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Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Chapter One

Background and Introduction

title chapter page

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© Libor Vojtíšek, Ján Lacika, Jan W. Jongepier, Florentina Pop

CHAPTER?INDD  Chapter One: Background and Introduction

he encompass Their total length of 1,500 km is greater than that many unique landscapes, and natural and of the at 1,000 km, the at 800 Tcultural sites, in an expression of both km and the Pyrenees at 500 km (Dragomirescu geographical diversity and a distinctive regional 1987). The Carpathians’ average altitude, how­ evolution of human-environment relations over ever, of approximately 850 m. is lower compared time. In this KEO Report, the “Carpathian to 1,350 m. in the Alps. The northwestern and ” is defined as the Carpathian Mountains southern parts, with heights over 2,000 m., are and their surrounding areas. The box below the highest and most massive, reaching their offers a full explanation of the different delimi- greatest elevation at ’s Gerlachovsky tations or boundaries of the Carpathian Mountain Peak (2,655 m.). region and how the chain itself and surrounding areas relate to each other. Stretching like an arc across Central , they span seven countries starting from the The Carpathian Mountains are the largest, in the northwest, then running longest and most twisted and fragmented moun- east and southwards through Slovakia, , tain chain in Europe. Their total surface area is , and , and finally 161,805 sq km, far greater than that of the Alps in the Carpathians’ extreme southern at 140,000 sq km. Stretching between 49047’14’’ reach (see Map 1.1, and Table 1.1 for country and 43028’25’’ latitude North and 16058’37’’ and areas and populations in Carpathians). By some 26038’46’’ longitude East, their extension over definitions, the westernmost tip of the Carpa­ 6o of latitude and 10o longitude has led to their thians occurs in eastern (“Hainburger exhibiting a great diversity of natural conditions. Berge” Hill near ; 480 m).

Table 1.1 Area and Population of the Carpathians by Country (EURAC 2006)

National Proposals to the CFC Country Area (sq. km.) in the Percentage of total Inhabitants Percentage of Carpathians’ Carpathians Carpathians’ area in millions total population CZ 7,124 4.4 1.46 8.4 HU 9,626 6.0 1.77 10.2 PL 17,263 10.7 3.47 19.9 RO 69,872 43.11 4.87 27.9 SK 35,050 21.66 3.80 21.8 Serbia 761 0.47 0.06 0.4 UA 22,109 13.66 1.98 11.4 Total 161,805 100 17.41 100

 The surface corresponds to the Carpathian countries’ National Proposals to the CFC (EURAC 2006). 18 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Map 1.1 The Carpathian Mountains and their sub-units

The Carpathians represent the prolongation of North of Vienna on Czech territory, the limit be- the Alps to the east and northeast, from which tween the Carpathians and the Bohemian Plateau they are separated by the (see Map and Sudeten Mountains is represented by the 1.2). Most of the Carpathians are located in the Outer Carpathian Depressions (Dyjsko-svratecký middle and the lower parts of the River úval, Hornomoravský úval, Vyš­ Basin, with the remainder in the , kovská brana), which are drained by the upper and basins. courses of the and Odra rivers. To the south, the Carpathians extend into Serbian territo­ 19 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Map 1.2 The Carpathians in Europe

ry up to the Timok Valley, which separates them Piedmont to the south. On the “inner” mountain from the Stara Planina Mountains (> 2,000 m.). side, the large Pannonian Depression separates the Carpathians from the Alps and the Dinaric The Carpathians’ “outer” mountain side domi- Mountains. nates to the east and south the East-European and Moesian platforms, which extend onto The Inner and Outer Carpathians are geological Ukrainian and Romanian territories, and which units which differ from the point of view of their have shaped the arc-like pattern of the Car- geological evolution. The Inner Carpathians pathian Mountain chain. The Eastern and South- comprise crystalline, calcareous and conglomer- ern Carpathians are bordered by the hilly region ate rocks, and include the , of the sub-Carpathians and by the large Getic Eastern Carpathians and .

20 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

The Outer Carpathians (also called the Flysch In Romania, the Transylvanian Depression, Carpathians) are composed of sedimentary rocks although a mountain form (orogen) by geolo­ (turbidite) and are located in the “external” part gical structure, is considered to be a plateau (northern and eastern) of the Northwestern, surrounded by various Carpathian ranges with Northeastern and Eastern Carpathians. respect to altitude, make-up, landscape and density of settlement.

Different Delimitations of the Carpathian Mountains Region

For the purposes of this KEO Report and analyses con- graphic knots with peaks of over 2,500 m. and differenti- tained herein, the “Carpathian Region” is defined as the ated three orographic “ensembles”: the Tatra, the Mara- Carpathian Mountain Chain and its surrounding areas. mures and the Transylvanian Alps (George and Tricart The territory surrounding the Carpathians consists main- 1954a,b). ly of sediments of Carpathian origin whose formation is connected with the evolution of the Carpathian Chain it- In one of his works published in Romanian, V. Mihailescu self. Sediments are eroded from the Carpathian area (1963), basing his considerations on geographical crite- and transported by rivers to the lower, surrounding terri- ria, geomorphological and population aspects, distin- tories. The area includes folded hilly , piedmonts guished the following Carpathian groups: 1. North-West- and depressions, among them the Transylvanian De- ern Carpathians; 2. Median Carpathians; and 3. South- pression. These environs are affected by the mountain- Eastern Carpathians (3a-Eastern Carpathians, 3b- ous region, and natural and anthropogenic phenomena Southern Carpathians and 3c-). occurring therein, and in turn exert influences on the mountain zone itself. For example, the Carpathian Moun- One of the classifications most frequently used and tains are a significant orographic barrier influencing the based on geomorphological and geological criteria is climate and precipitation of the larger region, and river that of the Polish geographer Kondracki (1978), who dis- outflows have a major influence on the surrounding hilly tinguishes the following main groups: the Western Car- regions and plains. One counter-example of influences pathians (Outer and Inner); the Eastern Carpathians on the Mountains is emissions from industrial sources, (Outer and Inner); the Southern Carpathians and the transport and urbanization in commercial and population Western . The Carpathian area is centres located in close proximity, which have impacts shown to also include the surrounding hilly regions and on the flora and fauna of the Carpathian Mountains. depressions, among them the Transylvanian Depres- ­Economic activities practiced in the mountain region are sion. complemented by those of the lowland and urbanized population, who exploit the Carpathians’ natural resourc- In a synthesis on European mountainous space, the es. Thus the mountains themselves and surrounding Hungarian geographer Székely (1968), integrating the areas must be viewed as a complex, holistic, unique Carpathian Chain into the Alpine-Himalayan mountain ­environmental system. system, distinguished the following sub-divisions: the North-Western Carpathians, the North-Eastern Carpathi- The different delimitations of the Carpathian Mountain ans, the Eastern Carpathians and the Southern Car- chain found in the specialist literature depend on the pathians. A similar delimitation is made also in this KEO ­criteria used and the purpose of research. Most authors Report (see Map 1.1), although in this case the Southern focus essentially on geomorphological criteria along with Carpathians are sub-divided into two units. altitude. In some delimitations, complex environmental criteria and human activities are included. In the World Wide Fund for Nature’s (WWF’s) Carpathi- ans Ecoregion Initiative (CERI), the delimitation of the In one of the first delimitations of the Carpathian Moun- Carpathians is based on complex criteria, mainly geo- tains found in a French Atlas, the following sub-units are morphological (elevation, slope, exposition, geology) depicted: Karpates Occidentales, Karpates Orientales and ecological. The Ecoregion stretches along 210,000 and Alpes de Transylvanie (Levasseur 1886). In a syn- sq. km. between Vienna and the Danube Gorges (i.e. the thesis of the physical and human of Central Iron Gate Dam between Romania and Serbia), including Europe, Jean Tricart, the well-known French geogra- the Transylvanian Depression and much of the outer hilly pher, highlighted the discontinuous character of oro- regions (see Chapter 3, section 3.2, Map 3.4).

21 Chapter One: Background and Introduction © Pavel Meisl

1.1 Main Geographical Features

Altitudinal Zones

he very existence of the Carpathian Arc The alpine belt was molded by Pleistocene in induces significant re- glaciation (cirques, troughs) with sharp crests Tgional differentiations and a wide diver- and steep slopes affected by weathering, rockfall sity of geographical conditions, due to the and snow avalanches. It is well-developed in the impacts of varying influences: oceanic in the Tatra Mountains and the Southern Carpathians. west, Baltic in the north, continental in the east The alpine belt itself is traditionally further and Mediterranean in the south. divided into three altitudinal levels: sub-nival, with local perennial snow patches; alpine There are three major Carpathian altitudinal meadow; and dwarf pine. The Southern Car- zones: the High Mountains (>1500 m.), Middle pathians in particular include old denuded sur- Mountains (600-1450 m.), and the Lower Moun- faces with moderate slopes. tains and Intra-montane Depressions (300-800 m.). Overall, the Carpathians are dominated by Alpine belt soils are dominated by inceptisols, middle and low mountains (see Map 1.3). entisols and cryogenic soils. The alpine pastures consist of plant communities with grasses and High Mountains sedges, including many grass species (see Chap- ter 3, sections 3.1-3.3 for more details). The high mountains begin above the timberline at 1,500 m in the Northwestern Carpathians, The sub-alpine belt (1100-1400 m in the north, 1,600 to 1,700 m in the Eastern Carpathians and 1400-1900 m in the south) consists almost ex- 1,800 m in the Southern Carpathians. This alti- clusively of Norway spruce forests and dwarf tudinal zone consists of the alpine belt and the pines underlain by podzols and brown acid soils. sub-alpine belt. In the , Bukovské Vrchý,

22 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Map 1.3 Hypsography of the Carpathians

Polonina Rowna, Polonina Krasna and Swidow- There are large climatic variations between the iec in the Eastern Carpathians, there is no sub- upper and lower parts of the middle mountains. alpine zone, and the timberline of dwarf beech, On average, annual temperatures range between at a height of approximately 1,200 m, directly 1.50 and 20 C in the upper parts and between 40C borders the alpine meadows and thickets of to 60C in the lower parts. Precipitation ranges green alder. from 1,000 to 1,400 mm in the upper and 600 to 800 mm in the lower parts. Middle Mountains The Central European and Boreal forest ecosys- The middle mountains zone lies between 600 tems found there comprise the greatest area of and 1100 m in the north, and 650 and 1450 m in the Carpathians. The three vegetation belts the south, also corresponding with the forest within the middle mountains are spruce, decidu- belt. The great diversity of relief is related to the ous mixed with conifers, and beech (Pădurile underlying geological structure, while the main României 1981). process on the forested slopes is the formation of soils on debris-covered terrain.

23 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

with temperatures from May to August between Low Mountains and Intra-Montane 160C and 180C and the growing period lasting Depressions 180 to 190 days. Average annual precipitation is from 600 to 800 mm., and the main soil types are The altitudinal zone with low mountains and brown podzolised soils and podzol soils. intra-montane depressions (from 300 to 800 m) have a landscape severely affected by human Forests of the foothill zone were to a large extent activities. Large slope areas exhibit sheet and replaced by arable fields and meadows, so that gully erosion and mass movements. Annual only small forest islands have remained among average temperatures vary between 60C and 90C, farmlands.

Rivers and Lakes

About 90% of the rivers which drain from the Iron Gate Dam between Romania and Serbia. Carpathians flow into the . Many, such Others include the Bistriţa, Argeş and in as the Vah, Tisza (with its tributaries the Mureş, Romania, the in Poland and the Osana in Someş and Criş), Olt, and lie within Slovakia (as an example, see Figure 1.1). the Danube River Basin. In the east, the main river running into the Black Sea is the Dniester. To the north, the Vistula and the Oder flow into Figure 1.1 The Eastern Carpathians, Izvorul the Baltic Sea. Muntelui storage-lake

The high mountain zone includes numerous lakes situated in cirques and glacial valleys. The

largest glacial lakes, such as Morskie Oko (35 Andreescu © Fl. hectares), are located in the Northwestern Car- pathians, an area where Quaternary have their broadest extent. The Eastern and Southern Carpathians host over 200 glacial lakes, mostly in the Retezat (Bucura, Zănoaga) and Făgăraş Mountains. The Sfânta Ana lake is situated in a volcanic crater. Some small lakes are formed in karst depressions (Ighiu lake in the ) or in landslide-dammed locations (Lacul Roşu in the Apuseni Mountains).

Many water storage reservoirs are found on rivers, the largest occurring on the Danube at the

Table 1.2 Carpathian River Basins and their characteristics (EURAC 2006)

Total drainage Drainage area within Proportion Affected Carpathian Estuary River area (km2) the Carpathian of the total countries Ecoregion (km2) Ecoregion (%) Danube 817,000 180,095 85.7 All Carpathian Countries Black Sea Vistula 194,000 21,054 10.0 Poland, Slovak Republic, Ukraine Baltic Sea Oder 125,000 1,772 0.8 Czech Republic, Poland Baltic Sea Dniester 76,860 7,336 3.5 Ukraine Black Sea 24 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Climate

Overview Climate change

The climate of the entire Carpathian Mountains The Third Report of the Intergovernmental Panel arc is temperate-continental, with more extreme on Climate Change (IPCC) revealed that 20th conditions (continental climate) increasing as century global warming registered a rise of tem- one moves from west to east. perature of 0.6±0.20C. The last decade of the 20th century is considered to be the warmest Temperature, precipitation and wind (major cli- since instrumental observations began (1861). matic indicators) change with altitude. The high There is strong evidence that global temperature mountain zone has a cold and moist climate with increase in the 20th century surpassed natural temperatures of +20C to -20C and precipitation climate variability over the last thousand years. of 1,800 to 2,000 mm/year in the Northwestern Natural changes featured a warm period (11th- Carpathians. In the Eastern, Southern and South- 14th centuries) and a cooling interval known as eastern Carpathians, precipitation ranges from the Little Ice Age (15th-19th centuries). Accord- 1,400 to 1,600 mm/year. The highest quantities ing to the most recent projections of the IPCC, of precipitation in the Carpathians are recorded the average temperature on Earth could rise from in the High Tatra Mountains at 2,000 to 2,400 1.4 to 5.8°C above the 1990 level by 2100, with mm/year. higher values expected in the Northern Hemi- sphere (IPCC 2001). Snow cover is present 150 to 220 days of the year in the high mountains. The present Car- In the Alps, the timberline may advance by up to pathian climate no longer favours the presence 500 to 600m (100 m with every 0.60C tempera- of mountain glaciers which were active during ture rise). Extrapolating these data to the Car- the Pleistocene. Currently, some small perennial pathians may be instructive. In 20th century patches of snow do occur in the Tatras, as well Romania, the annual average temperature rose as in the Mountains. The area of peren- by 0.20C, at a much faster pace after 1960 nial snow is currently shrinking due to rising (Busuioc 2003). A temperature increase might average annual temperatures in the Carpathians, result in the modification of altitudinal belts, an apparent sign of climate change in the region mainly in the possible extension of the temper- (see Chapter 3, section 3.6). ate forest realm.

The Carpathian Mountain chain also functions Global warming has intensified extreme phe- as an important obstacle to the circulation of air nomena such as torrential rainfalls, lengthy masses over Europe. By their position, the Car- droughts and sudden snowmelt. Such extreme pathians act as a barrier between the harsher phenomena, along with enhanced erosional continental climates of the east and the milder, processes, landslides and floods are often further oceanic ones in the west, boreal in the north and augmented by deforestation in various Car- Mediterranean in the south. These general char- pathian areas. Flooding as a hazard has some of acteristics vary in terms of radiation and the its most serious impacts on settlements, trans- circulation of air masses, directly reflected in portation and agriculture. Floods are generated plant associations and in soils, and indirectly in by prolonged heavy rainfall, snowmelt or both. all the natural components of the mountainous Local flash floods resulting from heavy con­ environment. vectional rains are frequent in summer but are restricted to small catchments, particularly in the Eastern Carpathians.

25 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Geological History and Geomorphological Units

Overall Geology over 2,000 m built of crystalline and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. Slovakia’s Mount Gerlacho- The Carpathian Mountains, the eastern continu- vsky is the highest at 2,655 m. The High Tatra ation of the Alps, are a young mountain chain Mountains show a typical alpine relief with ex- (Demek 1983). The present-day relief is the tensive glacial landforms. The outer part is outcome of the alpine orogenesis, although Pal- shaped by flysch mountains with altitudes of aeozoic and Mesozoic landforms exist as well. 1,000 to 1,700 m and characterised by a folded Compared with the Alps, the Carpathians have structure, while the inner part is repre- lower altitudes and are more fragmented by sented by the volcanic massif of the Central tectonic depressions and transversal valleys. Slovakian Mountains. In the south, one finds the Mátra and Bükk mountains surrounded by low The major factors which have contributed to the piedmont areas alongside the contact line with formation of the Carpathian-Pannonian system the . are the convergence of the Adriatic and Eurasian plates, collision with the Alps and lateral escape (2) The Northeastern Carpathians unfold of crustal wedges towards the east and north, between the Dukielska Passage (Poland) and the and rollback of the Eurasian plate upper sectors of the rivers Tisza and Ceremusch and the shape and structures of the Eurasian (a tributary of the Prut River in Ukraine). The margin with its northwest trending faults (Visa- maximum altitude is found at Goverla Peak at rion and Sandulescu 1988). 2,061 m. These are middle and low mountains, fragmented by numerous valleys and depres- The Carpathian Folded Belt consists of a com- sions and home to many human settlements. plex Alpine nappe pile of crystalline units and Their eastern part, the most extended, consists of Upper Palaeozoic-Mesozoic sediments, with Cretaceous flysch and Palaeocene deposits cor- a Lower Cretaceous-to-Tertiary sedimentary responding to the east of the Beskidy Mountains cover. The structure itself includes the domain and the ‘Forested Carpathians’ (Lisyti Karpaty). of the regions active during the Mesozoic and In the west, the display Cenozoic, regions folded in the Alpine Orogen- several isolated summits with Neocene volcanic esis (Sandulescu 1984). features.

Five Mountain Groups (3) The Eastern Carpathians, which extend between the upper Tisza River in Ukraine and Transversal valleys and low mountain areas and the Prahova River in Romania, present three depressions divide the Carpathians into the fol- longitudinal morphostructural sectors. The lowing mountain groups: (1) Northwestern eastern outer side, with altitudes of 1,000 to Carpathians in the Czech Republic, Slovak Re- 1,800 m, is built of Palaeocene and Cretaceous public, Hungary and Poland; (2) Northeastern flysch deposits with a complicated folded and Carpathians in Poland and Ukraine; (3) Eastern nappe structure. In their southeastern part lies Carpathians in Romania and Ukraine; (4) South- the Vrancea seismogenic area. The central part ern Carpathians in Romania; and (5) Southwest- displays discontinuous crystalline massifs partly ern Carpathians in Romania and Serbia. covered with sedimentary Mesozoic rocks, reaching its highest altitudes in the Rodna (1) The Northwestern Carpathians represent Mountains (2,303 m). The western part, with its the highest part of the Carpathian Arc and consist highest altitude in the Călimani Mountains of mountain ranges and massifs separated by (2,100 m), corresponds to the longest Neocene intra-montane basins. Their central part is volcanic chain in Europe, with well-preserved formed by the Tatra Mountains with altitudes extinct volcanoes. 26 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

(4) The Southern Carpathians, or so-called (5) The Southwestern Carpathians extend into ‘Transylvanian Alps’, rise from 1,800 to 2,500 m Romania and Serbia and show a very complex to the 2,543 m in the Făgăraş block and fold-faulted structure. They are very Mountains. They extend from east to west fragmented by numerous tectonic depressions and between the Prahova and the Timiş- reach altitudes of 700 to 1,500 m. The highest valleys and are formed predominantly from point is Curcubăta (1,847 m) in the northern part crystalline rocks with secondary Mesozoic sedi- (Apuseni Mountains) built of a mosaic of crystal- mentary rocks. The upper part of the massifs, the line, flysch and Neocene eruptive rocks. The Bucegi, Făgăraş, Parâng and Retezat, feature central and southern parts (the and Serbian Alpine-type glacial landforms and vast denuda- mountains) consist predominantly of crystalline tion surfaces. rocks with a large karstified limestone syncline.

Landforms and Geological Monuments of Note

The Carpathians are home to many interesting Figure 1.2 The Danube Gorge in the Iron Gate Natural Park landforms and geological monuments such as the Iron Gate (see Figure 1.2), one of the largest gorges in Europe, caverns and landforms shaped by erosion on volcanic rocks, and massive oro- Andreescu © Fl. graphic knots (over 2,000 m) which alternate with middle and low mountains. Certain fossil- rich sites of international importance represent standardised stratigraphic reference points for various geological periods, while a number of other sites are considered natural monuments.

Significant national parks and biosphere reserves include: Duna Ipoly and Bükk and Aggtelek (Hungary); Djerdap (Serbia); Tatra, , Babia Gora and Bieszczady (Poland); Retezat, Rodna, Piatra Craiului and Ceahlău (Romania); Tatras, Poloniny and Polana biosphere reserves, Low Tatras, Malá Fatra, Slovensky raj and Pienin­ The Northwestern Carpathians exhibit impressive ský (Slovakia); and Uzhansky National Park, part alpine relief with large glacial cirques and valleys of the “Eastern Carpathians Biosphere Reserve” carved by glaciers from the Quaternary Period, which is shared by Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. some of them on the northern side coalescing with the continental ice sheet. The western side of Limestone areas hold many caves, including the Eastern Carpathians presents the longest vol- Domica and Dobšinská l’adová in Slovakia; Ag- canic chain in Europe, no longer active today, gtelek in Hungary; and Cloşani, Cioclovina and featuring a multitude of fumaroles, mofettes and Scărişoara in Romania. There are also cave gla- over 2,000 mineral springs used in well-known ciers such as the Scărişoara Cave in Romania’s Apuseni Mountains and the Dobinska  A fumarole is a hole or vent in the ground near a vol- Cave in Slovakia, important for reconstructing cano that emits steam and gases such as carbon dioxide, sul- Quaternary climates. The karst plateau Padiş in phur dioxide, hydrochloric acid and hydrogen sulphide.  Volcanic discharges consisting primarily of carbon the Apuseni Mountains is one of the most dioxide, often associated with other vapours, represent- complex in Europe. ing the final phase of volcanic activity.

27 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

spas. On the eastern and southern side, adjacent The Southern Carpathians, also known as the to the Carpathians over a distance of 550 km., is Transylvanian Alps, boast the largest alpine and a hilly region with altitudes of 300-800 m, con- sub-alpine pastures in Europe and environment sisting mostly of folded and faulted Neocene for intense transhumant sheep herding. The molasse4 deposits with densely populated de- pasture lands, which cover extended hanging pressions. On salt deposits there are plateaus plateaus, were studied in the early 20th century dotted with sinkholes, lakes and caves. by the French geographer Emmanuel de Mar- tonne, who introduced for the first time in Europe 4 Terrestrial deposits (i.e. non-marine alluvial and flu- the landscape evolution approach of the Ameri- vial sediments) eroded from a nascent mountain chain and can geographer William M. Davis. deposited in a , especially on top of flysch.

Biodiversity

From a bio-geographical point of view, the Car- bear, lynx and wolf) facing extinction in other pathian Mountains represent a link between the mountain chains in Europe. Many bird species, taiga of and the Mediterranean such as the imperial eagle, and black ecosystems of the south. They include the largest grouse are protected. pristine forests in Central and , with the greatest original European forests locat- The Carpathians were put on the WWF “Global ed in the Southern and Eastern Carpathians (Ro­ 2000” list of major ecoregions in need of biodi- mania) and in the Tatra Mountains (Slovakia). versity and habitat conservation. Since 1999, the Carpathians were also included in the “Car- The rich variety of endemic plants and animals, pathian Ecoregion Initiative (CERI)” geared to characteristic of Carpathian ecosystems is an the integrated conservation of their natural and essential biodiversity component in Europe. The cultural heritage and sustainable, cross-border area has many large carnivores (e.g. the brown development.

28 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

© Ján Lacika

1.2 Human Influences in the Carpathians

Historical-Political Background

Early times up to 20th century Beginning in the 4th century, the process of migration of peoples gained momentum. The ocated in the heart of Europe, the Car- crossed the Carpathians and settled in the pathians have since centuries ago been at Pannonian Plain. As the Visigoths withdrew Lthe contact point of empires, ethnic from the southern part of the Eastern Carpathi- groups and cultures. The Carpathian area has ans, they left a treasure hoard (the so-called been part of several states and empires. The “Hen with the Golden Chickens”) containing 22 current ethnic mix (Czechs, Germans, Hungari- pieces of gold, found at Pietroasele (in Buzău ans, Poles, , Serbs, and County, Romania) (Constantiniu 2002). The 6th , and minority groups such as the and 7th centuries marked the massive migration Roma) is the reflection of a turbulent history. of Slav populations (the Eastern i.e. Ukrainians; and the Western Slavs i.e. Poles, In ancient times, the conquest of by the Slovaks and Czechs) and their gradual settle- in AD 105 was marked by the ment across the Carpathians. construction of fortified cities (davae), spas and health resorts (e.g. Herculaneum). Even after the During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Carpathian Romans’ withdrawal south of the Danube from territory with its surrounding plains and table- 270-275, their language of Latin-Romanian was lands, experienced the passage of other migra- to be preserved in the Southern, Southwestern tory populations including Petchenegs, and Eastern Carpathians. The inhabitants of and Tartars. Many of these were assimilated with Dacia were known as Getae in Greek writings, other cultures in the region. and in Roman documents.

29 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

From the 11th to 13th centuries, in order to secure Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and the borders of the Hungarian Kingdom against the Military Pact (except for Yugosla- the inroads of migratory populations, the western via), and Ukraine was part of the Union side of the Eastern Carpathians was colonized until breaking away in 1991. with Szecklers (a population mix of mi- grants, who had followed the on their With the rise to power of the communist regimes, way to Europe) and Saxons (from Flanders, Lux- the natural resources of the Carpathian countries embourg, the Mosel and Rhine regions, and from such as wood and ores began to be forcibly ex- , as brought in by the Hungarian kings) ploited by Soviet-dominated enterprises. The (Atlas Istorico-geografic 1996). From the 16th to collectivisation of agriculture, intense deforesta- 19th centuries, the fell tion and implementation of centrally-based joint under Habsburg domination, subsequently plans within the COMECON framework had forming the dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy profound negative effects on the Carpathian which lasted from 1867 to 1918. environment.

The 20th century until present All the Carpathian countries, albeit at a different pace, have undergone a significant political, The First World War mirrored the conflicts economic, social and environmental transforma- smouldering within the multi-national Austro- tion in the past 15 years. In most countries, Hungarian Empire. Czechs and Romanians radical political changes occurred in 1989 to sought autonomy, the various southern Slavic 1991 that resulted in free elections in various territories aimed at the unification of their forms and the establishment of pluralistic de- Habsburg-dominated lands with the Kingdom mocracies and separated branches of power. of Serbia (independent, although occupied at the time), and pursued its own political In 1993, following a political decision, Czecho- goals in the (Kinder and Hilgemann slovakia was split into two independent coun- 2002a,b). The proclamation in 1916 of the Au- tries, the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. tonomous Polish Kingdom, which led to its In 1991, Ukraine broke away from the Soviet breaking away from the Austro-Hungarian Union. During the 1990s, the former Yugoslavia empire without , and its later evolution gradually lost its territorial integrity, and a series illustrate the national aspirations of peoples in of Balkan wars took place. the Carpathians. Since the early 1990s four countries (the Czech The treaties concluded at the end of the First Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia) began World War sanctioned, among other territorial their integration process with the European changes, the foundation of Yugoslavia and Union that culminated in membership on 1 May . During the , 2004; Romania joined the EU on 1 January some border changes took place in the Carpathi- 2007. Serbia is participating in the stabilisation an area between Hungary and Czechoslovakia and association process, while Ukraine is a part (Linchutz 2000, cited by Jansky et al. 2004). of the EU’s recently developed “Neighbourhood Policy”. For a short period of time (1940-1946), Northern was annexed by Hungary under the Today, the seven Carpathian states continue to 1940 Vienna Diktat. Bessarabia and Bucovina experience various forms of transition from were occupied by the and inte- centralised communist to free market economies. grated into its territory. After the Second World They shelter 16 to 18 million people, where War, the redrawing of borders left most of the lowlands and valley corridors have high popula- Northeastern Carpathians under Soviet rule. tion densities and intensely utilized trans-Car- pathian traffic routes. Numerous settlements are Major historical and political changes took place located on summits and plateaus up to 1,600 m, during the last three decades. The Carpathian but densities are significantly greater at 500- countries were members of the Council for 1,100 m altitude (see Map 1.4). 30 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

a Map 1.4 SettlementsLatoric in the Romanian Carpathians

Cultural Heritage

Overview in Europe (Quiles et al. 2006). Many bear (Ursus Spelaeus) skeletons can be seen in Peştera Many traditions, artefacts, ruins, archaeological Urşilor (Bears’ Cave) in the Apuseni Mountains, sites and monuments have been preserved from while the Haţeg Geopark in the Southern Car- the many peoples, cultures and empires that have pathians shelters dinosaur fossils. come and gone in the Carpathians since prehis- toric times. Interestingly, the multitude of passes, The Carpathians and their surroundings have depressions and valley corridors facilitated inter- proved to be an attractive environment for set- ethnic contacts and helped to develop and rein- tlement and human economic activities for ages. force common ethnographic elements. Many sites Major economic activities have been wood are used for touristic purposes (see Map 1.5). processing, mining, animal husbandry and agri- culture, the latter mostly practiced in lowlands A complete human mandible, dated over 35,200 and mountain depressions (see Figure 1.3). years ago, was discovered in Pestera cu Oase (Cave with Bones) in the . This The first elements of a Carpathian culture date is the oldest fossil remnant of a modern human back to the Palaeolithic and Neolithic Ages.

31 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Map 1.5 Unique sites in the Carpathians

Lower Palaeolithic stone items such as chopping Many remnants from Roman times have been tools, as well as pottery, bronze and iron objects preserved including the ruins of Roman settle- have been discovered in various mountainous ments and roads. In the Northwestern, Southern and depression sites in the Carpathians. High- and Southwestern Carpathians, Roman fortified lights include the 22,000 year-old Venus of cities (davae), mines and spas (e.g. Herculanum) Mosavany statuette found carved into a mammoth can be found. At Drobeta Turnu Severin are the tusk in Slovakia (Lacica 2002). Another is ruins of the bridge built in 103-105 by Apollo- Sarmizegetusa, in the former Geto-Dacian dorus of Damascus at the point where the capital located in the Southern Carpathians, Romans crossed the Danube downstream of the home to a solar monument similar to the one Iron Gate (see Figure 1.4). found at Stonehenge. 32 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Figure 1.3 The Carpathians seen from space

In medieval times, traditional occupations in- became a common practice. This intensified cluded raising livestock, coal mining and agri- after the Adrianopole Peace Treaty of 1829, culture, one result of which was forest area re- which concluded the war between Russia and duction. From the 12th to the 15th centuries, the , when wood and wooden population density was about nine to ten inhabit- products were in great demand abroad. Another ants per sq km, concentrated mostly on the hill- period of severe deforestation was connected sides. Beginning in the 14th and 15th centuries, with post-1920 land reforms that led to the ex- Wallachian shepherds inhabited the northern pansion of pastures and arable land. Carpathians, in the territories of what are today Poland and Slovakia. This was also the time of The villages in the Bile Karpaty, a Protected the Carpathian civilization of woodworking and Landscape Area and Man and Biosphere Reserve the related development of handicrafts. situated in the east of the Czech Republic along the border with Slovakia, preserve many old The first paper mills appeared in the Carpathian Wallachian traditions such as folk dancing and lowlands in the 16th century. In the 17th and music, and musical instruments such as the 18th centuries, when wood increasingly became cymbalo (dulcimer). an export commodity, extensive tree-cutting

33 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Figure 1.4 The bridge built by the Romans downstream of the Iron Gate (Southwestern Carpathians), A.D. 103-105 (Istoria Românilor 2001)

Traditional settlements features, as well as original ethnographic and folklore elements. In many existing Carpathian settlements, the ethnographic traditions of the Hungarians, Poles, In Roznov pod Radhostem, Straznice and Val- Romanians, , Slovaks, Szecklers, asske Klobouky in the Czech Republic, there and Ukrainians can still are open air museums of folk architecture. In be observed. Traditional village architecture is Hungary, the Old Village of Hollókő and its sur- roundings and Tokaj Wine Region Historical Cultural Landscape are important tourist destina- Figure 1.5 Traditional handicrafts, potters from Horezu town tions. In Poland, old wooden churches, including the Orthodox churches in Bieszczady and Beskid Niski and traditional wooden architecture in Za- kopane, exemplify Polish wood culture. © Fl. Andreescu © Fl. In the Slovak Carpathians there are many villages such as Liptovská, Teplička, Detva, Hriňové, Terchová, Zamagurie with a traditional agriculture and attractive cultural landscapes. Eastern Slovakia is home to Vlkolinec village, a UNESCO cultural heritage site, and wooden churches from Osturná, Ždiar and Podbiel with open air museums.

In the , the Hutsul culture is well preserved in Kryvorivnya, a village in the Kosiv centre of folk handicrafts and in Verkho- vyna town (former Zhab’ya – the capital of fitted to local landforms. Rural settlements in the Hutsulshchyna). Some villages in Romania’s Carpathian Mountains contain numerous ele- Apuseni, and the Vrancea and Maramureş moun- ments of traditional architecture such as old tains, are famous for their artistic and artisanal houses and wooden churches with specific local products (see Figure 1.5).

34 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Sibiu through the ages

The present town of , Romania, sits atop the former Sibiu, the Cultural Capital of Europe in 2007, today has site of the Roman settlement known as Cedonia. In many Renaissance and Gothic style buildings, some of 1191, Saxon colonists founded a new town there and them with important cultural functions such as the His- named it Cibinium, after the name used by the Roman tory Museum, Old Town Hall and Franciscan Church with population who inhabited these places in earlier cen- Gothic architecture. It is home to the largest German turies. In 1223, the town was baptised Villa Hermanni community in Romania, and has a highly multi-ethnic and in 1366 it became known as Hermanstadt. In the character with Magyars, Slovaks, Ukrainians and Roma 15th century, it became the capital of the Transylvanian living side by side with Romanians and Germans. South Saxons and was known as a major handicraft and trad- of the town in the Southern Carpathians, people from ing centre surrounded by fortified walls and bastions. In numerous settlements (Răşinari, Sălişte, Jina, etc.) are 1599, the Romanian Prince Michael the Brave defeated engaged in shepherding, a very old tradition there. the Hungarian army near this place and for a short time united Transylvania with and . In the 18th century, the town had four printing-houses, and the renowned Brukenthal Museum was founded in 1817.

Castles and monuments In Poland, medieval monuments in the cities of Stary Sacz and Przemysl, the traditional spas in Mountain depressions and valley corridors Krynica Gorska and Szczawnica and the castles shelter medieval castles and ruins. In the South- in Niedzica and Czorsztyn (from the Pieniny ern Carpathians, castles are seen at Sinaia and area) are important cultural heritage sites. Bran (Figure 1.6), built in a variety of styles (Gothic, Baroque, Renaissance, Neo-Classical). In the historical centers of some of the mountain Many other monuments dating to the Middle towns in Slovakia such as Banská Štiavnica, Ages can be found in the medieval cities of , Banská Bistrica, Prešov, Braşov and Sibiu. and Levoča, there are attractive medieval monu- ments such as the Church of Our Lady, Barbican, and the Old Town Hall. Some Figure 1.6 The Bran Castle in the Rucar-Bran of the most important medieval castles and ruins Corridor are located in Devin Spiš, and Krásna Hôrka.

© Fl. Andreescu © Fl. The Hukvaldy castle, the second largest in the Czech Republic, was destroyed by fire in 1762, but the gothic castle of Buchlov is well-pre- served. Cultural heritage sites, such as Lednice- Valtice Cultural Landscape and Castle and Gardens of Kromeriz (Czech Republic) are par- ticularly valuable due to their architecture and setting.

In Hungary, the Eger castle is well-known as the site of one of the largest battles against the Ot- tomans. The Castle of Diósgyőr (near ) belonged to the then-queens of medieval Hun­ gary. Sárospatak (at southern foothill of Zemplén Mountains) is known by its famous Rákóczi castle and fortification built in the early 13th century by King Endre I.

35 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Religious traditions The presence of the primeval forest has engen- dered many traditions and legends which Mircea In many places, religious festivals contain ele- Eliade, a famous Romanian historian of religion, ments of pre-Christian traditions. In the Czech fiction writer and philosopher, named “Cosmic Republic on Radhost Hill is the statue of Rade- Christianity”. Cosmic Christianity is a peasant- gast, the pagan god of crop abundance and harvest. centred religion and popular theology built on the significance of religious folklore and reflect- In the Southern and Eastern Carpathians people ing the life of common people. Cosmic symbols preserve numerous pre-Christian beliefs, praying and folkloric themes such as Water, Tree and to the Geto-Dacian gods to bring or stop the rain, Vine were passed on to the Church, giving chase away disease and evil and secure abundant them sacramental meaning. Illustrative, too, is crops. Many cultural-religious traditions con- a Christian-linked liturgical service held in the nected with transhumant shepherding are prac- open and not in a church, invoking one’s living ticed by local peoples mainly during two seasons: in harmony with nature. in winter, when the Wolf (the embodiment of dark­ ness and cold) reigns supreme, and in summer, when the Horse (the personification of light and warmth) is master of the realm (Ghinoiu 2005).

The Monasteries of Bucovina

In Romania, the original painted churches of Bucovina, The best-known monastery is Voroneţ built by Ruling as well as Tismana and Horezu monasteries, and the Prince in 1488, known for the exqui- peasant strongholds and fortified churches found at the site beauty of its blue paint (the ‚Voroneţ blue’) which contact line with the Transylvanian Depression, are sites won it the name of “Sistine Chapel of the east”. of great cultural value. The Humor Monastery depicts the Devil in the guise of Many monasteries and churches from Bucovina, a prov- a woman, the painter having drawn his inspiration from a lo- ince in the north of the Eastern Carpathians, such as cal legend, while the Putna Monastery (1466-1470) boasts Voroneţ, Moldoviţa, Suceviţa, Humor and Arbore, are an impressive 17th-18th century decoration, the hall-mark listed as UNESCO Mankind Heritage protected sites. of Moldavian Baroque. The Monastery houses a museum Frescoes, representing biblical scenes, saints, apostles displaying important exhibits of Eastern Christianity. and martyrs cover the inner and outer walls of these monuments. The churches were built using a triconch The fortified Moldoviţa Monastery (1532) has afa- plan with a combination of Byzantine and Gothic vaults mous painting on its northern wall that is “The Siege of ( the ‘Moldavian vaults’) (Vătăsianu 1974). The painted ­Constantinople”. Numerous rural settlements, known for frescoes used tempera to preserve their 15th-century their outstanding ethnographic and handicraft traditions, brightness, thereby making an original contribution to are found in the neighbourhood of the Monastery. One of world art. them, Marginea Village, is famous for its black pottery.

36 Chapter One: Background and Introduction © Peter Langyel

1.3 Modern-day Impacts on Environment and Current Responses

Impacts from the Communist Period

arpathian countries inherited severe en- valleys or basins. Nearly every town had at least vironmental problems from more than one environmentally-harmful factory. Another C40 years of communist rule, as their typical result of the ill-planned industrial struc- economies were heedless of environmental ture was a high, inefficient consumption of impacts and thus far more polluting than in the energy, mainly generated by low-quality and rest of Central and Western Europe. Many envi- highly-polluting fuels. In addition, there were no ronmental “hot spot” zones were created having incentives to introduce efficient or environmen- extreme pollution loads, environmental degrada- tally-friendly technologies. Degraded areas tion and related human health risks. The Stalinist around mining sites and heavy pollution pro- period which lasted until 1956 was especially duced by the chemical and steel industries were harmful, encouraging Central European coun- also common. tries to choose their “own road to socialism” with an overriding slogan of “man is master of “Industrial(-scale) agriculture” also degraded nature”. the environment. Hygienic problems stemmed from large-scale breeding farms which were not The industrial structure of these countries was adequately equipped with sewage systems, pro- dominated by over-sized and heavy industry. tective green space or other mitigating infra- Steel, chemicals, mining, heavy machinery and structure. The heavy use of industrial fertilizers energy were dominant economic sectors in this and pesticides had serious impacts on life in region, while the military-industrial complex soils, underground waters and the entire bio- enjoyed special priority. Some of the chemical sphere, including the health of local inhabit- works and metallurgy plants were located in ants. narrow, poorly ventilated Carpathian mountain

37 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

The previously-existing process of deforestation concrete panel block buildings are still one of was accelerated during the communist era when the most visible urban legacies of the past forest cutting was intended to clear terrain for regime. Conceptual, legislative, organizational agriculture and as a necessary step to continue and technical ignorance of the scope of prob- the process of forced industrialization. lems, such as communal waste, caused the proliferation of thousands of unsanctioned In some parts of the Carpathians, another typical rubbish dump sites. In most countries, there feature was Soviet-style urbanization based on was also a general absence of ecological edu­ large, agglomerated settlements. These mostly cation.

Current Key Environmental Concerns

In general, human-related pressures on the Car- gional/local manifestations; these include floods, pathians are currently greater than in other landslides, windstorms (which can have major mountain ranges of Europe. In addition, in the impacts on forests and infrastructure) and face of globalisation, the Carpathians exhibit drought. great fragility and the mixed blessing of limited – Land use change and deforestation, related accessibility (Jodha 2005). erosion and links to enhanced effects of or caused by hydro-meteorological phenomena. In This is due partly to the large variations among some cases, uncontrolled deforestation and the countries in terms of development levels, illegal logging have resulted in major damage to their stage of accession to the EU, economic landscapes. transition and the management of resources. – Significant development of individual car From a start in 1989, the transition to market transport and related environmental impacts. economies in the Carpathian countries has posed – Implementation of new construction projects a specific challenge to mountain areas which is, (e.g. large dams, highways, factories, harmful quite simply put, how can development take mining technologies, mountain winter-sport place in an environmentally sustainable way? resorts). – A significant rise in the total amount of mu- While there is cause for optimism in regard to a nicipal waste, and enhanced problems of waste number of environmental indicators for the Car- management at the local level, stemming from pathian region (such as emissions of major air improved economies/increased consumerism and water pollutants, air and water quality indi- and the import and wide utilization of non-recy- cators, industrial and agricultural waste produc- clable materials. tion, clean-up of hazardous and toxic waste sites, – In relation to unsustainable land development, and reduced natural resource consumption) the growing pressure of some interest groups which show mainly positive trends, there are (such as developers), combined with the rela- many areas where vast improvements remain to tively weak position of some environment min- be made and many related issues of concern. The istries and other regulatory authorities at the in- following is a list of the current major driving ternational, regional, national and local levels. forces and pressures, and associated environ- mental problems, that need to be addressed: The following Chapter 2 describes these current driving forces and pressures in detail as they – Issues related to environmental security, and occur across the Carpathian region and its particularly global climate change and its re- varying human and natural landscape.

38 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

Existing Responses (e.g. policies and programmes)

Pre-CFC and signed in Kiev in May 2003. An important role is played by the UNEP Interim Secretariat The state of and development trends in the Car- for the CFC in Vienna, which is working to pathian environment, described in detail in develop synergies among policy-makers, the Chapter 3, are influenced by such driving forces general public and different international or- and pressures mentioned above. On the more ganizations active in the Carpathian region. positive side, there are also existing legislation, policies and programmes, at the international Other legislation and conventions and European, as well as Carpathian regional and national levels, which are designed to The new regulations targeting the environment respond to current environmental impacts and are basic to improving the quality of the environ- problems. These include, among other response ment and to promoting cooperation among the measures: international treaties; multi-lateral Carpathian countries. environmental agreements; European Union (EU) legislation, directives, strategies and funds; Even though countries of the Carpathian region national environmental legislation, programmes have adopted new environmental legislation and strategies; and of course Carpathian re- since the 1990s, there are areas in which this gional and local development plans, programmes legislation is ineffective in preventing environ- and strategies, the foremost instrument of which mental damage from taking place, and particu- is the United Nations Framework Convention on larly in protecting natural resources against the Protection and Sustainable Development of over-exploitation. the Carpathians (Carpathians Framework Con- vention, or CFC for short). Environmental legislative processes have yielded mixed results. Modern legislation has been The involvement of civil society, including non- adopted and is EU-compatible in the Visegrad governmental organisations (NGOs), academia countries (e.g. the Czech Republic, Hungary, (universities, academies, schools), pro-active Poland and Slovakia), and later in Romania as individuals and the mass media is also a positive well. In Serbia and Ukraine, however, the degree trend within the Carpathian region. These groups of compatibility with EU norms differs. all help to create awareness of environmental issues and sustainable development, and not Protected areas in Serbia and Ukraine fall under only generate but disseminate new knowledge the EMERALD network of the Pan-European and educate the broad public and society in Network of Protected Areas based on the Bern general. Convention, Both the EMERALD and Natura 2000 (see below) networks are based on the A number of key current policy instruments are Bern Convention and are interconnected. introduced here and expanded on in later chap- ters of this KEO Report. Among the most The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) prominent existing measures are: must also be mentioned as a tool of interna- tional cooperation for the Carpathian region, The Carpathian Framework Convention given that the Carpathians are considered to be one of the 200 most important world biomes. The only instrument focused exclusively on the Carpathian region itself is the Framework Con- EU-specific vention on the Protection and Sustainable De- velopment of the Carpathians, elaborated on the The accession of the Czech Republic, Hungary, Alpine Convention model, at UNEP’s initiative, Poland, Slovakia and Romania to the EU has 39 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

imposed requirements on these countries to Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of adopt all EU legislation (acquis communautaire) Independent States (TACIS), are helping extend including those directives related to matters of EU experience into the Ukrainian and the Serbian the environment. This includes the areas of air Carpathians. In view of this policy, the Djerdap quality, waste management, water protection, National Park in Serbia and the Iron Gate Natural nature protection, industrial pollution control, Park in Romania, as well as the Maramureş risk management, genetically modified organ- Natural Park in Romania and the Marmarosky isms and nuclear safety. One benefit is that the National Park in Ukraine, and the Eastern Car- new Member States to the EU can learn from the pathians Trilateral Biosphere Reserve (Ukraine, collective experience of the earlier EU Members. Poland and Slovakia) will strengthen coopera- EU legislation requires that many earlier and tion at the EU’s borders. current environmental problems be resolved with an eye towards long-term sustainable manage- The European Environment Agency (EEA), ment of natural resources and the environment. based in Copenhagen, Denmark, plays a key role in reporting on the state and trends of the For the five Carpathian EU member countries, (pan)European environment along with the or- the Directives and Regulations issued by the EU ganisation of relevant data and information meant a step forward regarding international flows, including much of the Carpathian region. cooperation on the Carpathians. Noteworthy The EEA is a major source of value-added infor- among such policy instruments are those involv- mation, reports and analyses (including on ing cross-border cooperation, namely the Water policy) for decision-makers in the EU and other Framework Directive and the Birds and Habitats European countries. Directives, for which the Natura 2000 Network was established as one response mechanism. Protected Areas

The Water Framework Directive includes primary Protected areas of global and European interest means and targets for the protection of water re- include 33 national and natural parks and 42 sources and aquatic ecosystems. The main water landscape areas and landscape parks totalling categories must reach a “good quality” state by 13% of the total Carpathian area. 2015, based on water resources management of each Carpathian basin and a rigorous monitoring Sustainable development of the mountain space system. implies the establishment of systems of pro- tected areas (national parks, natural parks, nature The European Strategy for Soil Protection put reserves and biosphere reserves). Bringing the forward in 2006 includes actions to prevent management of protected areas in line with in- future degradation, and also to restore degraded ternational regulations, and primarily with the soils. EU acquis, calls for the ecological reconstruc- tion of degraded areas and for permanent efforts The European Neighbourhood Policy, based on to identify and protect valuable landscapes and programmes such as INTERREG III and the biodiversity.

40 Chapter One: Background and Introduction

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