thethe photographerphotographer in thethe beat-hipsterbeat-hipster idiomidiom

robertrobert frank'sfrank's the americans

georgegeorge catkincotkin

FewFew analystsanalysts havehave capturedcaptured thethe sadness,sadness, tensions,tensions, ironiesironies andand pos­pos­ sibilitiessibilities of 1950s1950s AmericanAmerican cultureculture andand societysociety withwith thethe depthdepth andand insightinsight of RobertRobert Frank.Frank. Frank'sFrank's accomplishmentaccomplishment is renderedrendered allall thethe moremore impressiveimpressive sincesince it waswas donedone withoutwithout wordswords in hishis volumevolume of photographs,photographs, The Americans (1959).1(1959).2 TheThe tremendoustremendous powepowerr of Frank'sFrank's pictoriapictoriall imageryimagery borboree deedeepp affinitiesaffinities to thethe existentialexistential Beat-HipsteBeat-Hipsterr idioidiomm perfecteperfectedd in JackJack Kerouac'sKerouac's On the Road (1957)(1957) andand NormaNormann Mailer'sMailer's "The"The WhiteWhite Negro"Negro" (1957).2(1957).2 WhileWhile FrankFrank did,did, as SusanSusan SontagSontag suggests,suggests, representrepresent AmericaAmerica as "the"the gravegrave of thethe Occident,"Occident," markedmarked by desolation,desolation, violenceviolence andand death,death, hishis imagesimages werewere moremore phoenix-like.3 The Americans offers,offers, as I will demonstrate,demonstrate, a sustainedsustained critiquecritique of thethe barrennesbarrennesss of AmericanAmerican culture,culture, bubutt alongalong withwith hishis BeatBeat andand HipsterHipster comrades,comrades, FrankFrank possessepossessedd a visionvision of renewalrenewal andand rebirth.rebirth. He believebelievedd thatthat thethe countercounter visionvision andand lifestylelifestyle of America'sAmerica's blacblackk populatiopopulationn offeredoffered a viableviable alternativealternative forfor whitewhite America.America. Frank'sFrank's presentatiopresentationn of blacblackk America,America, however,however, waswas notnot a naivenaive celebra­celebra­ tion;tion; it recognizedrecognized thethe problematiproblematicc naturenature of racialracial realitiesrealities andand thethe lonelinessloneliness andand alienationalienation thatthat afflictedafflicted allall Americans.Americans. At firstfirst glance,glance, Frank'sFrank's The Americans mightmight seemseem yetyet anotheranother documentdocument in thethe longlong traditiontradition of foreignforeign travelers'travelers' accountsaccounts of AmericanAmerican societysociety andand culture.culture. FrankFrank arrivedarrived in NeNeww YorkYork fromfrom SwitzerlandSwitzerland in 1947,1947, bubutt overover thethe

0026-3079/85/2601-0019$01.50100026-3079/85/2601 -0019$01.50/0 19 nextnext five yearsyears he traveledtraveled abroadabroad often.often. BeforeBefore beginninbeginningg workwork on The Americans, FrankFrank waswas a highlyhighly successfulsuccessful commercialcommercial photographerphotographer;; hishis workwork appearedappeared in Fortune, Life, Look, Harper's Bazaar andand McCalUs.*McCall's. 4 Frank'sFrank's auto-tourauto-tour of 1955-19561955-1956 representedrepresented notnot onlyonly hishis breakbreak withwith previousprevious photographiphotographicc compositionscompositions bubutt alsoalso hishis initialinitial discoverydiscovery of America.America. FrankFrank diddid notnot recordrecord AmericaAmerica passivelypassively;; he approachedapproached it withwith culturalcultural baggage,baggage, assumptionsassumptions,, a setset of questions,questions, a medlemedleyy of expectationsexpectations anandd definite,definite, stronglystrongly formedformed visualvisual preferencespreferences.. Frank'sFrank's personalitypersonality,, describeddescribed by JoyceJoyce JohnsonJohnson as a blenblendd of "European"European dournessdourness andand pessimistipessimisticc wit,"wit," certainlycertainly helpedhelped to focusfocus hishis photographiphotographicc vision. 5 SomeSome of thethe themesthemes andand subjectssubjects commonlycommonly associatedassociated withwith The Americans wellwell predatpredatee thatthat compendium.compendium. TheThe imageryimagery of alienation,alienation, loneliness,loneliness, massmass cultureculture forms,forms, violenceviolence andand deathdeath as wellwell as thethe metaphorsmetaphors of thethe highwayhighway andand automobileautomobile areare readilyreadily foundfound in thethe photographphotographss thatthat FrankFrank tooktook in Brazil,Brazil, EnglandEngland andand SpainSpain betweebetweenn 19471947 andand 1952.6 InIn essence,essence, FrankFrank waswas concernedconcerned withwith themesthemes andand subjectssubjects notnot peculiapeculiarr to America;America; he soughtsought in parpartt to documentdocument thethe dilemmadilemma of modernmodern man.man. FrankFrank broughbroughtt hishis talent,talent, visionvision andand angstangst to America.America. Frank'sFrank's visionvision waswas notnot singularsingular nornor especiallyespecially European;European; he sharedshared assumptions,assumptions, predilectionpredilectionss andand stylesstyles in commoncommon withwith thethe AmericanAmerican HipsterHipster andand BeatBeat artistsartists of thethe 1950s.1950s. AlthoughAlthough therethere werewere realreal differencesdifferences betweebetweenn thethe violentviolent HipsterHipster andand thethe generallygenerally uproariousuproarious yetyet pacifisticpacifistic 7 Beat,Beat, botbothh reflectedreflected a commoncommon setset of assumptions. 7 ThusThus in thisthis paperpaper,, thethe BeatBeat andand Hipster,Hipster, sometimessometimes withwith "existential""existential" as an .~djective,adjective, willwill be consideredconsidered synonymoussynonymous terms.terms. ForFor bothboth of themthem lifelife waswas alwaysalways in an unsteadunsteadyy state;state; change,change, movementmovement andand speedspeed werewere of thethe essence.essence. ToTo remainremain stationarystationary waswas to courtcourt death.death. Kerouac'sKerouac's On the Road perfectlyperfectly capturedcaptured thethe kinetickinetic qualitiesqualities of modernmodern existenceexistence in thethe charactercharacter of DeanDean MoriarityMoriarity whowho thrivedthrived on fastfast automobiles,automobiles, amphetaminesamphetamines andand openopen highways.highways. TheThe BeatBeat or HipsterHipster waswas openopen to experimentationexperimentation andand lived,lived, or soughtsought to live,live, forfor thethe intrinsicintrinsic fullnessfullness of eacheach moment.moment. He waswas involvedinvolved in a constantconstant searchsearch forfor an authenticauthentic self,self, a validvalid voice.voice. As RobertRobert J. LiftonLifton phrasephrasedd it,it, thethe existentialexistential HipsterHipster cravedcraved "experiential"experiential transcendence,"transcendence," a statestate in whichwhich thethe presenpresentt momentmoment is livedlived "with"with suchsuch intensityintensity thatthat timetime andand deathdeath are,are, in effect,effect, eliminated."eliminated." DangerDanger andand drugsdrugs oftenoften promptedprompted suchsuch experiences.experiences. TheThe expressionexpression of suchsuch vividvivid experientialexperiential possibilitiespossibilities waswas developeddeveloped by thethe BeatBeat andand HipsterHipster throughthrough thethe espousalespousal of newnew culturalcultural heroes,heroes, individualsindividuals outsideoutside thethe societysociety eithereither throughthrough personalpersonal rebellionrebellion or by socialsocial andand racialracial circumstance:circumstance: thethe jazjazzz musician,musician, hobo,hobo, blackblack,, criminal,criminal, insaneinsane persopersonn or dopedope addict.addict. To be alienated,alienated, apartapart fromfrom socialsocial conventionsconventions andand expectations,expectations, waswas to be setset free,free, free to taketake to thethe roadroad or to becombecomee parpartt of thethe urbaurbann nether-world.nether-world.88 ProminentlyProminently displayed.displayed withinwithin thethe Beat-HipsterBeat-Hipster vocabularyvocabulary waswas a scathingscathing critiquecritique of AmericanAmerican societysociety andand culture.culture. ThoughThough theirtheir exclama­exclama­ tionstions andand analysesanalyses werewere gutteralgutteral andand leftleft unfootnoted,unfootnoted, theythey diddid recognizerecognize manymany of thethe trendstrends beinbeingg examinedexamined by sociologistssociologists suchsuch as DavidDavid RiesmanRiesman

20 andand WilliamWilliam Whyte.Whyte. TheThe "other-directed""other-directed" personalitpersonalityy andand thethe corporatecorporate manman were,were, to thethe Beat-HipsterBeat-Hipster poetspoets,, spirituallyspiritually dead.dead. ThoughThough subversivesubversive andand challengingchallenging to thethe establishedestablished order,order, thethe BeatBeat or HipsterHipster waswas notnot a politicapoliticall radical.radical. He waswas thethe self-contained,self-contained, existentialexistential man,man, thethe AmericanAmerican loner,loner, constantlyconstantly attunedattuned to newnew experiences.experiences. WhileWhile alienalien to thethe valuesvalues of dominantdominant society,society, hishis protestprotestss werewere designeddesigned to evokeevoke thethe absurdityabsurdity of lifelife throughthrough artisticartistic expressionexpression andand personapersonall statementstatement tingedtinged withwith ironyirony andand mockery.9mockery.9 Frank'sFrank's connectionconnection to thethe Beat-Beat-HipsteHipsterr mentalitymentality is mademade obviousobvious by hishis closeclose collaborationcollaboration withJackwith Jack Kerouac.Kerouac. KerouacKerouac wrotewrote thethe introductionintroduction forfor The Americans. Surprisingly,Surprisingly, manymany analystsanalysts of The Americans,Americans) suchsuch as JanetJanet Malcolm,Malcolm, WilliamWilliam StottStott andand TodTod Papageorge,Papageorge, whilewhile theythey maymay at timestimes displaydisplay a quotationquotation fromfrom KerouacKerouac in theirtheir texts,texts, allall bubutt ignoreignore thethe Frank-Frank-KerouaKerouacc nexusnexus in theirtheir concernconcern to placplacee Frank'sFrank's workwork insideinside or outsideoutside of thethe photographiphotographicc canon. 10IO FrankFrank firstfirst metmet KerouacKerouac in latelate 19571957 or earlyearly 1958;1958; he waswas alreadyalready friendsfriends withwith AllenAllen Ginsberg.Ginsberg. AllAll sharedshared a similarsimilar setset of valuesvalues andand frustrations.frustrations. Kerouac'ss On the Road,Road) afterafter yearsyears of difficultiesdifficulties in findingfinding a publisherpublisher,, hadhad jusjustt beebeenn released.released. Similarly,Similarly, Frank'sFrank's volumevolume of photographphotographss hadhad beebeenn rejectedrejected by publisherpublisherss becausbecausee of itsits depressing,depressing, "un-American""un-American" hues.hues. Kerouac,Kerouac, however,however, waswas enthusiasticenthusiastic aboutabout thethe photographsphotographs;; he saidsaid to Frank,Frank, "You"You gotgot eyes."eyes. " KerouacKerouac quicklyquickly agreedagreed to writewrite thethe introductionintroduction to thethe AmericanAmerican editionedition of The Americans. TheirTheir collaborationcollaboration andand friendshipfriendship wouldwould continuecontinue throughthrough a photo-essayphoto-essay on a roadroad triptrip thethe twotwo tooktook to FloridaFlorida andand to thethe moremore successfulsuccessful film,film, "Pull"Pull My Daisy"Daisy" (1959-1960),(1959-1960), a "Spontaneous"Spontaneous Documentary"Documentary" aboutabout thethe BeatsBeats withwith narrationnarration by Kerouac. 11 Frank'sFrank's photographiphotographicc as wellwell as personapersonall visionvision waswas in perfecperfectt affinityaffinity withwith thethe BeatBeat idealideal as celebratedcelebrated by Kerouac.Kerouac. FrankFrank was,was, moreover,moreover, thethe existentialexistential photographephotogral?herr par excellence. HeHesaidsaidthat tha thehehadhadalways alway shadhada a "feeling"feeling of beinbeingg outride.oht~ide."" PhotographyPhotography allowedallowed himhim to remainremain outside;outside; hishis artart requiredrequired no commcommunicatiounicationn or connectionsconnections wiwitthh others:others: "I wouldn'twouldn't havehave to talktalk withwith anyone...... You'reYou're jusjustt an observer."observer." FrankFrank waswas thethe photographephotographerr on thethe move,move, seizingseizing thethe momentmoment throughthrough an "instantaneous"instantaneous 12 reactionreaction to oneself." 12 HisHis visionvision waswas self-professedlyself-professedly personalpersonal andand emphasizedemphasized feelingfeeling ratherrather thanthan ratiocination.ratiocination. LikeLike thethe Beats,Beats, FrankFrank waswas notnot rootedrooted to anyoneany one placeplace,, jusjustt as he waswas notnot connectedconnected to anyany of hishis subjects;subjects; he waswas embarkedembarked upouponn a frenetic,frenetic, nationwidenationwide questquest forfor selfself andand subject.subject. KerouacKerouac maintainedmaintained thatthat thisthis in-motionin-motion attitudeattitude andand stylestyle hadhad mademade FrankFrank shadow-likeshadow-like andand at timestimes invisibleinvisible to hishis photographicphotographic subjects.subjects. In hishis photographiphotographicc style,style, FrankFrank waswas a kindredkindred spiritspirit to thethe Beats.Beats. TheThe occasionallyoccasionally tiltedtilted horizonhorizon lineslines of hishis photographphotographss andand thethe hazyhazy qualityquality of hishis prints—quitprints-quitee againstagainst thethe Life magazinemagazine defineddefined boundarieboundariess of photo­photo­ graphicgraphic practice—actuallpractice-actuallyy servedserved to increaseincrease thethe sensesense of movementn10vement;; theythey helpedhelped to constructconstruct an auraaura of thethe moment.moment. Frank'sFrank's useuse of a lightweightlightweight 35mm35mm LeicaLeica cameracamera meantmeant thatthat he waswas ableable to movemove andand shootshoot rapidly,rapidly, "from"from thethe hip,"hip," withoutwithout thethe encumbrancesencumbrances that,that, forfor example,example, hadhad \veighedweighed 21 13 downdown WalkerWalker Evans. 13 NorNor wouldwould FrankFrank waitwait daysdays forfor thethe propeproperr lightinglighting situationsituation as hadhad Evans.Evans. In a sense,sense, Baudelaire'sBaudelaire's descriptiondescription of thethe Flaneur,Flaneur) as laterlater explainedexplained andand interpretedinterpreted by WalterWalter BenjaminBenjamin andand SusanSusan Sontag,Sontag, perfectlperfectlyy capturescaptures Frank'sFrank's existential,existential, modernistmodernist style.style. As SontagSontag putputss it,it, generallygenerally thethe photographephotographerr appearsappears as "the"the solitarysolitary walkerwalker reconnoitering,reconnoitering, stalking,stalking, cruisingcruising thethe urbanurban [for[for FrankFrank addadd here,here, andand rural]rural] inferno,"inferno," 14 impelledimpelled onwardonward by the"the "seamseamyy corners"corners" of thethe city. 14 Frank'sFrank's existential­existential­ istist imperativeimperative as a photographerphotographer,, then,then, waswas to be beholdebeholdenn to no one,one, to exploreexplore unrepresented,unrepresented, subterraneansubterranean subjectssubjects andand to placplacee hishis personalpersonal imprimateurimprimateur on allall he encountered.encountered. If FrankFrank waswas thethe BeatBeat photographephotographerr in style,style, thenthen as JackJack KerouacKerouac wellwell understood,understood, hishis imagesimages reflectedreflected andand codifiedcodified thethe Beat-Beat-HipsteHipsterr ideal.ideal. In thethe under-punctuated,under-punctuated, ramblingrambling stream-of-consciousnessstream-of-consciousness introductionintroduction to The Americans,Americans) KerouacKerouac in hishis openingopening sentencesentence placeplacess Frank'sFrank's artisticartistic visionvision squarelysquarely withinwithin thethe mainstreammainstream of thethe Beat:Beat: THATTHAT CRAZYCRAZY FEELINGFEELING IN AMERICAAMERICA ,,,,henwhen thethe sunsun is hothot on thethe streetsstreets andand musicmusic comescomes outout of thethe jukebojukeboxx or fromfrom a nearbynearby funeral,funeral, that'sthat's whatwhat RobertRobert FrankFrank hashas capturedcaptured in thesethese tremen­tremen­ dousdous photographphotographss takentaken as he traveledtraveled on thethe roadroad aroundaround practicallpracticallyy forty-eightforty-eight statesstates in an oldold useusedd carcar (on(on GuggenheimGuggenheim Fellowship)Fellowship) andand withwith thethe agility,agility, mystery,mystery, genius,genius, sadnesssadness andand strangestrange secrecysecrecy of a shadowshadow photographephotographedd scenesscenes thatthat havehave nevernever 15 beebeenn seenseen beforbeforee on film.film. 15 CertainCertain Beat-HipsterBeat-Hipster wordswords andand phrasephrasess abound:abound: "CRAZY"CRAZY FEEL­FEEL­ ING.ING . . . musicmusic ...... jukebojukeboxx ...... funeralfuneral ...... traveledtraveled on thethe roadroad ...... oldold usedused carcar ...... agility,agility, mystery,mystery, genius,genius, sadnesssadness andand strangestrange secrecy."secrecy." Here,Here, as KerouacKerouac noted,noted, areare thethe essentialsessentials of thethe BeatBeat imagination,imagination, itsits icono­icono­ graphicgraphie roadmap.roadmap. AllAll appearappear prominentlprominentlyy in The Americans. TheThe openopen roadroad photographsphotographs,, withwith thethe whitewhite dividingdividing lineslines reachingreaching endlesslyendlessly intointo thethe abyss,abyss, thethe jukeboxejukeboxess withwith theirtheir widewide andand lonelylonely repertoire,repertoire, thethe funeralfuneral scenesscenes wherewhere deathdeath is relatedrelated to thethe omnipresentomnipresent carcar culture:culture: thesethese areare thethe imagesimages thatthat FrankFrank offeredoffered hishis readersreaders andand thatthat caughtcaught Kerouac'sKerouac's eyeeye andand emotions.emotions. As subjectsubject mattermatter andand interpretation,interpretation, Frank'sFrank's photographphotographss werewere thethe datadata of thethe Beats,Beats, monumentsmonuments to thethe HipsterHipster vision.vision. NowherNowheree is thisthis bettebetterr expressedexpressed thanthan in thethe seriesseries of fivefive adjacentadjacent 16 photographphotographss nestlednestled in thethe middlemiddle of The Americans. 16 WithinWithin thethe confinesconfines of thesethese five images,images, thethe volume'svolume's interminglingintermingling of lifelife andand deathdeath waswas capturedcaptured in miniature.miniature. TheThe logiclogic of thesethese photographphotographss replicatedreplicated thethe largerlarger poetipoeticc visionvision of thethe entireentire volume.volume. In "U.S."U.S. 91,91, leavingleaving Blackfoot,Blackfoot, Idaho,"Idaho," Frank'sFrank's shotshot of thethe interiorinterior of a carcar capturescaptures twotwo intent,intent, grimlygrimly seriousserious youngyoung menmen beginninbeginningg theirtheir autoauto journeyjourney.. ThisThis shotshot is followedfollowed by "St."St. Petersburg,Petersburg, Florida"Florida" (Fig.(Fig. 1),1), an evocativeevocative studystudy of thethe elderly-sadelderly—sad andand dying-sittingdying—sitting on twotwo benchebenchess whosewhose postpostss seemseem to resembleresemble thethe markermarker lineslines of a highway.highway. In thethe backgrounbackgroundd of thisthis image,image, placeplacedd againstagainst thethe rootednessrootedness of thosethose involvedinvolved in thethe waitingwaiting gamegame of death,death, is a streakingstreaking car-perhapscar—perhaps oneone carryingcarrying thethe IdahoIdaho youth-offyouth—off to newnew horizonshorizons andand

22 22 FIGURFIGUREE ONEONE:: "St"St.. PetersburgPetersburg,, Florida"Florida"

FIGUREFIGURE TWO:TWO: "Covered"Covered Car-LongCar—Long Beach,Beach, California"California

23 23 possibilitiespossibilities.~. ButBut thethe nextnext imageimage arrestsarrests ourour attentionattention on thethe possiblpossiblee andand servesserves as a sustainedsustained codacoda to thethe waitingwaiting of thethe oldold andand thethe freneticfrenetic movementmovement of thethe young.young. ThisThis is thethe famousfamous "Covered"Covered Car-LongCar—Long Beach,Beach, California"California" (Fig.(Fig. 2),2), wherewhere in thethe shadowshadow of twotwo palpalmm treestrees andand in frontfront of whatwhat mightmight wellwell be describeddescribed as a BauhausBauhaus funeralfuneral crypt,crypt, is a tarptarp shroudedshrouded car-immobile,car—immobile, dead.dead. TheThe expectationexpectation thatthat thethe tarptarp mightmight be liftedlifted andand thethe carcar re-bornre-born is dasheddashed in lessless thanthan subtlesubtle fashionfashion whenwhen in thethe nextnext photograpphotographh FrankFrank presentpresentss thethe powerfupowerfull imageimage of a coveredcovered bodybody,, thethe victimvictim of a roadsideroadside accidentaccident alongalong thethe roadroad of dreamsdreams andand song,song, RouteRoute 66.66. TheThe finalfinal photphotoo in thisthis montagemontage returnsreturns us to thethe roadroad andand thusthus opensopens up,up, onceonce again,again, a setset of possibilitiespossibilities.. "U.S."U.S. 285,285, NeNeww Mexico,"Mexico," is an odeode to thethe BeatBeat juxtapositiojuxtapositionn of lifelife andand death.death. It,It, likelike so manymany of Frank'sFrank's photographsphotographs,, servesserves as a testamenttestament to RolandRoland Barthes'Barthes' observationobservation thatthat 17 photographiphotographicc imagesimages invokeinvoke deathdeath withwith tremendoustremendous vigor. 17 In Frank'sFrank's photograpphotographh thethe roadroad stretchesstretches foreverforever intointo thethe nightnight skies;skies; thethe passinpassingg laneslanes of thethe highwayhighway suggestsuggest escapeescape andand speed,speed, bubutt evokeevoke danger,danger, forfor oneone cancan glimpseglimpse thethe outlineoutline of an on-comingon-coming car,car, headlightsheadlights faint,faint, in thethe passingpassing lane.lane. As a metaphoricalmetaphorical forayforay intointo thethe pictoriapictoriall representationrepresentation of thethe BeatBeat idiom,idiom, thesethese photographphotographss capturecapture much.much. TheyThey suggestsuggest freedomfreedom bubutt alwaysalways linklink it withwith death.death. We areare onlyonly alivealive to thethe endlessendless possibilitiepossibilitiess of lifelife whenwhen we areare in thethe passinpassingg lane,lane, travelingtraveling fast,fast, faster,faster, faster.faster. AndAnd yet,yet, as we seekseek to avoidavoid thethe rootednessrootedness of oldold ageage andand inertia,inertia, thethe timetime of nondiscovery,nondiscovery, we mustmust alwaysalways bewarbewaree of thatthat otherother car,car, thethe carcar of death,death, immobility,immobility, oldold age,age, comingcoming towardtoward us as we speedspeed intointo thethe passinpassingg lane.lane. Kerouac'sKerouac's introductionintroduction diddid notnot ignore,ignore, in factfact it celebrated,celebrated, thethe pervasivpervasivee sensesense of sadnesssadness evokedevoked by Frank'sFrank's photographsphotographs.. FrankFrank had,had, 18 KerouacKerouac observed,observed, "sucked"sucked a sadsad poepoemm rightright outout of AmericaAmerica ontoonto film."film." 18 TheThe pathopathoss of The Americans waswas emphasizedemphasized by contemporarycontemporary reviewersreviewers whowho generallygenerally foundfound it a tokentoken of Frank'sFrank's personalpersonal,, pessimistipessimisticc visionvision of life;life; one,one, theythey werewere certain,certain, whichwhich diddid notnot adequatelyadequately expressexpress thethe essenceessence andand diversitydiversity of America.America. LaterLater studentsstudents of Frank'sFrank's workwork havehave acknowl­acknowl­ edgededged thethe obviousobvious depthsdepths of sadnesssadness in The Americans andand contrastedcontrasted it,it, usuallyusually unfavorably,unfavorably, withwith thethe relativelyrelatively goodgood humored,humored, respectfulrespectful treat­treat­ mentment of thethe poopoorr demonstrateddemonstrated in WalkerWalker Evans'Evans' photographphotographss fromfrom thethe 1930s.1930s. ThisThis comparisoncomparison juxtaposejuxtaposess thethe hopeshopes andand expectationsexpectations forfor changechange in Depression-eraDepression-era AmericaAmerica againstagainst thethe malaisemalaise andand hopelessnesshopelessness of post­post­ war,war, atomic-ageatomic-age America. 1919 To be sure,sure, oneone cannotcannot understateunderstate thethe tremendous,tremendous, almostalmost numbingnumbing sadnesssadness thatthat informsinforms allall of Frank'sFrank's photo­photo­ graphs.graphs. OutOut of a totaltotal of aboutabout sixtysixty photographphotographss depictingdepicting facesfaces in The Americans,Americans) onlyonly a handfulhandful capturecapture a smilesmile or indicateindicate anyany sensesense of happinesshappiness or adjustment.adjustment. AndAnd eveneven thenthen thethe smilingsmiling persopersonn is oftenoften situatedsituated nextnext to a dourdour individualindividual or thethe smilesmile is patentlpatentlyy plasticplastic,, as in thethe imageimage of thethe youngyoung televisiontelevision performeperformerr whosewhose falsefalse gringrin is reproduced,reproduced, andand furtherfurther renderedrendered problematiproblematicc andand false,false, by Frank'sFrank's wonderfulwonderful shotshot of herher simultaneouslysimultaneously appearingappearing on thethe televisiontelevision monitormonitor nextnext to thethe stagestage set.set. Frank'sFrank's sombersomber visionvision is onlyonly parpartt of thethe predominantlypredominantly criticalcritical 24 FIGUREFIGURE THREETHREE:: "Bar-Las"Bar—Las VegasVegas,, Nevada"Nevada"

characterizationcharacterization of AmericanAmerican societysociety andand cultureculture thatthat marksmarks The Americans. FrankFrank remembersremembers beinbe~ngg terriblyterribly troubledtroubled by McCarthyismMcCarthyism at thethe time.time. HisHis 20 photographsphotographs of thethe AmericanAmerican politicalpolitical landscapelandscape expressexpress thisthis feeling. 20 The Americans is dotteddotted withwith self-important,self-important, pettypetty politicianspoliticians capturedcaptured suppress­suppress­ inging a yawnyawn or surroundedsurrounded by tatteredtattered flags andand campaigncampaign signs.signs. A pervasivepervasive undercurrentundercurrent of violenceviolence is alsoalso presentpresent in Frank'sFrank's pictures,pictures, representedrepresented by tauttaut andand tighttight cowboyscowboys woundwound up andand readyready forfor a fight.fight. WhenWhen depictingdepicting workers,workers, FrankFrank showsshows themthem as sadsad andand alienated,alienated, situatedsituated in all-nightall-night diners,diners, elevators,elevators, busesbuses andand bathrooms.bathrooms. TheyThey areare gloomygloomy andand anonymous.anonymous. In a photographphotograph of a DetroitDetroit factory,factory, thethe workers'workers' facesfaces areare indistinct,indistinct, blurred,blurred, wonderfulwonderful analoguesanalogues forfor thethe speedingspeeding assemblyassembly lineline whichwhich enslavesenslaves thethe workersworkers andand turnsturns themthem intointo machines.machines. TheThe deepdeep spiritualspiritual malaisemalaise of AmericansAmericans is heightenedheightened by thethe contrast­contrast­ inging livelinessliveliness of thethe materialmaterial artifactsartifacts whichwhich surroundsurround them.them. "Bar-"Bar—LaLass Vegas,Vegas, Nevada"Nevada" (Fig.(Fig. 3),3), capturescaptures thethe nakednaked lonelinessloneliness of AmericanAmerican lifelife by showingshowing a youngyoung manman steppingstepping up to a jukebox;jukebox; he appearsappears languid,languid, deadeneddeadened to thethe worldworld surroundingsurrounding him.him. TheThe jukeboxjukebox is alive;alive; oneone imaginesimagines itit revvingrevving up to reverberatereverberate withwith thethe strainsstrains of thethe jazzjazz beat.beat. TheThe man,man, notnot thethe jukebox,jukebox, isis thethe materialmaterial object,object, thethe deaddead machine.machine. 2121 WhiteWhite Americans,Americans, forfor Frank,Frank, areare thethe walkingwalking dead.dead. ThisThis isis apparentapparent inin hishis photograph,photograph, "Charity"Charity Ball-NewBall—New YorkYork City"City" (Fig.(Fig. 4).4). A womanwoman 25 socialite,socialite, gaudygaudy in jewelsjewels,, in lifelesslifeless fashionfashion andand withoutwithout a smile-indeedsmile—indeed herher faceface evidencesevidences onlyonly thethe grimacegrimace of severesevere ennui-acceptsennui—accepts on herher cheekcheek thethe kisskiss of a manman whosewhose longlong fingersfingers wrapwrap aroundaround herher coldcold shouldersshoulders in a Dracula-likeDracula-like embrace.embrace. EvenEven whenwhen America'sAmerica's upperupper crustcrust areare smiling,smiling, as in "Cocktail"Cocktail Party-NewParty—New YorkYork City,"City," theythey seemseem to be courtingcourting death:death: theirtheir wealthwealth doesdoes notnot freefree themthem bubutt onlyonly seemsseems to furtherfurther weighweigh themthem down.down. FromFrom Frank'sFrank's photographsphotographs,, then,then, ononee mightmight surmisesurmise thatthat thethe bloobloodd of of AmericaAmerica hadhad beenbeen suckedsucked outout by a materialistic,materialistic, alienating,alienating, absurd absurd culture:culture: exactlyexactly thethe typetype of critiquecritique thatthat thethe BeatBeat andand HipsterHipster existentialistexistentialist writerswriters hadhad begubegunn to developdevelop in thethe 1950s1950s andand thatthat wouldwould receivereceive fullerfuller explicationexplication in thethe counter-culturalcounter-cultural movementmovement of thethe 1960s. 22 RobertRobert FrankFrank wouldwould havehave beebeenn untrueuntrue to thethe Beat-Beat-HipsteHipsterr visionvision hadhad hishis imagesimages beebeenn onlyonly condemnatory,condemnatory, simplesimple descriptionsdescriptions of thethe alienatedalienated "lonely"lonely crowd."crowd." He hadhad to givegive hishis readersreaders moremore thanthan merelymerely a diseaseddiseased facade,facade, to offeroffer if notnot hope,hope, at leastleast somesome chancechance of expectationexpectation or positivepositive alternativealternative imagery.imagery. BlackBlack AmericansAmericans becambecamee forfor FrankFrank thethe representa­representa­ tivestives of authenticityauthenticity andand possibilitypossibility,, of freedom;freedom; theythey appearedappeared apartapart fromfrom societysociety bubutt notnot alienatedalienated fromfrom themselves,themselves, occupyingoccupying a spacespace thatthat allowedallowed themthem strongstrong expressionexpression of emotions,emotions, feelingsfeelings andand spontaneity.spontaneity. YetYet FrankFrank alsoalso proveprovedd to be an astuteastute politicapoliticall observerobserver of blacblackk lifelife in America.America. HeHe diddid notnot seekseek to mythologizemythologize blacksblacks,, to removeremove themthem fromfrom thethe complexitycomplexity of history;history; he waswas carefulcareful to presenpresentt theirtheir humanhuman dimensionsdimensions andand to provideprovide visualvisual cluesclues to theirtheir historicalhistorical situation.situation. RatherRather thanthan presentinpresentingg a simplisticsimplistic celebrationcelebration of blacblackk existence,existence, a callcall forfor primitivismprimitivism,, FrankFrank waswas carefulcareful to documentdocument thethe ambivalence,ambivalence, ironyirony andand pathopathoss of thethe blacblackk experience.experience. In hishis fascinationfascination withwith blacks,blacks, FrankFrank waswas onceonce againagain withinwithin thethe mainstreamainstreamm of Beat-HipsteBeat-Hipsterr ideas.ideas. BeaBeatt writingswritings pulsatpulsatee withwith thethe livelinessliveliness of jazzjazz;; blackblackss areare walkingwalking expressionsexpressions of uninhibiteuninhibitedd sexuality,sexuality, of disdaindisdain forfor socialsocial convention.convention. TheyThey areare openopen to thethe possibilitiepossibilitiess of freedomfreedom in an ageage of dominationdomination andand thethe bombbomb.. TheThe fullestfullest expressionexpression of thethe celebrationcelebration of thethe blacblackk was,was, of course,course, NormaNormann Mailer'sMailer's "The"The WhiteWhite Negro.Negro."" TheThe NegroNegro,, as MailerMailer pointepointedd out,out, waswas "Hip""Hip" becausebecause "he"he hashas beebeenn livingliving on thethe marginmargin betweebetweenn totalitarianismtotalitarianism andand democracydemocracy forfor twotwo centuries."centuries." ThisThis specialspecial placplacee hadhad allowedallowed blackblackss to developdevelop a differentdifferent consciousnessconsciousness whichwhich arosearose outout of a sensesense of thethe existentialexistential dangersdangers andand predicamenpredicamentt of modernmodern living;living; at anyany momentmoment theythey mightmight forfeitforfeit theirtheir liveslives in repressiverepressive America. 23 TheThe psychopathologpsychopathologyy of thethe Negro—likNegro-likee thatthat of thethe homosex­homosex­ ual,ual, criminalcriminal or drugdrug addict-offeredaddict—offered himhim a freedomfreedom aboveabove societysociety andand a chancechance to developdevelop a distinctivedistinctive voice,voice, stylestyle andand language.language. ForFor whitewhite intellectualsintellectuals of thethe 1950s1950s andand earlier,earlier, certaincertain thatthat theythey hadhad as a classclass lostlost their'their "vitality, 'vitality,"" thethe blacblackk underclass,underclass, as PhilipPhilip RieffRieff hashas explainedexplained it moremore generally,generally, seemedseemed possessepossessedd of a dynamismdynamism thatthat wouldwould helphelp thethe intellec­intellec­ 24 tualstuals to escapeescape thethe boredoboredomm andand lonelinessloneliness of theirtheir existence. 24 BlacksBlacks alonealone in The Americans showshow emotion,emotion, demonstratedemonstrate deepdeep feelings,feelings, appearappear free.free. TheThe simplesimple dichotomydichotomy of blacblackk emotions/whiteemotions/white unfeelinunfeelingg or blacblackk freedom/whitefreedom/white slaveryslavery is communicatedcommunicated mostmost clearlyclearly in thethe structurestructure thatthat FrankFrank usesuses to organizeorganize hihiss photographsphotographs.. In "San"San Francisco,"Francisco," FrankFrank 26 disturbedisturbedd ththee peacpeacee anandd quiequiett ofof aa blacblackk couplcouplee whwhoo werweree sittinsittingg onon aa hillsidhillsidee enjoyinenjoyingg aa beautifubeautifull vievieww ofof ththee citycity.. ThThee womawomann anandd mamann reacreactt toto Frank'Frank'ss intrusiointrusionn witwithh disdaidisdainn anandd obviouobviouss angeranger:: hehe hahass violateviolatedd theitheirr rightsrights.. ThThee nexnextt photographphotograph,, "Bell"Bellee Isle—Detroit,Isle-Detroit,"" showshowss somsomee whitwhitee peoplpeoplee whowho,, whilwhilee inin a settinsettingg as idylliidyllicc asas ththee previoupreviouss shoshott ofof SaSann FranciscoFrancisco,, seeseemm obliviouobliviouss toto Frank'Frank'ss presencpresencee anandd equallequallyy unawarunawaree ofof ththee beautbeautyy of theitheirr surroundingssurroundings.. InIn anotheanotherr photographphotograph,, agaiagainn entitleentitledd "Bell"Bellee Isle—Detroit,Isle-Detroit, " FranFrankk depictdepictss a movinmovingg convertiblconvertiblee cacarr populatepopulatedd by younyoungg blacblackk boyboyss enjoyinenjoyingg coolincoolingg breezebreezess againsagainstt theitheirr barbaree topstops,, anandd

FIGURFIGUREE FOURFOUR:: "Charit"Charityy Ball—NeBall-Neww YorYorkk CityCity""

~•...~ ··9-\ ~.. •.•.. ,. . ~ ~.. '" ~.. .--=-. ...-,~, ...~

27 FIGUREFIGURE FIVE:FIVE: "New"New YorkYork City"City"

anticipatinganticipating thethe joysjoys of thethe beach.beach. TheirTheir freedomfreedom andand theirtheir organicorganic andand naturalnatural relationshiprelationship to naturenature areare comparedcompared withwith thethe subjectsubject of thethe followingfollowing photograph,photograph, "Detroit,""Detroit," wherewhere an elderlyelderly couplecouple sitsit in anan enclosed,enclosed, hardtophardtop automobile;automobile; no movementmovement is suggestedsuggested or anticipated;anticipated; theythey seemseem lessless angryangry thanthan numbednumbed by thethe waitwait in heavyheavy traffic.traffic. BlacksBlacks throughoutthroughout The Americans enjoyenjoy lifelife in a wayway alienalien to whites.whites. I havehave alreadyalready discusseddiscussed thethe photographphotograph of thethe whitewhite manman as machinemachine nextnext to thethe livingliving jukebox.jukebox. In anotheranother jukeboxjukebox photo,photo, FrankFrank depictsdepicts a blackblack babybaby nextnext to thethe machine.machine. HereHere therethere is no doubtdoubt thatthat thethe kinetic,kinetic, joyfuljoyful babybaby is alive.alive. EvenEven

28 FIGUREFIGURE SIX:SIX: "Trolley-New"Trolley—New Orleans"Orleans"

whenwhen a blackblack is picturedpictured as mostmost alone,alone, as in oneone shotshot of a larglargee blackblack womanwoman seatedseated on a chairchair in an openopen field, hanhandd jauntjauntyy againsagainstt heherr hiphip,, herher smilesmile positivelypositively illuminatesilluminates thethe surroundingsurrounding landscape.landscape. TheThe existentialexistential BeatBeat or HipsterHipster waswas alwaysalways awareaware of thethe proximitproximityy of death;death; indeedindeed thisthis knowledgeknowledge helpedhelped to ensureensure hishis freedom.freedom. ScenesScenes of deathdeath aboundabound inin Frank'sFrank's photographsphotographs butbut thethe wayway in whichwhich hishis blacksblacks approachapproach it seemsseems existential.existential. ConsiderConsider "Funeral-St."Funeral—St. Helena,Helena, SouthSouth Carolina,"Carolina," wherewhere a groupgroup of youngyoung blackblack malesmales areare shownshown leaningleaning up againstagainst theirtheir freshly-shinedfreshly-shined automobiles.automobiles. ThereThere is no sensesense of griefgrief in thisthis shot,shot, onlyonly oneone of intenseintense boredom,boredom, an unwillingnessunwillingness on theirtheir partsparts to letlet deathdeath interfereinterfere withwith theirtheir enjoymentenjoyment of life.life. AnotherAnother photophoto of thethe samesame funeralfuneral capturescaptures thethe coldcold stiffnessstiffness of thethe corpsecorpse inin hishis coffin,coffin, butbut thosethose whowho surroundsurround thethe deceaseddeceased areare free,free, freefree fromfrom griefgrief andand alivealive becausebecause theirtheir bodiesbodies areare inin motion.motion. FrankFrank alsoalso showsshows blacksblacks as sexuallysexually vital.vital. In general,general, whiteswhites in thethe bookbook areare depicteddepicted \vithoutwithout sexualsexual passionpassion or suggestiveness.suggestiveness. WhenWhen vvhiteswhites embrace,embrace, thethe gripsgrips areare hard,hard, suggestivesuggestive of a deathdeath struggle,struggle, of conjugalconjugal necessity.necessity. FrankFrank offersoffers thethe contrastcontrast of blackblack sexualsexual freedomfreedom andand anan accompanyingaccompanying lacklack ofof sexualsexual repressionrepression andand inhibition.inhibition. HisHis marvelousmarvelous imageimage "New"New YorkYork City"City" (Fig.(Fig. 5),5), showsshows threethree blackblack or PuertoPuerto RicanRican womenwomen (probably(probably transvestites).transvestites). TheyThey areare awareaware ofof Frank'sFrank's presence-thispresence—this isis nono candidcandid shot.shot. TheThe womenwomen dodo notnot retreatretreat fromfrom thethe cameracamera or strikestrike aa

29 FIGUREFIGURE SEVEN:SEVEN: "Charleston,"Charleston, SouthSouth Carolina"Carolina"

demuredemure posepose;; insteadinstead theythey perforperformm in sexualsexual fashion,fashion, oneone strokingstroking herher face,face, anotheranother extendingextending herher hips.hips. ThThee oneone womanwoman in thethe backgrounbackgroundd whowho coverscovers herher faceface doesdoes notnot do it outout of a desiredesire to hidehide or to seekseek anonymityanonymity or to showshow modesty;modesty; sheshe doesdoes it in a mockingmocking andand tantalizingtantalizing fashionfashion as sheshe spreadsspreads thethe fingersfingers of herher handhand widewide openopen againstagainst herher face.face. BlackBlack sexualitysexuality andand feelingfeeling areare joinejoinedd to an abilityability to experienceexperience deepdeep religiousreligious ecstasy.ecstasy. FrankFrank avoidsavoids thethe papatt shotsshots of blacblackk spiritualsspirituals andand insteadinstead focusesfocuses on a white-robedwhite-robed blacblackk priespriestt clutchingclutching a crosscross as he prayprayss by thethe shoresshores of thethe MississippiMississippi River.River. TheThe significancesignificance of thisthis ritualritual is unclearunclear butbut thethe man'sman's intenseintense emotionemotion is etchedetched on hishis face.face. TheThe nextnext photographphotograph indicatesindicates thethe literalliteral hardeninghardening andand deadeningdeadening of religiousreligious zealzeal whenwhen it is translatedtranslated intointo traditionaltraditional symbolism.symbolism. In hishis photograpphotographh of St.St. Francis,Francis, FrankFrank onceonce againagain depictsdepicts a priespriestt carryingcarrying a cross,cross, bubutt nownow thethe religiousreligious leaderleader is mademade of stone,stone, situatedsituated on a pedestapedestall aboveabove thethe ground,ground, preachingpreaching deaddead wordswords to thethe coldcold modernmodern worldworld of gasgas stationsstations andand governmentgovernment officeoffice buildings.25 BlackBlack freedom,freedom, FrankFrank rightlyrightly notes,notes, is limited.limited. FrankFrank is travelingtraveling thethe terrain,terrain, albeitalbeit soonsoon to begibeginn crumbling,crumbling, of JimJim Crow,Crow, racistracist America.America. TheThe covercover photograpphotographh forfor thethe ApertureAperture editionedition of The Americans (Fig.(Fig. 6) perfectlperfectlyy capturescaptures realitiesrealities of blacblackk life:life: we seesee facesfaces of a numbernumber of peoplepeople throughthrough thethe openopen windowswindows of a NeNeww OrleansOrleans trolley.trolley. TheThe paipainn andand despairdespair in ththee faceface of oneone blacblackk manman immediatelyimmediately drawdraw ourour attention.attention. He is 30 framed,framed, as if in a prisonprison,, by thethe windowswindows of thethe vehiclevehicle andand is thusthus chainedchained to thethe socialsocial realitiesrealities of thethe segregationsegregation era.era. Likewise,Likewise, he andand thethe otherother blacblackk passengepassengerr picturepicturedd areare exiledexiled to thethe bacbackk of thethe trolley.trolley. TheThe mostmost poignanpoignantt andand ambivalentambivalent expressionexpression of racialracial realitiesrealities in The Americans is thethe photographphotograph "Charleston,"Charleston, SouthSouth Carolina"Carolina" (Fig.(Fig. 7).7). A richlyrichly blackblack nurse,nurse, clothedclothed in regulationregulation whitewhite againstagainst a backgrounbackgroundd of blurreblurredd whitewhite streetsstreets anandd institutionainstitutionall whitewhite walls,walls, holdholdss a veryvery palpalee whitewhite babybaby.. TheThe babbabyy is immobile;immobile; it staresstares straightstraight ahead;ahead; thethe infantinfant seemsseems to be peerinpeeringg offoff intointo thethe future.future. It hashas a sagacioussagacious looklook wellwell beyonbeyondd itsits years,years, as thoughthough it realizesrealizes thatthat itsits closeclose relationshiprelationship to thisthis blackblack woman,woman, thisthis surrogatesurrogate mother,mother, is foreclosedforeclosed by thethe pressinpressingg realitiesrealities of socially-regulatedsocially-regulated dura­dura­ tion;tion; thethe procesprocesss of distancingdistancing maymay alreadyalready be occurring.occurring. TheThe attitudeattitude andand looklook of thethe blacblackk nursenurse areare uncertain.uncertain. ThoughThough sheshe holdsholds thethe babbabyy close,close, herher looklook is notnot directeddirected at thethe child,child, whosewhose realityreality seemsseems alienalien to her.her. TheThe blackblack womanwoman seemsseems lostlost in thoughtthought as well;well; perhapperhapss sheshe tootoo is contemplatingcontemplating herher separatenessseparateness fromfrom thethe child.child. In sum,sum, Frank'sFrank's depictiondepiction of blacblackk AmericaAmerica is meantmeant as an objectobject lessonlesson andand a warning.warning. WhileWhile certainlycertainly holdingholding outout blacblackk feelingsfeelings andand emotionsemotions as positivpositivee goods,goods, FrankFrank doesdoes notnot suggestsuggest thatthat theythey cancan be easilyeasily emulatedemulated by whitewhite Americans:Americans: theythey areare thethe outgrowthoutgrowth of thethe dialecticdialectic of slaveryslavery andand repressionrepression discusseddiscussed by Mailer.Mailer. BlackBlack authenticity,authenticity, however,however, is notnot withoutwithout a price.price. BlacksBlacks livelive in constantconstant jeopardy,jeopardy, andand theirtheir socialsocial positionposition is clearlyclearly secondsecond class.class. Frank'sFrank's whiteswhites areare enslavedenslaved as well,well, prisonerprisonerss of thethe stalenessstaleness of modern,modern, consumerconsumer America.America. He documentsdocuments thisthis in hishis photographphotographss in graphicgraphic fashion.fashion. He doesdoes notnot implyimply simplysimply thatthat whiteswhites shouldshould be moremore likelike blacksblacks;; ratherrather he seemsseems to suggestsuggest throughthrough hishis photographsphotographs thatthat allall AmericanAmericanss neeneedd to escapeescape frofromm thethe prisoprisonn of modermodernn society.society. BlackBlackss mustmust be freedfreed fromfrom thethe shacklesshackles of segregation,segregation, andand whiteswhites mustmust be liberatedliberated fromfrom conformityconformity andand spiritualspiritual alienationalienation so thatthat theythey maymay livelive freelyfreely andand auauthenticallythentically.. RobertRobert Frank'sFrank's The Americans is a photographiphotographicc tourtour de forceforce andand alsoalso an importantimportant documentdocument of 1950s1950s America.America. HisHis workwork is wellwell situatedsituated andand onlyonly properlproperlyy understoodunderstood withinwithin thethe contextcontext of thethe undercurrentsundercurrents of BeatBeat andand HipsterHipster thought.thought. FrankFrank is thethe existentialexistential photographephotographerr capturingcapturing thethe absurdabsurd andand alienatingalienating worldworld of whitewhite Americans.Americans. CritiqueCritique andand commen­commen­ tary,tary, The Americans retainsretains itsits distinguishingdistinguishing markmark as a piecpiecee of literatureliterature thatthat departsdeparts fromfrom thethe consumer-oriented,consumer-oriented, standardizingstandardizing trendstrends of 1950s1950s culture.culture. The Americans presentspresents thethe machine-themachine—the idolidol ofof thethe era-asera—as livelierlivelier thanthan itsits builderbuilderss andand consumers.consumers. The Americans alsoalso breakbreakss fromfrom main­main­ streamstream cultureculture throughthrough itsits paradoxicaparadoxicall interpretationinterpretation of blacblackk America:America: oppressedoppressed blackblackss areare emotionallyemotionally freerfreer thanthan theirtheir whitewhite superiors.superiors. TheThe volumevolume mustmust be readread andand understoounderstoodd as a significantsignificant commentarycommentary on AmericanAmerican racerace relationsrelations in thethe 1950s.1950s. Finally,Finally, in style,style, imagery,imagery, interpreta­interpreta­ tiontion andand content,content, RobertRobert Frank'sFrank's The Americans mustmust be seenseen as a photographiphotographicc analogueanalogue to thethe Beat-Beat-HipsteHipsterr visionvision of America.America. CaliforniaCalifornia PolytechnicPolytechnic StateState UniversityUniversity

31 notesnotes TheThe authorauthor wouldwould nevernever havehave contemplatedcontemplated or completedcompleted thithiss projecprojectt withouwithoutt ththee insighinsightt andand supportsupport of MartaMarta Peluso.Peluso. He alsoalso wisheswishes to thankthank RobertRobert FranFrankk anandd AperturAperturee foforr permissiopermissionn to reproducereproduce photographsphotographs fromfrom The Americans. 1. AllAll referencesreferences to The Americans areare fromfrom ththee AperturAperturee editioeditionn (Ne(Neww YorkYork,, 1969).1969). 2. Kerouac,Kerouac, On the Road (1957(1957 rpt.rpt. NeNeww York,York, 1979);1979); MailerMailer,, "The"The WhitWhitee NegroNegro:: SuperficialSuperficial ReflectionsReflections on thethe Hipster,"Hipster," Dissent, 4 (1957),(1957), 276-93276-93.. 3. SusanSusan Sontag,Sontag, On Photography (New(New York,York, 1978),1978), 4848.. InterpretationInterpretationss whicwhichh emphasizeemphasize Frank'sFrank's bleakbleak visionvision are:are: WilliamWilliam Stott,Stott, "Walker"Walker Evans,Evans, RoberRobertt FrankFrank,, anandd ththee LandscapLandscapee of Dissociation,"Dissociation," Artscanada, 31 (December,(December, 1974),1974), 83-89;83-89; JaneJanett MalcolmMalcolm,, Diana & Nikon: Essays on the Aesthetic of Photography (Boston,(Boston, 1981),1981), 139-62.139-62. MorMoree favorablfavorablee interpretationinterpretationss areare:: TodTod Papageorge,Papageorge, Walker Evans and Robert Frank: An Essay on Influence (Ne(Neww HavenHaven,, 1981);1981); JonathanJonathan Green,Green, American Photography: A Critical History, 1945 to the Present (Ne(Neww YorkYork,, 1984),1984), 31-9431-94.. GreenGreen connectsconnects FrankFrank withwith thethe BeatsBeats butbut continuescontinues to emphasizeemphasize ththee sombesomberr naturnaturee of ththee imagesimages:: vitalityvitality is foundfound in thethe subjectsubject matter.matter. 4. ForFor biographicalbiographical informationinformation on Frank,Frank, seesee RoberRobertt FrankFrank,, The Lines of My Hand (Los(Los Angeles,Angeles, 1972);1972); DennisDennis Wheeler,Wheeler, "Robert"Robert FrankFrank Interviewed,"Interviewed," Criteria, 3 (JuneGune,, 1977),1977), 4-74-7;; "Dialogue"Dialogue BetweenBetween RobertRobert Frank,Frank, WalkerWalker EvansEvans andand Students,"Students," Still/3 (Ne(Neww HavenHaven,, 1973),1973), 2-62-6;; Frank,Frank, "Comments"Comments at Wellesley,"Wellesley," in EugeniaEugenia ParryParry JaniJaniss anandd WendWendyy MacNeilMacNeil,, eds.eds.,, Photogra­ phy within the Humanities (Danbury,(Danbury, NewNew Hampshire,Hampshire, 1977),1977), 52-6552-65;; WestoWestonn J. NeufNeuf,, Counter­ parts: Form and Emotion in Photographs (New(New York,York, 1983),1983), 154-55154-55.. 5. JoyceJoyce Johnson,Johnson, Minor Characters (New(New York,York, 1984),1984), 254254.. 6. Frank,Frank, The Lines ofMy Hand, n.p.n.p. 7. ThisThis waswas an especiallyespecially problematicproblematic comparisoncomparison forfor JacJackk KerouacKerouac.. FoForr mormoree on thisthis,, seseee GeraldGerald Nicosia,Nicosia, Memory Babe: A Critical Biography ofJackJack Kerouac (Ne(Neww YorkYork,, 1983)1983),, 206206.. ThThee Beat-Beat-HipsteHipsterr visionvision waswas a culturalcultural commonplacecommonplace whicwhichh croppedcropped up alsalsoo in ththee musimusicc of JohnJohn Cage,Cage, andand in thethe plasticplastic arts,arts, firstfirst in abstractabstract expressionismexpressionism anandd ultimatelultimatelyy in ththee mockermockeryy of PopPop Art.Art. SeeSee CalvinCalvin Tompkins,Tompkins, The Bride and the Bachelors: Five Masters of thethe Avant-Garde (exp.(exp. ed.,éd., NewNew York,York, 1983).1983). 8. RobertRobert J. Lifton,Lifton, "Protean"Protean Man,"Man," in LeoLeo HamaliaHamaliann anandd FredericFrederickk R. KarlKarl,, eds.eds.,, The Radical Vision: EssaysforEssaysfor thethe Seventies (New(New York,York, 1970),1970), 53.53. OnOn thethe Beats,Beats, seesee John John Tytell,Tytell, NakedNaked Angels: The Lives and Literature of the Beat Generation (Ne(Neww YorkYork,, 1976).1976). 9. A good,good, conciseconcise summarysummary of thesethese pointspoints is in RicharRichardd H. PellsPells,, "From"From CommunitCommunityy to Conformity:Conformity: SocialSocial CriticismCriticism in thethe PostwarPostwar Years,"Years," The Philosophical Forum, 10 (Fall(Fall,, 1978),1978), 2626.. 10.10. Cf.Cf. notenote 3. 11.11. Johnson,Johnson, 254;254; Nicosia,Nicosia, 559-572; Kerouac,Kerouac, "Introduction""Introduction" to The Americans, vivi.. FrankFrank discussesdiscusses hishis backgroundbackground andand influencesinfluences in Wheeler,Wheeler, 4-7.4-7. 12.12. Wheeler,Wheeler, 6; Frank,Frank, "Comments"Comments at Wellesley,"Wellesley," 5353;; FrankFrank,, "A Statement,Statement,"" in NathanNathan Lyons,Lyons, ed.,éd., Photographers on Photography (Englewood(Englewood Cliffs,Cliffs, NeNeww JerseyJersey,, 1966),1966), 66-6766-67.. 13.13. Papageorge,Papageorge, 3-4,3-4, is usefuluseful on Frank'sFrank's style;style; criticismcriticism of thithiss stylstylee is offereofferedd in StottStott,, 8484.. 14.14. Sontag,Sontag, 55-56.55-56. 15.15. Kerouac,Kerouac, "Introduction,""Introduction," i.i. 16.16. FrankFrank hashas onlyonly rarelyrarely offeredoffered anyany interpretiveinterpretive or organizationaorganizationall informatioinformationn foforr The Americans. He hashas opinedopined that"that "eac eachh sectionsection startsstarts witwithh an AmericaAmericann flag, anandd eaceachh sectiosectionn beganbegan withwith no peoplepeople andand thenthen camecame to people."people." Frank'sFrank's recollectiorecollectionn is faultyfaulty.. The Americans opensopens withwith a flag scenescene (people(people areare includedincluded in thethe image),image), yetyet thethe nextnext photographphotograph is of people,people, notnot objects.objects. FrankFrank in "Dialogue,""Dialogue," 3. FrankFrank alwaysalways preferredpreferred to letlet hihiss imageimagess speaspeakk foforr themselvesthemselves:: "The"The bestbest wouldwould be no writingwriting at all,"all," Frank,Frank, The Lines of My Hands, n.n.pp.. 17.17. RolandRoland Barthes,Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, transtrans.. RicharRichardd HowarHowardd (New(New York,York, 1981),1981), 30-32.30-32. 18.18. Kerouac,Kerouac, "Introduction,""Introduction," vi.vi. 19.19. For.For a contemporarycontemporary criticismcriticism of Frank'sFrank's visionvision,, seesee WilliaWilliamm HoganHogan,, "Phot"Photoo CoveragCoveragee of thethe UglyUgly American,"American," SanSan FranciscoFrancisco ehronicle,Chronicle, Oanuary(January 2727,, 1960),1960), 2525.. FoForr ththee Evans-FrankEvans-Frank relationshiprelationship seesee thethe essaysessays by Stott,Stott, Papageorge,Papageorge, MalcolmMalcolm anandd GreenGreen,, notnotee 3. 20.20. Frank,Frank, "Comments"Comments at Wellesley,"Wellesley," 54.54. 21.21. FrankFrank hashas admittedadmitted thatthat he foundfound thethe jukebojukeboxx an AmericaAmericann culturaculturall symbosymboll he coulcouldd notnot resist.resist. He diddid statestate thatthat itsits appealappeal to himhim waswas largelylargely duedue to ththee elemenelementt of sounsoundd it gavgavee to hihiss photographs.photographs. ThisThis maymay alsoalso explainexplain thethe powerpower andand appealappeal of hihiss well-knowwell-knownn photography,photography, "Political"Political Rally-Chicago."Rally—Chicago." Frank,Frank, "Comments"Comments at Wellesley,Wellesley,"" 55. SeSeee ththee analysianalysiss of "Political"Political Rally-Chicago"Rally—Chicago" in GeneGene Markowski,Markowski, The Art of Photography: Image and Illusion (Englewood(Englewood Cliffs,Cliffs, NewNew Jersey,Jersey, 1984),1984), 38-39.38-39. 22.22. FrankFrank implicitlyimplicitly recognizedrecognized thethe connectionconnection betweebetweenn The Americans anandd ththee counter­counter­ cultureculture of thethe 1960s.1960s. TheThe youngyoung students,students, FrankFrank recalled,recalled, werweree mosmostt movemovedd by hihiss imagesimages.. "They"They recognizedrecognized andand understoodunderstood my language.language. TheyThey listenedlistened to ththee voicevoicess thathatt hahadd no parpartt in thethe 'System.''System.' AwareAware of HypocrisyHypocrisy aroundaround themthem,, dissatisfieddissatisfied witwithh slogansloganss frofromm preacherpreacherss andand patriots,patriots, theythey beganbegan to questionquestion everything."everything." FrankFrank,, The Lines of My Hands, n.n.pp.. 23.23. Mailer,Mailer, 278.278.

32 24.24. PhilipPhilip Rieff,Rieff, The Triumph ojof the Therapeutic: Uses ojof Faith After Freud (1966;(1966; NeNeww York,York, 1968),1968), 1111.. 25.25. JonathaJonathann GreenGreen offersoffers a similarsimilar interpretationinterpretation of thethe blacblackk priespriestt andand accompanyingaccompanying photographphotographss in hishis American Photography, 87-88.87-88.

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