theoretical synthesis. 17 CHAPTER 2 THEORIES 2.1 Methods The importance attributed to the choice of methodologies in the present study and fundamental differences between the methodologies have been particularly considered. There are two basic methodologies which can be used: inductivism and deductivism. The present study decides not to adopt inductivism which, according to Bacon, emphasizes that a researcher can arrive at objective, unbiased conclusions only by simply recording, measuring, and describing what he encounters without having any prior hypotheses or preconceived expectations.^ Pelto indicated that a random gathering of facts can not by itself result in an increase of scientific understanding.^ The observation of the facts will give rise to the questions, but data does not speak by itself. The preferred methodology of the present study is deductivism, the hypothetical-deductive method which, as GhiseUn, Hull, Ruse, etc. indicated, is a modern method of discovery.® The fundamental of this method is first to generate a legitimate hypothesis, then gather facts and observations permitting the testing of this hypothesis. The hypothesis, according to Collingwood, is a tentative answer to the question, and the posing of the question is the first step on the path toward a theory.^ It is believed that our understanding of the essence of any research topic in the world is achieved more efficiently by the introduction of new concepts and the transformation or improvement of old concepts than by the discovery of new facts, although both are not mutually exclusive. The consideration of the approach is also most important. There are at least two very different approaches in contrast: monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary. Since the desideratum is located at the joint of the boundaries of several principle academic fields of philosophy, archaeology, cognitive psychology, theoretical linguistics, traditional paleography, history and historiography, the approach adopted in this research is necessarily interdisciplinary. 18 The merit of the interdisciplinary approach lies in the fact that it enables the researcher to direct his analysis from different angles onto one target subject which stands on the cross of more than one field, which a monodisciplinary approach can not arrive in. On the other hand, the interdisciplinary approach requires a researcher to analyze the subject with updated scholarly achievements in more than one field and to organize different arguments from different fields to test a proposed theory for a scientific conclusion which a single academic discipline alone is unable to obtain. Moreover, by adopting the interdisciplinary approach, the researcher can launch combined research operations from different perspectives for a layered analysis of the subject matter. With logical analog and profound synthesis, the researcher who adopts interdisciplinary approach is truly able to look for a scientific discovery. Finally, with the knowledge and skills from different fields, without the limitations of a specific field, a researcher who adopts the interdisciplinary approach will be able to overcome any shortcomings in terms of academic advances in one or more disciplines, and provide cohesive analysis based on processual multilineal interpretation. The interdisciplinary approach is a correlation force to all aspects on all levels, which is the only approach to give the subject of the present study a complete and detailed account for moving human knowledge forward. Accepting great flexibility as one of the attributes of scientific theories, the researcher is willing to test a number of theories, to combine elements of different theories and alternative models, while in search of evidence that would permit him to adopt one in preference to the other. In order to demonstrate a plausible prototype model, the first operation of this section verifies other two categorical models under consideration are not plausible. The second operation of this section will show how the various problems which can not be explained by the other two categorical models can be better explained by prototype theory, and therefore the prototype theory, by and large, is the choice. Meanwhile, the researcher will also indicate that various theoretical frameworks for the current prototype models are actually inapplicable to the study of the cognitive categorizations of Chinese scripts, and the theory has to be reformulated for the construction of a new model, before any plausible interpretations on Chinese scripts can be made. The combined action of these two operations will provide detailed measures to the only three theories of human categorization ever postulated in the Western tradition, those of Aristotelian Greek antiquity, Wittgensteinian Modern philosophy, and American prototype theory, with the critical comparisons with the cognitive categorizations from Chinese Classicis represented from Xu Shen’s theory and analysis. By utilization of the same instances from Chinese Lesser Script Scripts (ca 220BC-AD220), these two operations will analyze the application status of all three theories, provide sufficient ammunition for the points of impact, and also will explicitly reveal the ground-level results and long-range implications of each theoretical choice, meanwhile, sensitively explore the cognitive categorization revealed in the creation and utilization of the writing system in Chinese tradition, clearly point out the only cognitive process that must be followed if all other three Western options had been fallen. 19 2.2 Aristotelian Greek Antiquity One of the representative approaches within the Western tradition on how human beings categorize the physical world is the theory of discrete categorization postulated first by Plato, then developed in detail by Aristotle. This theory is also known as the classical view of categories mainly because it originated in Greek antiquity. As a philosophical theory with great wisdom, this model holds that the categories of human understanding of the physical world are discrete, absolute, and pristine. In other words, the physical continuity of reality is arbitrarily cut up into discrete categories by the human being when the conceptualization of the environment is carried out. The categories are discrete, based upon clusters of the properties which are inherent to the entities. The membership in such categories is defined by possession or non-possession of criteria properties. This classical theory, therefore, is also known to the world’s literati as Aristotelian discrete categorization. This theory has great impact on the development of modern sciences and technology, and also has dominated philosophy, psychology, and autonomous linguistics of both structural and generative schools throughout the twentieth century. From antiquity, Aristotle distinguished between the essence and accidents of a thing. The essence is that which makes a thing what is it.® The accidents are those which play no part in determining what a thing it is but are incidental properties.® For Aristotle, both the concept of "man" and the meaning of the word "man" are defined by a formula or logos of the essence. If "man" has one meaning, that is "two-footed animal",® and if anything can be tru ly said to be "man", it must be "two- footed animal".® In defining the category of "man", Aristotle provided the following essence in original:^® If "man" has one meaning, let this be "two-footed animal". By "has one meaning" I mean this: if X means "man", then if anything is a man, its humanity will consist in being X. (Aristotle. MT, trans. Tredennick 1933: 4.4.8) If anything can be truly said to be "man ", it must be "two-footed animal"; for this is what "man" is intended to mean. (Aristotle. MT. trans. Tredennick 1933: 4.4.14-15) It is important to give a hint here foreshadowing later developments of criticism of Aristotle’s feature-based criteria on "man", not only because it is unscientific, i.e. "two-footed animal" can be anything like animals penguin or kangaroo, but also because of its lack of concern of the most important aspect: man is a "social cultural animal" rather than a "two- footed animal". 20 Modem evolutionary anthropology has provided scientific features for identifying "man". The most distinctive feature of a human is intelligence which enables the human to consistently learn from environmental experiences by incorporating such experiences into behaviors and by consistently creating new environments over which humans have considerable control. Humans have two unique hereditary systems. One is the genetic system that transfers biological information vertically from the biological parent to offspring in the form of genes and chromosomes through the information embodied in DNA via the coding properties of these cellular macromolecule. The other is the extragenetic system that transfers cultural information both vertically and horizontally within and between lineages through social interactions coded in language, customs, and embodied in records and traditions. However, it is not the intention of this research to discuss the value of Aristotle’s features of "man", but to discuss his theoretical model. According to Aristotle, there are two and only two features of the category "man", they are: "two footed", and "animal", each of which and both of which are necessarily for the category. They are the essence of the thing, which define and indicate its individuality, the destruction of any one of which causes the destruction of the whole. Aristotle also proposed two related laws for the category. The Law of Contradiction states that a thing can not both possess a feature or not possess it, therefore it can not both belong to a category and not belong to it.^^ The Law of Excluded Middle states that a thing must either possess a feature or not possess it, therefore must either belong to a category or not belong to it.^^ In addition, according to Aristotle, features are matter of all or none. In any given instance, a feature is either present or absent. All features have equal status with no discrimination. Once a category is established, all the defining features are full members of that category, any entity which does not exhibit all the defining features is not a member of that category. In analyzing Aristotle theory, Taylor concluded four basic points for the features which are important to linguistic analysis: [1] Categories are defined in terms of the conjunction of necessary and sufficient features. [2] Features are binary. [3] Categories have clear boundaries. [4] All members of a category have equal status.^® Givon provided the set- inclusion diagram to illustrate the thought of this discrete categories school from A ristotle.(Figure 1). According to Givon, discrete categories proposed by Aristotle is one of the extreme approaches from this classical view of human categorization because Aristotle proposes that all members of each category distribute at a single categorical point on the continuum. This is illustrated in Figure 2 for two categories that are adjacent.^® Aristotle’s theory of discrete categorization has been most fruitful in post-war phonology, because the Chomsky School has greatly enriched the theory of the nature of features by making it the corner stone of the discrete categorization of the generative school. Firstly, the application of Aristotle’s discrete categorization, the binary nature of features in particular, has been the top strategy of the Chomsky School. Since the 21 - A A = criteria property determining categorical membership B = member poseessing the criteria property C = non-member not possessing such a criteria property Figure 1. Aristotle Discrete Categories Set-Inclusion^® % of numbers - within sub— - segments of the category - space - Categorical Space Location of all Location of all members of Category A members of Category B Figure 2. Aristotle Discrete Categorical Distribution20 22 feature is binary, the phonemes which are analyzed into sets of features, are correctly either a vowel [+vocalic] or not a vowel [-vocalic], a consonant is either voiced [+voice] or not voiced [-voice], for the natural way of indicating whether or not an item belongs to a particular category is by means of the binary features, and these features are classificatory devices.^^ In analyzing the place of maximal tongue constriction in vowels for the quantum nature of speech, Stevens discovered that vowels fall naturally into discrete categories instead of being identifiable as points on a continuum.^^ Secondly, the development of Aristotle’s theory in the nature of feature is also remarkable. On the basis of Jacobson^^ and Jacobson, Fant and Halle,^^ Chomsky and Halle proposed a set of features for the structure of speech sounds which are said to be universal because they are produced from the physiologically universal sound capacities of human beings,therefore the features are universal. Also because the features do not characterize the observable facts of speech, or acoustic properties, or perception by the auditory system, therefore the features are abstract. In addition. Lass discovered that the features are atomic, that they are the most basic elements, and that they can not be further decomposed,^® therefore features are primitive. From these theoretical developments, Aristotle’s discrete categorization leads to an autonomous conception of phonology and generative treatments with constantly applicable feature-based rules, rule orderings and re orderings. Since a child cannot possibly gain knowledge of the whole set of features by simply learning the physical data from outside of him before speaking, the features, feature-based rules, and operations of the orderings and re-orderings of rules must be genetically inherited in the brain of the child; therefore, features are innate. The analogical assumption for the feature-based linguistic analysis on the philosophical foundation of Aristotelian discrete categorization points to more levels of linguistic structure. If the categories of phonology can be represented by features which are binary, primitive, universal, abstract, and innate, the categories of syntax and semantics also can be. Starting from Leibniz (1646-1716), who set himself the task of discovering the "alphabet of human thought"that is, a set of basic conceptual building blocks of human thought, not susceptible to further decomposition, whose combination might underlie all possible concepts in a language, Katz and Postal recognized two kinds of semantic features, as what they termed markers, which express general semantic properties; and distinguishers, which represent the idiosyncracy about the meaning of a lexical item.^® According to Katz and Postal, the feature specification and justification of the feature approach can operate on semantic categories just as easily as they can in generative phonology.^® Soon after, Chomsky claimed that semantic features, just like the phonological features, are universal, and the set of universal semantic features defines the cognitive capabilities of humans in his terra.®® On the other hand, Bierwisch claims that a person’s mental representation of objects and situations in the world is extraneous to the semantic structure of his language, and it is necessary to assume that knowledge of the set of universal features is genetically inherited, and is therefore innate.®® Further application of 23 A. [471] chong ( % ) B. {8867} wang <8pirit> C. wang Figure 3. Aristotle Discrete Categorization for Analyzing Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals "Insect Category" Aristotelian discrete categorization to semantic analysis yields an hypothesis of semantic autonomy within which semantic features, like the set of phonological features that define the sound-producing capacities of mankind, are also primitive, binary, universal, abstract, and innate, and define the human cognitive capacities. The problem is, if Aristotelian discrete categorization can properly explain the linguistic structure of all levels, it should also properly explain, as logical reasoning indicates, the structure of writing systems. If Aristotelian discrete categorization can explain the cognitive structure of mankind, it also should explain the cognitive structure and mental process of the Chinese people. The Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization might never have been used for analyzing the structures of Chinese scripts and their semantic radicals. Taking Givon’s diagram illustrating 24 Aristotelian discrete categorization as displayed in Figure 1 and Figure 2, three categorically related Chinese Lesser Seal Scripts have been chosen to test the applicability of Aristotelian discrete categorization. Figure 3 illustrates the Aristotelian model for explanation of the phenomena revealed in Chinese scripts. The semantic radical of Chinese scripts represents element A in this model. If Aristotelian discrete categorization would also work on Chinese scripts, it is expected that this element A should serve as the criterion property determining categorical membership. The element B represents categorical member possessing the criterion property. In other words, the script representing element B is a script possessing the semantic radical which represents the element A, and the element B is defined by the semantic properties of the element A. Element C represents a non-member not possessing such criteria properties. Namely, the script representing the element C does not possess the semantic radical which represents the element A, therefore the script representing element C is not defined by element A and lacking any of the critical semantic properties, element C is thus not a member of the category, and semantically has no connection with element A or element B. Since the set-inclusion in Figure 3 concerns "Insect Category" which is very important to the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization, it is worthwhile to retrospect about Greek antiquity. In about 500 BC, Plato distinguishes between blooded and bloodless animals as he describes the hoof^^ and lungs.Herodotus also has the same thought when he recorded history to describe Cambyses crying out while slaughtering the Apis bull.®^ Aristotle innovated the fundamental division between blooded and bloodless animals. He uses the term "selache" ("selachians") which was assured as created,to mean the blooded; and the term "entoma" (entom <- entomology There is also a group of insects, whose members do not have a unique name, but which all have a related form; these are the ‘comb-builders,’ as the bees and other insects with a related form. " (Aristotle. HA. trans. ed. Peck 1943: 9.40.623b5) Aristotle really does not provide more information on the properties of the defining features of the "Insect Category". However, in some other places, Aristotle’s thought on the classification of the animals by discrete categorization contains the identification of the "foot" of animals, as he defining "man" as "two footed animal".^® In classifying different animal species, Aristotle invented different terms to distinguish the animals which "with feet that let nothing to pass" to contrast those which "with split 25 feet",^® and fu rth e r to oppose those which are "palmate footed".^'* This brilliant thought on "related form" of foot becomes the basis of modern biological taxonomy which classifies insects as having six functional legs, or four functional and two highly reduced legs. While the six-legged condition is assumed to be ancestral."*^ In analyzing some Chinese scripts representing the "Insect Category", we would like to see how Aristotle’s theory can properly explain the Chinese conceptualization of the said category, to test the universality of Aristotelian categorization principles. The script representing the element A is a script and also a semantic radical [471] in SWJZ. According to Xu Shen, [471] chong ( ) Among the Lesser Seal Scripts in radical division [471] chong ( ^ ) Should the element B script {8867} wang ( ) 26 Yu fo[f-’\3 (Records of the States, ca 400 BC distribution) recorded: 'Wang Liang is the spirit of the woods and mountain rocks.’" ^ ji| i^jjn Modern textual criticism shows that the present version of the book ffuai Nan Zi does not carry the above words cited by Xu Shen, but an ancient Buddhist scholar Yuan Ying (ca AD 655) recorded the script {8867} wang (^ ) (spirit) in his great philological work Yi Qie Jing Yin Yi - -t;T] ,^5."% [The Phonology and Semantics of All Chinese Translations of Mahayana Tripitaka] (ca AD 627-649 distribution) when he quoted these words from an earlier version of the book Huai Nan Zi i$7 5" • Hence, the script {8867} wang ) (spirit) was evidently created before 400 BC when such a deity appeared in ancient Chinese folk belief recorded by Xu Shen in ca 100 AD as a formal entry, and was continued in use during and after the seventh century.^^ The detailed commentary made by Duan Yu-cai (1735-1815) shows the semantic radical [279] wang ( |R| ) (hunting and fishing net) has a variant form wang ( ) (hunting and fishing net)/^ When the variant form combines with another semantic radical [346} gui ( % ) (ghost), a new script is formed and in use as {NE} wang ( ) (spirit). This script carries the proto-semantic property of "ghost, whereto man returns when the air of ghost goes to the Heaven, and the shape and soul of the ghost goes back to the Earth. The form is from the semantic radical [311] ren ( A j ) (human, the noblest of the Heaven and Earth), and the semantic radical [347] fu ( & ) (head of ghost in folk belief), and semantic radical [348] si( A ) (private, secret). Ghosts have the Yin air which hurts the living people. Af« The script {NE} wang ( ) (spirit) of element C does not have a formal entry in Xu Shen’s SWJZ but first appeared in the tenth century commentary of SWJZ written by Xu Xuan (AD 916-991). It was in the following words from commentaries under the entry of a related script {8868} liang ( ) (spirit) as follows: "today, the popular style of these scripts are also written as which are not standard..." . Although not standard, the script {NE} wang (^@ ) (spirit) was in use at the time of the tenth century by the public. This script also reappeared in the eighteenth century commentary by Duan Yu- cai. ^ After centuries, the standard form today is the script {NE} wang ( ) (spirit) but no longer the script {8867} wang (ill^ ) (spirit), because {NE} wang ( ) (spirit) is likely a better conceptualization of the ghost by carrying the defining semantic radical [346] gui ( ^ ) (ghost), instead of the semantic radical [471] chong ( ^ ) (insect) for the term of a deity who is believed to be a "spirit of mountains and riv ers", although both forms are eligible.^® This historical change conventionally brought the folk deity represented by the written form 27 {8867} wang ( ) Regardless of any other questions concerning the forming of the scripts representing the element A, element B, and element C in Figure 3, three problems arise in connection with the discrete categorical model. They are as follows: First of all, the Aristotelian discrete categorization clearly indicates the script {8867} wang ( ) (spirit) should represent the element B as a full member because this script possesses the defining semantic radical [471] chong ( A ) (insect) of the element A, even though the script {8867} wang ( ) meaning "spirit of mountains and rivers" does not directly carry the defining semantic properties from either "insect" or "the hunting and fishing net". It seems that the defining semantic property represented by the semantic radical [471] chong ( È\ ) (insect) is not really a direct feature specification for the script {8867} wang (iCl^ ) (spirit), a supposed full member of the category in the set-inclusion. On the other way, if the "spirit of mountains and rivers" really has nothing do to with the "Insect Category" in the usual sense of Aristotelian "essence" and "accidents", then how does one explain by Aristotelian theory that the script {8867} wang (^1^ ) (spirit) does possess the semantic radical [471] chong ( ^ ) (insect) and therefore should be a full member of the "Insect Category", when conceptually and semantically it does not belong to "Insect Category". Secondly, according to Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization, the script wang ( ) (spirit) should only represent element C as a non member of the "Insect Category" because this script does not possess the defining semantic radical [471] chong ( ) (insect) of the element A but the semantic radical [346] gui ( ) (ghost), even though the script {NE} wang ( ) (spirit) is semantically identical with the script {8867} wang (ÈM ) (spirit) and logically also should be, and practically has been a full member of the said category. It seems that defining feature specification is functioning to rule out the script {NE} wang ( ^jfl ) (spirit), which should be a full member, from the said category. In other words, if the possession of the identical semantic properties by the two Chinese scripts could be obtained by two different Chinese semantic radicals which belong to two different conceptual categories, then how does one explain by the Aristotelian theory of the discrete categorization that the categories are really discrete in essence? Thirdly, this discrete categorical model seems to say that the script {8867} wang ( ) (spirit) with the semantic radical [471] chong ( ) (insect) and script wang ( ) (spirit) with the semantic radical [346] gui ( ) (ghost) appeared to belong to two different categories even though their semantic properties are identical. The ground reason for this division is that their semantic radicals are different and so are their feature specifications. However convincing, the concept of the deity "wang" in ancient Chinese folklore represented in written forms by the two scripts 28 {8867} wang ( ) From the above, the discrete category model seems to have neither adequate classificatory accuracy nor sufficient explanatory power for the historical phenomenon shown from these Chinese scripts, but has lead to mistaken analysis and interpretation. By logical extension, if Aristotelian theory will assign scripts of the same semantic properties to different cognitive categories, this theory will also mix scripts of different semantic properties into one cognitive category. An example of this type of failure of discrete categorization shows up in an analysis of the "Fish Category". In Greek antiquity, Aristotle’s definition of the "Fish Category" was well-known because this category is fundamentally important to his theory of discrete categorization. As a matter of fact, Aristotle seemed to have been struggling in all the distinctions he makes for the "Fish Category" to show that the binary divisions of the Platonists are unable to account adequately for the diversity of reality and therefore the binary system needs to be modified.^^ The first citation from Aristotle shows that he follows the Platonic dichotomous division of the class of aquatic animals into animals with gills and animals with lungs.^® Here are the original words from Aristotle himself: Some are water-animals, others land-animals. There are two ways of being water-animals. Some both live and feed in the water, take in water and emit it, and are unable to live if deprived of it: this is the case with many of the fishes. Others feed and live in the water; but what they take in is air, not water; and they breed away from the water. (Aristotle HA. tran s. Peck 1943. 1.1 487al4) But Aristotle realizes that the above binary divisions can not really categorize the "Fish Category". He further clarifies his thinking beyond Plato. For Aristotle, there are two different ways of arriving at one and the same goal about these two organic classifications.^® Aristotle’s original words are cited as follows: 29 For the fact is, some aquatic animals take in water and discharge it again, for the same reason that leads air- breathing animals to inhale air: in other words, with the object of cooling the blood, (Aristotle HA, trans. Peck 1943. 8.2.589bl3) Some animals, although they get their food in the water and cannot live away from it, still take in neither water nor air: examples are the sea-anemones and shellfish. (Aristotle HA. tran s. Peck 1943. 1.1 487a23) What interests the present study is, as an amendment to the binary divisions of Platonic doctrine, Aristotle includes "shellfish" into the "Fish Category". From Aristotle’s original words cited above, we know that Aristotle’s "shellfish" is any aquatic animal with a shell. In standard terms, they are known as mollusca, which is a large phylum numbering over 100,000 species comprising oysters, clams, mussels, snails, slugs, squids, octopi, whelks etc. characterized by a soft unsegmented invertebrate body enclosed, in most instances, partly or wholly covered in a calcareous shell of one or more pieces. From modern evolutionary biology, according to Strickberger, the distinctive features of mollusca genus are that these invertebrates possess radula, foot, and mantle.®® It is important to point out that in modern evolutionary classifications, until in recent years, have employed both traditional taxonomic categories and morphological criteria, and incorporated many biological factors to depict the genealogical relationships and evolutionary distances among species. Modern science believes that the mollusca phylum does not belong to the "Fish Category" because mollusca and fish have different ancestors, different morphologies, and different biological traits; therefore, in systematics and classifications they should belong to different genetic categories.®^ However, this is not the place to discuss the value of Aristotle’s categorization of including "shellfish" into the "Fish Category". Aristotle depended only on observations of similarities and differences among organisms without regard to their origins or other biological aspects due to the limitations of knowledge in Greek antiquity. The present study concerns that if by taking Aristotle’s theory of discrete categorization as theoretical framework and again by taking the same set-inclusion diagram from Givon who correctly illustrated the Aristotle theory of discrete categorization,®^ can Aristotelian theory and particularly his categorization of the "Fish Category" work on the Chinese scripts in the radical division of "Fish Category" and the semantic radical for the said category. Figure 4 shows the situation in detail. 30 At issue is "Fish Category" which is represented in Figure 4 as element A by the script [424] yu ( ) (.1.) C. Figure 4. Aristotle Discrete Categorization for Analyzing Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals "Fish Category" 31 With the feature specification of the semantic radiceil [424] yu ( ) "• The question then is what "fen" refers to, and whether it is also indeed a kind of fish. Xu Shen did record this script as {7590} fen (^•^) with the commentary as follows: "Pen ( ), the name of a kind of fish originated in the State of Hui Xie Tou Guo... ^ 5ÏÎ. ®| ". Further question is whether the State of Hui Xie Tou Guo is on Earth or whether it is only a legend; and whether the said fish "fen" was a biological species or just existed in mythology. According to various sources, the exact location of this ancient state, as recorded in official history books written before the fifth century, Hou Han Shu fa [History of the Late Han Dynasty], and Wei Zhi 4 ^ ^ ' [History of the Wei State], and the political economic geography written before the seventeenth century Da Qing Yi Tong Zhi ^ [ Geographic Unification of the Imperial Qing Empire (1644-1911)], was in Korea of then China proper where a kind of small fish known as Xia Hu Yu Jkj with some subtypes of Lang Xia Hu Yu Assuming the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization can properly explain Chinese scripts in terms of cognitive conceptualization, we will have questions on how to deal with the element C which supposedly should not be a full member of the "Fish Category" but should be a non-member. However, in Figure 4, the element C represented by the script {7620} bing ( ) 32 belonging to the fish genus, regardless of the fact that the script does indeed carry the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) This raises questions as to how a Chinese script could be formed with a defining semantic radical with necessary and sufficient categorical properties but at the same time not belong to such a category. How can a Chinese script both possess a feature and not possess it; and therefore how can it both belong to a category on the surface and not belong to it underlyingly? In essence, how can a Chinese script of this kind be explained by the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization by at least two laws which were claimed to be universal. When Xu Shen recorded the script {7620} bing { ) Further, Xu Shen also recorded the script which is used as the equivalent of {8849} bang ) Regardless of the modern scientific classification, the two equivalents of the script {7620} bing ( j&ÿ] ) 33 book Yue Ling, the mythology was that the sparrows qu ( ) fly into the sea in September of the year to become small mollusca ha ( ), and the black pheasants zhi ( ) fly into the sea in October of the year to become shen ( % ) ^ ^ % A -AL 'K According to Xu Shen, the species known as "big mollusca" represented by the script {8845} shen ( # ) also has an equivalent, that is the species represented by the script {8846} gao ( ) Modern biology believes that various groups of molluscas have evolved subsidiary changes in structures which are often recognizably molluscan but considerably different from each other. Ancient Chinese observed the morphological facts and also thought about their origins. Ancient Chinese believed that different molluscas originated and were transformed from different birds, and that they should be classified into one general category with distinguishable subtypes. Various birds in ancient China were categorized into a general genus known as feng niao ( ) [phoenix birds] which also includes pheasants and sparrows. Feng niao [phoenix bids] is one of the most important auspicious symbols in ancient China. The images of feng niao [phoenix birds] on pottery appeared as early as in Neolithic Age. ® The feng niao [phoenix birds] appeared on the cast bronze vessels during the Western Zhou Phase I-II (ca 1100BC-869BC). Various changing images of feng niao [phoenix birds] in ancient China were the syntheses of many other divine animals, for instance, dragon, tiger, snake, swallow, etc. (Cf. Plate III). The auspicious entities or subjects, if their origins were unclear or unknown, were often attributed to the feng niao [phoenix birds] origin. The mollusca is the biological entity which produces precious pearls. This might serves as one of the reasons that in Chinese mythology and ancient paleographic interpretations that the mollusca was originated from the auspicious phoenix birds which had flown into the sea. From the above, all ancient Chinese records regarding the ancestors of mollusca show that this genus is of non-fish origin but originated from different entomological beings by means of mythological transformation from 34 Plate III. A Bronze Vessel Lei of the Western Zhou (ca 1100BC-771BC) Depicted Along the Shoulder of the Vessel A Circle of Eight Auspicious Feng Niao [Phoenix Birds] Cast as Divine Symbols for the Aristocratic Class. Approximately Cast during Western Zhou Phase I to Phase II (ca lOOOBC- 869BC). Height; 32.5cm; Diameter: 37.3cm. Previously the P roperty of A Fine American Collection (ca 1800-1995). Property of Tang China Foundation 1996. This is one of the largest Lei bronze vessels. The broad body raised on a pedestal foot and with a flared mouth. Two divine animal heads with arched noses were cast on high relief and were fixed as a pair of loop handles. Crisply cast on the shoulder of the vessel is a band of four pairs of elongated feng niao [phoenix birds] in high-relief with inlay, encircled the body. With flowery patterned coronas, finely feathered long tail crimping at the end, and three-forked horns stretching bi-directionally from the wings, two birds in each pair confronted on tool/weapon shaped flanges to form taotie masks. The feng niao [phoenix birds] stands on one short foot with another elongated foot stretching backward. With beautiful feather coronas, all birds turn round their heads to retrospect with spiritual eyes in high-relief. For the similar patterns of the cast birds on early bronze vessels. Cf. Ma Chen Yuan (Shanghai 1984: 9-14; 171-205) 35 different birds into different sea-living invertebrates, and therefore, should not carry the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) Again this is not the place to make a judgement on how much better Xu Shen’s Chinese taxonomical classification of the mollusca genus is in comparison with Aristotle’s classification on "shellfish", in terms of the observation on morphologies, classification of general and subtypes, considerations of origin, transformation from one specie to the other, and recognition of adapting to environments by means of behavioral alterations. In fact, even in modern biological science, the origin of the mollusca genus remains hypothetical despite the fact that there is no question that the mollusca and fish are genetically from different ancestors and belong to different species in systematics and evolutionary classifications.®^ According to Xu Shen’s classification of the mollusca genus and their mythological origins, ancient Chinese was right in that they never thought that the mollusca genus was the same as the fish genus, but believed that the two genuses have different origins. In view of the interest of the present study, it is clear that from semantic interpretations of various scripts referring to mollusca, they were believed by the ancient Chinese to be entomological origins underlyingly, but from the surface structure of the scripts referring to the mollusca, they are almost all formed with semantic radical <471> chong { ^ ) In any case, the script {7620} bing ( ) The Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization, however, would mechanically include this script into the "Fish Category" for two reasons; first based on Aristotle’s classification of the Fish Category which includes the "shellfish" and which has been proved to be wrong; and secondly based on the surface semantic radical [424] yu ( ,'^v ) 36 From the above, there are some important and interesting questions which might be raised concerning the cognitive relationship between the "Fish Category" and "Insect Category" in ancient Chinese conceptualization of the natural world, regarding what this relationship suggests about the forming of the Chinese scripts, and regarding the impossible possibility of the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization as a theoretical framework for interpretations of the conceptual structures of Chinese scripts as well as semantic radicals. The first question which might be raised is whether or not ancient Chinese did distinguish the "Fish Category" from the "Insect Category". As has already been shown, in Xu Shen’s SWJZ, the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) 37 If the categorical boundary between the "Fish Category" and "Insect Category" in Chinese semantic radicals is clear, then there might be the second question as to why there exists some fuzziness between the "Fish Category" and "Insect Category", as reflected in the conceptual structures of the scripts, and how to give proper explanation to this important phenomenon. From the cross examination, it can be seen that although the "Insect Category" is clearly divided as an independent radical division, this category also has connection with many other categories. The division is not absolute but relative. Therefore, the semantic radical [471] chong ( ^ ) For instance, in Xu Shen’s commentaries, "fish" represented by the semantic radical [424] yu { ) According to Aristotle’s Law of Contradiction, a thing can not both possess a feature or not possess it, therefore it can not both belong to a category and not belong to it.®® But in Chinese scripts, the cognitive structures show that some of the aforementioned semantic radicals do not possess a feature of the "Insect Category" on the surface, but all of these semantic radicals possesses the feature of the "Insect Category" underlyingly; therefore, some of them belong to the "Insect Category" underlyingly and do not belong to it on the surface. On the other hand, there are scripts which do indeed possess the semantic radical [471] chong ( ^ ) (insect) and which were noted as being of insect kind, but their semantic contents underlying the structure of the scripts are really something else but not "insect" at all. In ancient China, the "Insect Category" seemed to be folk taxonomically preferred, and was often based on conventional images. Meanwhile, these scripts are not at all arbitrary without experiential and cognitive basis. In such a sense, ancient Chinese did distinguish the "Fish Category" from the "Insect Category" but at the same time dialectically did not distinguish them. The reason is there are conceptualizations of fuzzy boundaries between the two categories and these fuzzy boundaries have to be reflected in an unclear way in cognitive structures, semantic structures, and the structures of the semantic radicals for composing written scripts. 38 Ancient Chinese enjoyed unclearnesses in categorizations based on the fuzziness of the objects of the natural world which is also unclear. Thus, Aristotle’s Law of Contradiction is completely violated. The cognitive categories in Chinese antiquity are not discrete. But cognitive categories in Plato and Aristotle’s philosophy of Greek antiquity are discrete. The ways of conceptualization of the world in the two different cultures show important differences, and these differences can not be explained by the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorizations. The "Fish Category" shows a similar scenario. In Chinese scripts, the categorical boundaries reflected in the use of the semantic radicals between the "Fish Category" and "Insect Category" are not clear-cut or discrete but criss-cross, fuzzy and imagination-oriented. For instance, in describing the behavioral situation of the fish and the snake on the move, the only script in the records is the script {7615} ling { ) The surface structure of this script preferred the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) The preference of the semantic interpretation of the script {7615} ling ( ) In the above case, the feature of the "Insect Category" is both in possession and in non-possession, and therefore both belongs to a category and does not belong to it. Philosophical phenomena of this kind in Chinese antiquity certainly can not be properly explained by the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization in Greek antiquity. The third question which might be raised is why the script {7620} bing ( ) 39 To answer this question, two aspects should be taken into consideration. First of all, if we accept the fact that the "Fish Category" in ancient Chinese scripts sometimes related to the imagination from remote legend, ancient mythology, and folktales in given societies, we would accept that the script {7620} bing ( ) The existence of this script bing ( ) Such a metaphorical metathesis is an operation resulting from Chinese cognitive categorizations of the salient properties of the objects in the natural world. The categorization of this type is based on the principle of most similar traits of the objects which are in the fuzzy boundaries. The Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization is not able to explain such metaphorical metatheses. Although in the generative school there is a metathesis rule used to account for any interchangebility with or without motivations, this rule of metathesis does not concern any culture-based metaphorical phenomenon. Modern biological taxonomy classifies insects as having six functional legs, or four functional and two highly reduced legs. The six-legged condition is assumed to be ancestral. In such a sense, scientific taxonomy would recognize what Guo Pu recorded as a true insect genus and should carry the defining semantic radical [471] chong ( A ) (insect> for its written form as ancient Chinese did do; whereas the script for mollusca genus {7620} bing ) (moUusca> must not be created the same and also carry the semantic radical [471] chong ( ^ ) (insect>, but 40 semantic radical [471] yu ( ,K ) There are actually at least three cognitive processes for the final composition of the scripts in discussion; the perception of the salient properties, the imagination of functional behaviors, and recognition of metaphorical mythologies. The first process is biological, the second is functional, the third is cosmological. The cognitive processes by which Chinese scripts are formed may vary or not limited to these three cognitive processes but the script in question does. Indeed, Chinese scripts are composed not only based on the common sense of the objective observation of the natural world, but more importantly are also based on the cultural understanding of the natural world in the Chinese mind. There is no evidence so far to show that the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization can encompass these fundamentals by which the Chinese scripts at issue, indeed, were formed within a different cultural tradition. The fourth, but not necessarily the last question which might be raised, is how script {7620} bing ( ) This semantic radical itself is composed by three other semantic radicals. The structural and semantic composition is on the first level. Xu Shen wrote commentary under the entry as follows: "Bing ( ^ ), position the South. The thousands things become splendid and all in fiery blazing ways. The Yin force rises up initially, the Yang force tends to decrease. The form is from the semantic radical [1] yi ( — ) (one, the horizontal dividing line between the Heaven and Earth>, the semantic radical [184] ru ( X ) (to go from outside to inside, to enter, to insert> ({R [184] 109a; 224a), and the semantic radical [275] mi ( H ) (to cover things from four sides with certain material). The semantic radical [1] here represents the Yang force ^M-An. — •" Xu Shen’s commentary tells the true structural composition 41 of the script (semantic radical) [515] bing ( ) The three cognitive processes for the composition of the structure and semantics of the script {7620} bing ( ) On the first level ordering, it is seen that each of the four semantic radicals carries its semantic properties which it originally has as a part of the whole semantics to "spell out" the entire semantic properties of the script. This is shown as follows: (1) The semantic radical [424] yu ( ) (2) The semantic radical [1] yi ( — ) (3) The semantic radical [184] ru ( A ) (4) The semantic radical [275] mi ( n ) On this first level, each of the four semantic radicals together composed necessary structures and semantics for the script {7620} bing ( ) 42 creating the script {7620} bing ( ) The second level ordering, the cognitive process shows functional operation. When the three radicals analyzed above, [1], [184], and [275] together formed a script (semantic radical) [515] bing ( ) From Duan Yu-cai’s commentary on the script {8845} shen ( ) , this functional process of using the semantic radical [515] bing ( '-'k] ) In connection with the above two level-ordered operations, the cross- examination shows that the script for the forever valuable treasury "pearl", which is formed by the mollusca genus, is properly in the "Jade Category" located as {189} zhu ( ) 43 The philosophy is, according to Da Dai Li Ji {The Book o f Rituals Dai Commentaries, ca 100 BC distribution) and Zuo Zhuan (The Spring and Autumn Annuals Zuo Commentaries, ca 500 BC distribution), based on the belief that after the entomological beings which represent the Yang force in the sky flew into the sea to transform themselves into mollusca, which further transformed into pearls, these entomological beings changed from the Yang force to become the spirit of the Yin force, which functionally can prevent huge disasters such as fires as well as wars. This conceptualization takes the script {189} zhu ( ) From the scripts in series formation with mollusca genus, Chinese thought is actually revealed: the Yang force of entomological animal in the sky is changed into the Yin force of aquatic animal in the water; the aquatic animal of the Yin force in the water is transformed into a valuable treasure of the Yin spirit in the water to overcome the Yang force of conflagration on Earth; the wood nature substance of the Yin spirit in water with human virtue and morality is connected to the Yang force onto national catastrophes and political affairs including metal-weapon oriented wars. The transformation between the Yang force and Yin force, the dialectical relations among the Five Elements of Water, Earth, Fire, Wood, Metal, the criss-cross changing patterns of the Yin and Yang forces with the Five Elements, all of these have been constructed into the mosaic layouts of the scripts by different semantic radicals. In conclusion, the analysis in this section has shown that the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization, a great wisdom of the mankind with tremendous impact on modern sciences, is not plausible for analyzing Chinese scripts or semantic radicals. From all parts of the analysis in this section, the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization has failed to provide any proper interpretations. None of the strategic points in Aristotelian theory, the observation of the similarities and differences of the objects, the taxonomic classifications, the discrete categorizations, the Law of Contradiction, or the Law of Excluded Middle, would work on the Chinese scripts or semantic radicals. As devices for semantic feature specifications for the Chinese scripts, the patterned behaviors of the semantic radicals in Chinese Lesser Seal Scripts actually indicated some extremely important theoretical points which are in heated debates in the Western tradition. These theoretical points are pivotal to the understanding of the issues of cognitive categorizations and human behaviors. They are also fundamental to the entire social sciences. With long range implications, the points of impact as well as the ground- level results are mapped as follows: 44 [1] if the semantic radicals [424] yu ( ) [2] If the semantic radicals [424] yu { ) [3] If the semantic radicals [346] gui ( ) [4] If the semantic radicals [471] chong ( ^ ) [5] If Chinese scripts and semantic radicals are produced from the physiologically universal mental capacities of humans but if they are also created by the conceptualizations of people in the Chinese tradition, not by the conceptualizations of people in the Western tradition, then Chinese semantic radicals are not all universal. [6] If the scripts {8867} wang ) [7] If a Chinese child or any child cannot possibly gain the knowledge of the whole set of semantic radicals or scripts from a genetically inherited brain but have to learn scripts and semantic radicals each by each, then Chinese scripts and semantic radicals are not all innate. The research on the cognitive structures, categorical formations, and development of the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts therefore moves to a new direction beyond the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization, should the Chinese thought and cognitive conceptualization of the world never develop within the frame of Greek antiquity but Chinese antiquity, should the above conclusion for the analysis so far be plausible. 45 2.3 Wittgensteinian Modern Philosophy The serious critiques challenging the nature and structure of the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization was anticipated from the field of philosophy in the early 1950s by modern philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, an Austrian and then later a British citizen in the eve of world War 11,^ in his work Philosophical Investigations} This landmark proposal for the necessity of a non-Aristotelian theory of categorization has been regarded as a message of tremendous significance. The epoch-making point that Wittgenstein made about the inadequacies of Aristotelian theory is on how to define categorical members in a category or among different categories. Wittgenstein observed that all members within a category do not define themselves by common properties but only similarities, which he termed family resemblance; all members among different categories are not defined or structured by shared criteria features but by an overlapping criss-crossing network which he termed fuzzy boundaries. This theory, within the Western philosophical tradition, is known as the contingent categorical model. In addressing on the key points, Wittgenstein showed great wisdom expressive in his analysis of how to define the word "Spiel" (game). He wrote:^ And the result of this examination is: we see a complicated network of similarities overlapping and criss-crossing: sometimes overall similarities, sometimes similarities of detail. I can think of no better expression to characterize these similarities than "family resemblance": for the various resemblances between members of a family: build, features, colors of eyes, gait, temperament, etc. etc. overlap and criss-cross in the same way. And I shall say: "games" form a family...How is the concept of a game bounded? What still counts as a game and what no longer does? Can you give the boundary? No. You can draw one; for none has so far been drawn. (But that never troubled you before when you used the word "game".) (W ittgenstein 1978: 31-3) In opposition to the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization of Greek antiquity, Wittgenstein’s theory of categorization clearly holds that the categories are not discrete or absolute but rather fuzzy-edged and Contingent. On the other hand, he believes that it is a relation of family resemblance that holds various members together in the same category. Members of adjacent categories are also defined by the family resemblance whose boundaries are all fuzzy-edged. Various categories are related to each other as equal members. The relation among these categories are linear and contingent. Categorical properties are only shared by the adjacent categories throughout this contingent relation. In such a situation, 46 category A may share properties with category B which in turn shares properties with category C, and category C may share properties with category D which in turn shares properties with category E. However, the family resemblance may be absent between categories which are not in contingent relation in terms of immediate adjacency. In such a situation, categories A and C, D, E, categories B and D, E, categories C and E, may not resemble each other at all. Givon offers critical argument based on the thirty-three excerpts properly cited from Wittgenstein’s book for detailed analysis on his philosophical position.^ According to Givon, Wittgenstein’s position may be represented through the set-intersection diagram shown in Figure 5. The Wittgensteinean approach to categorization and family resemblance could easily predict a uniform distribution of all members of the category along the categorical space. In this distribution, the categories do not show any breaks. All the categories are related according to their family resemblance. In addition. Category A does not relate to Category C at all, since there is category B between these two categories. This is illustrated in Figure 6.® Assuming Wittgenstein’s contingent approach on human categorizations could be the working hypothesis on the analysis of the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts, we would have the following good solution which, by adopting Aristotle discrete category model, simply can not be achieved. By using the same instances as those in the previous section, the situation is illustrated in Figure 7. Figure 7 tells some important information on how the categorization of the semantic radicals in ancient Chinese scripts is viewed by Wittgensteinian contingent categorical theory, and why this view would be better than that of the Aristotelian discrete categorization. For the results from the application of Wittgensteinian contingent theory to the analysis of Chinese scripts, four parts of categorical philosophy shown from Figure 7 are observed as follows: First of all, from left to right, there are six independent semantic radicals, each of which also forms an independent semantic category. Figure 7 clearly shows such a situation where each of the semantic radicals has its own categorical domain. Given that categorical independence is understood not in absolute discrete fashion, as addressed in the previous section. Figure 7 shows the contingent relations of these semantic radicals. In such a situation, semantic radical categories are overlapping partially due to the family resemblance shared by each of the adjacent pairs. With this contingent categorical relationship, the semantic radicals analyzed in the previous section are able to present their family resemblance rather than absolute discrete relation. For instance, if category A the semantic radical [515] bing ( ) 47 Figure 5, Wittgenstein Contingent Category Modef % of numbers within sub- segments of the category space Categorical Space Figure 6. Wittgenstein Contingent Categorical Distribution 8 48 Figure 7, necessarily belong to two different semantic categories. On the other hand, these two different semantic radicals do have some mutually acceptable attributes which may be termed as family resemblance. As a result, these two semantic radicals are able to intersect with each other as shown in Figure 7 to form a new script {7620} bing ( ) Figure 7 showed that these two independent semantic radical categories are overlapping partially to realize such a relationship. The same situation applies to other semantic radicals shown in Figure 7 from category A to F representing the semantic radicals which have been analyzed in the previous section. Wittgenstein’s partial overlapping between the immediate adjacent categories does indeed give better explanation than that of the Aristotle discrete categorization. Secondly, because of the necessity for representing the categorical overlapping resulting from family resemblance, all the categories in Figure 7 are fuzzy-edged. The categorical attributes in these fuzzy edges are unclear as they are the mixture of both the two categories in immediate adjacency. In the areas of fuzzy-edge, the categorical intersections give out new scripts with mixed attributes from the two categories. They belong to neither categories, yet, at the same time, they belong to both categories. For instance, in Figure 7, on the fuzzy edge overlapped by category A [515] bing ( vk] ) In each of these scripts, semantic category is a fuzzy mixture of the categorical attributes from the adjacent semantic radical categories. The fuzzy edges where the categorical intersection productively form relevant new scripts are important to Wittgensteinian theory which take this notion as fundamental to human categorization. This notion is also relevant as shown in legitimate interpretations of the behavioral patterns of Chinese semantic radicals. Thirdly, categories from A to F in Figure 7 are equal members. There is no central or prototypical member of a category. All categories relate to each other in a linear ordering and form a contingent categorical chain. On one hand, such an ordering seems to be definite in that if the order is 49 {7620} , {7616} . (8859} {8867} {No Entry} bing ( ) xia ) xia (#&. ) wang ( ^1^ ) wang ( ) Categ-A Categ-B Categ-C Categ-D Categ-E C ateg-F [515] [424] {1918} [471] [2791 [346] bing yu_ jia _ chong wang gui ( % ) <3rd Stem) Figure 7. Wittgenstein Contingent Category Model for Analyzing Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals "Fish Category", "Insect Category", "Ghost Category" with S cripts {7620}, {7616}, (8859}, {8867}, {NE} 50 altered, the fuzzy edges formed by the mixture of attributes from adjacent categories will also be changed, and therefore would not produce the expected scripts, instead, they might produce unexpected or even non existing scripts. For instance, if category A [515] bing ( ) Finally, Wittgensteinian contingent categorical theory may solve the problems left by Aristotelian discrete categorical theory on the level of conceptualization beneath the surface. As indicated in the previous section, according to Aristotelian categorization, the script {7620} bing { ) There are sufficient reasons why the script {7620} bing ( ) 51 ( ) In such a situation, the problem of how to properly categorize the script {7620} bing ( ^^3? ) From the above, Wittgenstein’s philosophical approach to explain human categorizations does indeed work on some facts of the semantic radicals in ancient Chinese scripts. The most interesting thing, among others, is that the fuzzy edges resulting from the family resemblance of different semantic categories and the chained association of the semantic radicals in contingent relationship are explored to a certain extent. However, a question might be raised as to whether or not Wittgenstein’s philosophy can give a proper interpretation to more than just a few instances for the cognitive-based categorizations of the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts. Of all the philosophical points made by Wittgenstein, three of them are the most important. From his work, Wittgenstein wrote as follows: ...phenomena have no one thing in common which makes us use the same word for all,- but they are related to one another in many different ways. " (W ittgenstein 1953, tran s. Anscombe, 65:31) I can think of no better expression to characterize these similarities than "family resemblance"; for the various resemblance between members of a family: build, features, color of eyes, gait, temperament, etc. etc. overlap and criss-cross in the same way. (W ittgenstein 1953, tran s. Anscombe, 66, 67: 32) ...But if someone wishes to say:"There is something in common to all the constructions - namely the disjunction of all their common properties" - I should reply: "Now you are only playing with words. One might as well say: "Something runs through the whole thread - namely the continuous overlapping of those fibers... " (W ittgenstein 1953, tran s. Anscombe, 67: 32) 52 The philosophical picture given by Ludwig Wittgenstein for human categorization of the natural world is that each of the adjacent categorical members relate to each other and share categorical properties. The way of the relation may vary, but the form of the relation is of one another. If there is something that really can be said to be in common to all categories, it is the continuous overlapping of all categories in the same way. There is no disjunction of all categories but continuous overlapping running through all categories. The linear ordering of Wittgensteinian contingent categorical theory therefore will meet serious problems when it is adopted to explain the philosophical behaviors of the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts as shown in Figure 8. Figure 8 is developed from Figure 7. Categories from A to F representing six script forms in the two figures are the same and their linear ordering and contingent relations are unchanged. However, different from Figure 7, Figure 8 carries some significant information regarding the legitimacy of Wittgensteinian categorical theory as it would be used in analyzing Chinese semantic radicals. From the direct comparisons, important phenomena are observed from the above model. At issue is the homophone scripts {7627} ba { ) From Xu Shen however, differences in categorization are obvious. The original commentary by Xu Shen for the script {7627} ba ( ) The forming of this script in ancient China is based on the perception and recognition of salient properties of both the biological traits and the behavioral characteristics of the object. In script form, it is a synthesis 53 {7627} {7603} {5786} {5783} b a (IrtC ) bo ) ba ( 0 , ) bo ( 'd%) Categ-A Categ-B Categ-C Categ-D Categ-E Categ-F [515] [424] [471] [279] [346] bing yu y chong wan g gui ) ( .K ) ( ) ( 'è , ) ( ) ( <3rd Stem) Figure 8. Wittgenstein Contingent Category Model for Analyzing Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals "Fish Category", "Insect Category", "Ghost Category" with Scripts {7627}, {7603}, {5786}, {5783} 54 of the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) Lions are not originated in China. Ancient Chinese did not know the animal lion until the time (approximately in the first century) when the Buddhists from central Asia introduced lions into China as "guarding animals" which can keep away evil beings. Since there is no script representing the animal lion can be found in any of the existed early writings including the Lesser Seal Scripts, the script {NE} shi For creating a script for the animal lion, there are at least two existing semantic radicals set up by Xu Shen can be possibly used: [366] zhi ( % ) ^ However, the authors of writing chose the semantic radical [377] quan ( -K ) Such perceptions and categorization of the animal lion also can be seen from the zoomorphic bronze lion of the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907) (Plate IV), verifying the consistent pattern of the cognitive categorization among art, writing, and folk taxonomy of the ancient Chinese. From the analysis of the structure of the script {NE} shi (^1p ) 55 Plate IV. One of the Pair of Zoomorphic Bronze Lions in the Shape of Live Dog Cast as An Auspicious "Guarding Animal" Representing the Cognitive Categorization Was Based on Behavioral Patterns Rather than Biology. Approximately Cast in the Early Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907). Unrecorded. Unpublished. Height: 28cm; Length: 43cm. Previously the Property of A Fine American Collection (1930-1995). Property of Tang China Foundation 1995. Cast in approximately mirror image, this is one of the two bronze lions. With a body and appearance close to a live dog, this bronze lion seated with two rear legs, standing foursquare. Cast with bulging eyes, upturned snout, dog-like ears, snarling powerful jaws open to show long fangs, and single curved bone bit by its mouth. The head turned round to look backward, with ball-like chest outward beneath. The knobby backbone divides a series of cast styled hair-denseness along its body. Long and curry hairs cast from head, ending in claw feet, flame-like long-haired tail raising from the hip. Colored with traceable reddish, and yellowish green like pigments. Traces of gilding highlight the face and body. 56 the animal lion is located at the fuzzy boundary between the "Dog Category" and "Military Category" due to certain family resemblance between the two categories. The problem is, while the ancient Chinese categorization reflected in the forming of the script {7627} ba ( ) By the same token, another script in Figure 8, which is formed in clear paleographic relation with the script {7627} ba ( ) It should be clear, according to the original etymology in the records, that the script {5786} ba ( ) (drought deity> did indeed belong to the category F in Figure 8 and should take the semantic radical [346] gui (^ ) (ghost>. As a matter of fact, in Confucius Classics Shi Jing [ The Book of Odes], the exact text shows that Ba ( ^$.') is a kind of god rather than a deity. Xu Shen defined this script as a deity based on the semantic radical of the script.By using the script {6310} ba ( l&L ) (the state of walking dog> as one of the two parts to form the script {5786} ba (^) (drought deity>, ancient Chinese categorization seems to be also clear. The drought deity Ba (-^) was an angel either female or male in gender in the mythology of ancient China, who takes the shape of a human being, and walks faster than the wind. Evidence from an ancient Chinese geographical book entitled Shan Mai Jing ^ ,45 [The Book of Mountains and Seas] written before 450BC recorded this spiritual being. For instance, Shan Hai Jing: Da Huang Bei Jing tk Hffé.'i- ,4% [The Book of Mountains and Seas. Great Dessert North] recorded that "In the Xi Kun mountain, there is a female human. She wears the blue cloth. Her name is known as the daughter of the Yellow Emperor...The Yellow Emperor therefore descended down a heavenly angel whose name is Ba ( ^ ..... 57 Elsewhere in Shan Hai Jing: Da Huang Nan Jing Ü ^ *%- [The Book of Mountains and Seas, Great Dessert South] recorded that"There is a human in the South. He is two or three chi high. He explores his body and his eyes are on the top of his head. He walks as fast as the wind. His name is Ba ( ). Whatever the countries he appears in, there must be a big drought @ From these historical attestsLions, the ancient Chinese seem to be impressed by the swift walking speed that the drought deity acquired. Since the behavioral pattern of the drought deity has some correspondence with the state of walking, it might be the reason why that the script {5786} ba ( ) Assuming the script {6310} b a ( ^ ) Should the script {6310} ba ( ) (the state of walking dog> be inserted adjacent to category 0 or D or E, unexpected wrong scripts which never existed in the Chinese writing system would occur. On the other hand, the script {6310} ba ( ) (the state of walking dog> itself can be further decomposed into semantic radical [377] guan ( ^ ) (dog, with legs twisted and tail raising to hang> and semantic radical [446] pie ( / ) (to conduct from the right direction to the left direction). If the script {6310} ba ( ) 58 Meanwhile, none of the categories in Figure 8 between categories B and F, i.e. category C script {1918} jia ( ) More evidence can be obtained from Figure 8. For instance, the scripts {7603} bo ) Although there are textual criticisms of Xu Shen’s commentary,^® evidence shows that this kind of fish is known today as Culter alburnus, Erythroculter mongolicus, and E. ilishaeformis. They are not sea fish but live in the freshwater. It had been general agreement among most Chinese scholars at the turn of the century that Culter alburnus is the representative of Bo yu ,'5^. . However, after some investigations in Shanghai, a Japanese scholar believed that the fish genus Bo yu is Culter ilishaeformis,^^ A detailed report from Lin S. Y. for the classification of Chinese Culters was published in 1934.^® In this report, Chinese Culters were divided into eight kinds. In all cases, the scrip t {7603} bo ( ) KCulter alburnus> is a kind of fish and should take the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) The reason that this script was formed with another semantic radical [284] bai ( ^ ) But in Figure 8, there is no position for a locus for the semantic radical [284] bai ( ^ ) 59 from outside to inside, to enter, to insert) and [479] er ( x. ) On the other hand, the homophone script {5783} bo ) According to various ancient Chinese records from Huai Nan Zi ^ [Book of Huai Nan Zi, ca 120 BC distribution] and Bai Hu Tong Yi tr ^ [iîecords of National Debates at White Tiger Shrine in AD 79, ca AD 79-100 distribution], this script with the meaning Yin shen [Yin spirit/god] takes the semantic radical [346] gui ( % ) This explains why the script {5783} bo ) However, in Figure 8, there is no position for the "White Color Category", nor is there any possibility to have this category inserted between category E and F as immediate adjacency for necessary categorical intersection. The category E semantic radical [279] wang ( l%| ) 60 to the white color> is decomposed as the semantic radicals [184] ru < X ) As a striking reaction to the Aristotelian discrete categorization of Greek antiquity, the Wittgensteinian contingent categorization switched sharply the direction for the interpretation of the cognitive syntax of human categorization of the natural world, and has had tremendous significance in philosophy of the Western tradition. Wittgenstein’s contribution is magnificent in that he observed the similarities among categories and put them as the defining elements for the categorical members and termed it family resemblance; by which, a form of continuously overlapping criss-crossing network, which he glossed as fuzzy boundaries, is realized; of which, all categories are equal members and various categories are related with each other in a linear ordered contingent form; at which, the sharing of the categorical properties are only possible at the fuzzy edges of immediate adjacency; from which, all categories are chained with each other in unbreakable fashion; within which, one could easily predict a uniform distribution of all members of the category along the categorical space. Wittgensteinian therefore updated Aristotelian theory in the Western sphere. By the utilization of Wittgensteinian contingent categorical theory to analyze the cognitive categorization of the natural world reflected in the system of Chinese semantic radicals, serious problems left by the utilization of the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization to the same script instances can be solved. This includes the recognition of family resemblance of different semantic radicals; the realization of new scripts at the fuzzy boundary through partial overlapping of two different semantic radical categories in immediate adjacency; the least mechanical relevance of the behavioral patterns of the Chinese semantic radicals through equal membership and definite linear ordering; and the ability of dividing two different scripts into two categories based on the cognitive categorization and conceptualization beneath the surface even when the two scripts take the same semantic radicals on the surface. However meritorious, the Wittgensteinian contingent categorization really can not properly explain various phenomena revealed in the behavioral patterns of Chinese semantic radicals from more script instances. In facing the Chinese semantic radical system, his philosophical principles which have great benefits over Aristotle in turn also become his huge deficits at the same time. As a matter of fact, there are many key problems which can not be solved by the Wittgensteinian contingent categorization when it is used to 61 interpret the structures of the Chinese scripts. These problems are mainly- revealed from Figure 7 and Figure 8. Particularly, the Wittgensteinian contingent categorical model can not explain the scripts which are formed by three or more cognitive categories which do not show any contingent relations along a linear ordering. With a conclusive outline, the questions which are vital to the Wittgensteinian contingent categorization are prepared with evidence as follows: [1] If the five scrip ts {7620}, {7616}, (8859}, {8867}, {NE} illustrated in Figure 7 were formed each by each at the fuzzy boundaries through a closely associated chain of categories from A to F in contingent fashion, such a contingent model should be vindicated, but how can the other four scrip ts {7627}, {7603}, {5786}, {5783}, illustrated in Figure 8, possibly be formed by this theoretical model? [2] If the membership of all categories are equal members within a uniform distribution along the categorical space, how can the scripts {7627} and {5786}, {7603} and {5783}, illustrated in Figure 8, of which each pair shares the same one semantic radical with its categorical properties, but located at unrelated categories, possibly be chained with each other in such a contingent relation in linear ordering? [3] If the sharing of the categorical properties are only at the fuzzy boundaries of immediate adjacent categories, how can the forming of the scrip ts {7627} and {5786}, {7603} and {5783} in unrelated categories as illustrated in Figure 8 be explained? [4] If the contingent relation of all categories is in an unbreakable fashion, how can the other semantic radicals which share the categorical properties with the categories A to F in Figure 7 and 8, but which were formed by even simpler semantic radicals through level-ordered operations, be inserted into this linear ordered contingent chain with layered, non linear ordered operations without producing unexpected or wrong semantic radicals and scripts which never existed in the Chinese writing system from Chinese cognitive conceptualization? Evidence shows that Wittgensteinian contingent categorization failed one after another to answer any of these questions. The research on the cognitive structures, categorical formations, and development of the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts therefore must move to another direction beyond the scopes of discrete categorization as well as contingent categorization. The Chinese thought and cognitive categorization of the natural world reflected in the creation and utilization of the semantic radicals in writing system as best analyzed, concluded, and presented by Xu Shen can not be elucidated within the theoretical or ideological frames set up by either the Aristotelian discrete categorization of Greek antiquity or the non- Aristotelian theory of Wittgensteinian contingent categorization set up in the modern West. 62 2.3 American Prototype Theory One of the major problems in the Wittgensteinian contingent categorical theory is the notion of equal membership within a category and equal membership of all categories. This notion is the basis for continuous overlapping of all categories in a linear ordering. It limits any categorical associations only in such a contingent fashion and, finally made Wittgensteinian categorical theory become inadequate for the interpretation of human categorization in general as well as in the behavioral patterns of the semantic radicals of the Chinese writing system which reflected Chinese cognitive categorization in particular. Three decades before Wittgenstein, one of the founders of Gestalt psychology, Kurt Koffka, presented many facts and theories concerning perceptual organization considered from a Gestalt point of view.^ He initiated an important psychological research area in the study of human perceptual organization. He especially noticed change in the cognitive boundaries of reversible figures, which he defined as stimulus-patterns, that give rise to a spontaneous oscillation between two or more alternative perceptual organizations having fairly equal likelihood.^ Koffka’s theory was further developed and enriched by other Gestalt psychologists of the time W. D. Ellis, W. Metzger,^ F. H. Allport,® and their academic generations, and has become a permanent chapter of modern psychology. According to this theory, changes in perceptual organization may occur spontaneously without actual change in the physical stimulus-pattern such as in reversible figures.® The experimental researches of these Gestalt psychologists should have been noticed and adopted by both Wittgenstein’s followers and critics, prewar or postwar structuralists, and generative linguists, because the theory and results of these psychological testings and measurements had had close relations with the philosophy of human cognitive categorization and the mechanics of fuzzy boundaries between or among objects with similar attributes, which later were termed family resemblance. In fact, long before Wittgenstein, Gestalt psychologists asserted a clear theory with constantly repeatable psychological measurements which were in opposition to the Aristotelian theory of discrete categorization, as it was later criticized by many others with the leading philosophical torch from Wittgenstein.^ However valuable, Wittgenstein, his followers and counterparts, structuralists and generative linguists, neither valued adequately Gestalt psychology nor analyzed their arguments directly from the theories addressed repeatedly by the Gestalt psychologists decades ago. This might be a likely reason that the Wittgenstein’s theory of contingent categorization has not been developed further than it has. Due to its constant outmoded fashion, the contingent categorical model had to stop its movement and being replaced by a new theory. Between 1927 to 1934, Koffka, Wertheimer, and Kohler all immigrated to the United States where their ideas were discussed and strongly opposed 63 by the American traditions of operationalism and neobehaviorism, which discouraged research into sensation and perception but channeled it into behaviorist and quasi-empiricist orientations.® Nevertheless, these Gestalt psychologists influenced American psychologists to form a perception theory known as the third new direction,® and had an indirect impact on the training of most influential modern American psychologists of the twentieth century such as James J. Gibson,^® and preserved an undercurrent of research interest in perception and cognition.^^ More importantly, in tracing the resources of scientific thinking, although not indicated elsewhere. Gestalt psychology to a great extent entails modern American prototype theory for a better interpretation of human cognitive categorization of the natural world. But it was not until during the time between the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s that a series of significant theoretical breakthroughs in line with Gestalt psychology were evoked by a group of important American cognitive scientists across psychology, anthropology, archaeology and linguistics, to bring about the birth of American prototype theory for a better interpretation of human cognitive categorization beyond the theoretical domains of Aristotle and Wittgenstein. Again however, the fundamentals of the research on prototype theory started from psychological research in human cognition, especially concerning colors and color terms. The bases of classical research on colors can be traced to the experiments done by two important psychologists of the nineteen century. The experiments carried out by German psychologist Hermann L. F. von Helmholtz in 1852 and by British psychologist Clerk James Maxwell in 1855. In 1852 Helmholtz took his tentative step into the confused field of color vision, light perception, and color mixing, and publicly criticized Brewster’s anti-Newtonian triple spectrum theory of light.^ Clerk Maxwell conducted experiments on color vision from 1849, and published his research in 1855, where he went far beyond Helmholtz in demonstrating actual experimental techniques for mixing and matching primary colors and determining the position of mixed colors on the color plane. ® The results of this classical research on colors revealed that color perception begins in the retina. Twentieth century psychologists further proved that the color processing may also be beyond the retina.^® As one of the moves against structuralism in the twentieth century, linguist-anthropologists Berlin and Kay carried out investigations in the San Francisco region in what they called basic color terms for the interpretation of human categorization. By conducting research without respect to existing academic boundaries, Berlin and Kay were able to publish at the intersection of cultural anthropology, psychology and linguistics on basic color terms in 1969.^® On the basis of their analysis, Berlin and Kay made two claims. The first is the notion of "focal colors" which concerns the tracing of the boundaries of the color terms and the appearance and disappearance of the cross-language variability. The results show that two color samples might well be categorized as the same by speakers of one language, but as different by speakers of another. The second is the notion of common 64 inventory and the special ordering of the "focal colors" among ninety-eight investigated languages, which is believed to be as follows: black, white, red, yellow, green, the other member of the pair yellow and green, blue, brown, grey, orange, purple, and pink, and the generalization of the common inventory and the special ordering of the "focal colors" may be expressed in the form of an implicational hierarchy in which the possession of the color terms can be predicted by the position of the focal colors/^ The research published by Berlin and Kay aroused great research interest into color terminology,^® and large scale modifications of the implicational hierarchy were done afterwards. ® The significance of the research on color terminology, as many believed, introduced a factor of human perception, which the structuralists in both anthropology and linguistics had absolutely ignored. Traditionally, the structuralists believed and mistakenly assured that in color terms that there is merely a diffuse continuum.^ However, more importantly, Berlin and Kay realized that there is a "focal" point in human perceptual base of colors, and change of the categorical boundaries of color categories have much to do with this focal point. This is an important factor that the Gestalt psychologists particularly emphasized for the interpretation of human perception and categorization, and also is the starting point for the syntax of prototype theory. The most important research in this line was still achieved by psychologists. Since 1971, the cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch Heider (same as Eleanor Rosch since 1973, Rosch hereafter) has highly published a series of extremely important masterpieces on both the experimental and theoretical analysis of human natural categories, laying the corner stone of psychological bases of modern American prototype theory. Eleanor Rosch made two important claims which have become the fundamentals of prototype theory, and have validated this theory as a solid scientific psychological notion. Eleanor Rosch’s first claim is known as prototypicality in natural categories. In 1972, Rosch reported four important experiments which both confirmed and developed some of Berlin and Kay’s claims. The first experiment tested the stability of focal colors across languages; the second investigated some of the behavioral correlates of color focality; the third was a short-term memory task; the fourth tested long-term color memory in a paused-association learning task.^^ According to Rosch’s reports, color categories have a center and a periphery. The categorical status of the members of colors within one color category are not identical. The color terms only denote the focal color which may instantiate the full denotational range through "generalization from focal exemplars.The color is "a prime example of the influence of underlying perceptual- cognitive factors on the formation and reference of linguistic categories"^® due to the primacy of focal reference. From these reports, Rosch first presented a notion of prototypicality in which she defined natural categories (Rosch’s definition of natural category is "concepts designatable by words in natural languages"^^). Rosch’s subsequent research indicated that many other natural categories 65 which are opposed to the artificial categories (which e.g. in Rosch’s words, "configurations of dots or sequences of letters and numbers frequently used by psychologists in studies of learning and concept formation, like categories of furniture and birds''^®), are structured in a similar way. The second claim made by Eleanor Rosch is known as prototype effect of categorical membership. According to Rosch, similar kinds of prototype effects showed up on investigated categories, and they are insensitive to the distinction between natural kind categories and nominal kind categories. The degree of categorical membership therefore can be established on the bases of this assumption. In addition, Rosch also indicated that the degree of membership also interacts with the effect of priming. There exists also the correlation between degree of category membership, and the frequency and order among the categorical members. Rosch’s reports were statistically in order and highly reliable. She showed that very high degree of agreement among membership in a certain category, far from being meaningless, is in fact a psychological realization. In addition, in relation to the notion of prototype effect, Rosch also indicated that prototypes act as "cognitive reference points"^® to form the basis for human inferences and logical reasoning,therefore, categorical structure plays a part in the conceptual structure, and human cognition has much to do with these structures. For the interpretation of the notion of prototypicality and prototype effects against overly simplistic interpretations, Eleanor Rosch provided the following explicit admonitions in minimal theorizing concern.^® She wrote: The pervasiveness of prototypes in real-world categories and of prototypicality as a variable indicates that prototypes must have some place in psychological theories of representation, processing, and learning. However, prototypes themselves do not constitute any particular model of processes, representations, or learning. This point is so often misunderstood that it requires discussion: 1. To speak of a prototype at all is simply a convenient grammatical fiction; what is really referred to are judgments of degree of prototypicality...For natural language categories, to speak of a single entity that is the prototype is either a gross misunderstanding of the empirical data or a covert theory of mental representation. 2. Prototypes do not constitute any particular processing model for categories...What facts about prototypicality do contribute to processing notions is a constraint-processing models should not be inconsistent with the known facts about prototypes. For example, a model should not be such as to predict equal verification times for good and bad examples of categories nor predict completely random search through a category. 66 3. Prototypes do not constitute a theory of representation for categories,..Prototypes can be represented either by prepositional or image systems...As with processing models, the facts about prototypes can only constrain, but do not determine, models of representation. A representation of categorizing terms of conjoined necessary and sufficient attributes alone would probably be incapable of handling all of the presently known facts, but there are many representations other than necessary and sufficient attributes that are possible. 4. Although prototypes must be learned, they do not constitute any particular theory of category learning. (Eleanor Rosch 1978: 40-41) As one of the important contributors who cooperated with Eleanor Rosch, psychologist A. Tversky studied the features of similarity in relation with the prototype effect with highly sophisticated resolution in 1977. Tversky established an attribute model of similarity. This model computes the similarity of two entities on the basis of the number of attributes they share or not share. The attributes are weighted differently according to their perceptual salience. Although the attributes are cognitively complex, the prototype effects can be computed with a numerical value of similarity with the prototype representation in Tversky’s model. For an entity to achieve membership in a category, this entity should exceed a certain threshold value specified for that category. If the value is above the threshold of the category, this entity may have been increasing its degree of membership in the category. Eleanor Rosch’s creative psychological analysis on the prototype theory not only has great impact on the field of psychology, but also greatly influenced the thinking of interpretation of human categorizations in the field of philosophy, as well as in other fundamental academic fields particularly of linguistics, sociology, and anthropological archaeology. Since 1973, sociolinguist William Labov has published some field-reports from his investigation teams which carried out very interesting experiments of linguistic categorizations of household receptacles for boundaries of words and their meanings.^® Labov pointed out that among the New Yorkers whom he tested, there was no clear-cut dividing line between category of cup and category of bowl, but one category merges gradually into the other or vice versa.Hence, the notion of high degree of categorical memberships and fuzzy boundaries between members and among the categories was confirmed. In 1981, anthropological archaeologist Willett Kemp ton studied cognitive prototypes of folk classifications of ceramic vessels in rural varieties of Mexican Spanish.It was found that the list of criteria can not define any category of these ceramic vessels; there was rather a prototype representation of a vessel of a specific shape with specific characteristics 67 fulfilling certain functions. Each was also related to non-prototypical instances, and the boundaries between categories were fuzzy in the extreme.^ This significant research provided interesting supporting evidence from the fields of archaeology for the psychological notion of prototype theory for better interpretation of human cognitive categorization. In the fightings with almost all Western schools in this small bloody world, at least four contemporary linguists proposed their representative views theorizing the framework of the prototype theory for a better understanding of human cognition in relation with human language structures. The significance of these four views lay in the fact that in the Western sphere, they represent a new perspective. This school of American prototype theory yields a fundamental departure from the previous three stages of continuous development of Western linguistic tradition. These three stages are remembered as follows: the First World War Ferdinand de Saussure, father of modern linguistics, who stands still that grammar of human language is essentially arbitrary and symbolic;the Second World War structuralists Bloomfield, Harris, Hockett, who state firm that linguistic aneilysis should be focused on the structural abstraction and algebraic properties of the natural language;^® and the Cold War generative transformationalist Chomsky who based deeply on medieval French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650), at a time ignored modern cognitive psychological achievements, and ascertained absolutely that "our interpretation of the world is based in part of the representational systems that derive from the structure of the mind itself and do not mirror in any direction the form of things in the external world".The fundamental departure from these three consecutive stages and the striking proposals for new models formulated on the basis of the American prototype theory started before the end of the Cold War and beginning of the New World Order. George Lakkoff’s view on the prototype theory is characterized by the emphasis on the categorical imagination and imagining ability. According to Lakoff’s analysis of some languages, the degree of category membership in a language are the words and expressions that Lakoff has called hedges,such as a highly heterogeneous group including sentence adjuncts like "loosely speaking" and "strictly speaking", conjunctions like "in that", modifiers like "so-called", etc. Hedges require us to distinguish between central and peripheral members of a category (parexcellence, strictly speaking), as well as between different degrees of nonmembership in a category (strictly speaking). They show that category boundaries are flexible (loosely speaking), and that categories can be redefined by selections of attributes (in that). Hedges then both confirm and complement the psycholinguistic evidence.^® According to Lakkoff, the prototype theory can be characterized by using cognitive models of four types as follows: [1] PropositionaJ Models. These are taxonomic models which specifies elements, their properties, and relations holding among them. [2] Image-schematic Models. These are schematic images. [3] Metaphoric Models. These are mapping from a propositional or image-schematic model in one domain to a corresponding 68 structure in another domain. [4] Metonymic Models. These are models of one or more of the above types, together with a function from one element of the model to another.Lakoff’s view on the properties of the prototype model also includes useful details such as the concepts of "social stereotypes", "ideals", "paragons", "generators", "centrality", "chaining", "fuzziness" etc. that are needed by the interpretation of his points. T. Givon’s view on the prototype theory is clearly emphasized the categorical intersections and categorical gradations. According to Givon, the shaded area in Figure 9 represents members which display all four characteristic properties. They are the most typical members of the category known as prototype.^ This may be represented in a clustering intersection diagram as shown in Figure 9.^^ Givon’s interpretation of the prototype model illustrated above indicates that the most typical members of the prototype are in the area where four different categories A, B, C, D intersect. However, the area where three categories, i.e. categories A, B, G, or categories A, B, D, or Categories B, C, D or categories A, D, C etc. are also considerably typical, at least, they are more typical than those categorical intersections which consist of only one or two categories. Further, according to Givon, since the prototype member also possesses the important characteristic properties, the categorical continuum can thus be characterized by two distinct gradations: (a) All properties are weighted in terms of their importance; and (b) All members of a category are ranked in terms of the number of characteristic properties they possess.^^ In contrast with the other two categorical models that have been discussed so far, the categorical distribution of the prototype model would predict a prototype clustering distribution around the prototype mean, whereby the majority of the membership can be found within a reasonable and well defined distance. This distribution can be illustrated in Figure 10.^^ The contrast between Givon and Lakkoff is not crucial. They are nothing more than different emphases. Givon stresses the graded character and intersect ability of prototype categorizations;^® Lakoff favors the imaginative features and imaging ability, but clearly is not interested in the computability property which might be an important part of the prototype theory. It seems that each of these two linguists theorized something that captured some but not all aspects of the theory in question. The third view on the prototype model, a compromise of the above two, is expressed by M. Posner in 1986. According to Posner, the prototype model has at least five features as follows: [1] The prototype is concrete in that it arose from sensory experience. [2] The prototype can be imagined. It should be no difficulties for human to perceive or imagine the prototype as it was composed by the attributes. [3] The prototype is the representative of the category. It shares all features with all other members of the category. [4] In prototype model, the members in gradation within a category could be either close to the prototype or far from it. [5] The proto^pe is computable. The computation can be precise as well as statistical. ® 69 X A Figure 9. Givon’s Prototype Model*’ B X of numbers within sub- segments of the category space Categorical Space Prototype mean for Prototype mean for members of Category A members of Category B Figure 10. Givon’s Prototype Categorical Distribution*® 70 Ronald Langacker expressed the fourth view on the prototype theory and clearly favored the Gestalt psychological notion of configurate cognitive structures and the notion of part and whole. He also favored Rosch’s psychological notion of mental representation of prototype constituents. Langacker expressed his understanding of hierarchically graded schematic representation of memberships within internal structures of a category.^^ Langacker’s model on the prototype theory can be briefly summarized as follows: [1] Complex concepts can not be simply reduced into binary primitives, complex cognitive structures can not be represented by the component parts either; [2] Cognitive structures should be understood as Gestalt configurations; i.e. the whole might well be perceptually and cognitively simpler than any of its individual parts, such that the parts are understood in terms of the whole, but not vice versa, such a view is from Rosch’s characterization of the basic level;®” [3] The mental representation of a prototype constituent should be stressed as a certain boundary which ensures that all members of a category share common attributes, beyond such a boundary certain members of other categories cannot be associated; [4] A prototype is a typical instance of a category, and other elements are assimilated to the category on the basis of their perceived resemblance to the prototype; i.e. there are degrees of membership based on degrees of similarity;®^ and [5] A schema is an abstract characterization fully compatible with all the members of the category it defines, and it is an integrated categorical structure, schemas may be hierarchically organized within a category, in conjunction with extension from prototypes.®^ Langacker’s views on the prototype theory suggest that categorization by prototype occurs developmentally prior to categorization by schema. In general, we can only understand the meaning of a linguistic form in the context of other cognitive structures; whether these other cognitive structures happen to be lexicalized in the language is in principle irrelevant. In principle, any conceptualization or knowledge configuration, no matter how simple or complex, can serve as the cognitive domain for the characterization of meanings. Morphological and syntactic categories also need to be understood against the relevant domain.®® The latest theorizing on the prototype theory is seen in the work provided by J. Taylor whose work discussed all up-to-date linguistic evidence and concepts regarding the construction of a prototype theory for a better interpretation of language structures from phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.®^ To be sure, although some linguists have devoted considerable effort to establishing prototype categorization as a theory since the 1980s, the theorizing has yet to be completed for such a system. At the present stage, near the end of the century, modern American prototype theory has yet to be finally shaped. The discoveries of prototype categorization in psychology, anthropological archaeology, and linguistic investigations are only regarded as essential components of scientific advance. The prototype theory at the present stage is nothing more than some new concepts or a 71 {8742} kui [471] [346] chong ( g u i ( % ) {8867} wang (4^) [279] wang (1^ ) {NB} wang ( j ^ ) Figure 11. Modern American Prototype Model for Analyzing Structures of Chinese Scripts and Semantic Radicals "Insect Category", "Ghost Category", "Fishnet Category" with Scripts {8742}, {8867}, {NE} new way of looking. How humans categorize the natural world from their cognitive structures is, and will be a question for long time to come. However, the contribution made by new concepts or by the more or less radical transformation of old concepts is equally and often more important than facts and their discovery.® In fact, the progress of scientific research consists principally in the progress of scientific concepts. The development of a new concept of prototype theory on human categorization in the West, although incomplete and not yet systematic, still has some interesting energy, and may provide some possibilities for the understanding of the cognitive bases of mental behavioral patterns reflected in the creation, utilization, and categorization of the Chinese semantic radical system set up by Xu Shen of the first century. 72 Assuming modern American prototype theory is appreciated in the analysis of the semantic radicals in Chinese scripts, this theory should be able to solve the remaining problems which can not be properly solved by either the Platonic-Aristotelian discrete category model or the Wittgensteinian contingent category model. Figure 11 illustrates how the problems left by the discrete category in Figure 3 are viewed by the prototype model. It shows how the three semantic radicals and three scripts in one set-inclusion are viewed by the prototype theory. First of all, the criteria property which determines the categorical membership is an equal category. These three equal categories represent three semantic radicals [471] chong ( ^ ) Unlike Aristotelian discrete categorizations, these three semantic radicals are independent categories which have their distinctive semantic properties, while they are also related with each other sharing certain common attributes. Despite the similarities with Wittgensteinian contingent categorization in terms of categorical intersection, these three semantic radicals in the prototype categorization shown in Figure 11 represent completely different ways of intersecting in a non-linear fashion and by non-uniform distributions. In comparison with the original commentaries for the etymologies of these three semantic radicals and the motivations for shaping these three semantic radicals, the set-inclusion shown in Figure 11 represents the correct description, matching the guide provided by Xu Shen of the first century.®^ Secondly, in the overlapping area where the semantic radical [471] chong ( ^ ) Different from Aristotelian discrete categorization, which has to separate the script {NE} wang ( ) 73 categorization, prototype categorization allows the family resemblance to be in a non-linear fashion, and locates the two scripts on the fuzzy-edged boundaries of the areas where categories intersect. More importantly, to compare the first century Chinese records for the original etymologies and motivation of shaping the two scripts {8867} wang ) Thirdly, different from both Aristotelian discrete categorization and the Wittgensteinian contingent category model, prototype categorization, shown in Figure 11, predicts that there is a possible script-should-be theoretically located in the fuzzy boundary where the two semantic radicals [471] chong ( ^ ) The categorical intersection of the two semantic radicals seems to suggest that pupa was understood as a kind of object which belongs to Insect Category on one hand, and belongs to Ghost Category of the nether world on the other hand. Evidence indicates that this script was only formed after ca 200 BC on the basis of the understanding of the Chinese taxonomy for the entomology, reflecting the Chinese cognition of this particular biology at that time. The script {8742} kui (1^% ) At this point, it is necessary to indicate that the ancient Chinese believed that the insects have certain relations with the spirits. Hence, the cognitive categorization shown from the intersection of the semantic radicals also revealed such relations. As a matter of fact, at least start from the Shang Phase IV-V (ca 1143BC-1100BC), cicada became on of the divine symbols appearing on cast bronze vessels in different images. Hence, the cognitive categorization also revealed such relations on artifacts. Neolithic Chinese inhabitants believed that the cicada was transformed from pupa which usually takes the static status as if it was dead. The transformation from pupa into cicada was believed as a process of rebirth. The cicada, as a type of insect, therefore became one of the divine symbols for aristocratic utilization, entertainment, and worship. The connection between the Insect Category and Ghost Category (spirit of the dead] was established on the cognitive basis. Plate V illustrates a precious early bronze vessel with cast patterns of the insect genus cicada for further evidence from archaeology. From Figure 11, there is an area where three semantic radicals intersect. Theoretically there should be another possible script to be produced. Although it is a possibility, such a script never existed in the 74 Plate V. A Cast Bronze Vessel Zun by Gold and Silver Inlay and Lost-Wax Technology Depicted Divine Symbol Cicada Signifying the Process of Rebirth from Pupa and Cognitive Relations Between Insect and Ghost Categories. Approximately Cast during the Warring States Period (ca 475BC-221BC). Unrecorded. Unpublished. Height: 21cm; Diameter: 15cm. Previously Property of A Fine American Collection. Property of the Tang China Foundation 1992. This is a rare piece of archaeological evidence for the interpretation of many important issues regarding early Chinese bronze technology, Chinese thought, and social life of the Warring States Period. Of slender form with a ball-like main body in the middle, this vessel was supported on a spreading foot with a band of divine symbols cast by lost-wax technology, and surmounted by a widely flared trumpet neck. Along with three taotie masks in gold and silver inlay on the main body, and three dragons welded on the shoulder as scroll handles, three cicadas in gold and silver inlay, representing the divine symbols of rebirth from pupa, were cast on three pieces of broad canna leafs cast on the spout, signifying clean and life. 75 Chinese writing system. This area in Figure 11 is treated as a black box for possible future production. In fact, there are plenty of instances in Chinese scripts that were the result of three or even more categorical intersections of the semantic radicals. Taking one instance, we will see how ancient Chinese carried out detailed categorical intersections to compose a script as well as a semantic radical, and why such scripts or semantic radicals did reflect the true behavioral patterns of Chinese cognitive categorizations of the natural world. Figure 12 shows an interesting instance for a situation of this kind. Figure 12 shows that the script {9386} shu {9386} shu [320] qian ( K ) \ [224] ahu ( ^ ) [490] jin ( ^ ) Figure 12. Prototype Model for Triple Categorical Intersection to Compose a Chinese Script {9386} 76 The original commentary from Xu Shen ^ r the script {9386} shu (sharpness of metals> is as follows: "Shu sharpness of the metals. The semantic radical is [490] jin ( ^ ) (metal of five colors, one of the five elements corresponding to the West direction>; the phonetic radical is a script {5534} shun ( ) (to suck>. • JUX.. " It seems that Xu Shen’s commentary on the structure of this script goes beyond the semantic properties which the script is indicated to have. However, the original etymology of the script {9386} shu ) (sharpness of metals>, according to another ancient paleographic book Yu Pian %] by Gu Ye Wang (AD 519-581. Original version: AD 543, Liang Wu Di Da Tong Jiu Nian % -K ii, ^ ; Enlarged version: AD 674, Tang Gao Zong Shang Yuan Yuan Nian ^ 1: J: vised version; AD. 1013, Song Zhen Zong Da Zhong Xiang Fu Liu Nian ), contains another semantic property, "the metals absorb to become rusty This explains why the paleographic structures of the script {9386} shu ( ) (sharpness of metals> has close relations with the semantic radical [490] jin ( ) (metal of five colors, one of the five elements corresponding to the West direction) and the script {5534} shun ) Ancient Chinese chemistry had discovered that the rust of metals resulted from the contact and absorption of the air by the metals. In modern chemical science, this process is known as oxidation. The cognitive categorization of the script {9386} shu ( 'fpO (sharpness of metals vs. the metals absorb to become rusty) was formed strictly according to this ancient Chinese knowledge in chemistry. However, the script {5534} shun ( ) (to suck) which was used to compose the script in question {9386} shu (sharpness of metals vs. the metals absorb to become rusty) is yet a most minimum element. It can be decomposed further in both its structure and semantic properties. On the second level-ordering, the decomposition of the script {5534} shun ( ) In Figure 12, these two semantic categories are intersected to form the script {5534} shun ( ) 77 become rusty> on the second level, showing the invisible process of metal’s absorbing of the air to become rusty. The operations for forming the structure and semantic properties of the script in question as shown in Figure 12 are clearly a triple categorical intersection with all of the semantic contents participating in it. Finally, the prototype categorical model may also solve the problems left by the Wittgensteinian contingent categorical model shown in Figure 8. The categorical intersection realized by the prototype model is not in linear order but multilineal orders. Problems revealed in Figure 8 therefore can be solved in Figure 13 where five Chinese semantic radicals are intersected with each other, and four scripts are produced through this operation of multilineal intersection. The semantic radicals which participated in this operation are [424] yu ( ) From Figure 13, the firs t intersection of the semantic radicals [424] yu ( ) As a multilineal operation, the second categorical intersection of the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) Figure 13 also shows the third categorical intersection such that the script {6310} ba ( •^' ) Cthe state of walking dog) which participates in the categorical intersection to form the script {7627} ba ( ) 78 [424] yu ( ) i7627} ba ( M ' ) / [346] gui( %k) % P% AK / {7603} bo (3Ü?) '{5786} ba ( ) {5783} po (%%L) - [446] pie ( / ) [284] bai ( ^ [377] quan ( < ) Figure 13. Prototype Model for Categorical Intersections of Fish Category, Ghost Category, Spacial Category, Color Category, Dog Category, and Scripts {7627}, {7603}, {5786}, {5783} 79 intersected with other semantic radicals for forming new script. The fourth categorical intersection is the intersection of the semantic radical [346] ( % ) The fifth categorical intersection shown in Figure 13 is where the semantic radical [346] ( ) (ghost> also intersects with the semantic radical [284] bai ( fel ) (white color, color of the West direction) to form the script {5783} po ( ) (Yin Spirit) at the fuzzy edge of the two categories. The script {5783} po (6^ ) (Yin Spirit) acquired both semantic properties from the two categories through this intersection. The ancient Chinese records showed that the script {5783} po ( 6%) (Yin spirit) means Yin shen [Yin spirit/god] and was ideologically categorized into the Ghost Category.® The records also show that the script {5783} po (è%) (Yin spirit) also has something to do with the color of white because the Yin spirit relates to the white color according to Chinese cosmological philosophy.®® Through the above five categorical intersections with multilineal operations. Figure 13 shows that the prototype categorization is able to solve the unsolved problems left by both the Aristotelian discrete categorical theory and Wittgensteinian contingent categorical model. A semantic category forms a part of the categorical properties of a script, and at the same time, it also belongs to some other scripts. At the intersected areas, one or more scripts are produced in family resemblance with fuzzy semantics. The combined five operations in a non-linear fashion shown in Figure 13 proved to be adequate. After making debates and arguments for many centuries, the prototype theory formulated by the Western scholarship of more than one academic field at the present time has begun to be closer to giving a relatively proper interpretation of human cognitive categorization as well as an interpretation of the cognitive patterns of the semantic radicals reflecting Chinese cognitive categories. What Figure 13 does not show is that there are at least two semantic radicals which can be further decomposed. One of the semantic radicals in Figure 13, [284] bai ( é? ) (White color, the color of the West direction) is the result of the categorical intersection of the two other semantic radicals [184] ru ( /\ ) (to go from outside to inside, to enter, to insert) and the semantic radical [479] er ( ■^^ ) (two, number of the Earth, number of Yin and relates to the color of white). Both these two semantic radicals in Chinese cosmology have close relation with the Yin affairs and the color of white. The other semantic radical [346] gui ( %» ) (ghost) is the result of 80 categorical intersections of three semantic radicals [311] ren { ) The similar situation is also shown in the forming of some other semantic radicals exemplified earlier. It is important to indicate that Figure 13 does not show some further significant phenomenons concerning the internal structures of a prototype semantic radical category; that is, whether or not it is also an analytical unit, how a prototype semantic radical category is composed, and to what extent it is a form which can not be further divided in either semantic content or physical structure. At the same time, Figure 13 does not show the exact operations of the categorical intersections either. For instance, when the two semantic radical [424] yu ( ,'l^v ) Such a relational system is important to the analysis of the cognitive structures and categorizations of the semantic radicals and to the analysis of Chinese categorization of the natural world. These important gaps in theory raise a series of questions on a range of issues related to behavioral patterns of Chinese semantic radicals. To answer these questions, the current prototype theory represented by Figure 13 apparently becomes insufficient. Viewed from these two angles, modern American prototype theory, although good enough to solve the problems left by Aristotelian discrete categorization and Wittgensteinian contingent category, remains as a general idea that only brings us closer to a proper interpretation of human cognitive categorization. The theory should be architecturally restructured and operationally re-explored in further detail before it can be used to explore the behavioral patterns of the Chinese semantic radical system set up by Xu Shen (AD 58-147) in the first century, whose system reflects Chinese conceptualization and cognitive categorizations of the given environment via the natural world. 81 CHAPTER 3 PRINCIPLES The analysis of all choices so far achieved by monumental scholars from different cultural backgrounds including Aristotelian Greek antiquity, Wittgensteinian modern philosophy, and American prototype theory has proved that in order to give proper interpretation to the behavioral patterns of the Chinese semantic radicals system set up by Xu Shen at the first century, the only possible theory that comes close is contemporary American prototype theory, which claims itself to be the best theory so far in the Western tradition for the interpretation of human cognitive categorization of the natural world. From the analysis of current American prototype theory and different models formulated by a range of American scholars of different academic backgrounds, it is clear that in order to explore the Chinese semantic radical system from the perspective of prototype theory, all of the models are only referential to the analysis, none of the available models is applicable as a direct working hypothesis. A new theoretical model with a set of plausible principles is therefore considered as a necessity. For the analysis of Chinese cognitive categorizations reflected in the creation and utilization of the semantic radicals seen in Xu Shen’s monumental work Shuo Wen Jie Zi (ca AD 100), the following six principles are formulated on the basis of analyzing the true legacy from Xu Shen. The six principles used to construct this working theoretical model are as follows: [1] categorical centralities; [2] legitimate intersections; [3] distinct gradations; [4] fuzzy boundaries; [5] flexible imaginations; [6] chaining linkages. These six principles are regarded in this study as the basic principles that coherently structure a mosaic system from which Chinese conceptualization and cognitive categorization of the world reflected in the 82 behavioral patterns of the semantic radical system can be traced, reconstructed, and better understood. In view of the feasibility, this study will present the research results of the first five principles. The traditional Chinese theory known as Liu Shu [The Six Principles of Writing] which was developed by Xu Shen (AD 58-147) as a formal paleographic theory in the first century and was arranged in the order of: Zhi Shi [Indicative]; Xiang Xing [Pictographic]; Hui Yi [Joined Semantics]; Xing Sheng [Semantic- Phonetic]; Zhuan Zhu [Shift-Install]; and Jia Jie [Mutual Loan]. Liu Shu is an unique theory in Chinese paleographic studies, and has been most influential. This theory was founded for the interpretation of the original etymology of Chinese graphs by anatomizing the structures of Chinese scripts each by each. With The Six Principles of Writing, the 540 semantic radical system was set up for the composing, decomposing, and recomposing of each of the 9,353 Lesser Seal Scripts used at the time. Along with The Six Principles of Writing, these 540 semantic radicals give the best and most logical interpretation of the structural compositions and semantic contents of all Chinese scripts in history. The six principles proposed in this study fully recognize and respect the traditional Chinese theory Liu Shu [The Six Principles of Writing]. In comparison with this traditional Chinese theory, the six principles proposed here are different in the following aspects: [1] They are developed for the purpose of analyzing the conceptualization and cognitive structures of the behavioral patterns of the semantic radical system; [2] They attempt to explore valuable but previously unknown aspects concerning the Chinese semantic radical system from six different perspectives; [3] They formulate Chinese cognitive categorization of the world which reflected in the creation and utilization of the semantic radicals in the writing system; [4] They reveal the interrelation of Chinese conceptualization resulted from the exploitation of the given environment; [5] They establish a plausible prototype model which may have even wider application and implication to the logical analysis of Chinese linguistic structures, psychological structures, mental processes, and many other aspects of Chinese culture; [6] They contribute to the prototype analysis of other cultural traditions as well as the theoretical generalization of the development of various cultures in the world. The six principles proposed here may also be used as principles for the deciphement of more than half of the yet to be interpreted Shang Oracle Bone S cripts (1750BC-1100BC) and Zhou Bronze S cripts (llOOBC- 83 221BC) which have every relation with the behavioral patterns and psychological structures of Chinese semantic radicals from Chinese conceptualization and Chinese thought that originated and developed in China, the longest continuous cultural tradition. 3.1 Categorical Centrality At least from the thirteenth century onwards, Xu Shen’s 540 semantic radical system was re-ordered and re-classified by some scholars into some general schematic categories based on the semantic contents of these semantic radicals provided by Xu Shen in the first century. These efforts were largely restricted by individual academic backgrounds and limitations in knowledge of these scholars at the time. The same situation was also seen in the analysis of a simplified version of 214 semantic radical system issued between 1710-1716. As the first known attempt toward the schematic categorization of the 540 semantic radicals, Dai Tong (?-?) of Southern Song Dynasty 'jp, (AD 1127-1279) re-ordered and re-classified all the 540 semantic radicals into nine major categories in his book entitled Liu Shu Gu '%'^K [The Six Principles of Writing] (Block-carved AD. 1320) as follows: [1] Shu [Art and Method]; [2] Tian Wen [Astronomy]; [3] Di Li [Geography]; [4] Ren A. [Human]; [5] Dong Wu [Animals]; [6] Zhi Wu % [Plants]; [7] Gong Shi i [Technology]; [8] Za [Encyclopedia]; [9] Yi [Doubts]. These nine major categories were further divided into 479 detailed subcategories for grouping all scripts in a new dictionary.^ In the present time, Zou Xiao Li tried to offer a new schematic categorization of the 540 semantic radical system. She re-ordered and re-classified all the 540 semantic radicals into seven general categories as follows: [1] Ren Ti [Human body]; [2] Qi Yong [Vessels]; [3] Dong Wu ^<0 [Animals]; [4] Zhi Wu [Plants]; [5] Zi Ran Jie [The Nature]; [6] Shu Zi [Number]; and [7] Gan Zhi [Heavenly Stem & Earthly Branch]. These seven main categories are further divided into twenty-three subcategories.^ Targeting to the later issued 214 radical system of the eighteenth century, B. K. Y. T’sou schematically re-ordered and re-classified these 214 radicals into four general categories as follows: [1] Nature; [2] Flora; [3] Fauna; and [4] Man. These four general categories for the 214 radical system were further divided into twenty-two subdivisions with seven more sub-sub-divisions and four overlapping memberships across all divisions and schematic segments.^ No matter what achievements may have been made for the re-ordering and re-classification of the 540 semantic radical system, the nature of the analyses along this line is that scholars believe that there are some ? general semantic categories which can be generalized from the 540 semantic 84 radical system. The experience and efforts toward such generalizations are valuable. However, in order to search for the categorical centralities from the 540 semantic radical system, it is necessary to view this system as a three dimensional architecture with integrated categorical structures rather than to view all 540 semantic radicals as being on the same level surface. If the research offers a schema, the motivation for the forming of such a schema should be given. The schematic research should not only based on the classification of the semantic contents of the radicals. Hence, a coherent processual interpretation of the hierarchical system, including its prototypicalities, and its instantiations to the full denotational range of prototypes to unidentical categorical members, perceptual cognitive factors, and cognitive anthropological bases should be made via interdisciplinary perspectives from updated theories and methods in the fields of classical Chinese paleography, linguistic semantics, cognitive psychology, and environmental anthropology, before any discoveries can be made. Originally, in the first century, Xu Shen abstracted 540 semantic radicals from the 9,353 scripts used at the time. These radicals were regarded by Xu Shen as the most basic script-parts which a certain amount of scripts have in common. The investigation from the present study shows that within the 540 semantic radical system, there are at least two kinds of structurally distinguishable script-parts representing a durai nature in terms of paleographic studies. One kind of the semantic radicals are those which are the most basic and most minimum forms in structure. This kind of semantic radicals can not be further abstracted into even minimum forms, and their semantic property usually can not be decomposed either. The other kind of semantic radicals are those which were structurally composed by more than one minimum form of semantic radical. This kind of semantic radical can be further decomposed into the most minimum forms of the semantic radicals, and their semantic contents usually entail more than one semantic property which can also be abstracted into the most minimum forms. Hence, within the 540 semantic radical system, the statuses of the members of the semantic radicals within such a system are not identical but are integrated and hierarchical. The important phenomenon revealed from the exemplified instances such as the semantic radical [284] bai ( ^ ) The semantic radical [284] bai ( Ü ) 85 intersection of the semantic radical [1] yi ( — ) Yet, the semantic radical [346] gui ( % ) It was from Xu Shen’s belief and understanding of the Chinese cultural tradition, and also from his analysis of the structures of Chinese scripts, that the semantic radicals [284] bai ( ) The investigation carried out by the present study of the well- recorded historical evidence shows that in the 540 semantic radical system, there are only a limited amount of semantic radicals that are the most minimum forms which can not be fu rth e r abstracted. These most minimum forms of semantic radicals are the base-stones and building bricks for the construction of the entire 540 semantic radical system by which all Chinese scripts are composed. If each of the composed semantic radical forms represents a semantic domain or a semantic category, each of the most minimum forms of the semantic radicals which structurally and semantically formed these composed semantic radicals should be viewed as the center in such a semantic domain, or semantic categorical center. Hence, categorical centralities in the integrated categorical structures schematize the hierarchically organized architectures of Chinese semantic radical system. Six questions follow from the above important point. These six related questions are essential to the exploration of the categorical centralities concerned. They are as follows: First, for the purpose of analyzing categorical centralities of the semantic radical system, we would like to know statistically how many semantic radicals within the 540 semantic radical system were actually composed by the other semantic radicals, and how many of them are actually the most basic and minimum forms which stand as categorical centralities whose structures and semantics no longer can be further abstracted. Second, for the purpose of analyzing the linguistic semantic categorization of the 540 semantic radical system, we would like to know what are the most likely semantic categorizes where these most minimum forms of semantic radicals should probably be located, and therefore, to find out the possible semantic locus of categorical centralities. 86 Third, for the purpose of analyzing the cognitive categorizations, where the semantic categories represented by the semantic radicals were originated, we would like to know, reflecting the psychological realities of the people to whom these semantic radicals possibly belong, what the most likely cognitive categories are, and whether or not the cognitive categories of the certain amount of the most minimum semantic radicals can cover the entire cognitive categories represented by both the minimum and composed semantic radicals in the 540 semantic radical system. Fourth, for the purpose of analyzing the Chinese conceptualization of the world, we would like to know, involving the behavioral patterns entailed in the exploitation of the environment, what the anthropological factors are, and how these factors affect the forming of the cognitive categories through psychological realities, how they affect the forming of the semantic categories as linguistic classification, and how they affect the forming of the most minimum forms of the semantic radicals as essential written marks for structuring the entire writing system. Fifth, for the purpose of analyzing the original paleographic forms of the semantic radicals, to observe the origined ways of conceptualization of the world revealed from written marks, we would like to know whether the most minimum forms of the semantic radicals which represent the semantic categorical centralities were actually the pictorial forms or the abstract forms. Sixth, for the purpose of analyzing the original types of linguistic semantic categories for the analysis of linguistic morphology and syntax as well as other linguistic levels, we would like to know, what the original grammatical categories (in terms of part of speech) are, where these semantic categorical centralities represented by the most minimum forms of semantic radicals most likely belong. Ample evidence is provided in Table 1 for the analysis of these questions. In this table, all the most minimum semantic radicals are listed according to their order in the 540 semantic radical system with their serial numbers. The paleographic differentiation between pictorial versus abstract form are indicated according to their structural origin. The modern readings and transcribed script forms, as well as the grammatical categories of these most minimum forms of semantic radicals are provided. The cognitive categories where these minimum semantic radicals might belong are proposed according to their original etymologies and modern taxonomical classifications based on our knowledge in the 1990s. These sixty-four cognitive categories are proposed on the basis of the linguistic semantic categories where these 154 minimum forms of semantic radicals belong. They may show deviations due to different knowledge structures and the academic backgrounds of individual scholars who proposed them. They are necessarily being proposed as a stage for the recognition process beyond reasonable doubt no matter how they might vary. These sixty-four cognitive categories of the Chinese semantic radicals are alphabetically listed with abbreviations herewith. 87 Fundamental classifications of all 154 minimum forms of semantic radicals will be schematized through these proposed cognitive categories by the analysis of conceptualization of the world from human exploitation of the given environment. In addition, the original etymologies, the paleographic concepts, and semantic properties of each of the minimum semantic radical forms are also presented based on Xu Shen’s original commentaries. ACV [Archive] HYD [Hydrology] AHR [Animal-Human] ICS [Ichthyosaur] AGR [Agriculture] IND [Industry] ANA [Anatomy] LAW [Law] ARC [Architecture] LDS [Land System] ART [Art] LGA [Logic-Analogy] AST [Astronomy] LIN [Linguistics] ATR [Astrology] MDC [Medicine] BHV [Behavior] MET [Meteorology] BIO [Biology] MIN [Mineralogy] BTN [Botany] MLT [Military] OHM [Chemistry] MSC [Music] CLR [Color Layer] MTR [Measurement] CNN [Cannibalism] MRL [Morality] COD [Code] MYH [Mythology] CRM [Criminology] NMT [Number-Math] CST [Costume] ORN [Ornithology] DPM [Diplomacy] PHS [Physics] EDU [Education] PHY [Physiology] ENT [Entomology] POL [Politics] ERB [Earthly Branch] PSY [Psychology] FHR [Flora-Human] RIT [Ritual] FLK [Folk Belief] RLG [Religion] FPD [Food Production] SBS [Subsistence] FVE [Five Elements] SOC [Social Organization] GLC [Geological Coordinate] SPA [Spacial Perception] GMT [Geometry] STL [Settlement] GOV [Government] TCH [Technology] HMN [Human] TPG [Topography] HRL [Human Relation] TRD [Trade] HTY [Humanity] TTR [ Tran sportation ] HVS [Heavenly Stem] ZLG [Zoology] Prom Table 1, there are 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals within the 540 semantic radical system. These semantic radicals are those which no longer can be abstracted structurally, and their semantic properties also basically can not be further decomposed, although some of them did have meaning extensions. There are 386 semantic radicals within the 540 semantic radical system not listed here. These 386 semantic radicals were actually all composed by the 154 most minimum forms, whose structures and semantic properties can be further decomposed into the most minimum forms. 88 Table 1. The 154 Most Minimum Forms of the Semantic Radicals Within the 540 Semantic Radical System as Semantic Categorical Centralities SW P Mdn Trs Pro Pro Original Etymologies (200 BC) Rdl V Rdg Spt Cgn Grm Paleographic Concepts (200 BC) Nos A Frm Frm Ctg Ctg Semantic Properties (200 BC) [001]A y i" — NMT Num One. At the beginning of the Great Summit, Tao established at one, dividing the Heaven and Earth, transform thousands things [008]A MET N Air and cloud in many ranked layers [010]A gun” 1 SPA Vi to go upward and downward [016]A b a " /V NMT Num Eight, number whereof. Vi to depart, to divide Yin and Yang infinitely, to depart from dominant Yang [017]P bian’^^ é LGA Vt to distinguish, to analogize according to animal prints [019JP niu*2 AHR Vt to be able to serve, to be able to arrange the plough of the fields. N Ox, big sacrificial animal also for portioned share in ritual ceremony [022JP kou^3 u PHY N1 Human mouth for speaking/eating food [023]A qian^^'a BHV Vi to open mouth [027JP zhi^^ it FHR N Low base [034]A c h i" BHV N Small walking steps 039]P y a " ff PHY N Molar [044]P c e " ACV N Official tally for orders which the Lord receives from the King [052]P jiu^^ SPA Vi to entangle with each other [060]P zhuo^':# BTN N Thickly grown floras with equal heights 89 Table 1. (Continuation) SW P Mdn Trs Pro Pro Original Etymologies (200 BC) Rdl V Rdg S p t Cgn Grm Paleographic Concepts (200 BC) Nos A Frm Frm Ctg Ctg Semantic Properties (200 BC) [112]P g u a " T ZLG N Sheep’s horns [121]P ban IND N Genre of basket with long handle for pushing 90 Table 1. (Continuation) SW P Mdn Trs Pro Pro Original Etymologies (200 BC) Rdl V Rdg S p t Cgn Grm Paleographic Concepts (200 BC) Nos A Frm Frm Ctg Ctg Semantic Properties (200 BC) [217]P chuf^ * BTN Vi Blossoms/leaves hang down from floras [226JA wei^2 n SPA Vi to turn, to circle [228]P bef* TRD N Cowrie, shellfish of certain type which lives in the sea and also on the land. T reasury/currency in 1750-221BC trade [237]P y u e^ n AST Vi to wane, the essence of g reat Yin N The Moon [2401P jiong^^ m ARC N Window on the wall with criss-cross frames where the light throws into the house [244]P han” BTN Vt Floral bud deeply contained before bloom [246]P tiao # BTN Adv Bunch-like hang-down of fruit clusters on branches of trees [251]A k e " TCH Vt to be able to shoulder a difficult task, to be capable in doing something unusual [2523P lu"" 4. ART Vt to carve and engrave the wood artfully with intricate patterns in inlay, and hollow-out fashions [259]P jiu " f j FPD N Mortar for pounding the husked grains for making kernels [260]A xiong"’ MRL A Evil [267]P g u a " Jk AGR N Genre of liana floras which grow vines and 91 Table 1. (C ontinuation) 51/ P Mdn Trs ?ro ?ro Original Etymologies (200 BC) Rdl V Rdg Spt Cgn Grm Paleographic Concepts (200 BC) Nos A Frm Frm Ctg Ctg Semantic Properties (200 BC) [311]? ren^^ L HMN N the Noblest of Heaven and Earth, man. (located as sub-structure) [325]? shou^^ 1 ?HY N Human head as chief [327]A mian^^ Æ ?SY Vt to cover own face as if not seeing and not being seen to avoid hurting objects [331]A shan ^ ART N Hair-like decorative patterns drawn by writing brushes [333]A wenT2 HTY N to draw artful criss cross patterns with blue /red colors indicate meaning of things [338]? jie " r GOV N Authoritative seal or token for power and command [347]A f u " FLK N Ghost head [348]A s i" . A SOC A Private, secret [350]? shan iU T?G NI High mountain with towering rocks, which diffuse vital air to grow all things [354]? han^^ r STL N Cliff of the mountains where people can build inhabitance under/along precipice [359]? wu^'* LAW N State government flag made with half red. half white, with stitched flag lace in colorful silks, with three flutters [360]? r a n " * CST N Soft and down-hanging hairs of leather for fur fineries [361]? e r " ?HY N Beard [362]? s h f : ZLG N Wild boar, swine [364]? ji " ZLG N Head of boar/swine/pig in sharp shape and located front upper [366]? z h i" % ZLG N Genus of wild animal with long spine, cat-like walk fashion and desiring to kill [367]? s i" ZLG N Genus of rhinoceros like animal, wild bull 92 Table 1. (C ontinuation) SW p Mdn T rs Pro Pro Original Etymologies (200 BC) Rdl V Rdg Spt Cgn Grm Paleographic Concepts (200 BC) Nos A Frm Frm Ctg Ctg Semantic Properties (200 BC) [406]P xin^^ fel ANA N Joint of human skull cover [408]P xin^i M' ANA NI Human heart, one of the five internal human organs (heart, liver, spleen, lungs, kidney) which belong to Earth Element [410]Pshui^^ FVE NI Water level, water, river. One of the Five Elements corresponds to North direction [416]P quan^^ n . HYD NI Fountainhead of the water which gushed out water to become big river [421]P bing^^ MET Vi to congeal, to freeze [424]P yu’''° ICS NI Genus of fish, water creatures with four legs 93 Table 1. (Continuation) Siy p Mdn Trs P ro Pro Original Etymologies (200 BC) Rdl V Rdg Spt Cgn Grm Paleographic Concepts (200 BC) Nos A Frm Frm Ctg Ctg Semantic Properties (200 BC) [471]P hui” ENT N1 Type of insects which are tiny in sizes, and 94 Table 1. (Continuation) SW P Mdn T rs Pro Pro Original Etymologies (200 BC) Rdl V Rdg S p t Cgn Grm Paleographic Concepts (200 BC) Nos A Frm Frm Ctg Ctg Semantic Properties (200 BC) [518]P ji” i HVS Vt to restrain to store Sixth Heavenly Stem. Position the Center. Yin. E arth Element FVE. Thousands things are twisted to restrain. Disciplines in highest point [519]P ba^^ a ZLG N Genus of python. The elephant-devourer 95 If each of the 540 semantic radicals is the most common script-part in the Chinese writing system for the most important semantic categories to structure the entire writing system, these 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals are the basic building blocks to form this 540 semantic radical system. They represent 154 independent linguistic categorical centralities from which all other 386 composed semantic radicals are shaped through categorical intersections. They are the prototypicalities of the entire 540 semantic radicals in the terms of prototype theory. The situation here is much similar in comparison with the color terms in Rosch’s psychological investigations where she claimed that the categorical statuses of the members of colors within a color category are not identical. The color terms only denote the focal color which may instantiate into the full range through "generalization from focal exemplars."^ It is also similar in comparison with Lakkoff’s linguistic analysis where he distinguishes between central and peripheral members of a category.® In the Chinese writing system, these 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals are always central to the semantic category. As a central member of a particular semantic category, each of these 154 semantic radicals is the basic and typical member of the category. For instance, in the Fish Category, the most typical member of this semantic category is the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) A series of structurally and semantically related Lesser Seal Scripts are provided here for necessary exemplification. Within the 540 semantic radical system, there is a composed semantic radical [425] yu ( ) 96 Xu Shen had his own reason and understanding of the Chinese culture to divide these four structurally and semantically reassembled scripts into two semantic radical divisions. From prototype perspective, all of these four scripts are in the same Fish Category and had only one categorical centrality, or "prototypicality" in Rosch’s psychological term,® whose structure is the most minimum form of the semantic radical [424] yu ( ) However, from the perspective of cognitive psychology, if each of the 540 semantic radicals in the Chinese writing system represents a semantic domain, all the 540 semantic radicals only represent linguistic semantic categories with the visible shapes as written marks. These linguistic semantic categories are linguistic in nature. They may reflect, but are not necessarily equal to, Chinese cognitive categories of the world. Different linguistic semantic categories necessarily distinguish themselves clearly in the semantic radical system for human recognition and communication, but these semantically distinctive radicals may well belong to only one cognitive category. For instance, the most minimum forms of the semantic radical [1] yi ( — ) Hence, all the 154 most minimum semantic radicals representing 154 semantic categorical centralities of the Chinese writing system are actually also linguistic in nature. They can be further grouped into an even simpler classification based on cognitive perspective. This grouping shows an entirely different picture revealing the cognitive categorizations from the 97 psychological realities which are the bottom base beneath the linguistic semantic categories upon which all Chinese semantic radicals are formed as one system appearing on to the surface of human communication through visible written marks. In the section of "Proposed Cognitive Categories", what Table 1 shows is that all the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals which represent 154 semantic categories can be further grouped into sixty-four cognitive categories which reflect Chinese conceptualization of the natural world. These sixty-four cognitive categories are from the invisible psychological realities through conceptualization, upon which 154 linguistic semantic categories are formed. On the basis of these 154 invisible linguistic semantic categories, the 154 most minimum forms of the semantic radicals in clear and distinguishable visible written shapes are originated. These 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals further intersected with each other to form 386 other linguistic semantic categories upon which 386 composed semantic radicals appeared. The 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals together with the 386 composed semantic radicals form the 540 semantic radical system; these, according to Xu Shen are the most common sc rip t-p a rts in the Chinese w riting system. In many cases, as shown in Table 1, the most minimum forms of semantic radicals are pictographic in nature. The script was created according to the images of the objects in the natural world. This is one of the reasons why such semantic radicals are the most mimimum forms and can not be further decomposed. One of the representative exemplifications is the script form for the animal horse. According to Xu Shen, this script is listed as the semantic radical [370] ma ( ,^ ) In prototype theory, the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals represent categorical centralities, while the rest of the 386 composed semantic radicals have the statues of prototype categories but are not the categorical centralities. All the 540 semantic radicals further intersect with each other to form 9,353 Lesser Seal Scripts during around 220 BC-AD 220 and formed over 60,000 or more Chinese scripts afterwards throughout Chinese history up to the modern times. Investigation also shows that the sixty-four proposed cognitive categories upon which the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals were generated are also the cognitive categories from which the entire 540 semantic radical system sets its layout. In other words, the 386 composed semantic radicals came from and belong to the same cognitive categories in comparison with those of the most minimum forms of semantic radicals. All 540 semantic radicals reflect the same psychological realities from the same human population, with the same ways, formed from the same capacities of human conceptualization of the world. 98 [BR] [WS] [LS] [NC] Plate VI, One of the Pair of Huge Bronze Horses Cast during the Early Tang Dynasty (618-907) Depicting an Existing Image of the Military Horse Traceable to the Cognitive Basis of the Pictorial Script Forms Created Accordingly as One of the Most Minimum Forms of the Semantic Radicals. Height: 95cm; Length: 119cm; Width: 31cm. Previously the Property of A Fine American Collection. Property of the Tang China Foundation 1994. Standing by three legs on a rectangular base, with left front leg raised powerfully, and head lowered and drawn in towards the powerful arched neck, this is one of the two military horses in pair. Cast with bulging eyes fully open, sharp ears pricked upward and forward over the parted forelock, with hogged long mane and long tail. Decorated with tufts on the chest and rump strap, with sharp, outward, and elaborate pendent trappings, and unusual pendent medallions cast with symbolic flowers. With a cloth fitted over the rim-patterned saddle can tie atop layered blankets. 99 The processual relationship described above provides a logical formation. It offers a logical explanation to the question as to how the categorical centralities represented by the most minimum forms of Chinese semantic radicals were formed, and were instantiated into the full denotational periphery range in integrated categories. The process is shown as follows: [1] From the conceptualization of the world by Chinese in a given society to form certain invisible psychological realities, on which to create certain cognitive categories; [2] From certain invisible cognitive categories to develop linguistic semantic categories, to form certain categorical centralities; [3] From the semantic categorical centralities, 154 most minimum semantic radicals as visible written marks originated; [4] From 154 most minimum semantic radicals, 386 composed semantic radicals intersected to form the 540 semantic radical system; [5] From the 540 semantic radical system, through fu rth e r intersections, all scripts of the Chinese writing system were created. This is a particular cultural feature which characterizes China as a particular cultural entity and the Chinese writing system as a particular writing system from a particular human population, since there has been no other comparable culturally prescribed device or recording system which can be exemplified as a similar case. Therefore, this particular cultural feature explains Chinese conceptualization rather than derives a general principle applicable to any cultural situations within which all writing systems in different forms were also productive. The questions are: How the Chinese conceptualization is differed from the conceptualization of the people from other cultural entities to result in a certain kind of cognitive categorization of the world as reflected in the behavioral patterns of the semantic radicals and semantic radical oriented writing system; How the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals in the Chinese writing system were originated in relation with conceptualization of the natural world; How the proposed sixty-four cognitive categories for the 154 linguistic semantic categories can be further grouped into a simpler schema whose motivation reflects the interrelation between Chinese as a human population and a given environment as a natural world. Ancient Chinese paleography, linguistic semantics, and cognitive psychology have provided no clue for the answer. At issue already are the anthropological factors for the interpretation of the interrelations between a particular human population and the geographical world as the environment from which this particular human population originated and in which this type of people lived. In theory, particular human behavioral patterns involved in the exploitation of a particular geographical area as a given environment were shaped from 100 human conceptualization of such an environment. Human behavioral patterns may also entail themselves in the capacities of conceptualization as a power of tremendous reactions to the environment. This bi-directional process exists in all cultures, and significantly affects all aspects of a culture including the writing system. The interrelations to one another and to the environment have always been observed to be universally common, as seen in the only two Western theories which proposed theoretical interrelations of the kind. One of the models is known as the cultural ecology model proposed by Julian Stewards. As a theory in leading position and having great influence on social development for three decades, this theory postulates that between environment and human exploitation, the only factors which affect culture are behavioral patterns and technology.® The other model is known as the ecosystem model, proposed by James Stoltman and David Baerreis, and Richard Yerkes. They declared a fundamental departure from Julian Steward, and took an entirely new approach. They postulated a theoretical model as a totality composed of five subsystems: [1] Environment; [2] Subsistence; [3] Technology; [4] Population; and [5] Social organization. These five subsystems are the interpretative factors that affect the changes and differences among cultures.® To analyze the origin of categorical centralities represented by the most minimum forms of the semantic radicals, the direction is to analyze the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals themselves back through process. This is to search for the factors involving the interrelations between the Chinese population and their exploitation of the environment as a Chinese society through anthropological perspectives, and to analyze the interrelationship between proposed cognitive categories and the exploitation of the world by the people to see how the conceptualization and proposed cognitive categories are formed on the basis of such exploitation, and how the linguistic semantic categorical centralities are formed on the bases of such cognitive categories, and further to see how the 154 most minimum forms of the semantic radicals are created on the basis of the linguistic semantic categorical centralities. Evidence provided in Table 2 shows that the proposed cognitive categories are actually developed as mental processes through seven factors with twenty-one internal sub-factors, involving the exploitation of environment by Chinese population. These seven anthropological factors contribute to sixty-four proposed cognitive categories that constitute a new and much simpler schema, where 154 minimum forms of semantic radicals have their positions via cognitive categories showing conceptualization revealed from human exploitation of the given environment. Each of these seven factors contains three sub-factors for detailed internal divisions. All the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals can be well grouped by these seven factors to show the reasons by which they originated, since they were originally the result of these seven factors. Different from the influential anthropological theories established by Julian Stewards,^® and Stoltman and Baerreis, and Richard Yerkes^^ the interrelationship between environment and human exploitation as reflected 101 in the analysis of the most minimum Chinese semantic radicals shows a new model in comparison with that of Stewards, and a deviated model in comparison with that of Stoltman and Baerreis, and Yerkes. This anthropological model is constructed from the analysis of the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals for the interpretation of the Chinese exploitation of the given environment. In turn, it is also the reconstructed model from which the schema for the categorical classification and for the origin of the 154 minimum forms of semantic radicals of the Chinese writing system is motivated. I. ENVIRONMENT [1-1] Nature [1-2] Flora [1-3] Fauna II. HUMAN [II-l] Human Population [II-2] Human Behaviors [II-3] Human Relations III. TECHNOLOGY [III-l] Agriculture [III-2] Industry [III-3] Techniques IV. SUBSISTENCE [IV-1] Trade [IV-2] Transportation [TV-3] S ubsistence Practices V. SETTLEMENT [V-1] Architecture [V-2] Spatial [V-3] Settlement Patterns VI. ORGANIZATION [VI-1] Government [VI-2] Law [VI-3] Military VII. IDEOLOGY [VII-1] Arts [VII-2] Sciences [VII-3] Beliefs 102 Table 2. Reconstructed Schema for the Motivation of the Origin of 154 Most Minimum Forms of Chinese Semantic Radicals Through Anthropological Ecological Model for the Interrelation Between Chinese Conceptualization and Exploitation of the Given Environment I. ENVIRONMENT [I-l] Nature [350JP shan’'^ TPG [Topography] N1 di Rocky mountains [499JP dui'^^ TPG [Topography] N2 [1-2] Flora [143]P zhu T2 BTN [Botany] N Bamboo [060JP zhu, BTN [Botany] N [1-3] Fauna [112]P guaT3 ZLG [Zoology] N r Sheep horns [142]P jiao’T3 ZLG [Zoology] N Animal horns T4 [366JP zhi ZLG [Zoology] N % Cat-like animals [167]P hu T1 ZLG [Zoology] N Tiger’s strip lines [362JP Shi" ZLG [Zoology] N Wild boar [3641P ZLG [Zoology] N Boar head [367]P ZLG [Zoology] N 103 Table 2. (Continuation) II. HUMAN [II-l] Human Population [287]P ren^^ HMN [Human] N1 A Human being [311]P ren^^ HMN [Human] N 4- Human being (sub) [443]P nyu’’^ HMN [Human] N -ir Woman [325]P shou^^ PHY [Physiology] N 1 Human head [361]P e r " PHY [Physiology] N ®7 Human beard [439]P er^^ PHY [Physiology] N ? Human ear [440]P PHY [Physiology] N 5. Human chin [022]P kou PHY [Physiology] N1 D Human mouth [039]P PHY [Physiology] N f Human molar [099]P mu PHY [Physiology] N1 g Human eyes [103]P z r PHY [Physiology] N Human nose [303]P mao^^ PHY [Physiology] NKC11> Human hair [441]P shou^^ PHY [Physiology] N Human fist [076]P PHY [Physiology] N 5L Human Right hand [Physiology] N Human back [442]P guaf^ PHY $ [II-2] Human Behaviors [023]A BHV [Behavior] Vi IX to open mouth [034]A ch f" BHV [Behavior] N 'A Small walk steps [073]P zhao^^ BHV [Behavior] N Jk Downward hand [074]P BHV [Behavior] Vt to grasp by hand [203]A z h i" BHV [Behavior] Vi % to approach behind [327]A mian^^ PSY [Psychology] Vt to cover face [II-3] Human Relations [027]P z h i" FHR [Flora-Human] N I t Low base, foot [019]P riu^^ AHR [Animal-Human] Vt/N N: Ox, to serve [135]P rou^^ AHR [Animal-Huiran] N \t! Big meat, sacrificial [127]A HRL [Human Relatn] Vt ■f- to give mutually [133]P gua^^ CNN [Cannibalism] Vt to pare human fresh III. TECHNOLOGY [III-l] Agriculture [196]? lai •T2 AGR [Agriculture] N/Vi ^ Wheat [267]P guaT1 AGR [Agriculture] N 104 Table 2. (Continuation) [III-2] Industry [175]A dan^^ MIN [Mineralogy] N Red cinnabar mines [G71]P liT4 IND [Industry] N [III-3] Techniques Tl [147]A TCH [Technology] Vl/Vt X to work skillfully K?/ [251]A TCH [Technology] Vt 1b to do difficult job [446]A p ie " TCH [Technology] Vt to conduct directions [447]A TCH [Technology] Vt f to drag by force [454]P jue TCH [Technology] N j Twisted metal works [467]P m i" TCH [Technology] N1 t Thinnest silk thread [126]A xuan^^ CLR [Color Layer] N1 Sixth black dyeing shuai^”* TCH [Technology] N Network for birds [470]P $ [495]P jin"__ TCH [Technology] N & Axe of civil use [505]A zhuo TCH [Technology] Vt to link as one % IV. SUBSISTENCE [IV-1] Trade [228]P bei•T4 TRD [Trade] N Currency [IV-2] Transportation [309JP zhou^^ TTR [Transportation] N F erryboat [310]A fang’ ^ TTR [Transportation] N Twin boat [498]P che TTR [Transportation] N [IV-3] Subsistence Practice [177]P jing' T3 LDS [Land System] N Waterwell for unit [360]P ran^^ CST [Costume] N Soft leather for wear [504]P zhu'^^ SES [Subsistence] N Storage facility [512]P xiu’’^ SES [Subsistence] N Domesticated animals 105 Table 2. (Continuation) V. SETTLEMENT [V-1] Architecture [122]P ARC [Architecture] N Frameworks [240]P jiong" ARC [Architecture] N Wall windows [269]P mian ARC [Architecture] N isi Cross-roof house Roof windows [385]P chuang^^ARC [Architecture] N m [437]P hu” ARC [Architecture] NI Door-leaf [502]P lei^^ ARC [Architecture] Vt 1 to build earth-wali [V-2] Spatial [010]A g u n " SPA [Spacial Perceptn] Vi 1 toward up and down [052]P jiu " SPA [Spacial Perceptn] Vi to entangle [123]A SPA [Spacial Perceptn] Al Small in size [226]A wei SPA [Spacial Perceptn] Vi D to turn circle [389]P da” SPA [Spacial Perceptn] A Geat [434]P GLC [Geological Coordi] N [V-3] Settlement Patterns [354]P h a n " STL [ Settlement] N r Cliff inhabitances VI. ORGANIZATION [VI-1] Government [044]P ce” ACV [Archive] N -# Official tally [085]A chen^^ POL [Politics] Vt & to bend as official [188]A jiong^^ DPM [Diplomacy] N Far border Authoritative seal [338]P jie " GOV [Government] N 7 [VI-2] Law [204]A jiu " COD [Code] Vt K to cauterize [348]A si SOC [Social] A A Secrete privacy [359]P wu^^ LAW [Law] N State flag for law [456]A yen^^ CRM [Criminology] Vi —? to hide out [VI-3] Military [137]P dao " MLT [Military] N 7? Military sword [463]P gongj^^ MLT [Military] NKC11> Military bow [497]P mao MLT [Military] N Lance on war chariot 106 Table 2. (Continuation) VII. IDEOLOGY [VII-1] A rts [017]P bian^^ LGA [Logic-Analogy] Vt é to analogize prints [152JA nai^^ LIN [Linguistics] Cnj Îb Twist spoken words [210]P ruo^^ MYH [Mythology] N Tree where Sun rise [252]P lu” ART [Art] Vt "4c to carve wood [305]P sh f^ EDU [Education] Vt r to display to respect [331]A shan^^ ART [Art] N Decorative patterns [333]A wen^^ HTY [Humanity] N to draw artfully [455]P q in " MSC [Music] N Plucked musical inst [VII-2] Sciences [001]A y i" NMT [Number-Math] Num One [0161A ba” NMT [Number-Math] Num/Vi Eight [510]A jiu” ^ NMT [Number-Math] Num Nine [174]A zhu MTR [Measurement] Vt to mark a place [496JP dou^^ MTR [Measurement] N Measure instrument [491]P jian” GMT [Geometry] A Even level [288JA hua OHM [Chemistry] Vt k to change quality [184]A ru ” PHS [Physics] Vt to insert motion [488]P li” PHS [Physics] NI •h Workable energy [237]P y u ^ AST [Astronomy] Vi/N to wane, Moon [271]P lyu^^ ANA [Anatomy] N Backbone sections & [274]P chuang MDC [Medicine] Vi to recline [406]P xin ANA [Anatomy] N % Skull cover joint [408]P xin^^ ANA [Anatomy] NI M' Heart [478]P luan^^ BIO [Biology] N 4P Zygot lVII-3] Beliefs [094]P b u " RLG [Religon] Vt h- to heat turtle shell [0961A y a o " ATR [Astrology] N2 Divine patterns [260]A xiong MRL [Morality] A A Evil [3471A f u " FLK [Folk Belief] N % Ghost head [459]P fang” RIT [Ritual] N c. Ritual container [382]P huo FVE [Five Elements] NI •X. Fire element [410]P shui^^ FVE [Five Element] NI Water element [514]P y i" HVS [Heavenly Stem] Vt z. 2nd Heavenly Stem [516]P ding HVS [Heavenly Stem] Vi T 4th Heavenly Stem [517JA wu^ HVS [Heavenly Stem] Vi 5th Heavenly Stem [5181P HVS [Heavenly Stem] Vt 6th Heavenly Stem [520)P HVS [Heavenly Stem] Vt 7th Heavenly Stem [523]P ren HVS [Heavenly Stem] Vi 9th Heavenly Stem [524]P gui^^ HVS [Heavenly Stem] Vt lOth Heavenly Stem [525]P z i" ERB [Earthly Branch] Vt 9- 1st Earthly Branch [529]P chou^^ ERB [Earthly Branch] Vt JZ. 2nd Earthly Branch [531]P mao^^ ERB [Earthly Branch] Vt 4th Earthly Branch [533]P si” ERB [Earthly Branch] Vt 6 6th Earthly Branch 107 ENVIRONMENT ORGANIZATION IDEOLOGY TECHNOLOGY SETTLEMENT SUBSISTENCE HUMAN Figure 14. An Anthropological Ecological Model for the Interrelation Between Human Exploitation to the Given Environment and the Interrelation Among Reconstructed Schema for the 154 Most Minimum Forms of Chinese Semantic Radicals The point of Table 2 is that the 154 most minimum forms of Chinese semantic radicals were formed from sixty-four proposed cognitive categories to which their semantic properties categorically belong, and the sixty-four proposed cognitive categories were formed from cultural adaptation to a given environment and ways and means employed by the ancient Chinese people to exploit the environment. Any linguistic structures, including the Chinese semantic radicals, are the structures developed by and formed from human cognitive capacity. As part of that capacity, conceptualization and categorization of environment to a great extent determine linguistic structures including Chinese semantic 108 radicals. The given environment does not determine the cognitive capacity, but it does provide a relatively stable physical world and geographical area within which human cognitive capacity develops and operates, and it also has a heavy influence on the conceptualization and categorization from which cognitive structures and linguistic structures are formed in certain ways but not in other ways. Similarly, human categorization and conceptualization do not determine the environment, but define the ways and means and the extent to which the environment is exploited. The behavioral patterns of human exploitation of the environment meanwhile feedback into the behavioral patterns of such conceptualization and categorization which is also entailed in the linguistic structures, including Chinese semantic radicals. Figure 14 illustrates the anthropological ecological model resulting from the analysis of both cognitive psychological process and linguistic semantic process for the final shaping of the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals as basic building blocks of the Chinese writing system. This anthropological ecological model is deviated from the ecosystem model established by Stoltman and Baerreis, and Yerkes, which has five subsystems.^^ The new model illustrated in Figure 14 offers an interpretation of the interrelation among all seven factors which are involved in this model by criss-cross lines. Such complicated interrelations also reflect and explain the interrelations among all the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals in the reconstructed schema. The above analysis actually presented the first cognitive process of the most minimum forms for the categorical centralities. The process of the most minimum forms of the semantic radicals is a process whereby the 154 semantic radicals which can not be further decomposed into any smaller script units, are formed on the basis of the conceptualization of human exploitation of the natural world by the cognitive capacity. This process is a rule governed operation. There are at least three rules which can be formulated as follows: [1] The 154 semantic radicals, out of the 540 semantic radicals, are the most minimum forms; they can not be further decomposed structurally. These most minimum forms of semantic radicals are the base-stones and building bricks for the construction of the entire 540 semantic radical system, by which all Chinese concepts in written forms are composed. They are the semantic categorical center. Hence, categorical centralities in the integrated categorical structures schematize the hierarchically organized architectures of the Chinese semantic radical system. [2] All the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals which represent the 154 semantic categories can be further grouped into sixty- four cognitive categories which reflect Chinese conceptualization of the natural world. These sixty-four cognitive categories are from the invisible psychological realities, through conceptualization, upon which the 154 linguistic semantic categories are formed. On the basis of these 154 invisible linguistic semantic categories, the 154 most minimum forms of the semantic radicals, in clear and distinguishable visible written shapes are originated. 109 [3] The proposed sixty-four cognitive categories are developed as mental processes through seven factors and twenty-one detailed internal sub-factors involving the interrelation among exploitation processes of the environment by the Chinese population. This model with all factors is briefly as follows: [i] Environment (Nature, Flora, Fauna); [ii] Human (Human Population, Human Behavior, Human Relation); [iii] Technology (Agriculture, Industry, Techniques); [iv] Subsistence (Trade, Transportation, Subsistence Practices); [v] Settlement (Architecture; Spatial, Settlement Patterns); [vi] Organization (Government, Law, Military); [vii] Ideology (Arts, Sciences, Beliefs). The third rule of the process of most minimum forms of semantic radicals is an anthropological model reconstructed from the analysis of the 154 most minimum forms of semantic radicals for the interpretation of the Chinese exploitation of the given environment. In turn, it is also the reconstructed model from which the schema for the categorical classification and the origin of 154 minimum forms of semantic radicals of the Chinese writing system is motivated. Human exploitation of the environment started when anthropoids (Apes) for the first time used stone (tools) to make changes in the environment for subsistence. However, the mental processes and cognitive categories did not really start to develop until the time when Apes first started eating cooked meat unknowingly changing their brain qualities. Linguistic structures, even a clear speech sound, came much later, only when Apes’ vocal cords and oral cavity structures proved to be adequate. Visible written marks and the forming of a completed writing system came even later until the time when civilization became magnificent. The mapping situation revealed in Table 2 and Figure 14 for the human conceptualization and cognitive categorization of the environment and the creation of the 154 most minimum forms of Chinese semantic radicals therefore should not be understood as a process of synchronization. As a matter of fact, even when the first bulk of Chinese visible written marks incised on the turtle shells as true writings were excavated in 1987,^^ and carbon dated 6510BC-5610BC, the semantic radicals, of course, did not appear as a system.^® There is a process of historical development and historical change in the semantic radical system of the Chinese scripts. A semantic radical through history might appear, disappear, and reappear at different times. A most minimum form of semantic radical through history might change its shape and lose its identity of being minimum form. In terms of cognitive categories and semantic categorical centralities, they are also under change throughout history, and might not be always be a category or categorical centrality. The cognitive categories, the linguistic semantic categorical centralities, and the most minimum forms of semantic radicals therefore are all historical notions. Human knowledge and alteration of the semantic radical system may also affect the analysis. Before Xu Shen the semantic radical system was not formally collected but widely misinterpreted. How many semantic radicals were there in the Chinese writing system, and how they operated 110 structurally and semantically, were always in question. B. Karlgren holds that the Chinese scripts before the Qin Dynasty (221BC-207BC), for the great part, were lacking radicals.^® However, Japanese scholar Shima Kunio holds that there are at least 165 semantic radicals which can be ab strac ted from the Shan g oracle bone scrip ts (ca 1750BC-1100BC), and he used these semantic radicals to organize all oracle bone scripts into a system.Whereas, Xu Zhongshu 4^ arranged all the Shang oracle bone scripts into Xu Shen’s 540 semantic radical system, afterwards he still left many of them in appendices since these oracle bone scripts were seemingly formed by some unknown or lost semantic radicals beyond the 540 semantic radical system.^® Hence, the amount of the semantic radicals in the Shang oracle bone scripts (ca 1750BC-1100BC) might not be smaller in amount than the Japanese scholar Shima Kunio proposed; and might not be lacking as Karlgren ascertained, on the contrary, they might be even more sizable than that in Xu Shen’s semantic radical system set at AD 100. This may prove that the least relative dating of the appearance and development of Chinese semantic radicals ia the late Neolithic age, and may also prove a possible reduction of the semantic radicals used in the Chinese writing system from th e Shang (ca 1750BC-1100BC) to the Han (206BC-AD220). From the historical perspective, Chinese semantic radicals have indeed always been in a process of simplification and reduction. From the anthropological perspective, the larger amount of the semantic radicals used in the earlier stages of the Chinese writings reflected the various earlier concepts designatable to the written marks through human exploitation of the environment for cultural adaptation. Yet, a particular conceptualization starts at and is conditioned by a particular human exploitation of the given environment. It derives certain cognitive categorizations of the natural world within which particular humans adapted, and generates certain linguistic semantic categories reflected for it. While all is invisible mental process, the visible written marks in most minimum radical forms are conceived in the categorical centers. At the time when written communication becomes so inevitable in the human society, they out run to the Sun. I l l 3.2 Legitimate Intersections All the most minimum semantic radicals in Lesser Seal Scripts originally were created as independent scripts. These are the scripts which can not be further decomposed into even minimum forms. The rest of the semantic radicals within the 540 semantic radical system were composed by the most minimum semantic radicals and they were also independent scripts on the attestative records. The 9,353 Lesser Seal Scripts used since around 220 BC and collected at the first century AD. were the further compositions of the most minimum semantic radicals and composed semantic radicals, although sometimes there are individual writing strokes which also participated as script parts. These individual writing strokes are of two kinds: the abstract elements and pictographic elements. They are not the most common script parts, but only used occasionally. They do not qualify as semantic radicals due to their limited presence in structuring scripts, but they do have their semantic contents. These individual writing strokes have never been collected. The analysis of the present study shows that within the 540 semantic radical system, there are 422 individual writing strokes that participated to form these radicals. Among them 58 are the abstract elements, while 364 of them are the pictographic elements. All of them are in different shapes with different meanings and individually used at different circumstances. There should be more such different individual writing stokes in the entire writing system. The amount, which indicates the quantitative differences of the abstract versus pictographic elements, is on the surface without statistical treatments. The conclusion on ordering sequences regarding their origins should not be reached directly from the quantitative amount. Investigation indicates that the behavioral patterns for making the composed semantic radicals by the most minimum semantic radicals are the same as the behavioral patterns for structuring all scripts by the most minimum forms of semantic radicals and composed semantic radicals as well as the individual writing strokes. Such behavioral patterns are represented by an important process fundamental to creating the entire Chinese writing system. From the point of view of prototype theory, this process is termed in this study as a process of categorical intersection. The process of categorical intersection is a process whereby semantic categories represented by the semantic radicals in written forms intersect with each other productively forming scripts for written communication. Categorical intersection is crucial to the forming of a Chinese script. This process is a rule governed operation in that not all the semantic radicals can be intersected with each other to produce scripts. There are at least three conditions which form three rules for the desired legitimacy. The combination of these three ordered operations explains the ground level results of the categorical intersection launched by all the semantic radicals. The three rules of this process are formulated as follows: 112 [1] The categorical intersection of semantic radicals is legitimate only when the intersection is cognitively licensed. The cognitive licensing may provide legitimate categorical intersections for producing scripts by semantic radicals which are seemingly impossible to be intersected. However, the legitimate categorical intersection must be permitted by Chinese cognition and cognitive categorization of the world, otherwise unexpected script forms will occur. [2] The cognitive licensing is legitimate only when the conceptualization is mapped with human exploitation of the environment. Conceptualization is from, and does indeed map with this exploitation process. The capacities of conceptualization are the only resource to motivate the cognitive licensing by which semantic radicals are legitimately intersected to create scripts and to form a consistent system for written communications. It is in this sense that the cognitive licensing is not a random idiosyncracy but a logical operation with solid bases on human adaptation activities and with sufficient powers from human conceptualization capabilities. [3] Conceptual mapping which is understood as a developing historical notion is legitimate only when it realizes itself in visible written forms. The cognitive licensing for different semantic radicals and script parts to carry out categorical intersections to form the new script reflects clearly the historical condition for the creation. In comparison with its historical antecedent for the notion, the script is created only at certain time and installs all the politico-economic-technological changes of the given historical conditions. The legitimate categorical intersection must be permitted by Chinese cognition and cognitive categorization of the world; otherwise, unexpected script forms would occur. The illegitimacy is particularly apparent when the intersected categories are in the situation of true bipolar opposition as illustrated in Figure 15 and Figure 16 for categorical intersections with no cognitive licensing. Among the instances which have been displayed, the semantic radical [515] bing ( ^ ) 113 The cognitive categorization of this semantic radical has a stable semantic domain in Chinese culture and has never changed or lost any of its properties. As an opposition, the semantic radical [346] gui ( %» ) As the representative of the Third Heavenly Stem [515] bing ( ) In Chinese culture, the intersection between these two semantic categories would be without cognitive basis because these two semantic categories are in bipolar opposition. According to Chinese paleography, the opposition of these two semantic radicals is sharp to the extent that the structures of the two scripts are also in opposition. The structure of the semantic radical [382] huo ( 'X. ) There is a complementary relationship between the Yang force and Yin force, and between the Element of Fire and Element Water in Chinese cosmology. Indeed, the combination and synthesis of the two are also shown within the structures of the two scripts. However, the two semantic categories represented by the two semantic radicals are still in a true bipolar opposition. The intersection of these two semantic radicals does not stand for anything in the Chinese culture. There is no cognitive categorization of this kind. Hence, no script is produced for it. When the bipolar opposition is only on the surface in terms of the shapes of the semantic radicals, the exact semantic categories beneath the 114 [515] bing ) Figure 15. Illegitimacy Resulted from True Bipolar Opposition of Categorical Intersections without Cognitive Licensing Category Heavenly Stem/Category Ghost [382] huo ( ) [410] shui ( )]C) Figure 16. Illegitimacy Resulted from True Bipolar Opposition of Categorical Intersections without Cognitive Licensing Category Fire/Category Water 115 surface may not be in the situation of contrast opposition. In these rare circumstances of false bipolar opposition of the semantic categories, the cognitive licensing may provide for legitimate categorical intersections for producing scripts by the semantic radicals which are seemingly impossible to be intersected. Figure 17 provided one of the rare instances from the Lesser Seal Scripts to illustrate the legitimate categorical intersections in the situation of false bipolar opposition with cognitive licensing. As continuous exemplification along this line for further analysis, related semantic radicals are provided for the false bipolar opposition. The semantic radical [382] huo ( 'X. ) From the original commentaries provided by Xu Shen, the composed semantic radical [383] yan ( ) Evidence for sufficient logical reasoning of the above ascertainment can be provided also within the 540 semantic radical system. There is a semantic radical [386] yan ( ^ ) (sparks of the blazing burning fire highly rise). This is a composed semantic radical taking the triple form of the semantic radical [382] huo ( ÿC ) 116 [410] shui ( ) {7344} dan ) water level, water, [383] yan ( ) flame and [382] huo ( /"v ) [382] huo ( >^ ) Figure 17. Legitimacy Resulted from False Bipolar Opposition of Categorical Intersections with Cognitive Licensing Category Fire/Category Water 117 radical in parallel with the doubled form and the most minimum form. The whole series shows the interesting phenomenon of legitimate categorical intersection with gemination and triplicity in forms in correspondence with changing comparative degrees. The latter two semantic radicals actually show the degree of the different burning statuses. The solution that follows from the above analysis is that the script {7344} dan ( ) Further analysis shows that this script is the antonym of the script {9762} nong C$%^) Although there are bipolar oppositions on the surface that would make categorical intersection seemingly impossible, the Category Fire in this script does not show the semantic contradiction with the Category Water but only the denotational degree. The semantic intersectability is right beneath the surface. The two opposite semantic categories are legitimately intersected with each other to form this script by the cognitive licensing. As a matter of fact, for the "lighter" degree of the thickness of the tastes, the script {7344} dan ( ) Cognitive licensing is an indispensable condition for to the legitimate categorical intersection of the semantic radicals, not only in circumstances of bipolar opposition of the semantic categories but also in the situations where the intended participants categorically fall apart in completely unconnected domains as well. 118 Remarkable script instances which have been analyzed in certain details include scripts in the Category Fish, the script {7627} ba ( ) Kspanisb mackerel> where semantic radical [424] yu ( ) These two semantic radicals actually belong to two completely different domains, the Category Fish and the Category Heavenly Stem, without connections on the surface. The cognitive licensing is provided for the legitimate intersection of the two semantic radicals because the biological entity in question, although never recognized by traditional Chinese folk taxonomy as a type of fish, is a large variety of hard-shelled bivalve mollusks living in the shadow of the water, and its adaptive ability and behavioral patterns are similar to that of the fish genus. On the other hand, this type of hard-shelled bivalve mollusks is the only natural source to produce splendid pearls as ornamental decorations for exquisite courtesans and for expensive ladies of the noble houses. There are script instances installed with more complicated issues, and their legitimacy in categorical intersection is not easy to be understood from the surface of the participating semantic radicals before the cognitive licensing underneath is exposed. For instance, in the Category Fish, there is a script {7598} xian ( ) The composed semantic radical [115] shan ( ^ ) 119 semantic radical [114] yang The cognitive licensing provided here for the legitimate intersection suggests that this type of fish might be a representative fish having strong fishy smell when it is live and fresh from the water. Elsewhere, evidence proved that this prediction for reconstructing the cognitive licensing is correct. From the textual data excavated, in a collection entitled Ma Wang Dui Han Mu Bo Shu Ï- ^ ^ [Silk Documents Excavated from the Han Tombs at Ma Wang Dui Site of Changsha, Hunan, China, ca. 168 BC)], the records showed the following words from written scriptures of philosophical Taoism:" ^ l § j <)• ^ Jf, In this ancient text of 550 BC, the script {7598} xian ( ) The cognitive licensing as a condition is extremely important to the legitimate categorical intersection. It permits and enhances proper categorical intersections but stops and discards the improper ones. The question is how the cognitive licensing itself can be secured as a legitimate operation, and in what situation and to what extent the cognitive licensing would become illegitimate. To answer this question, the system necessitates the second condition of categorical intersection. This condition is a process whereby the cognitive licensing is recognized as being legitimate only when the conceptualization is mapped with the exploitation of the environment. This condition sets forth the motivation for all cognitive licensing and their secured operation. 120 Human conceptualization is achieved from the realties with which humans have interactive relation. The most important reality is the fundamental opposition between the human population and nature as the given environment in which humans originated and in which they live. The interrelations between the human population and nature is an adaptation where human beings exploit the given environment by certain ways and means. Such ways and means may differ from people to people. In any cultural entities, the cultural adaptation includes the creation and utilization of the writing system for indispensable written communications. According to this study, human exploitation process consists of at least seven subsystems as shown in Figure 14: [1] Environment (Nature, Flora, Fauna); [2] Human (Human Population, Human Behaviors, Human Relations); [3] Technology (Agriculture, Industry, Techniques); [4] Subsistence (Trade, Transportation, Subsistence Practices); [5] Settlement (Architecture; Spatial, Settlement Patterns); [6] Organization (Government, Law, Military); and [7] Ideology (Arts, Sciences, Beliefs). With the subsystem of technology as the center-piece located among all and between the basic opposition of human and environment, human conceptualization is achieved on the basis of this mutually interactive exploitation process with no exceptions. In the case of Chinese cultural adaptation, Chinese conceptualization is from, and does indeed map with this exploitation process. The capacities of conceptualization are the only resource to motivate the cognitive licensing by which semantic radicals are legitimately intersected to create scripts and to form a consistent system for written communications. All scripts can serve as convincing instances for exemplifications to interpret aspects of the interrelations in this exploitation process. It is in this sense that the cognitive licensing is not a random idiosyncracy but a logical operation with solid bases on human adaptation activities and with sufficient powers from human conceptualization capabilities. For analytical presentations, some composed semantic radicals are chosen from the 540 semantic radical system as exemplifications for the necessary reconstruction of the exploitation process. Meanwhile, the exemplification will emphasize and explain what the conceptual bases are, of the cognitive licensing of the chosen instance; and how the cognitive licensing brings very different minimum semantic radicals together to form a composed semantic radical which is also a script. Scientific archaeological excavations in China indicate that seasonal agriculture, as one of the major strategies of human exploitation of the given environment, started at an early phase of the Neolithic Age as a regional development on the vast land of the East China .Plain between the two river valleys at the Henan Jiahu Site ^ ^ '35. >^4 ^ ^ before 6510 BC (8460 BP) (ca 6510 BC-5610 BC.)^, a t the Hebei Cishan Site before 6000 BC (7950 BP) (ca. 5405BC-5285BC)^, and a t the Henan Peiligang Site iS^ before 6000BC (7950BP) (ca. 5495BC-5195BC).® Excavated archaeological remains existing in the region include artifacts, ecofacts, features, symbols, and incised scripts indicating agricultural activities as human exploitation of the environment.® The instance for exemplification here is a well-documented important Chinese script first appearing as an oracle bone script of the Late 121 Neolithic Age in the early Shang civilization ai^ concerns agriculture as technology, the oracle bone script [OR] *ru ( ) [Or. Shang Phase I. 1750BC-1195BC. Yi Z, 8502; Jia f2 7 4 ; Ning 2.29; Q ian-ÿj 5.48.2r NC;: - n ± t± A - % T T '# l a DE: The inscription has not been interpreted. It possibly means: "At the time of Kui Yu...in [certain places] at..., the hoe-out weeds in the farming fields grow again greatly. Big fire burned weeds, also burned three grain storage houses." SC: [Or. Shang Phase I. 1750BC-1195BC. Ning 2.29]® DE: The inscription has not been interpreted. It possibly means: "Did the hoe-out weeds grow again in farming fields greatly?" SC: [Or. Shang Phase I. 1750BC-1195BC. Qian 5.48.2)® The important information carried by these two oracle bone inscriptions is th a t the ag ricu ltu re a t the Shang Phase I (1750BC-1195BC) was already a major subsistence practice. The technology was actually in the format of slash-and-burn cultivation. The fields were possibly far away from the settlements and farming activities often could not be completed in time. The hoe-out weeds always grew again in the farming fields due to the naturally fertile land and severe shortage of labor force resulting from relatively small population. This problem was vital to the food production and was always of great concern. Grain storage houses were possibly built beside the fields for maximum foraging. Fire accidents happened as disasters and 122 endangered human lives and productions. Plastromancy and scapulimancy in the forms of religious and ritual ceremonies were frequently held within the social organizations to look for prognostications and divine help. Of all the scripts used in these two inscriptions, the key script is the oracle bone script [OR] *ru ( ^ ) [Or. Shang Phase I. 1750BC-1195BC. Yi 8502; Jia 'f' 274; Ning ^ 2.29; Qian 5.48.2]^° Three questions immediately follow from the above structural descriptions given by Xu Shen, and these questions should also be addressed to the authors of writing who created scripts in early China: [1] Why the semantic radical (script) [13] ru ( ^ ) At issue is the natural process of constantly growing "weeds" and the agricultural task of suppressing all weeds in the farming land in time to secure the food production for the subsistence of human population. This issue happened in connection with the human exploitation of the given environment and was vital to human society. Given that conceptualization is achieved through the adaptation activities, two things are significantly reflected in the capacity of human cognition:"growing weeds in farming fields" and "task completion or punishment". The cognitive categorization distinguishes these two different things. Meanwhile, it also relates these two things since if the hoe-out weeds grow constantly, the task is not completed, and severe punishment will follow as a consequence. Plate VII sectionally shows two important stone rubbings of the Eastern Han ' ^ 7^ (AD 25-220) at the time when Xu Shen was a court official. These stone rubbings were made from picturesque base-relief carvings on stone bricks excavated from different tombs ig, at Deyang 4%-T)^ and Pengshan of the then Sichuan Province w»| . These stone rubbings described vividly the realistic situation of the Chinese 123 a ' ' W#%r^-II— ■ ' • . ' Plate VII. The "Do or Die" Situation of Seasonal Agricultural Activities in the Eastern Han (AD 25-220). The Cognitive Licensing of Semantic Radicals is Legitimated by the Mapping of Conceptualization and Human Exploitation of the Environment. Source of Stone Rubbing: Shi Yan (Shanghai 1983: 242-3) Upper: Plate 288. Ht: 24cm, Wd: 38.5cm; Down: Plate 289. Ht: 25cm, Wd: 39cm. 124 exploitation of the environment, and the seriousness of human activities connected with the seasonal agriculture during that time. The human exploitation of the environment influences conceptualization and cognitive categorization, and affects all aspects of cultural adaptation including the writing system. Although the semantic radical in question [13] ru { Jo- ) On the first level ordering, one of the component parts of the script is the representative of the concept "growing weeds in farming fields", as seen in the composed semantic radical [12] cao (4't ) The cognitive licensing on the first level ordering emphasized the seriousness of the agricultural activity which is vital to the human population and was regulated by the law and code. This licensing is apparently conditioned by the mapping between the conceptualization and human exploitation of the environment. In an actual sense, the cognitive licensing was from the people and was permitted by the people who participated in agricultural activities and created scripts. It was also operated by the same type of people, who recognized and used scripts in the thousands of years of history throughout all social and economic strata of Chinese civilization. What the authors of writing in early China showed in this script is not merely agricultural activity dealing with constantly growing hoe-out weeds in the farming land of the Neolithic Age, but they also showed the law and code for severe punishment if not done properly. The matter is as serious as the matter of "to be or not to be" in William Shakespeare’s drama for ancient Denmark Prince Hamlet who wanted to kill himself,^^ and as serious as the measure of "Change of the Light Brigade" ("do or die") in Douglas MacArthur’s fierce offensive invasion for deciding Americans to go to war at the Asian battlefront.^^ Should the above analysis give an answer to the question how the cognitive licensing is legitimated by the mapping between conceptualization and human exploitation to the given environment, it is only an answer on the first level ordering. The question of cognitive licensing should be answered on each of the level orderings down to the most minimum form of semantic radical, of which nothing can be further decomposed and abstracted. It is noticeable that both participating component parties which intersected together to form the semantic radical (script) [13] ru ( ) 125 semantic radical [12] cao { ) On the second level ordering, the composed semantic radical [12] cao ( 4^4* ) The cognitive licensing of the second level ordering emphasized the massive situation of the constantly growing hoe-out weeds in farming fields, which is an absolute disaster to the human population. With this cognitive licensing, the semantic radical [11] che ( tp ) As a matter of fact, in the script form known as Zhou Wen •jC used during 500 BC in North China, even the quadruplication form of the radical [11] che ( If ) On the third level ordering, the semantic radical [11] che ( If ) 126 was actually a composed semantic radical. The commentary is read word by word as follows: "Che ( ), initially grown floras. A pictographic form like the trunk represented by the semantic radical [10] gun ( | ) growing out from the land with branches and leaves 1^41 ^ 1 ill 45^ % -&j •" This means that this semantic radical is intersected by two parts. For one of the parts [10] gun ( I ), the original commentary is read word by word as follows:"Gun ( J ), to go upward and downward. To go upwards reads as xin. To go downwards reads as luo | . J: 'T- ll. •" This is the most minimum form of the semantic radical which can not be further decomposed. The other part is what was previously indicated by the individual writing strokes in the form of a pictographic element with semantic properties. The original commentary reads word by word as follows: "like...with the branches and leaves ^ ... ^ iti •" This individual writing stroke of the pictographic element is ranked by the present study as PE[11-BTN]-1-PE3 ( W ) The cognitive licensing on the third level ordering emphasized the unstoppable natural process of the weeds growing, which eventually caused serious problems for the agriculture. The physical shape of the semantic radical [11] che ( tjJ ) On the fourth level ordering, the script {9736} ru ( ^ ) From this important commentary, the script in question is the categorical intersection of the two components. One is the semantic radical [532] chen ( ^ ), the other is the semantic radical [89] cun ( ). The scrip t {9736} ru {^ ) 127 of [532] chen ( ^ ) with its dominant semantic property. According to the original commentary, the semantic radical [532] chen ( ^ ) contains important semantic properties as follows: "Chen ( ^ ), to shake for the thousands of growing things. The Fifth Earthly Branch. The Third Month of the year. The Yang force moves to cause terrifying thunder shakes which marks the time for proper agricultural activities. The thousands of things then grow, rise, and aspire, at the Heavenly time when Heavenly Fang Star Mansion is high above ^ A; 't... ." For the other party, the semantic radical [89] cun ( ^ ), the original commentary is read as follows:"Cun ( tj" ), ten fen in measurement. From the artery on man’s arm to man’s hand is one cun in measurement, known as the mouth of cun. 4'- 6,. At*?- " It was these two semantic radicals that intersected with each other to compose the script {9736} ru ( ^ ) The cognitive licensing of the fourth level ordering emphasized the vital importance of the right timing for the right agricultural activities. From the semantic radical [532] chen ( ^ ) The categorical intersection of these two semantic radicals is based on the mapping of the conceptualization and the human exploitation of the given environment where the agricultural front is the life line for the entire population. The cognitive licensing which makes these two different semantic radicals be intersected with each other tells the truth that if the people missed the right farming season, it was not only a big shame, but they would be executed on the land. On the fifth level ordering, the composed semantic radical [532] chen ( ^ ) 128 For the analysis of cognitive licensing which brings these three different semantic radicals together to form another semantic radical (script), it is important to understand the semantic properties of each of them. According to the original commentary for the semantic radical [514] yi ( ), it carries the meaning as: "Yi ( Zi ), to grow out in a twisted way. Second Heavenly Stem. Position the East. Wood Elements of the Five Element. The Yin force tends to be strong. Spring floras are pressed but inevitably emerge. The meaning of the structure is the same as the structure of semantic radical [10] gun ( | ) The cognitive licensing on the fifth level ordering emphasized the relation among the nonnegotiable natural process for changes and the unstoppable botanical growth at the Spring season, and the exploitation activities which must be carried out by the human population that inhabited the area under the mountain cliff along the precipice in the areal environment. The semantic property carried by the semantic radical [514] yi ( Zj ) From the semantic radical [288] hua ( ) The third component part, the semantic radical [354] han ( J~ ) 129 precipice in the mountain area as sedentary communities or even large villages showing either shifting and continuous occupation of the area. The settlement patterns of this kind were proved by many archaeological discoveries in hundreds of sites of the Paleolithic Age^^ and particularly the sites of the Neolithic Age^^ in the vast land of China from North to South. However, the placement of this semantic radical as a part of the script structure in question is not to indicate the settlement patterns but to indicate the population who lived in the inhabitancies. In relation with the other two parts, this component part shows that the people must carry out the agricultural activities to meet the season. It was the cognitive licensing structures of these three different semantic radicals together that formed the semantic radical (script) [532] chen ( ^ ) On the sixth level ordering, which is the last level ordering of the script in question, the semantic radical [89] cun ( ^ ) The cognitive licensing on the sixth level emphasized the relationship among the universe, the human beings, and the mathematic measurement for a length unit based on the decimal system. The accurate measurement is in ten fen in length (1 fen equals to 1/10 of 1 cun. 1 cun equals to 0.33 cm. CF. 1 inch) based on the man’s right arm at the vital artery area in relation with the Great Summit dividing the Heaven and Earth as the starting point of the universe. The right hand of a man as the object of the standard for the measurement is represented by the semantic radical [76] shou ( ) 130 established at one, dividing Heaven and Earth, transforming thousands things and achievements), representing the starting number in the numerical decimal system, and an indication of a completed one length unit within which ten dividable fen are contained. It is noticeable that this semantic radical is a very active one representing different indications for structuring scripts. As a component, it is seen in the structures of forty-eight semantic radicals.By placing the semantic radical for the starting number of the decimal system together with the semantic radical for the right hand of a male as the measurement of vital artery area, the cognitive licensing with which that the sixth level ordering of the semantic radical in question is a mapping of the conceptualization and human exploitation of the world. It also implicationally indicates that the agricultural activities must deal with the universal operation of seasonal changes, and also deal with the nonnegotiable process of floral growth, including the constantly growing of the hoe-out weeds in the farming fields. On each of the six level orderings of the semantic radical in question [13] ru { ^ ) Should the above be true, as has so far been indicated, the cognitive licensing should also be in complete agreement with the fifty proposed cognitive categories of which each of the 540 semantic radicals has its linguistic semantic category located as cognitive psychological category as shown in Table I and Table II. In addition, with the filiation of all the fifty proposed cognitive categorizations into a seven-element anthropological ecological model for the interpretation of human exploitation of the environment shown in Figure 14, the proposed cognitive categories carried by the semantic radicals involved here should also show their relevancy rather than irrelevancy in their interrelationships among all members in this categorical intersection. These two aspects are not only necessary to the operational system but also serve as testing devices, verifiable from other disciplines, that secure the interpretation of the legitimacy of the categorical intersections. For the analysis from this perspective. Figure 18 provides a realistic observation testable onto all aspects of the legitimacy of the operations of the categorical intersections carried out by the authors of writing from their cognitive categorizations and conceptualization of the human 131 [1 2 ] cao ( W ) {9736} ru ( jfe. ) [11] che [11] che [532] chen [89] cun ( 4» ) { ) ( $ . ) { ) PE[11]-PE3 [514] yi [288] hua [354] han [76] shou [1] yi ( U ) ( ' L ) ( t ) ( r ) ( ^ ) Figure 18. The Cognitive Licensing in Alignment with Six Level Orderings is Legitimated by the Chinese Cognitive Categorizations and the Mapping of the Conceptualization and Human Exploitation of the Given Environment 132 exploitation of the environment in early China. Figure 18 precisely shows that the proposed cognitive categories of the semantic radicals involved in the creation of the semantic radical [13] ru ( ^ ) For the reflection and indication of the massive growing situation of hoe-out weeds in the farming fields, the cognitive categories involved in the categorical intersections are [Botany] and [Spacial Perception] (CF. [10], [11], PE[11]-PE3, [12]). Their anthropological ecological filiations are [NATURE] where [Botany] is one of the important objects known as flora, and [SETTLEMENT] where [Spacial Perception] is one of the capacities for the perception of dimensional expansion. For the reflection and indication of the true realization of the unstoppable natural process of flora growing in the Spring season, the cognitive categories involved here are [Heavenly Stem] and [Earthly Branch] (CF. [514], [532]). Their anthropological ecological filiation is [IDEOLOGY] where both of these two cognitive categories are located as part of the belief system. For the reflection and indication of the knowledge and experience of the very nature of the nonnegotiable and inevitable floral changes that occur at Spring time, the cognitive category involved here is [Chemistry] (CF [288]) for its [13] ru NC ) LS 200BC ( ! ^ ) ZW 500BC ( ) ^ ) OR 1750BC-1195BC ( ) quantitative alterations w ithout connections with moral, social, and educational efforts. Its anthropological ecological filiation is [IDEOLOGY] where this cognitive category is in the division of natural sciences. For the reflection and indication of the human involvement in exploitation, the cognitive category involved here is [Settlement Patterns] (CF. [354]). Its anthropological ecological filiation is [SETTLEMENT] where the cognitive category [Settlement Patterns] represented here the human occupation of the inhabitancies, inferring the human activities with respect to the environment at that season. For the reflection and indication of human measurement of the right timing for the right agricultural activities, the cognitive categories involved here are [Human Physiology], [Number and Mathematics], and [Measurement] (CF. [76], [1], [89]). Their anthropological ecological filiations are [HUMAN] where the cognitive category [Human Physiology] here refers to the body parts of humans whose activities with respect to the environment are reinforced in the semantic radical in question, and [SCIENCES] where the cognitive categories [Number and Mathematics] and [Measurement] are located in the natural sciences as accurate measures. 133 For the reflection and indication of the social organizations and laws for the severe punishment if the right time for the right agricultural activities is missed, the cognitive category involved here is [Code] (OF. {9736}). Its anthropological ecological filiation is [ORGANIZATION] where this cognitive category is under the section of laws. As the final completion of the categorical intersection, the cognitive category of the semantic radical [13] ru ( ) In view of the hierarchical architecture of the categorical intersections shown in Figure 18, the cognitive licensing is in alignment with each of the six level orderings, and is legitimated by the cognitive categorizations as well as the mapping between the conceptualization and human exploitation of the given environment. The interrelationship among the elements of the anthropological ecological model were also correctly reflected in the structure of this ordinary semantic radical among all other instances. The cognitive licensing is the navigation compass for any categorical intersections from which all the composed semantic radicals and scripts are directed. But the voyage will not be launched until the cognitive licensing is legitimated by the mapping of the conceptualization and exploitation of the environment. Since human exploitation for cultural adaptation is a continuous process from relatively low stages to relatively high stages, the conceptual mapping and cognition development to the exploitation are also showing a staged continuum from low to high. As a result, the semantic radicals and scripts, as visible realizations of human mental process, were not formed in one day or two, but were formed, accumulated, and developed bit by bit at different times throughout history. Until the time when the Shan g (1750BC-1100BC) was defeated, around 5,000 oracle bone scripts had been created and in frequent use for event records of the King House and elite class on over 100,000 incised oracle bones which have been excavated.^® Up to the early Qing Dynasty, scripts which were collected for imperial official dictionary Kang Xi Zi Dian (ca. 1710) totaled 47,035.^’ At the p resen t time, the collection of all recorded scripts which were in use at different historical periods totals over 60,000. From this evidence, the cognitive licensing which permits the legitimate categorical intersection of the semantic radicals for productively structuring scripts and enriching the entire writing system is actually a historical notion. The analysis of the present study shows that there are at least three different situations for the legitimacy and illegitimacy of the cognitive licensing when it is historically conditioned. In the first situation, the semantic radicals which originally could not be permitted for categorical intersection to form scripts at an early time could be intersected with each other for the creation of new scripts at a later time because the conceptual mapping is obtained from the cognition 134 development and knowledge of the world. In this situation, the writing system at some time can acquire new scripts for utilization. In the second situation, the alteration of the human exploitation of the environment might also cause the alteration of conceptual mapping, and hence, further affect the legitimacy of cognitive licensing. When this happened, the categorical intersection of the semantic radicals which was originally a legitimate operation becomes illegitimate at a certain time. In this situation, the writing system is seen to discard a script which either no longer is in use, gradually being forgotten, or is delinked and disappeared from the system finally. In the third situation, since the constantly changing technology forever changes the ways and means of human exploitation of the environment, the old conceptual mapping would develop into a new one while the old one is still retained, because both the old and new technologies are applicable. In this situation, the writing system is seen to develop a new script from the old script as derivation, and both the new and old scripts exist in the system for similar but after all differed utilization at the same time. No matter what situation which might occur, the fundamental principle by which the cognitive licensing can serve as a compass for the legitimate categorical intersections is that the cognitive licensing, in addition to other conditions, should be understood as a historical notion. It is legitimate only when the historical condition is met. At the first situation of categorical intersection, the cognitive licensing does not operate for intersection until the historical condition is available. One of the instances is the script for "district", a subsystem under the administration of the county level. It is well documented that the political and administrative format of the Shang (1750BC-1100BC) already acquired all features of a country, a state, or a nation. The large scale urban development in ancient China, however, started in the Western Zhou (1100BC-771BC).^® The division of the county system with the d istrict subsystem appeared at the Eastern Zhou (771BC-256BC).^® As part of the human exploitation of the environment, the development of settlement patterns definitely reflected in the conceptualization and cognitive categorization, brought to the writing system new scripts directed by the cognitive licensing which permits new categorical intersection of the semantic radicals on the basis of the historical condition. The script created for the newly established administrative subsystem known as "jun" was also collected by Xu Shen with detailed interpretation and was ranked as the script {3978} jun ( ^ ) 135 [229] yi {837} jun Script {3978} ( ) jun Figure 19. Cognitive Licensing for the Categorical Intersection is Legitimate When the Historical Condition is Met. Categorical Intersection Permitted After 771BC Only Script {3978} jun The two components of the categorical intersection, the semantic radical [229] yi (-Jli ) Both these two oracle bone scripts were very popular and regulated written forms incised on many oracle bones, but the intersection never occurred between these two scripts. Only when the settlement patterns developed to the stage of ancient urbanization with county system and district subsystem, did the exploitation of the environment provide the necessity for new scripts for written communication. The conceptual mapping of the human exploitation process motivated the cognitive licensing which therefore permitted the categorical intersection of the two parties. As a result, the writing system saw the addition of a new cognitive 136 licensing and the acquisition of a new script. With the historical condition, the originally non-existent categorical intersection of the semantic radicals became legitimate. In the second situation of legitimate intersection, cognitive licensing lost its power when the historical condition was no longer available. One of the instances is the script for "sacrificial animals". During the time of the late Neolithic Age, the Shang (1750BC-1100BC) was already in sedentary occupation for agricultural subsistence. The hunting and gathering, and domestication of wild animals were still a part of the subsistence practices for a healthy economy. The sheep and ox were both sacrificial animals at the ritual ceremony for the divination. Oracle bone scripts concerning these subjects were realized in clear visible forms through the conceptual mapping of the exploitation to meet the social needs. [OR] Sheep [OR] Ox ( ^ ) ( If: ) ( V ) [Shang Phase III. 1155BC-1143BC. Jia 2091)^“ ( (p" ) [Shang Phase IV. 1143BC-1136BC Jia 775]“ ' - ) [Western Zhou Phase II. 976BC-869BC)^^ ? ) [WS. Jade Inscription. 179.8. 475BC-221BC]“ Categorical Intersection Perm itted During 1155BC-221BC Only Figure 20. Cognitive Licensing for the Categorical Intersection is Legitimate When the Historical Condition is Met. [OR] Sheep/Ox Categorical Intersection Perm itted During 1155BC-221BC Only 137 One such script is the categorical intersection of the script for "sheep" located on the upposition and the script for "ox" located at the low position as [OR] ( ) [Or. Shang Phase III. 1155BC-1143BC Jia f 2091]^^ and it also took the form as [OR] ) [Or. Shang Phase IV. 1143BC- 1136BC Jia 775].^® This script was in use also in the subsequent Western Zhou (1100BC-771BC) as a cast bronze script [BR] ( ) (Br. W estern Zhou P hase II. 976BC-869BC. Sandai 8.44 Further late, during the Warring States (475BC-221BC), it was also seen in the jade inscriptions of oaths as [WS] ( ) [WS. Jade Inscription 179.8. Warring States 475BC-221BC].^’ But at the time of the Eastern Han (AD 25-220) when Xu Shen collected all the Lesser Seal Scripts in use for interpretation, this script was no longer in the system, and there is no such script in his book, hence, no one knows what the meaning of the script in question really was, because neither its structure, semantic property and or sound description were on the available record. Figure 20 illustrated the situation. Some modern scholars raised arguments speculating that the meaning of this script is "red horse"^® without bothering to see that all scripts about "horse" are in Category Horse which unexceptionally takes the most minimum semantic radical [370] ma (,^ ) In fact, the script [OR] ( ^ ) is the categorical intersection of the two semantic radicals. If viewed from the Lesser Seal Scripts system, one of the semantic radical is the most minimum form [19] riu ( ) According to the oracle bone inscriptions excavated, the script in question [OR] ( ) appeared in at least twenty incised bones.®® All of the oracle bone inscriptions used this script referring to the penned and ready-for-use sacrificial ox and sheep as a whole. The cognitive licensing permitting these two semantic radicals to intersect with each other was based on the conceptual mapping of the belief system of the exploitation process. When the sacrificial ritual ceremony of slaughtering ox and sheep for divination was no longer popular and even stopped by the time when Xu Shen collected all scripts, the cognitive licensing did not have a base to offer the permission for the categorical intersection of the semantic radicals [19] riu ( ) 138 exploitation of the environment did not show the motivation, but only the lack of motivation due to the unavailability of the reality; the cognitive licensing for the categorical intersection also expired due to historical conditions. Hence, the originally legitimate script becomes illegitimate. In the third situation of the legitimate intersection, the cognitive licensing operated to form a new script from the old one when historical conditions are met, meanwhile, retaining the old script for deviated utilization. One of the instances is the script for "salt", an important object to human life, and a key commodity intimately related to politics, fiscal policy, and economic structure in traditional societies of the world. During the time when the Shang (1750BC-1100BC) was a great empire occupying vast land from North to South, its scope to the West included Sichuan area.^^ A major salt industry was established in this area by the acquisition of bittern as natural salt from the saline earth for the daily use of the Shang inhabitants living West of the Taihang Mountains. For the Shang people who lived East of the Taihang Mountains, the source of the natural salt was from the brine in the sea as salt solution in the Shandong peninsula. Official trade of the natural salt products through chariot transportation by the King’s household and the elite class to the neighboring barbarian states were also established as one of the major commercial and exporting items. The topography and politics combined to give the natural salt a unique importance as the most accessible source of income. The cognitive licensing with which categorical intersection for a script for the natural salt was obtained came from the mapping of the conceptualization and human exploitation of the environment, especially from the larger inland salt base in West China. As a result, the authors of the w riting of the Shang (1175BC-1100BC) created an oracle bone scrip t [OR] *lu ) At the time when Xu Shen collected all the Lesser Seal Scripts for interpretation, this script was not only in use with the regulated shape and the same semantic properties, but also was selected by him as one of the 540 semantic radicals representing one of the most important concepts of the Chinese culture, although under its division, there are only two scripts that were formed. The commentary from Xu Shen concerning the structure of this script is read as follows: "Lu ( ), bittern natural salt from the saline earth in West China. The semantic radical is a reduced form of the semantic radical [434] xi ( 139 From the original commentary, the structure of the semantic radical [435] lu ( ) For the semantic radical [434] xi ( \57 ) When these two individual writing strokes intersected with each other to form the semantic radical [434] xi ( \& ) With the overall development of sciences and technology, human population, social organization, and subsistence practices including commercial trade, the salt industry became a very demanding enterprise during the time of the Eastern Zhou (770BC-256BC). The b ittern natural salt from the saline earth in West China no longer could meet the increasingly aggressive consumer needs and foreign trade. The human-made salt products were regarded as better merchandize and an urgent exploitation strategy developed. On the other hand, the original national-run salt industries also faced tremendous challenges from liberal small businessmen who frequently shut down the market by either lower or higher prices in comparison with the market value. In order to have the situation under control, the government of E astern Zhou (770BC-256BC) began to use new politico-economic- 140 technological strategies to meet the challenges. The new policies were applicable to all aspects of a new salt industry including the statement of the government ownership of all the salt industries; the establishment of a ministry office to control the policies of salt production; the replacement of the old technology of collecting bittern as natural salt from the saline earth to the new technology of extracting the salt from high salinity mines and cooking the salt for purification; the reinforcement of ritual ceremonies in the salt industrial bases for absolute ideological control in order to work the salt workers to death for maximum efficiency of the labor force and greater amount of salt products; and finally, the laws and regulations for the use of different salt products to different peoples at different circumstances according to different social identities and official ranks. The application of the new policies completely changed the adaptation strategies in terms of human exploitation. Historical evidence written afterwards recorded some of the policy changes and government regulations of the salt industry at that time. For instance, in Zhou Li: Tian Guan Xia [ The Book of Zhou Rituals. Heavenly Ministries, ca 500BC distribution] it is recorded as follows: "The salt official of the ministry of the Zhou government controls the policies and administration of the salt industries and production in order to provide the salt for hundreds of businesses. For ritual ceremonies, based on different occasions, either the normal salt production extracted from the mines was provided for direct use without purification, or the salt production was provided with purification. For trade to the foreign guests, based on different people, either the shaped solid salt products or the scattered purified salt products were provided. For the King’s household and houses of the elite class, the high quality refined cooking salt was provided. For all other uses of the salt in food production, the salt was cooked ready from the salt pond East of the Yellow River, and was held pending orders from the ministry officials who controlled the policies. ^ A# ^ ^ •' The government control of the salt industry and ranked utilization of the salt products were only one part of an overall picture of the Eastern Zhou (770BC- 256BC). According to archaeological excavations and historical textual data, the policies on salt were parallel to policies on all the principle manufacturing industries including bronze, iron, coal, ceramics, silk textiles, and coin mintage.^® Such policies were also adopted in subsequent historical periods particularly the W estern Han (206BC-AD25) and Eastern Han (AD25-AD220) when the Zhou system was highly respected through the official recognition of the Confucianism as the standard ideology of the nation and of the Chinese people as a whole. Plate VIII shows an important and precious stone rubbing^® from an Eastern Han (AD25-AD220) tomb excavated at the site of Sichuan Chengdou Yangzishan Yihaomu VWJ'| ^ of the Sichuan Province of Southwest China where the Shang (1750BC- llOOBC) and the Zhou (1100BC-256BC) established th eir salt industrial bases. 141 Plate VIII. The Imperial-Run Salt Industrial Base in West China for the Human-Made Salt Production during the Eastern Han (AD 25-220) Retained Eastern Zhou (770BC-256BC) Policies and Technologies. The Cognitive Licensing of Semantic Radicals for A New Script Became Legitimated When the Historical Condition Was Met. Original Stone Rubbing. Property of the Tang China Foundation 1993. Length: 46.7cm, Width: 45cm. Cf. Shi Yan (Shanghai 1983: 239. Plate 285.) 142 This stone rubbing from a base-relief carving depicts a saltern where ten salt workers of the Eastern Han (AD 25-220) are making the human- made salt from the natural salt deposit. A three-storied workshop with two high platforms was built on the salt well at the mine. Four salt workers in two groups are using a sling hanging across the wheel as an elevator to lift the mine salt from the salt well by cableway bucket. Outside this workshop, several saltworkers are pulling the chain sling by human power. Beside the workshop, there is a roofed house with a stove. Two lady- workers are cooking the mine salt in the house for purification. On the highland beside the hills there are two official-like people. One with a whip in hand, another with a running dog, they keep watch from a superior position on the saltworkers below them. This stone rubbing actually shows the realistic situation of the imperial-run salt industrial base for human- made salt production under the government control and also the policy change, and the technology by which the human-made salt was produced. The changes of the means and ways of the human exploitation of the environment reflected the mental processes of the authors of writing in early China. The conceptual mapping of the changing exploitation aroused the necessity for the creation of a new script for the salt of a new concept from human cognitive categorization. The cognitive licensing obtained from the mapping of conceptualization and human exploitation of the environment permitted new categorical intersections for the creation and utilization of a new script for the cultural adaptation. The application of the cognitive licensing was started from when the historical condition had been met. This new script for the salt of new concept had to have the family relation with its historical antecedent, since both refer to salt, but also had to differentiate itself from the old script for the natural salt used over a thousand years as [OR] *lu ( ^ ) This new script was created around 500BC as yan ( ^ ) For the structure of this new script, the original commentary is read as follows:"Yan ( ^ ), salt. The natural salt is termed as [435] lu ( ^ ), 143 the human-made salt is termed as yan. The semantic radical of this script Is [435] lu ( i& ). The phonetic radical Is a script {5212} jlan ( ^ •&. AA 1^ . 7^' ^ From this structural Interpretation, It Is clear that the new script for human-made salt actually contains the semantic properties of the old script for the natural salt from earth In West China. The cognitive licensing brings together the semantic radical [435] lu (l^) It seems that the participating component, the script {5212} jlan ^ { ^ ) As a participating component for forming the semantic radical [436] yan { ^ ) On the third level ordering, the component script {5212} jlan ( ^ ) On the fourth level ordering, the semantic radical [297] wo ( ^ ) 144 Heaven and E arth> and the most minimum form of semantic radical [85] chen ( ) On the fifth level ordering, the script {3154} kan ( ) On the sixth level ordering, the semantic radical [173] xie ( SsL ) On the seventh level ordering, the script {4493} han ( ^ ) The cognitive licensing for different semantic radicals and script parts to carry out categorical intersections to form the new script for the human -made salt around 500BC reflects clearly the historical condition for the creation. In comparison with its historical antecedent for the notion of natural salt, this new script for the human-made salt was created only at this time and installed all the politico-economic-technological changes. In view of the stone rubbing displayed in Plate VIII, the realistic situation of the government-run salt base in West China is reflected into the structure of the new script for human-made salt. The cognitive licensing operated to derive a new script from the old one when the historical condition was met, meanwhile, retaining the old script for deviated utilization. This is known as the third situation of the legitimate intersection. Around four hundred years after the creation of the new script, an important national debate on salt and iron industries was held in 81 BC (Xi Han Shiyuan Liunian ) at the capital city of the Western Han (221BC-AD25), known as Yan Tie Hui Yi ^ ^ [The National 145 Debate on Salt and Iron Industries]. Over sixty famous intellectuals acted as lawmakers from all over the country to "deal with the hardship of the people" fa ] . They criticized the policies of government-run salt and iron industries, the quality standards, the official-controlled distributions, and the most consistently formulated tax code for salt products as the most accessible source of government income. They proposed private ownership of the salt and iron industries, overall reform of the technology and working conditions, democratization of the selling and reselling, and fundamental departure of the laws for a middle class tax-cut. Their liberal capitalistic ideas were defeated by a high ranking court statesman, a great legalist conservative politician Sang Hong-yang ^ ^ (152BC-80BC) who defended complete governm ent control of the salt and iron industries. The whole debate was well recorded in a book entitled Van Tie Lun % {On Salt and Iron, 81BC distribution) by Huan Kuan % (7BC-70BC?). Should the liberal intellectual lawmakers have won the debate and established another major policy change on salt industry and early Chinese capitalism, the script for the human-made salt might also have been changed by the new cognitive licensing from conceptual mapping of the capitalistic exploitation of the environment for new legitimate categorical intersections, when the historical conditions would have been met. Nevertheless, many social, political, economic, and technological changes have altered the Chinese salt industries throughout the centuries, particularly during 1913-1918 when Sir Richard Dane, one of the leading figures of European imperialism introduced Western administrative methods to the Chinese salt industries,^® and Chinese capitalist rivals rose up to reconstruct the long-established Chinese institution. Both the semantic radical [435] lu ( ^ ) (bittern natural salt from saline earth in West China> and semantic radical [436] yan ( ^ ) (human-made salt> have always been in absolute stability in their structural identities, and their semantic properties, and have prolonged to the contemporary time. Until in 1958, in a national campaign to eliminate illiteracy, the new script [436] yan ( ) (human-made salt> acquired an officially issued version ( ) as a simplification of the original one created around 500BC, for a less complex structure, less writing strokes, and easier writing for the people and media. This script for human-made salt yields the first human-made change after more than two thousand four hundred years to meet the new historical condition, while the original one is still legitimate for use in the system. The script for bittern natural salt remains the same all the while with its legitimacy obtained from the cognitively licensed categorical intersection motivated by the conceptual mapping of the human exploitation of the given environment, the filiation of the historical condition, and the historical antecedent for further derivation. It has always been new to boys and girls in their early school years. As new as when it was first created at the Shang Phase I of four thousand years ago, with its mysterious story untold. 146 3.3. Distinct Gradations One of the important natural phenomena is the quantitative differences among objects, the dimensions of degree changes of certain things in a gradual continuum, and the temporal framework in terms of past, present and future. The strategies of the Chinese language, different from those of the Indo-European language family, genetically marks these aspects with complete and detailed account by clearly specified adjectives, adjectival phrases, adverbs and adverbial phrases without inflectional morphological changes in its parts of speech. The strategies of this kind have made the Chinese language one of the five most precise and effective languages used in the United Nations, and have placed it in contrast with almost all Indo- European, Slavic, and African languages, where morphological inflections are highly favored, particularly in rural Africa where the inflection of a single verb may well involve above eighteen changeable cases. However, along the theoreticad direction that the conceptual mapping of the human exploitation of the environment should reflect into the cognitive capacity of the human mind, which affect the cognitive categorizations within which the invisible semantic categories are formed for the readiness of the visible semantic radicals of the writing system, all these aspects should be inevitably perceived by the authors of writing in early China, and would leave some traceable signatures representing the cognitive categorization of these aspects in the visible written scripts which the authors of writings in early China created. Questions along this line are to search if there was any similar enthusiasm for the universal popularity to mark the quantitative changes and the comparative degrees within morphological units, and how such markings happened within a Chinese script, and how they differ in ways and means in comparison with the rest of the writing systems used in the world. Evidence of this type is precious in that it can provide important information on how the environment defines the means and ways of human behaviors, and how the behavioral patterns of human exploitation to the environment feedback into the conceptual mapping, cognition, and further into the behavioral patterns of the semantic radicals. The investigation of the present study indicates that the quantitative differences in terms of number and precise quantities, and the gradual changes within a continuum in terms of comparative degree of either abstract or concrete objects, are indeed reflected on the surface structures of scripts, yielding patterned morphological changes of the semantic radicals and scripts for the purpose of indicating these important categories existing in human conceptualization. Although morphological changes are not the strategy in the Chinese language and writing system, a considerably large inventory of the instances of the types with patterned behaviors and regulated principles have been found. These instances include some of the most minimum semantic radicals and composed semantic radicals within the 540 semantic radical system, and also some scripts. They are across mainly verbs, adjectives, and numerals, but with the largest inventory in nouns. Investigation shows clear evidence that there is a 147 process of gradate reduplication of the semantic radicals undergoing distinct gradations along a certain continuum within a semantic category. The process of gradate reduplication is a process whereby a semantic category represented by a semantic radical in written form reduplicates itself within a categorical configuration to produce scripts with distinct gradations indicating the quantitative differences and comparative degrees with distinctly gradated ranges within a categorical domain. This process is a rule governed operation. There are at least three rules which can be formulated as follows: [1] The gradate reduplication operates on limited inventories within and only within a categorical domain, technically taking the most minimum form of semantic radicals as prerequisite, and the legitimate intersection as the antecedent. These inventories include verbs, adjectives, nouns, and numerals with consistent patterns to indicate changes of numbers; changes of degrees; and changes of combined issues for frequency levels. [2] The categorical domain shows distinct gradations by the gradate reduplication of a semantic radical, normally, with the first gradation on equal initial footing indicating the singular number or the first comparative degree or frequency levels, with the second gradation indicating dual number or second comparative degree or frequency levels, and with the third gradation indicating plural number to infinite or third comparative degree or frequency levels. The fourth gradation only occurred for innumerable and extremely high degree or frequency levels. [3] The gradate reduplication of the semantic radicals within a categorical domain is of patterned morphological change and is of morphological inflection in nature, with the motivation from conceptualization of human exploitation of the environment for cultural adaptation. The gradate reduplication process for distinct gradations is a very important strategy for the composition of some scripts essential to the writing system. Some key evidence and patterned consistency which the academic world has never known are discovered and displayed for the interpretation of some aspects of Chinese cognitive categorizations. Evidence indicates that the inventories which the process of gradate reduplication of the semantic radicals operated on are a limited inventory of semantic radicals and scripts. Ample instances provided in Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5 show the results of the investigation and analysis on reconstructed distinct gradations realized from gradate reduplication of semantic radical within a categorical domain from Shang Phase I (1750BC- 1195BC) to the Northern Song (AD986) on changes of numbers, changes of degrees, and changes of frequency levels. There are 64 configuration units of the morphological changes with a total of 150 semantic radicals and scripts involved. Among them, there are 37 most minimum semantic radicals, 83 composed semantic radicals, and 30 scripts. They represent 8 numerals, 25 verbs, 6 adjectives, and 111 nouns. The surface statistics show that 22.2% of the semantic radicals of the 540 semantic radical system are in process of gradate reduplication for 148 Table 3. Paradigms of Inflected Chinese Scripts Formed by the Process of Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals within A Categorical Domain th ro u g h Morphological Inflection (1750BC-AD986): Changes of Numbers [001]A y i" — NMT Numl One. At beginning of Great Summit. [479]C re — NMT Num2 Two, number of th e Earth. [004]C san^^ NMT Num3 Three, the Tao of Heaven, Earth, Man. [054]C S h i " + NMT Numl Ten. Fullness of numbers. {1465} nie^^ -tf- NMT Nura2 Twenty. Two tens coexistence. [055]C sa^^ n NMT Num3 Thirty, three tens as span of succession, {2221} b o " NMT Numl One hundred. Ten tens. [106]C b i" NMT Num2 two hundred. [184]A r u " \ PH 8 Vtl to go from outside to inside, to enter. {3259} liang^^ AX PHS Vt2 to go from outside to inside twice. [404]C li" BHV Vil to stand. [405JC bing’"'* IS. BHV Vt2 to juxtapose. [521]C xin^^ HVS Vtl to harvest writh pain of criminal slaves. [522JC bian^^ CRM Vi2 to litigate each other, two criminals. [085]A chen^^ . 6 POL Vtl to pull & bend one as rulers’ official {1944} kuang POL Vt2 to be disagreeable, of two officials. [006]C yu% jE MRL N1 Beautiful jade stones writh moralities. [007]C jue ï i ART N2 Two jades fitting well as one. [0271P S hi" t FHR N1 Low base. Et. human foot. [0281C bo^^ BHV N2 Two human legs stretch out. [029]C b u " 0- BHV N2 Two human foot make slow steps. [109]P zhui^^ # ORN N1 Genre of birds writh short feather tails. [117]C chou^^ ORN N2 A pair of birds. [118]C za^^ & ORN N3 Many birds in a flock. [168]C h u " ZLG N1 King of mountain animals. Tiger. [169]C yan^^ ZLG N2 Two tig ers writh anger. [229]C y i" _ 7». GOV N1 State, nation, country. [2301C xiang^’ DPM N2 Neighboring two fiefs. [2871P ren^^ A HMNN1 Noblest of Heaven-Earth, human being. [290]C cong^^ /A HRL N2 Two persons agree writh each other. [291]C b f^ HRL N2 Two persons being die-hard clique. [2921C bef^ GLC N2 Two persons oppose with each other. [294JC y in " SOC N3 Many people at least three in number. [350]P shan^^ til TPG N1 High mountain writh towering rocks. [351]C shen^*^ ilul) TPG N2 Twin mountains stand facing. 149 Table 3 (Continuation) [357]C B hi" TPG NI Mountain rock. {6017} * 4 TPG N3 Many mountain rocks. [362]P Shi” ZLG NI Wild boar, swine. {6057} pin’^ ZLG N2 Two wild boar, two swine. [370]P m a" ZLG NI Horse, angry and martial animal. {6209} p o n g " % ZLG N3 Many horses running together. [3721C l u " ZLG NI Deer, genus of animal. [373]C e u " â ZLG N3 Many deers leap high to run. [377]P quan^® ZLG NI Dog, with legs tw isted and tail hang. [3783C ZLG N2 Two dogs which bite at each other. {6340} ZLG N3 Many dogs in running. [4101P sh u f^ PVE NI Water level, water, river. [411]C zhui^ V HYD N2 Two parallel rivers. {7419} miao^^ HYD N3 Many rivers with vast waters. [416JP quan^^ HYD NI Fountainhead of the water. [417]C xun^^ % HYD N3 Many fountainheads of water. [424]P ICS NI Fish, water creatures with four legs. [425]C ICS N2 Two fish in single file in water. {7632} xian i» ' ICS N3 (Many) live and fresh fish. [437]P h u " ARC NI One piece of the door leafs. [438]C men^^ ARC N2 Two pieces of doorleafs formed door. [471]P ENT NI Type of insects tiny in sizes. [4721C kün" ENT N2 Genre of insect in general term. [4731C c h o n g " ^ ENT N3 Many insects with legs together. [484]C tian^^ ® LDS NI Field with road/channel regulations. [485]C chen^^ ^ LDS N2 Adjacent two fields close in distance. [4881P l i " PHS NI Workable human energy and strength. [4891C xie^^ PHS N3 Many human strengths in unity. [495]P jin " TCH NI Axe of civil-use for cutting wood. {9430} y in " TCH N2 Two civil axes for cutting wood. [498]P c h e " TTR NI Chariot and wheeled conveyances. {9552} hong^^ %TTR N3 Many chariots rolling over. [500]P f u " TPG NI High plateaux w/ mountain no rocks. [501JC f u " htTPG N2 Two high plateau form valley. 150 Table 4. Paradigms of Inflected Chinese Scripts Formed by the Process of Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals within A Categorical Domain th rough Morphological Inflection (1750BC-AD986): Changes of Comparative Degrees [003]C shi^'* ^ ATR Vtl to count to manifest Earth, by Heaven. {070} Buan^^ ATR Vt2 to count more clearly. [016]A ba^^ / \ ^ NMT Vtl to divide Yin and Yang, eight. {714} bie T4 ^ NMT Vt2 to divide even deeper [056]C yan^^ % HRL Vil to speak out directly. [0571C jing^“ "CS HRL Vt2 to speak faster in competitive manner. {1717} y ao " S HRL Vt3 to speak in fastest way without stop. [147]A gong"^^ X TCH Vtl to work skillfully, to decorate artfully. [148]C zhan^^ ir TCH Vt4 to work extremely skillful and artfully. [207]C d o n g " * , GLC Vtl to move with power. Et. East direction. {3819} (lack) GLC Vt2 to move with more powers. [215]C sh e n g " SPA Vil to emerge on, of floras on earth. {3853} seng T1 SPA Vi2 to emerge more in parallel patterns. [525JP zi" 4-j- ERB Vtl to multiply offspring. [527]C c h a n " # MRL Vi3 to best care offsprings cautiously. [123]A yaoT1 SPA A1 Small in size. [124]C youT1 SPA A2 Smaller in size. Tiny, subtle. [388]C c h i" CLR A1 Red. Color of the South. {6550} he’^ CLR A2 The red is as red as fire. [096]A yao T3 ATR N1 Criss-cross divine changing patterns. [097 ]c ir~T3 ATR N2 Broader changing patterns of all. [114]C y a n g " ^ ZLG N1 Auspiciousness, sheep. [115]C shan^^ ZLG N3 Many sheep with rancid smell. [206]C m u" PVE N1 Trees break the Earth to emerge. [208]C lin^^ BTN N2 Heavy woods/bamboos grow on land. {3828} sen^^ % BTN N3 Heavest trees growing in situation. [231]C ri'T4 B AST N1 Sun, solid, full, fullness. [236]C jing T1 PHS N3 Brilliant glittering light. [261]C pin” :|l. IND N1 Thin hemp skins separated from stalks. [262]C pai IND N2 Genre of thinner hemp fabrics. [267]P gua;T l AGR N1 Genre of liana floras. Melon, gourd. {4520} yu"T3 hsiK AGR N2 The fruit is stronger than liana. 151 Table 4 (Continuation) [303]P mao^^ ^ - PHY NI Human and animal hairs of all kinds. [304]C cuf* ZLG N3 Animals’ hairs in highest densities. & [382]P huo” FVE NI Fire which destroys all. [383]C y®"!! lu. PHS N2 Rising flame and heat. [386]C yan RIT N3 Sparks of burning fire highly rising. k [41310 quan^^ < HYD NI Channel along hills for farming. [4141C kuaf^ HYD N2 Larger channel of 100 miles. [4151C chuan )l| HYD N3 Largest channel of over 100 miles. [4271C ICS NI Dragon. King of scaled creatures. {7643} 5 ^ " # 1 lOS N2 More powerful dragon flying. [4631P gongTi MLT NI Bow. Extreme exhaustion of the enemy [4641C jiang’^ MLT N2 Double strong. Stronger bow. [4671P m i" TOH NI Silk thread treated thinnest status. [46910 s i" #: TOH N2 Silk thread treated in thinner status. [48010 t u " FVE NI The earth that reveals all things. {9090} i GOV N2 Finer jade from earth for official use. [48110 yao^ 6 TPG N3 Highest earth in altitude. [4991P d u i" TPG N2 Hills, earthen mounds. [5001P fu” %. TPG N3 Highest plateaux mountain no rocks. 152 Table 5. Paradigms of Inflected Chinese Scripts Formed by the Process of Gradate Reduplication of Semantic Radicals within A Categorical Domain th rough Morphological Inflection (1750BC-AD986): Changes of Frequency Levels [318]C jian^* BHV Vtl to see, to look, [319JC yao^‘‘ POL Vt2 to see bi-directionally. [126]A CLR A1 Distant, black with red of sixth dye. {2488} CLR A2 Black, black color. [011]C che^^ BTN N1 Initially grown floras. [012]C cao” # BTN N2 Plants of all kinds. {628} hui” J L BTN N3 General term for plants of all kinds. [014]C BTN N4 Multitudinous grass. [022JP kou^® tJ PHY N1 Human mouth for speaking and eating. [024JC xuan^^ DO PSY N2 Scream and cry from human mouth. [042]C SOC N3 Multitudinous people w/ many mouths. [045]C SOC N4 Sayings from mouths of all people. [099]P m u^ PHY N1 Human eye with double pupils. [lOOlC ju ’’^ BHV N2 Glances of bi-directionally. [228]P bei^^ TRD N1 Treasury used as currency for trade. {3966} win^^ *■81, ART N2 More valuable ornaments on neck. [241]C Xi?! AST N1 Evening, dusk. [242]C duo^^ SPA N2 Increase, layer upon layer. [253]G he” AGR N1 Standing fine grain plant with ears. [2543C liT4 TCH N2 Each two rice plants w/ proper space [375]C tu ” ZLG N1 Rabbit animal, hare. {6255} fu” ZLG N3 Many rabbits run in swift speed. [408]P xin^^ ANA N1 Human heart. [409]C ru i” PSY N3 Human heart which has many doubts. [439]C e r” PHY N1 Organ in charge of hearing, ear. {7774} die^^ PHY N2 to be peaceful, to be fit and suitable. {7775} nie^^ > BHV N3 Private talk close to the ears. [443]P nyu” -it HMN N1 Female person, woman. {8295} nuan^ PSY N2 Dispute argument between two weman {8296} gan” 4 . CRM N3 Private acted sexes with many women. 153 morphological changes. In this process, 74% are nouns, 16.7% are verbs, 5.3% are numerals, and 4% are adjectives. This is the evidence which the present study is able to collect from the dictionary by Xu Shen. They separately involve changes of numbers only, changes of comparative degrees only, and changes of combined issues which the present study classified as the changes of frequency levels. It is evident that not all relevant Chinese scripts are in the process of gradate reduplication for the morphological changes of marking numbers or degrees or frequency levels. The limited inventory involvement suggests that the process of gradate reduplication in Chinese scripts was only partially operated. The reason may be various. A major discovery of the w riting system supposedly existing before the Shang (1750BC-1100BC) is needed for interpreting whether or not the limited evidence collected is the historical remains of the previous writing system, since the writing system used even a t the Shang Phase I (1750BC-1195BC) was already highly developed. For a better understanding of these instances, a concise version of the interpretation for semantic properties from the recorded original etymology is provided for each of the entries to show that the morphological changes are in alignment with the changes of the semantic properties which were contained within. Other relevant information with regard to each of the items is also provided in further detail. The gradate reduplication operates within and only within a semantic categorical domain. To observe from the surface, it seems that all of the involved semantic radicals and scripts listed are carrying out categorical intersections for composing new scripts. However, differences of the operation in Table 3-5 can be detected after close analysis of the processes. In comparison with the categorical intersections which have been analyzed in the previous section, the operation here is not carried out by two or more different semantic radicals, but rather within the limit of one and only one semantic category represented by one and only one semantic radical (script). As a result, the final output takes the form of a reduplicated script of the one which launched the operation, rather than a form with many different semantic radicals composing together with certain positions for layouts. Consequently, reduplicated forms in Table 3-5 show the semantic properties with quantitative and degree changes along a certain continuum, rather than a form with two or more different semantic categories installing together for joint semantic properties. Finally, the semantic radicals and scripts in each of the configuration units show clear diffusion from the categorical center toward out-circles as if all is waves within a ripple, and each of the waves shows sectioned distance from the equal initial footing with gradate semantic changes along a certain continuum within the categorical domain. Figure 21 shows how changes of numbers, changes of comparative degrees, and changes of frequency levels are achieved from the process of gradate reduplication within a categorical domain. Since the gradate reduplication is operated on the initial footing, which is a semantic radical itself within a categorical domain, the existence of footing becomes the prerequisite of any on-set of operations. Should the 154 Changes of Numbers