Canadian and Us Steel Production by Mill Type

CRADLE-TO-GATE LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY: CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTION BY MILL TYPE

Based on reports by: MARKUS ENGINEERING SERVICES

Ottawa, Canada March 2002 ACKNOWLEDGMENT This report was made possible through the support of Natural Resources Canada and the federal Climate Change Action Fund under its Technology Early Action Measures Program (TEAM).

DISCLAIMER TM Although the ATHENA Sustainable Materials Institute has done its best to ensure accurate and reliable information in this report, the Institute does not warrant the accuracy thereof. If notified of any errors or omissions, the Institute will take reasonable steps to correct such errors or omissions.

COPYRIGHT No part of this report may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written permission of the ATHENATM Sustainable Materials Institute.

ATHENATM Sustainable Materials Institute 28 St. John Street, P.O. Box 189 Merrickville, Ontario Canada, K0G 1N0 Tel: 613-269-3795 Fax: 613-269-3796 Email: [email protected] CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION...... 1

1.1 REPORT STRUCTURE...... 1 2 OVERVIEW OF THE CANADIAN AND US STEEL INDUSTRY...... 3

2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 3 2.1.1 Product Categories ...... 3 2.1.2 Plant Types...... 3 2.2 THE CANADIAN STEEL INDUSTRY...... 4 2.3 THE UNITED STATES STEEL INDUSTRY...... 6 2.4 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS...... 8 2.4.1 Iron-Making...... 9 2.4.2 EAF Process Developments...... 9 2.4.3 Steel Casting Technology...... 10 2.4.4 Cold Rolling and Finishing...... 10 2.5 ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL ...... 10 2.5.1 Energy Conservation...... 10 2.5.2 Emissions to Air ...... 11 2.5.3 Emissions to Water...... 11 2.5.4 Solid Wastes ...... 12 3 STUDY APPROACH ...... 14

3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 14 3.2 INTEGRATED CANADIAN PLANTS...... 14 3.2.1 The Reference Plant...... 15 3.2.2 Unit Processes...... 15 3.2.3 Emission Factors...... 25 3.2.4 Water Use and Emissions to Water...... 26 3.3 CANADIAN MINI-MILLS ...... 29 3.3.1 Reference Plants...... 29 3.3.2 Scrap Usage and Types...... 35 3.3.3 Water Use and Emissions to Water...... 39 3.4 COMBINED CANADIAN MILLS ...... 40 3.4.1 Energy Components ...... 40 3.4.2 Process versus Combustion Emissions to Air ...... 42 3.5 COMBINED US MILLS...... 43 4 LCI RESULTS BY PRODUCT...... 44

4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 44 4.2 LCI ESTIMATES ...... 44 4.2.1 The Effects of Processing Steps and Yield ...... 45 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 82

5.1 INTEGRATED MILLS...... 82 5.2 MINI-MILLS ...... 87 Appendices

Appendix 1 Mass and Energy Balances - Exploration, Mining and Processing of Raw Materials Appendix 2 Mass and Energy Balances - Transportation of Raw Materials Appendix 3 Mass and Energy Balances - Primary Processes Appendix 4 Mass and Energy Balances - Finishing Mills Appendix 5 Mass and Energy Balances - Manufacturing of Finished Products Appendix 6 Flat Rolled Products: Energy and Emission Diagrams Appendix 7 Shapes Products: Energy and Emission Diagrams

List of Tables

Table 1 Characteristics of Major Canadian Steel Plants 5 Table 2 Canadian Steel Production in 2000 by Product Plant Type 6 Table 3 List of Major Steel Plants in USA 7 Table 4 Estimated Production of Molten Steel in 2000 by Process Type 7 Table 5 Shipments of Selected Products in 2000 by US Plant Type 8 Table 6 Annual Reference Plant Steel Production 15 Table 7 Major Raw Material/Energy Purchases and Credits - Reference Plant 16 Table 8 Net Contaminate Discharge by Canadian Integrated Plants, 2000 29 Table 9 Annual Steel Production: Reference Steel Plants 30 Table 10 Annual Material Consumption: Flat Rolled Reference Plant 32 Table 11 Annual Material Consumption: Shapes Products Reference Plant 34 Table 12 Net Contaminate Discharge by Canadian Mini-Mills, 2000 40 Table 13 LCI Estimates by Product: Canadian Integrated Mills 46 Table 14 LCI Estimates by Product: Canadian Mini-Mills 56 Table 15 LCI Estimates by Product: Combined Canadian Mills 62 Table 16 LCI Estimates by Product: Combined US Mills 72

List of Figures

Figure 1 Sinter Plant Schematic 17 Figure 2 Coke Ovens Schematic 18 Figure 3 Blast Furnace Schematic 19 Figure 4 BOF Steelmaking Schematic 20 Figure 5 Reference Plant Flow Diagram 21 Figure 6 Reference Plant Gas Distribution 24 Figure 7 Energy and Mass Balances for Blast Furnace Stoves 24 Figure 8 Annual Production of Flat Rolled Steel: Reference Plant 30 Figure 9 Schematic of DRI/EAF Process Flow 31 Figure 10 Annual Production of Shapes: Reference Plant 33 Figure 11 Schematic of Shapes: EAF Process Flow 33 Figure 12 Basic Scrap Types and Flows 36 Figure 13 Estimated Scrap Recycle Quantities in 2000 37 Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Inventory: Canadian and US Steel Production by Mill Type

1 INTRODUCTION This life cycle inventory (LCI) study of selected Canadian and US steel building products was commissioned by the ATHENATM Sustainable Materials Institute1 to up-date our original studies of steel production. The original work was done over two years (1993-94) by Stelco Technical Services Limited as two distinct studies, an assessment of production in fully integrate mills and in scrap-based mini-mills. The results from these two studies were then combined to develop weighted average results by product, using the relative production levels of the two types of mills as the weights. In view of the environmental advances made by the steel industry over the past decade, it became progressively more apparent that this work should be up-dated. The Institute therefore retained Mr. Frank Marcus of Marcus Engineering Services, a central member of the original study team, to complete the up-date following the basic approach of the original study. We also decided this was an appropriate time to add data for U.S. production of steel building products. The original studies were released as separate reports because of the sequential manner in which they were undertaken, and Marcus Engineering prepared the up-date by revising each of the reports separately. That naturally led to considerable duplication of basic explanatory material and common elements of the analyses. To avoid perpetuation of that problem we decided to release this up-date as one integrated report. Given the relative complexity of this study in comparison to most of our other LCI studies, we also decided to develop a stand-alone version of the up-date rather than an up-date addendum as in some other reports. This report was therefore prepared from the Marcus Engineering reports by the Institute, and it supersedes the earlier Institute reports on both integrated and mini-mill steel production.

1.1 Report Structure This report is organized as follows: Section 2 provides an overview of the Canadian and US steel industry, including a backdrop description of basic plant types and product categories, an overview of the industry structure and production levels in both countries, a review of technological development highlights, and a review of energy conservation and environmental control approaches with an emphasis on the gains made over the past decade.

1 ATHENA is a registered trademark of the ATHENA Sustainable Materials Institute. ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 2

Section 3 describes the basic study approach for each type of plant in Canada and for the development of comparable LCI estimates for the US, including unit process flow diagrams, energy and mass balance information, a discussion of the special approach to estimating emissions to water, and a discussion of the specific components of energy including chemical energy. Section 4 then presents the detailed life cycle inventory results by Canadian mill type and product as well as for the combined Canadian and combined US production. Section 5 is a complete bibliography. Appendices 1 – 7 provide unit process flow diagrams with energy and mass balance results as well as emission factors.

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2 Overview of the Canadian and US Steel Industry

2.1 Introduction World steel production has grown at a relatively slow rate since the mid-1970s, a period marked by a steady shift from oxygen based steel making to production using electric arc furnaces (EAF). However, the deployment of new process technology has been slower than expected because the older blast furnace and basic oxygen furnace (BOF) plants are still efficient and the industry strategy is to maximize the profitability and competitiveness of existing plants. The developments in product technology (reduction of weight and better recycling) and in process technology (increased quality) have assured that steel remains competitive with other materials. Improvements have been by means of cost reduction, by producing steel of a higher quality, and by extending asset life, trends that have also had an impact on the availability of some scrap grades. All of these developments are as applicable to Canadian and US steel production as to production in other parts of the world. The several different process routes used in making steel are discussed in detail in sub- section 2.4. But it is useful to highlight the key features of the different plant types and product categories here, as a backdrop to the basic description of the industry make-up in Canada and the United States.

2.1.1 Product Categories Steel products can be broadly categorized into flat rolled and long products. Flat rolled products include plate, hot rolled sheet/strip, cold rolled sheet/strip, galvanized sheet, and tinplate and tin-free container plate. Plate and strip can be further processed into pipe and tubing, pre painted sheet and other such products. Long products include wire rods, sections and shapes, and a wide range of bar products. A variety of wire, nail and fastener products are made from wire rods. Rails and heavy structural sections, while technically long products, are rolled in specially designed larger mills and are generally categorized as separate classes of product.

2.1.2 Plant Types Integrated plants produce hot metal (pig iron) from iron ore and coke in a blast furnace and then use the hot metal, in combination with small amounts of mainly internally generated scrap (own scrap), to produce steel in oxygen-blown vessel. Most flat rolled products are produced in the integrated plants. Long products are also made by some of the more diversified integrated companies. Non-integrated plants — mini-mills, market-mills or specialty producers — melt scrap charges, sometimes with the addition of small quantities of direct reduced iron (DRI) or cold iron, in electric arc furnaces to make steel. Mini-mills traditionally specializes in long products but some of the companies, such as Ipsco in Canada and Nucor Corp. in the United States, produce ever-increasing volumes of flat rolled products.

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DRI/EAF plants use a direct reduction process for solid-state production of iron from iron ore. The DRI pellets or briquettes are charged, together with scrap, into an electric-arc furnace to make steel. DRI/EAF plants make both flat rolled and long products, with the mix dictated by specific market targets. Because of the large amount of energy required for blast furnace steel making, steel made in integrated plants from a high percentage of virgin materials is inherently more energy- intensive than steel made in mini-mills from all-scrap feedstock. The energy required to make steel in a DRI-integrated plant could be somewhat more or somewhat less, depending on the DRI/scrap ratio, than the energy consumed in a fully integrated plant. Just where the balance between ore and scrap materials will be struck is debatable, but the literature suggests that production will ultimately be 50 to 60 percent from integrated plants (ore) and 40 to 50 percent from non-integrated plants (scrap). There are also a large number of specialty steel plants, producing steel for custom forging, special casting and other such low volume applications. These plants are not included in this study.

2.2 The Canadian Steel Industry The Canadian Steel Industry comprises 42 plants located in all parts of the country except Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick. Total installed capacity of the industry has been essentially constant over the past five years, at about 20 million tonnes of semi-finished steel per year, with about 300,000 tonnes of additional capacity dedicated to foundry castings and forging plants. Foundries and forging plants are numerous but small in size. They produce only a few thousand tonnes of steel per year for custom forging, special casting and other low volume applications and are not included in the current study. Seventeen of the 42 plants, owned by 12 different companies, could each produce more than 100,000 tonnes per year. Two separately owned plants have annual capacities of three-quarters to one million tonnes per year, and five plants, owned by four different steelmakers, can produce in excess of one million tonnes per year, each. The steel-making center of Canada is southern Ontario, with four of the major plants concentrated near the eastern end of Lake Erie and the western end of Lake Ontario — Dofasco Inc. (Hamilton), Co-Steel Lasco (Whitby), and the Stelco Inc. Lake Erie (Nanticoke) and Hilton Works (Hamilton). The other large Canadian steel producers are Algoma Steel Inc. (Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario), Sidbec-Dosco Inc. (Contrecoeur, Quebec) and Ipsco Inc. (Regina, Saskatchewan). The capacities of these plants and their classification by steel-making process are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR CANADIAN STEEL PLANTS (tonnes/year in 2000) Company Capacity Classification Steel Furnace

Algoma Steel Inc. 3,195,000 Integrated Pneumatic

Dofasco Inc. 3,800,000* Integrated and EAF* Pneumatic + EAF

Ipsco Inc. 750,000 Non-integrated EAF

Co-Steel Lasco 950,000 Non-integrated EAF

Sidbec-Dosco Inc. 1,800,000 DRI-integrated EAF

Stelco (Hilton) 3,150,000 Integrated Pneumatic

Stelco (L. Erie) 2,400,000 Integrated Pneumatic *Capacity of plant located in Canada

There are another 11 mini and specialty steel mills, with a combined semi-finished steel production capacity of approximately 5 million tonnes. Their names and locations are: Courtice Steel Inc. Cambridge, Ontario Ivaco Rolling Mills L’Orignal, Ontario Manitoba Rolling Mills Selkirk, Manitoba Slater Steels Hamilton, Ontario Stelco-McMaster Ltée Contrecoeur, Québec AltaSteel Ltd. Edmonton, Alberta Sydney Steel Corp. Sydney, Nova Scotia Western Canada Steel Ltd (IPSCO) Calgary, Alberta QIT - Fer et Titane Inc. Sorel, Québec Atlas Specialty Steels Welland, Ontario Atlas Stainless Steels Tracy, Québec

The mini-mills belong to three distinctive groups: Among the ten EAF-based plants, nine produce shapes (rod and bar) products only, while one produces flat rolled semi-finished steel for the manufacture of pipes and tubes. Another EAF-based mini-mill steel plant (direct reduction/EAF) produces both flat rolled and shapes products. One of these plants is unique; its main product is slag for the production of titanium oxide, and iron is its by-product. This iron is refined in a pneumatic steelmaking vessel (Q-BOP) and then the steel is continuously cast to produce billets for shape products. Two plants that produce stainless steel from which flat rolled and shapes products are made are not included in this study. Table 2 details shipments by plant type in 2000 of the selected products of interest in this study. It is notable that Canadian steel plant utilization increased from about 65 % in

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1990 to 92 percent in 2000. During this period, EAF production increased to 6.9 million tonnes, representing 41.9 percent of total steel production. Steel imports in Canada increased continuously in the second half of the 1990s, from 5.2 million tonnes in 1996 to almost 10 million tonnes in 2000. Although the net import/export balance affects the environmental profile of steel products in the market place, these effects are not included in this study.

Table 2 CANADIAN STEEL PRODUCTION IN 2000 BY PRODUCT PLANT TYPE (tonnes) Plant type Flat Rolled Products Integrated DRI-EAF EAF Total Galvanized Decking 17,518 5,590 0 23,208 Galvanized Sheet 2,458,807 0 100,000 2,558,807 Cold Rolled Sheet 1,200,875 219,750 200,000 1,620,625 Tubing 160,736 25,946 0 186,682 Hot Rolled Sheet 4,542,032 873,081 2,430,742 7,850,855 HSS 30,264 0 0 30,264 Long Products Nails 18,458 10,000 28,277 56,735 Welded Wire Mesh and Ladder Wire 399,756 5,000 4,070 408,826 Screws, Nuts and Bolts 20,176 10,000 16,470 46,646 Open Web Joists 12,539 5,633 5,000 23,172 Rebar, Rod, Light Sections 252,264 0 2,579,976 2,827,240 Heavy Trusses 360,250 0 430,000 790,250 Galvanized Studs 23,108 0 0 23,008 Total of All Products 9,496,783 1,155,000 5,794,535 16,446,318 Note: This table presents the best estimates obtained using available data. For most products, they agree with the AISI 2000 Annual Statistical Report.

2.3 The United States Steel Industry Ranked as the third largest steel producing country in the world, total installed capacity of the United Stated steel industry has been constant at about 130.5 million tonnes of semi-finished steel per year, over the past five years. The large US steel producers (integrated and mini-mills) are listed in Table 3. In 2000, the US steel industry produced 112,242,000 tonnes of raw steel, which it converted into 100,49,000 tonnes of products. However, the industry imported relatively large volume of semi-products from other countries, and actually shipped 109,050,000 tonnes of finished products. In addition, the US imported 29,401,000 tonnes of finished products to meet the total domestic demand of 131,922,000 tonnes.

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Table 3 LIST OF MAJOR STEEL PLANTS IN USA INTEGRATED MILLS MINIMILLS ACME Steel Inc. Atlantic Steel CO. ARMCO Steel Inc. Bayou Steel Corp. Bethlehem Steel CORP. Birmingham Steel CORP. Geneva Steel Inc Calumet Steel Co

Gulf States steel Inc. Cascade steel Roll. Mill Inc. Inland steel Chaparral Steel CO Lone Star steel Co CITISTEEL USA Inc LTV Steel Co Inc. FIRSTMISS STEEL INC. McLouth Steel Florida Steel Corp. National Steel Corp. Georgetown Steel Corp. Oregon Steel Mills Inc. Marion Steel Co. Rouge Steel Corp. New Jersey Steel Corp. Sharon Specialty Steel Inc North Star Steel CO USS/KOBE steel Co. North West steel & wire Co. US Steel Corp. Nucor Corp. WCI Steel Inc. Nucor-Yamato Steel CO. Weirton Steel Corp. Raritan River Steel CO Roanoke Electric Steel Corp Sheffield Steel Corp TAMCO Steel

The production of raw steel in US steel plants for 2000 is listed in Table 4.

Table 4 ESTIMATED PRODUCTION OF MOLTEN STEEL IN 2000 BY PROCESS TYPE (tonnes/year) Flat Rolled Long Products Process Products Totals CO/BF/BOF 47,640, 366 8,883,900 56,524,266 EAF, DRI/EAF 27,430, 007 28,287,727 55,717,734 Totals 75,070, 373 37,171,627 112,242,000 Note: Estimated from various data; consistent with AISI 2000 Annual Statistical Report.

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Table 5 shows the shipments of steel products relevant to this study from US plants in 2000.

Table 5 SHIPMENTS OF SELECTED PRODUCTS in 2000 BY US PLANT TYPE (tonnes) Plant Type Flat Rolled Products Integrated DRI-EAF EAF Total Tin sheet products (Decking) 3,741,526 0 0 3,741,626 Galvanized Sheet 14,035,777 0 4,145,306 18,181,083 Cold Rolled Sheet 8,133,798 1,000,000 6,000,000 15,133,798 Tubing 5,235,062 150,000 0 5,385,062 Hot Rolled Sheet 6,834,525 2,500,000 11,000,000 20,334,525 HSS 5,000,000 0 0 5,000,000 Long Products Nails 600,000 100,000 207,867 907,867 Welded Wire Mesh & Ladder Wire 2,250,000 50,000 11,271,699 13,571,699 Screws, Nuts and Bolts 2,000,000 600,000 1,871,191 4,471,191 Open Web Joists 200,000 100,000 1,254,657 1,554,657 Rebar, Rod, Light Sections 1,052,675 0 8,996,043 10,048,718 Heavy Trusses 211,255 0 602,194 813,449 Galvanized Studs 1,247,325 100,000 0 1,347,325 Totals 50,542,043 4,600,000 45,348,957 100,491,000 Note: Estimated from various data sources, with adjustments to take account of the large volume of semi-product net imports. The estimates generally agree with the AISI 2000 Annual Statistical Report.

Steel imports to the US increased steadily over the decade 1990 – 2000, from 15.85 million tonnes in 1991 to almost 38 million tonnes in 2000. The ratio of imports to total production is now relatively high, but this factor is not taken into account in estimating the environmental effect associated with US steel products available in the market place.

2.4 Technological Developments A host of technological developments have been made over the past decade with respect to virtually all aspects of steel-making, developments resulting in cost reductions, improved quality control and extensions of asset lives. Of particular note in this study is the extent to which these developments have resulted in reduced energy consumption and improved performance. We cannot detail all of these developments here, but it is useful to highlight the key trends and environmental performance improvements.

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2.4.1 Iron-Making World DRI production has increased markedly in the past decade in keeping with the rise in global EAF steel making. The annual production of DRI stands at 37 million tonnes. Gas-based reduction processes produce the vast majority of this iron and therefore most plants are located close to large reserves of natural gas. The only commercially proven new smelting process is the COREX process, developed by VAI. Agglomerated ores are used as feedstock and the process has a current capacity of 700 000 t/y for a single C2000 unit, operating on a pellet burden. Larger units (C3000) are planned that will have a guaranteed capacity of 1.08 Mt/y. Processes in the development stage include the Hismelt, CCF and DIOS, or the Iron Dynamics process, in which fine ores are directly reduced in a rotary hearth. Their product is fed to a submerged-arc furnace to produce a liquid metal for EAF refining.

2.4.2 EAF Process Developments. There has been remarkable progress in the EAF steel-making process in the US and Canada over the past decade. Plants were designed, developed and built with an increasingly varied and innovative array of new technologies. Operating performances have underlined the considerable level of flexibility of the process and the potential for still further reductions in operating costs and productivity improvements. Process flexibility is also becoming increasingly important, with the ability to operate using a variety of feedstocks regarded as the key to process choice. The feedstock can include scrap, DRI or hot metal, or a combination of these materials depending on the economics of supply. The increased use of hot metal (or pig iron) is a recent trend, with the benefit of using virgin iron ore for high productivity of arc-furnace products. This has led to furnace designs that are effectively a hybrid between EAF and BOF vessels in that they are equipped with both electrodes and a top oxygen lance. The viability of small-scale operation, and the ability to feed regional markets from a green field site, makes this technology the first choice for plant owners. An advantage is lower capital costs for a plant producing, say, 1 million tonnes of steel per year, compared with the conventional BF/BOF process route. The following are examples of process improvements in mini-mill operations: • larger transformers, for faster and more efficient melting; • increased use of oxygen for faster melting and refining; • carbon injection, for better slag/arc control, and for better heat utilization; • post-combustion, for improved utilization of off-gases; and • high temperature scrap preheating, for faster heat times and better energy utilization.

The use of primary fuels to replace a portion of the electricity needed for scrap preheating and melting (oxy-fuel burners) also reduces the demand on less efficient power generating stations.

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2.4.3 Steel Casting Technology. Developments of steel casting technology have aimed at reducing the number of steps involved in producing the final product. There has been widespread adoption of continuous casting for the direct production of slabs, blooms and billets. Continuous casting of molten steel eliminates a series of processing steps carried out previously - teeming of ingots and subsequent rolling of the ingots to slabs, blooms, or billets. With thin-slab casting, the number of stages is reduced and the length of the line is shortened to about 250 meters. There have been 30 installations since the first thin-slab casting plant was built in 1989. It is now a proven technology and the majority of new flat-product casting plants use thin or medium thickness casting machines. This technology has the advantage over conventional casters of being economically viable at annual capacities as low as 1 million tonnes, with the benefit of providing a good fit with the EAF steel-making route. Adding a second casting plant and a re-heating furnace, which can normally double the plant capacity, is a relatively low cost option. Another development is the direct-strip caster for producing much thinner gauges. Thin- slab casting of stainless steel grades has also been developing, with installations underway worldwide.

2.4.4 Cold Rolling and Finishing. Many flat product mini-mills, based on EAF technology, are adding value to their product by installing a cold rolling mill and galvanizing facilities. Steel Dynamics in the USA has been producing strip for non-exposed parts in the automotive industry for some time, and is confident that in the future it will be able to make strip for exposed applications as well.

2.5 Energy conservation and Environmental Control The steel industry has devoted considerable effort to improving its performance in the areas of energy use, emissions to air and water, and the management of secondary materials.

2.5.1 Energy Conservation As indicated in the preceding discussion, steel producers have developed or adapted a number of key methods for conserving energy in both the oxygen and electric arc furnace steel-making processes and in subsequent processes for rolling and finishing of steel. Energy reduction in the production of BOF slabs, coupled with a shift to the less energy- intensive production of EAF slabs, were major contributors to energy reduction. In addition, natural gas use has increased, with a resulting decline of about 6.5 percent in total C02 emissions and in C02 per shipped weight over the last ten years. Primary manufacturing plants account for roughly 85% of energy consumption, and these plants have therefore been a primary focus for energy reduction initiatives. The companies employ increasingly sophisticated tools to define and track energy performance, identify areas of potential improvement, set specific goals and implement

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 11 energy saving projects. In the case of Canadian plants, for example, an analysis of data from the AISI year 2000 report (Table 42), listing the annual production of steel in Canada, indicates the following gains in energy consumption. • The specific energy consumption for integrated (BOF) plants was reduced from 20.0 to 19.0 GJ/ton of raw steel. • The specific energy consumption for all mini-mill (EAF) plants was reduced from 9.05 to 8.05 GJ/ton of raw steel. • There was a decrease in the specific energy consumption for all Canadian steel plants, over the whole 1990 – 2000 decade, of about 1.0 GJ/ton of raw steel.

2.5.2 Emissions to Air In the case of emissions to air, regulations and the industry’s emission control efforts have focused on particulate and specific gaseous emissions. The control of particulate emissions has resulted in virtually zero visible emissions from an industry that was once noted for its colorful smoke stacks. Zero visible emissions were achieved by the installation of emission control devices such as electrostatic precipitators, gas washers and scrubbers, and fabric filters on all process waste gas streams that contain particulate. Dust and fumes, resulting from material handling and from operations such as tapping and casting, are captured by large systems of hoods and ducts and are removed by dust cleaning devices. The operation of particulate emission control devices requires a large amount of electrical energy. The generation of this electricity in fossil fuel-fired generating plants creates emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which have been identified as pollutants of concern. The control of gaseous emissions has focussed on the elimination of benzene emissions from the coke making process. This achievement was made possible by modifying the processes so that liquid streams containing benzene never contact the air. Other actions to improve air emissions include: • berming, fencing and green belting; • participation in programs such as the Ontario Anti-Smog Action Plan, which aims to reduce emissions of NOx, volatile organic compounds (VOC), Sulphur dioxide

(S02), PM10 and PM2.5 (fine particulates); and • road paving using recycled steel slag in the asphalt.

2.5.3 Emissions to Water Water is required in large quantities by many of the steel manufacturing processes. Water that comes into direct contact with a process, and may therefore pick up contaminants, is referred to as process water. Examples include the water sprayed on hot rolling mills for cooling and scale removal, and the water used to scrub particulates out of blast furnace gas.

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The degree to which process water is re-circulated, reused, and treated before discharge varies greatly from plant to plant. In a plant with the best available technology, process water is treated, cooled and re-circulated to the maximum extent possible, with a plant containing state-of-the-art technology to treat the small fraction of water that must be removed from the system for inventory control. At the other extreme are steel plants where only some process water is recirculated and large quantities of treated water are discharged into a watercourse. These plants typically have systems to maximize recirculation of contaminated process water, including blast furnace gas cleaning and cooling water, and coke oven gas cooling and cleaning water. Wastewater from other processes, such as hot rolling, is typically treated via settling ponds, skimmers and filters to reduce the levels of oil and suspended solids before being discharged. Overall, the industry has increased the use of water in the “closed loop” recirculation systems, which reduce substantially the amount of water drawn from outside sources. An example of the gains that have been made is the reduction of particulate loading to Hamilton Harbour by more than 99% since 1990. Other examples of efforts in various plants to reduce emissions to water include: • the construction of a 2200-m2 large storm water pond to reduce potential effluent loading from the storm water drainage; • the use of special infiltration equipment and a variety of plants in the pond (e.g., cattails and bulrushes) to treat the run-off water; and • water management studies for wastewater treatment from coke making operations.

2.5.4 Solid Wastes The steel industry continues to pursue new opportunities for the management of secondary materials in order to reduce waste and increase economic benefits. Many of the solid waste materials from the production of steel products can be recycled or sold as by- products: for example, scrap steel from cropping, product sizing and off-specification product is recycled to the steel-making process where it is re-melted and directed once again toward a final product. Other solid wastes recovered by emission control equipment and effluent treatment plants contain iron or carbon units and can be recycled as feedstock. The dusts and other fines may be sintered together with iron ore to form a material suitable for charging into the blast furnace for reduction to iron. Blast furnace slag is an inert solid material that contains sulfur and other impurities removed from the charge during the steel-making process. The slag is sold for further processing into construction materials such as aggregate for roads and concrete products, and mineral wool for thermal insulation and ceiling tile. Steel-making slag, which contains various impurities (primarily as oxides) from the steelmaking operation, may be land filled. In recent years, however, predetermined amounts of this slag have been charged to the blast furnace to make second-time use of its fluxing

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 13 characteristics. Processes to remove the metals for recycling are also in use. Some suitably processed steel-making slag is used as aggregate in asphalt concrete mixes. Steel-making precipitator dust, which is made up primarily of iron oxides plus other metallic oxides, is another solid waste that was land filled historically or stockpiled for reuse. Efforts to recover the iron units and non-ferrous metals contained in the dust have accelerated in the past few years, for both economic and environmental reasons. Used refractory material is another solid material that has traditionally gone to landfill. The present trend is to segregate the various refractory materials. Those that contain dolomite can be charged into the blast furnace as a flux. Others are returned to refractory manufacturers to be recycled into new material.

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3 Study Approach

3.1 Introduction

As discussed in Section 2, there are major differences in the types of steel plants operated in Canada and the US. Integrated, DRI/EAF and EAF steel makers can all produce high quality products - with certain preferences or specialties - but they go about it in markedly different ways. Similarly, within each category of steel plant, there are considerable variations in facilities and operating practices, as well as in the specific products made. This section describes the basic approach used to develop the LCI estimates for the different plant types, first with reference to Canadian plants and then with reference to US plants. This two-step approach reflects the fact that the US estimates have been developed by adapting and adjusting the Canadian estimates.

3.2 Integrated Canadian Plants All of the steel made in Canada's integrated steel plants is produced by the BOF processing route. Although the different plants use the same basic production processes, marked differences have developed in their operating mode. End products differ from plant to plant and require various processing steps that exhibit different levels of energy consumption. Some plants produce a certain tonnage of semi-finished steel in one location and process it into finished products at a different location. Practices also vary within similar operating units. For instance, one plant injects natural gas into the blast furnace as a substitute for some of the coke requirement. Another injects oil, and a third replaces a portion of the coke by injecting both natural gas and tar. Two plants operate with high-energy hot metal (high hot metal silicon content) to increase the scrap melting capability in the steel-making shop, while other plants use low- energy hot metal to increase blast furnace productivity. Steel-making shops exhibit differences in that they may use bottom stirring with inert gas or with oxygen, or there may be no bottom stirring at all. Different ratios exist between the plants in applying continuous casting. Similarly, reheat furnaces and rolling practices differ from plant to plant. All of the differences have an effect on the energy consumption and environmental disturbances associated with a given product. Each company has developed strategies to meet the challenge by other steel companies to reduce costs, and these strategies have energy and environmental impacts. Clearly, no single plant represents the typical average Canadian integrated steel mill that produces the semi-finished steel needed to make the building products of interest. Pooling the results of various operations from different companies would be possible but would make little sense. For instance, the heat content of the top gas produced in a blast furnace depends on the type of injected material and operating mode. This heat content, in turn, affects the amount of purchased energy needed for reheat (prior to rolling) applications. Shop productivity and vessel operating mode affect the quantity of hot

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 15 metal required to produce steel and, thus, affect the energy consumption. Some plants require significantly larger scrap quantities than do others to balance the heat requirements in the steel-making furnaces. In light of the confusion and misrepresentations that so many operating differences can engender, the original Institute study involved the "construction" of a reference steel plant that simulated, to the maximum extent possible, the average conditions existing in the Canadian integrated steel industry, a method used by the industry in the past to examine the influence of practices on energy consumption. This steel plant "produced" the semi- finished steel needed for the products under study. The productivity of the primary production units and the processing mills represented conditions as they were generally found in Canada. We have maintained the original reference plant, with some adjustments, for this update.

3.2.1 The Reference Plant The reference steel plant produces a total of 2,855,600 tonnes of steel products per year (see flow sheet in Section 3.2.2). Actual steel production, excluding the coating weights on galvanized sheets and tin products, is 2,820,000 tonnes a year. The annual production of steel products in the reference plant is shown in Table 6.

Table 6 ANNUAL REFERENCE PLANT STEEL PRODUCTION Product Tonnes Galvanized sheet 735,000 Tinplate 300,600 Hot band 300,000 Plate 600,000 Wire Rods 220,000 Bars 250,000 Light sections 100,000 Heavy & Medium 350,000

The reference plant requires the major input raw materials and energy carriers shown in Table 7.

3.2.2 Unit Processes After the reference steel plant had been fully defined, raw material requirements, process- operating parameters, yield factors, etc. were established for the complete resource extraction and manufacturing stages. It was then possible to develop process-by-process energy and materials balances, starting with activities at the mine site, through the various ironmaking, steel-making, rolling and coating steps and, finally, to the finishing of the various products.

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Table 7 MAJOR RAW MATERIAL/ENERGY PURCHASES AND CREDITS - REFERENCE PLANT

Purchases t/y GJ/year t/y GJ/year %

Coking Coal (Dry) 1,852,052 58,504,836 71.61 Blast Furnace Nat. Gas 30,396 1,151,400 1.41 Fuel Oil 101,417 4,232,146 5.18 Tar 2,923 108,064 0.13 Pellets* 3,733,065 4,685,744 5.74 Oxygen* 267,339 1,800,862 2.20 Purchased Scrap* 373,311 242,652 0.30 Electricity 10,071,292 12.33 Reheat Natural Gas 7,558,141 9.25

Subtotal 88,355,136 108.14

Credits t/y GJ/year t/y GJ/year %

Coke Breeze 122,238 3,648,116 4.47 Tar Sales 53,972 1,995,574 2.44 Benzole Sales 24,077 1,010,592 1.24

Subtotal 6,654,282 8.1

Total 81,700,854 100.00 * Energy involved in processing and transportation

The energy and materials balances for each of the unit processes also enabled emissions to be established in proportion to the inputs of ore, coal, natural gas, diesel fuel, etc. for the particular step. Each unit process was analyzed as a separate entity, both for convenience (steel plants are very complex) and as a guide for those not familiar with the technology. With such an approach, it is relatively easy for the uninitiated to make their way through the various extraction and manufacturing steps and see the energy and environmental effects of each step. However, the determination of water quality and associated effluent levels required a somewhat different approach because of the convergent nature of water flow in a steel plant, as discussed subsequently. Data for the energy and material balances came from the literature and industry sources. Some emissions data was from industry sources and the literature, other emissions estimates were calculated based on an intimate knowledge of the processes and the respective energy and material inputs, and some estimates were derived from the following secondary sources: "Emission Factors for the Iron and Steel Industry in Ontario." SCC,90; SCC,91; P-40; AP- 42, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986-91. "Emission Factors for Greenhouse and other Gases by Fuel Type: an Inventory." Ad Hoc Committee on Emission Factors, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1990.

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"Production of Primary Iron in Canada: Managing the Air Quality Challenges." Coal and Ferrous Division, Mineral Policy Sector, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1992. "Criteria Pollutant Emission Factors for 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987. “Criteria Pollutant Emission Factors for 1986 NAPAP Emissions Inventory." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (Reformatted 1/95). The major raw materials considered in this study, are iron ore, coal and limestone. These materials are mined or quarried, upgraded or cleaned where possible or necessary, and transported to the integrated steel plants by train and ship. The material streams for the various steel-making processes are highlighted below.

3.2.2.1 Sinter Plant The sinter plant's (Figure 1) main purpose is to process the secondary resource materials generated in the course of the steel mill's operation - materials such as iron oxide scale, pellet fines, blast furnace dust and slag fines generated in the steel-making slag recovery units. Materials are fused at high temperatures on a travelling grate. The sinter is used at the blast furnaces to provide iron units and improve permeability of the burden, which improves the gas-to-solid contact in the furnaces. Dolomite or lime fines are added to increase the basicity of the sinter mix so that it can be a self-fluxing blast furnace feed. The capacity of the sinter plant is 500,000 tonnes a year. The sinter plant features one strand with an area of 60 m2 and a bed depth of 350 mm.

Figure 1 SINTER PLANT SCHEMATIC

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3.2.2.2 Coke Ovens The coke ovens (Figure 2) make coke by heating coal at high temperatures in the absence of air and, at the same time, produce by-products such as coke oven gas, tar, and ammonia and light oil. The coke, which is used as a reducing agent in the blast furnaces, is basically solid carbon with some contained ash and sulfur. Coke oven gas is made up primarily of hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and small amounts of hydrogen sulfide.

Figure 2 COKE OVENS SCHEMATIC

The reference plant coke oven facility consists of two batteries, each comprising 75 ovens with a coal-to-coke cycle of 18 hours. The coal, containing eight percent ash and 27 percent volatile, is wet-charged. Coke is water-quenched to a moisture level of eight percent. About 40 percent of the coke oven gas, generated when the coal is heated, is used for under-firing the ovens. The remainder is used in the blast furnace stoves to enrich the top gas, in the boiler shop, and in the plant's reheat furnaces. The blast furnaces consume 438 kilograms of coke for each ton of hot metal produced.

3.2.2.3 Blast Furnaces At the blast furnaces (Figure 3), the descending iron-containing burden materials, coke and limestone (primary or secondary) come in contact with ascending hot air, which

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 19 helps the coke to burn with great intensity. This reaction provides the hot gases for reducing iron oxides to iron, which accumulates at the furnace bottom. Blast furnace gases, primarily nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and hydrogen, are contained at the top of the furnace and piped to a gas cleaning plant before being distributed as a by-product fuel. Figure 3 BLAST FURNACE SCHEMATIC

Two blast furnaces, each with a working volume of 2,050 m3, produce a total of 8,000 tonnes of hot metal a day. Each furnace uses injected oil, natural gas and tar at a rate that is the average for the quantities reported in 1999 by the three Canadian steel companies that operate blast furnaces. In addition to iron ore pellets, sinter and large-sized, screened steel-making slag are charged to the furnaces. The quantity of steel-making slag charged is that fraction not used in the sinter plant. This practice has been discontinued in one of the Canadian steel plants, but it still is very common in North America. Some of the blast furnace top gas is used to heat the furnace wind to the required hot blast temperature (1056°C in the model). The remainder is sent to the boiler station for the production of steam. Excess steam in the boiler station produces about five percent of the steel plant's electricity requirement. All of the hot metal is de-sulphurised in torpedo ladles using calcium carbide as the desulphurizing reagent. This process is used in three of the four Canadian steel plants.

3.2.2.4 Steel-making Shop The molten iron (hot metal) is refined at the steel-making shop (Figure 4), with oxygen injected to preferentially oxidize impurities. In addition to the molten iron, the furnace

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 20 charge consists of scrap, lime, and fluorspar. Impurities such as carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorus (and, unavoidably, some iron), are oxidized during the course of the oxygen blow. The furnace off-gas is cleaned by passing it through a scrubber and then flared. The hot steel is then transported in ladles to a continuous casting machine where it is cast into slabs or blooms. A small percentage is teemed into ingots.

Figure 4 BOF STEELMAKING SCHEMATIC

The steel-making shop operates both of its 250 tonne BOF converters. About 55 Nm3 of oxygen are consumed for each tonne of liquid steel produced. The BOF off-gas, after being cleaned of the contained dust in a wet scrubber, is flared to the atmosphere. The intermittent nature of the BOF gas production cycle would require the installation of a reasonably large gasholder to utilize the off-gas in, for example, reheat furnaces. None of the Canadian steel companies collects BOF off-gas, while most European, Japanese and Korean steel plants have adopted this energy conservation method. One technique, however, is in use in the Canadian steel industry to capture most of the energy contained in the BOF gas. This is a method whereby the energy released during secondary combustion in the hood above the vessel is used to generate steam. This "free energy" steam is fed into the plant steam system. (This technique is not incorporated into the reference steel plant.)

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3.2.2.5 Finishing Processes The cast steel is processed at the various rolling mills of the reference plant. Depending on the final product, the steel can be processed via one of two streams (Figure 5). Blooms and ingots are converted into billets at the Universal Mill and end up at the Rod, Bar or Section Mills. Slabs are rolled at the Hot Strip Mill or Plate Mill. The strip from the Hot Strip Mill may be further processed at the Cold Mill Complex, including cold rolling followed by galvanizing or tinning.

Figure 5 REFERENCE PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM “3 Million tonnes/year”

Casting and Teeming Facilities Of the total amount of crude or semi-finished steel produced in the steel-making shop, about 2.67 million tonnes are continuously cast into slabs or blooms. Ladles to transfer the steel are preheated using coke oven gas. Covers are employed during casting to maintain some of the heat contained in the ladle refractory to minimize ladle preheating between heats. Tundishes, used to control the flow of steel from ladle to continuous casting mould, are preheated with natural gas.

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The two twin-strand casters of the reference plant produce 2.1 million tonnes of slabs with an average dimension of 1600 mm x 240 mm and 570,000 tonnes of blooms measuring 340 mm x 600 mm.

Hot Rolling Facilities Universal Mill Continuously cast blooms pass through the Universal Mill, which produces billets for the rod/bar and section mills. Capacity of the mill is 980,000 tonnes a year. The soaking pits are fired with natural gas. Hot Strip Mill A conventional Hot Strip Mill, equipped with an energy-saving Coilbox, produces about 1.4 million tonnes of strip a year. The mill consists of a vertical edger/reversing rougher and six finishing stands. Slabs are reheated in two pusher-type reheat furnaces using a mixture of natural gas and coke oven gas. Water-cooled skids recover some of the waste heat in the form of steam, which is fed into the plant steam system. A "Skin Pass" Mill prepares 300,000 tonnes of hot band for sale without any further processing. Plate Mill Two roughing and two finishing stands process 600,000 tonnes of plate annually. Slabs are reheated in two pusher-type furnaces fired with natural gas. Some of the energy in the flue gas is recovered in the form of steam. Section Mill One pusher furnace, top- and bottom-fired with natural gas and equipped with evaporative skid cooling, feeds a medium Section Mill. The annual production rate is 350,000 tonnes. Rod/Bar/Light Section Mill This two-strand mill produces a total of 570,000 tonnes of bars, rods and light sections. Billets, shipped from the Universal Mill, are reheated in a walking beam furnace fired with coke oven gas. Cold Rolling Facilities Pickling Lines The Pickling Lines use hydrochloric acid with steam heating to remove iron oxide scale from hot rolled strip. Annual throughput in the reference plant is one million tonnes. The HCl is regenerated and reused. Cold Reduction Mill This mill consists of four stands; each equipped with two work rolls and two backup rolls. The mill has hydraulic gauge control on the first stand and operates with speed and

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 23 tension regulation. It produces 1.04 million tonnes, operating at a speed of up to 1000 m/min. Batch Anneal Batch annealing furnaces, used to stress relieve and/or soften certain grades of cold rolled steel, are fired with coke oven gas. The furnaces have a capacity of about 300,000 tonnes a year. Temper Mill The Temper Mill rolls annealed steel strip to modify surface and hardness of the steel prior to shipment or the production of tinplate.

Galvanizing Mill Three continuous hot-dip galvanizing lines, each with a capacity of 250,000 tonnes annually, produce 735,000 tonnes of galvanized sheets.

Tin Mill Two electrolytic tinning lines, each with a capacity of 175,000 tonnes a year, process 300,600 tonnes of tinplate a year. Although there are no tinplate products under consideration in the current building materials study, a Tin Mill was included in the reference plant to "flesh out" the typical Canadian integrated steel plant configuration.

3.2.2.6 Gas Distribution Distribution of the coke oven and blast furnace gases in the reference plant is shown in Figure 6. Normally all of the coke oven gas and blast furnace gas produced by the respective processes is used in the plant. Additional energy requirements and the respective users are as shown. The reheat furnaces at the Plate Mill, Section Mill and Universal Mill all use natural gas. The Hot Strip, Rod and Bar mills all use natural gas as well as coke oven gas.

3.2.2.7 Energy and Mass Balances An energy balance was performed on processes to ensure that all inputs and outputs were accounted for and to quantify the emissions, which are directly related to the amount of energy used. For example, Figure 7 shows an energy balance for the stoves, which supply hot air to the blast furnaces. The energy supplied by the input fuel equals the heat in the hot air blast (called wind) plus the waste heat contained in the stack gas and heat, which escapes through the stove lining. A mass balance was performed for each process to ensure consistency of matter and, where possible, to quantify the mass and material composition of waste streams and emissions.

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Figure 6 REFERENCE PLANT GAS DISTRIBUTION (GJ)

Figure 7 ENERGY AND MASS BALANCES FOR BLAST FURNACE STOVES

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3.2.3 Emission Factors Performing chemical analyses of the gases and measuring all emissions could accurately determine emissions factors, but this procedure would be very costly because of the time involved and the instrumentation required. Therefore, a statistical method has been used to establish the factors, with emissions from a small sample of sources determined by measurement, and the measurements then normalized to produce usable emission factors. The factors are usually expressed in the form of tonnes of emissions per GigaJoule of fuel energy expended or per tonne of product produced. These factors can then be applied to processes of a similar nature to establish the amount of emissions being generated. Regulatory bodies such as the Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have established factors for emissions such as particulate, organic compounds and gases, including SO2, CO, NOx, and CH4. Computer models of the sinter plant, coke ovens, blast furnaces, stoves, boilers and BOF steel-making shop were developed in the original study to calculate the emissions, and perform mass and energy balances. The resulting emissions and balances for all mechanical and chemical processes (from mining through to the manufacturing of finished products) are tabulated in Appendices 1 to 5. It should be noted that CO2 emission calculations were based on mass balances and SO2 emission figures were based on fuel analyses. Emissions for the finishing processes were based on fuel consumption and published emission factors. The emissions and energy associated with the production of one tonne of the various finished products were subsequently calculated based on the yield of each process. Following are key points with regard to results shown in the appendices. Exploration, Mining and Processing of Raw Materials Emissions and the amount of energy consumed for extracting limestone, iron ore and coal were determined on the basis of the energy content of various fuels and related emission factors, with the type and amount of fuels consumed for each extraction process obtained from operations that supply the raw materials. Transportation of Raw Materials Diesel fuel was assumed for all modes of transportation, and the appropriate energy content and emission factors were used for the calculations. The carriers involved supplied the amount of fuel used and distances covered by ship and rail (Appendix 2, Figures 1 A2 to 4 A2). The emissions and energy consumed in transporting limestone by truck are shown in Figure 5 A2. Primary Processes Results of computer analyses of the primary processes are shown in Appendix 3. Mass balances yielded emission factors for CO2 and, in some cases, for SO2. Other emission calculations were based on appropriate emission factors. Figures 1 A3 to 8 A3 show the emissions and the amount of energy consumed for the following processes:

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• Sinter plant • Coke ovens • Blast furnaces • Stoves • BOF steel-making shop • Boilers

The emissions generated and electricity consumed at the boilers for steam supply to the coke ovens, blast furnaces and steel-making shop were added to the respective processes. Emissions and energy consumed for all processes were then aggregated and divided by the annual steel production of the plant to establish specific energy and emissions estimates for the primary processes. Finishing Mills Emissions at each finishing mill in the reference plant were calculated based on the coke oven gas, blast furnace gas and natural gas distributed and used throughout the plant (Figure 6, above). For all three-fuel gases, the particulate and CO emission factors were calculated based on gas analyses; the CO2 emissions were derived from combustion analyses and mass balances. Appropriate factors were used for emissions such as SO2, NOx and VOCs. Figures 1 A4 to 13 A4, Appendix 4, show the emissions calculated and the energy required for each process. They also show the emissions generated and the electricity used for boiler house steam usage at each process. Manufacturing of Finished Products Electricity is the main energy source required for the manufacture of finished products from rolled steel. In addition, some processes require natural gas for process heat. Figures 1 A5 to 10 A5, Appendix 5, show the emissions and amount of energy consumed in the manufacture of the various finished products. Emissions associated with the combustion of natural gas were calculated using appropriate emission factors. The CO2 emissions were verified by mass balance; the NOx and SO2 factors were verified by data from the natural gas supply company.

3.2.4 Water Use and Emissions to Water Ideally, we would like to define the steel plants so that the product flow and the water flow streams would be parallel. The production rate and an associated level of contaminated water discharge from each product mill would be exactly defined. The water streams would not be interconnected in these plants and the water quantity and quality would be traceable to each product of interest. In this idealized situation, the water quality could more readily be evaluated and the emission estimates would be representative of each product. However, water streams discharged in actual plants from various processes cascade to many other streams. And these streams are partially treated and re-circulated within a module and to many other different processes. Unfortunately, there is no reliable data

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 27 which enables an engineer to follow the course of a particular litre of water through a certain process, on to another process, etc. However, there are several water discharge streams that are monitored and for which published results are available. To produce results usable in the current study, the assumption was made that all of these streams are ultimately combined into one large "comprehensive" discharge stream. Also, it was assumed that all steel production at the casters is combined into one production stream so that all contaminants can be related to the amount of semi-finished steel produced in the reference plant. Since the product yield (quantity of semi-finished steel required to produce one tonne of product) is determined from the material flow part of the study, the water usage for each tonne of product is different. However, the concentrations are the same for all of the products because of the one-final-stream analytical method. Water quality figures for mining and material transportation were not available. Also, water quality from small finishing plants was not taken into consideration because these plants discharge water into out-falls that lead to municipal sewage treatment plants. Mining, transportation and finishing plant factors are not considered to be significant to the study, however, because of the predominant effect of primary iron and steel-making operations on water contaminant concentrations. This overall product mix approach has limitations. For example, consider three plants with suspended solid discharges of: A - 8 mg/L; B - 17 mg/L; C - 28 mg/L. If the steel production rates from each plant were such that the combined suspended solids discharge from all three plants is, say, 15 mg/L, this would be the concentration determined by the calculation method used. But if all of the galvanized sheet were produced by plant A, the suspended solids figure would be overestimated by a factor of two (15 mg/L vs. an actual 8 mg/L). On the other hand, if all of the galvanized sheet were made by plant C, our figure would be underestimated by a factor of two. While the product mix approach is subject to this kind of error, it is not likely to result in the extreme variation of the above example, and the results can be considered to reasonably represent reality despite the limitations.

3.2.4.1 Data Sources and Conventions The following documents were used as the primary data sources for developing the emissions to water for the reference steel plant: "Status Report on Effluent Monitoring Data for the Iron and Steel Sector for the Period November 1, 1989 to October 31, 1990." MISA, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, 1991. “Data base on Effluent Monitoring Data for the Iron and Steel Sector for the Period January 1, 1995 to December 31, 2000." MISA, Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy, provided on October 3, 2001. “World Steel Life Cycle Inventory”, by the International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI), released in February 2000, and provided to us in May 2001. “Environment and Energy” as a part of National pollutant release inventory Report to Environment Canada, by DOFASCO, in year 2000.

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The following are conventional notations and units for the water quality data provided by the MISA reports. mg/L is milligrams per litre (10-6 times smaller than a kg of water); µg/L is micrograms per litre (10-9 times smaller than a kg of water); m3/h is cubic metres, or, 1000 litre per hour; and 106 t/y is million tonnes of semi-finished steel, or other products reported in section 5, produced per year. The output concentrations of emissions have been calculated from a very large amount of individual samples taken from more that 20 real discharge streams at the four Canadian integrated plants during the period 1995 - 2000. The Ontario Ministry of the Environment, under the Freedom of Information Act, supplied this large database to us in early October 2001.

3.2.4.2 Comparative Intake and Discharge Water Quality A comparison of the data for this study with the data used in the original study shows an evident improvement in the typical makeup of water supplied to all of the Canadian integrated plants. There has also been a very marked improvement in the performance of the plants as reflected in the quality of discharge water. The water pumped into the plants carries with it a significant level of contaminants, and this input contaminant level must be taken into account when calculating the net environmental impact of making steel products. In fact, we made the following observations when comparing the intake and discharge water qualities: • most of the contaminants are present in the supply water, in concentrations somewhat less than the discharge water concentrations; • some contaminant levels are almost the same in the supply and discharge waters; and • certain contaminants, such as poly-nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and non- halogenated organics, are more concentrated in the supply water than in the discharge water. It is also notable that the water intake rate at all plants is approximately equal to the water outflow rate. Water is not "consumed" in making steel, and the relatively small quantity of water that is not returned is primarily the result of evaporation losses during cooling. About half of the water from common technology plants (as opposed to a best technology plant, which uses about one tenth the amount of water) is discharged from operations that clean the produced steel or the gases from the various processing steps. This is referred to as process water. There is also a small input of water associated with the moisture content of raw materials. A more significant amount of water discharged into receiving water bodies, and included in our estimates, is from the rain and snow falling on the plant properties. This water rate is highly variable over certain periods, but it averages over the particular year to a very constant and calculable rate for each plant, and therefore for all integrated plants.

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Non-contact cooling (NCC) water is discharged directly into an adjacent watercourse, and accounts for about 50 percent of the total discharge. The net amount of contaminants discharged from the integrated plants is shown in Table 8. These numbers represent the difference between gross discharge water quality and water intake quality, with the negative numbers indicating areas where the water is returned at a higher quality.

Table 8 NET CONTAMINATE DISCHARGE BY CANADIAN INTEGRATED PLANTS, 2000 (mg/L) Suspended Solids 0.4805 pH factor 8.049 Benzene -7.068E-04 Chem. Oxygen Demand 2.683E-02 Oil & Grease 0.2425 Sulphides 2.544E-02 Zinc -8.763E-04 Lead 1.845E-03 Chromium -2.283E-05 Nickel 2.007E-05 Iron 3.058E-03 Cyanide 8.657E-03 Phenolics 8.794E-05 Phosphates -1.169E-04 Phosphorus 1.905E-04 Ammonia & Ammonium -0.1668 Benzo-pyrene 7. 529E-05 Naphtalene -5.776E-04 Chlorides 9.050E-02 Fluorides 2.557E-03 Nitrogen Total 9.434E-03

3.3 Canadian Mini-Mills

3.3.1 Reference Plants A reference plant is required for the analysis of mini-mill steel for essentially the same reasons as in the case of integrated mills. In this case, however, two reference steel plants are required, one using both scrap and iron ore to produce 621,000 tonnes/year of slabs, and the second plant using scrap as the sole source of iron units to produce 350,000 tonnes/year of billets. The annual production of steel products in these reference steel plants is shown in Table 9.

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Table 9 ANNUAL STEEL PRODUCTION REFERENCE STEEL PLANTS

Production Product (tonnes/year) Cold Rolled Sheet 220, 000 Hot Band 356, 000 Rods 83, 500 Bars 202, 000 Light Sections 52, 200

3.3.1.1 Flat Rolled Products - DRI/EAF Reference Plant The annual production of liquid steel in the two Canadian electric furnace steel plants that make flat rolled products is 3.03 million tonnes, which is about five times the reference steel plant’s production of 621,000 tonnes a year. In the reference steel plant, the quantity of direct-reduced iron used is applied in the same relative ratio. In actual practice, one steel plant uses all of the available direct-reduced iron, while the second plant uses very little, or no, direct-reduced iron. The annual material demand and output at each processing stage in the DRI/EAF reference steel plant is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL: REFERENCE PLANT (tonnes/year)

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Rail and ship deliver iron ore pellets to the storage yard of the steel plant. They are processed in a Midrex direct-reduction unit into direct-reduced pellets, which are cooled and charged continuously into the 130-tonne electric-arc furnace (Figure 9).

Figure 9 SCHEMATIC OF DRI/EAF PROCESS FLOW

The ultrahigh-power (UHP) EAF is equipped with water-cooled sidewalls and roof. Scrap is charged to the furnace in one or two equally sized batches. Fluxes are added as required. Melting is assisted with oxy-fuel burners and carbon is fed via a surface lance to generate a foamy slag. The foamy slag protects the furnace sidewalls, allows a longer arc operation and improves the efficiency of the heat transfer. Some ferroalloys are added to the ladle during tapping of the EAF. The final ladle chemistry and temperature of the steel are adjusted in the ladle metallurgy furnace (LMF). Additional ferroalloys are used for this purpose. Electrical energy is used to precisely adjust the steel temperature. The steel is cast on a single-strand slab-casting machine. Both ladle and tundish are equipped with a shroud to protect the liquid steel from re-oxidation. A suitable mould powder provides additional protection from oxidation and, upon its melting, reduces the friction between the slab and the water-cooled, copper mould. Secondary cooling with water sprays below the mould is carefully controlled to ensure that rapid chilling and potential recalescence during strand withdrawal is avoided. After the cooled slab is inspected and surface cracks removed, the slab is transported to the reversing hot strip mill, reheated in the re-heating furnace and rolled into hot band. A portion of the hot band

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 32 produced is treated on a skin mill and sold. The remainder of the hot band is pickled, cold rolled on a Sendzimir mill, annealed and prepared in a finishing mill. In the case of the mini-mills, cold rolled material is not galvanized on site but shipped to a processing unit outside the plant. Galvanizing plant energy and emissions are included in our calculations. Annual production at the reference plant is 356,000 tonnes of hot band and 220,000 tonnes of cold rolled sheets. A four percent increase in weight would have to be added to the product weight if all the cold rolled production were processed to galvanized sheets (i.e. four percent if zinc is used). Table 10 shows the annual material consumption for the flat rolled reference plant.

Table 10 ANNUAL MATERIAL CONSUMPTION FLAT ROLLED REFERENCE PLANT Material Units Consumption Purchased Scrap Tonnes 325,565 Iron Ore Tonnes 683,228 Fluxes Tonnes 31,408 Refractories Tonnes 11,171 Ferroalloys Tonnes 5,000 Electrodes Tonnes 1,357 Coke Tonnes 4,100 Nitrogen Nm3 5,164,000 Argon Nm3 144,000 Oxygen Nm3 8,200,000 Water M3 2,136,000 Electricity MWh 507,000 Natural Gas Nm3 174,500,000

3.3.1.2 Shapes Products — EAF Reference Plant The annual raw steel production in Canadian mini-mills for shape products was 3,303,803 tonnes in 2000. The reference steel plant’s production represents about one- tenth of this amount. The annual production of the shapes reference steel plant is shown in Figure 10. The process flow diagram for the shapes reference plant is shown in Figure 11. Scrap, delivered by truck to the plant scrap yard, is charged to the electric-arc furnace in two or three similarly sized batches. The scrap charge is comprised of a mix of many different quality categories to provide the expected melt-in composition and also to produce the steel at the lowest possible cost. The scrap can be selected and intermixed to provide residuals that are close to the desired steel composition. In some cases, a significant saving of expensive alloys can be realized through proper scrap selection. Two typical scrap mixtures are given in Table 11.

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Figure 10 ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF SHAPES: REFERENCE PLANT (tonnes/year)

Figure 11 SCHEMATIC OF SHAPES: EAF PROCESS FLOW

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In the shapes reference plant, one electric-arc furnace, with 90 tonnes of raw steel production capacity, produces about 16 heats a day. The operation is similar to the operation of the larger EAFs producing steel for flat rolled products described previously. Because the charge is 100 percent scrap, there is a smaller amount of steel-making slag produced per ton of steel. Only a few of the Canadian mini-mills have installed ladle metallurgy furnaces, but all of them are treating the steel in the ladle with gas stirring for molten steel chemistry homogenization and steel temperature adjustment. Gas stirring is practiced with top lances or porous stirring plugs in the ladle bottom. The steel is cast into a 4-strand billet caster, producing billets 125 mm square. Mould design and mould oscillation have improved in recent years, significantly improving caster reliability and product quality. Billets are cut to length with oxygen torches, shipped to an outside storage yard and then to the rod and bar rolling mill. Billets are inspected and charged cold to the re-heating furnace. Great improvements have been made in recent years in the efficiency of re-heating furnaces, considerably decreasing the required reheat energy. The annual charge material consumption for the shapes reference steel plant is given in Table 11.

Table 11 ANNUAL MATERIAL CONSUMPTION SHAPES PRODUCTS REFERENCE PLANT Material Units Consumption Purchased Scrap Tonnes 327,210 Fluxes Tonnes 21,283 Refractories Tonnes 6,300 Ferro-alloys Tonnes 3,000 Coke Tonnes 2,300 Electrodes Tonnes 1,600 Argon Nm3 81,000 Oxygen Nm3 4,600,000 Water m3 880,000 Electricity MWh 248,000 Natural Gas Nm3 30,000,000

3.3.1.3 Estimation of Combined Reference Plant Inventories The process operating parameters, yield factors and other necessary calculation factors were established for complete resource material preparation and manufacturing stages for the two reference plants described in the previous sub-sections. It was then necessary to prepare energy and material balances for each process step, starting with activities at the scrap processor and the iron ore mine site, and continuing through direct reduction, steel making and rolling. The sheet coating processes were assumed to be located outside the

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 35 plant. The energy and mass balances are shown in a series of flow diagrams in Appendices 6 and 7. The material and energy balances also provided the basis for emissions to be calculated in proportion to the production rate and reflective of the particular technology used at the reference plants. Water quality and effluent characteristics dictated a somewhat different approach because of the multi-step use of industrial water in steel plants before final treatment or discharge, as discussed in sub-section 3.3.3, below. Input data for the energy and material balances were developed from industrial and literature sources. Most of the emission numbers were calculated using our detailed knowledge of the processes. Other input data were derived using the following sources: • “Emission Factors for the Iron and Steel Industry in Ontario.” SCC, 90; SCC, 91; AP- 40; AP-42, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986-91; • “Emission Factors for Greenhouse and other Gases by Fuel Type: an Inventory.” Ad Hoc Committee on Emission Factors, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1990; • “Production of Primary Iron in Canada: Managing the Air Quality Challenges.” Coal and Ferrous Division, Mineral Policy Sector, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1992; and • “Criteria Pollutant Emission Factors for 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory.” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987. • “Criteria Pollutant Emission Factors for 1986 NAPAP Emissions Inventory.” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986 (Reformatted in 1/95).

3.3.2 Scrap Usage and Types Scrap, the main source of EAF iron units in Canada, consists of three basic types: home, prompt and obsolete scrap. Unrecovered scrap is referred to as dormant scrap. Scrap is also classified as purchased, processed, returned, imported and exported. Further details about scrap classification and recirculation can be found in the Angus Environmental Ltd. report (Reference No. 11). Home scrap, such as rolling mill crops and trimmings, is collected at each of the steel plant production units for re-melting in the steel-making furnaces. Off-specification semi- products are also re-melted as home scrap. The time lag between home scrap generation and its return to the steel-making furnaces is generally not more than two weeks. Prompt scrap is steel trimmings and crops generated at metal product manufacturing companies, such as car companies, home appliance manufacturers, and other similar companies. Off-specification products are also returned as prompt scrap. Many steel companies have contracts with their customers to return this scrap to the originating steelmaking facility. The larger portion of prompt scrap is sent directly to steel companies, while scrap processors handle the smaller portion. Prompt scrap is returned to the steelmaking furnaces within about six-months. Some energy is required for prompt scrap processing and transportation. The home scrap and the prompt scrap that return directly to the steel company are called return scrap.

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Obsolete scrap is derived from wrecked and discarded cars, buildings or any other manufactured products. The life cycle of the manufactured product is generally long, more than six months, and probably averaging about 15 years. For instance, cars have a life span, on average, approaching 12 years; manufactured products, such as plant equipment, last at least 20 years; most buildings last more than 50 years. The quality of obsolete scrap varies considerably, depending on how the steel was manufactured in the past. Often the quality of many small pieces cannot be economically determined. Obsolete scrap, which is handled by scrap processors, requires more energy than prompt scrap to process and transport. In our study, we assume that 0.65 GJ/tonne is used for scrap processing. The prompt scrap and the obsolete scrap returned via the scrap processors are referred to as purchased scrap. Scrap brokers handle purchased scrap, imported scrap and exported scrap. Generally, the scrap processors are located within 60 km of a steel plant, but collection distances can be as much as 600 km for smaller quantities. Large scrap pieces, such as automotive stamping scrap or compacted lightweight scrap, reduce the scrap volume for easier transport and charging to an electric-arc furnace. Dormant scrap is that portion of iron units which is not, as yet, recycled back into the steel-making process. It is made up of two distinct categories: • oxides (dust, sludge, slag, etc.) that go into special landfills, usually on or near the steel plant site; and • metallic parts that are a no longer useful product but which cannot be economically recovered as obsolete scrap. These basic scrap types and flows are illustrated in Figure 12. Figure 12 BASIC SCRAP TYPES AND FLOWS

Source: “Impacts of Developments in Scrap Reclamation and Preparation in the World Steel Industry” United Nations, Geneva, 1993.

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The total scrap quantities (tonnes) recycled in Canada in 2000, shown in Figure 13, have been estimated using our model fitted into combined plant demands.

Figure 13 ESTIMATED SCRAP RECYCLE QUANTITIES IN 2000

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Because scrap is sourced from many different products, its preparation requires many different processes. For example, home scrap is dense and bulky and may require some cutting using oxygen burners that have local hoods to collect most of the emissions. Emissions from these burners are not included in the present study. Prompt scrap is to a large degree derived from flat products, is very light, and must be compacted by hydraulic press. It usually contains substantial amounts of oil, which contributes to the emissions at the arc furnaces. These emissions are included in the study calculations. Obsolete scrap requires two entirely different scrap preparation processes, shredders for old automobiles and appliances and oxygen burners for dense and bulky pieces. The shredders generate plastics and non-ferrous scrap, as well as large amounts of dust emissions, which must be controlled. Since no data on these emissions are available, they have not been included in the study. Each steel plant produces three process output categories: semifinished steel products, home scrap and a smaller portion of dormant (not yet used) scrap. This segment of dormant scrap can also be called “losses”, but these losses are not necessarily what the name implies. They comprise iron units contained mostly in slag, sludges, mill scale and/or dust. They may be stored on steel plant properties, land filled or used as additives to other products. Cement plants are using certain amounts of both dust and mill scale as additives. Steel-making slag finds application as road ballast and road asphalt aggregate. Some iron units, stored on plant properties, may be recovered at a later date once their recovery has become economically viable using, for example, a sintering process. Steel products eventually become obsolete scrap and, in a larger amount, dormant scrap. It is evident from Figure 13 that the amount of dormant scrap increases as long as iron units from ore (blast furnaces and direct-reduction plants) are added to the steel making processes in Canada. In fact, the annual addition to the dormant scrap total is almost equal to the new annual charge of iron units originating from iron ore.

3.3.2.1 Allocation to Scrap Decisions about whether and how to attribute energy and other environmental effects to the various categories of recycled steel are central to the approach and results developed in this up-date as in the original study. The results presented here are based on the approach to allocation described in the Institute’s Research Guidelines and applied in the original study, namely: • no allocation of embodied effects to home scrap; • a full allocation of the embodied effects associated with the original production of prompt scrap, as well as any transportation and processing required for its recycling, but excluding any effects associated with transportation to secondary manufacturers that produce the scrap or with the secondary manufacturing activities; and • no allocation of embodied effects to obsolete scrap other than transportation and processing required for its recycling.

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As explained in the research guidelines, this approach reflects a pragmatic response to a difficult problem where there is generally inadequate data to pursue more rigorous approaches, let alone time and resource constraints that preclude more exhaustive investigations. However, this study did include sensitivity analyses using computer models to investigate the potential effects of different approaches. In terms of embodied energy, the full allocation to prompt scrap has only a marginal effect on the final embodied energy results for integrated mill production, but could result in a substantial increase for mini-mill production compared to a case where prompt scrap is treated the same a home scrap. Aggregated across the full range of process routes, the inclusion of a fully allocated burden to prompt scrap results in about a 24% increase in embodied energy compared to a case with no allocation of embodied effects.

3.3.3 Water Use and Emissions to Water As in the case of integrated plants, accurate assessment of the effluent loading resulting from the processes needed to make products in the mini-mill would require knowledge of a “dedicated water stream” for each product. In addition, there would have to be a sufficient number of monitoring points to measure the quality and quantity of water entering and leaving the systems. No such situation exists in the real world. Water streams discharged from various processes cascade to other streams, and the streams are partially or fully treated and partially or fully re-circulated. And there are no reliable data available to follow a specific stream of water through a specific process and evaluate the effluent loading attributable to the process. The quality of the discharge water and the associated effluent loading per unit of product is the combined reflection of the manufacturing processes used, the water treatment and re-circulation practices specific to the plant, as well as existing local conditions. Because of these limitations, a blended approach was used for the mini-mill sector as described previously for the integrated plants (Section 3.2.4). However, steel making in mini-mills is much less complex than in integrated mills and, with few exceptions, the mini-mill processes do not produce water streams with “dirty effluents” that require either expensive and specialized water treatment processes or large amounts of water for process cooling before discharge. The nature of the processes used in mini-mills also allows for much higher water re-circulation with only a relatively small blow-down, as well as much simpler in-plant treatment of the effluent. The data sources and conventions for estimating water contaminant levels for the mini- mills are essentially the same as described in Section 3.2.4.

3.3.3.1 Comparative Intake and Discharge Water Quality The key contaminant parameters for effluent loading from mini-mills are suspended solids, the pH factor, oil and grease, iron, and non-ferrous metals. It should be noted that the supply water for a typical mini-mill has a concentration of key contaminants lower than that of water supplied to the integrated steel plant. The main reason is the higher use of pretreated water relative to overall volumes needed.

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Because of the different flow and production rates for the flat product and shapes product mills, two separate reference plant water supply and discharge streams were prorated to develop estimates of the supply and discharge streams for mini-mills as a group. Prorating to develop year 2000 estimates was based on liquid steel production rates for mini-mills of 3,303,803 tonnes for flat rolled products, and 4,289,000 tonnes for shapes products. Note that some galvanizing of products from mini-mills may be done outside the mills proper, with the water discharged from these small plants to city sewer systems. No data are available to evaluate zinc, grease, solvents and acids from these external plants. The estimated net contaminated discharge by all Canadian mini-mills is shown in Table 12. As for integrated mills, negative numbers indicates areas where discharge water is of higher quality than the intake water.

Table 12 NET CONTAMINATE DISCHARGE BY CANADIAN MINI-MILLS, 2000 (mg/L) Suspended Solids 1.400 pH (Factor) 8.05 Chemical Oxygen Demand 2.038E-2 Oil and Grease 1.152E-2 Sulphides 2.865E-3 Zinc 1.471E-2 Lead 4.703E-3 Chromium 6.271E-6 Nickel 3.098E-5 Iron 1.151E-3 Cyanide (Total) 1.963E-6 Phenolics 3.417E-6 Phosphates 5.801E-3 Phosphorus 3.442E-2 Ammonia and Ammonium 5.209E-4 Chlorides 4.234E-2 Fluorides 6.351E-3 Nitrogen (Total) -1.037E-3

3.4 Combined Canadian Mills The data provided in Table 2 on shipments of the products of interest by the different mill types were used to combine the separately developed inventory results for the Canadian integrated and mini-mills. The separate and combined results are described in more detail in Section 4.

3.4.1 Energy Components Certain material inputs, particularly fuels such as coal, and oil, constitute energy as well as mass inputs, which can be calculated based on calorific value for the separate and combined mill estimates. The calculated energy indicators have been based on net (low) calorific values and include the following:

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Total energy is the sum of all energy sources, which are supplied from outside the plant, such as natural gas, oil, coal, and electricity. Thus, that proportion of the coke and blast furnace injectants, such as natural gas, coal and oil, which are used as reducing agent are included in total energy. The total primary energy contains further categories: fuel energy and chemical energy. These are described below: Fuel energy is that part of total energy input which is used for all activities not covered by chemical energy. The definition of fuel energy within our LCI Study covers all energy used to generate heat or converted to mechanical energy. Chemical energy is that part of the total energy used in the system that is consumed and/or is available inside of each process for the purpose of driving reactions of iron (or other chemical elements) and that cause ore reduction or oxidation. This category also includes the energy spent in ovens to decompose certain materials such as coal and limestone. In the case of steel making, this includes the energy used in various stages of a process to enable endothermic or exothermic chemical reactions to take place.

3.4.1.1 Processes where chemical energy could be identified Coke Ovens and Sinter Plants: The extent of chemical energy in the Coke Ovens and Sinter Plants is derived from the data on coal carbonization and sinter fusion. It is set here at + 0.7000 GJ/ton of molten steel. Blast Furnaces: There are two categories of chemical energy considered for the Blast Furnaces:

a.) Reduction of Iron oxide Fe2O3 + 2.1 C 2 Fe +0.85 CO +1.15 CO2 + 67.0 kcal/159 grams of Fe2O3.

This translates to: + 1.9357 GJ/ton of molten steel. b.) Decomposition of other materials such as carbonates (limestone) creates a small amount of chemical energy demand.

This translates to: + 0.1898 GJ/ton of molten steel.

BOF and EAF Furnaces: There are three categories of Chemical energy considered for the BOF and four in the EAF furnaces. The first three below are common to both and the last applied only to EAF.

a.) Oxidation of Iron Fe + 0.5 O2 FeO - 65.0 kcal/71 grams of FeO.

When the iron oxides in the Slag and Dust are summed, this calculation translates to: - 0.1150 GJ/ton of molten steel. b.) Decomposition of other materials such as carbonates (limestone) creates chemical energy demand, but it is relatively low in BOF and EAF, because oxides, such as CaO (Lime), are used to form the slag.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 42

This translates to: 0.0400 GJ/ton of molten steel. c.) Reduction: The Scrap is partially rusted and the rust requires reduction of Iron oxide Fe2O3 + 2.1 C 2 Fe + 0.85 CO +1.15CO2+ 67.0 kcal/159 grams of Fe2O3.

Because there is only about 10% of obsolete (rusty) scrap in the BOF furnace, and there is only about 2% of iron oxide in this scrap, this translates to: 0.0040 GJ/ton of molten steel. In the case of the EAF furnace, there is about 80% of obsolete (rusty) scrap, and there is only about 2% of iron oxide in this scrap, which translates to: 0.0320 GJ/ton of molten steel. d.) Oxidation of other metals such as Mn to MnO, Si to SiO2.

This translates (energy in BF and BOF is summed) to - 0.1000 GJ/ton of molten steel.

Reheating Furnaces: There is Chemical energy created in the Reheating Furnaces where on the average 3 % of the steel surface is burned to form scale: a.) Oxidation of Iron: 1.8 Fe + 1.275 O2 0.25 FeO +.05 Fe3O4 + 0.70 Fe2O3 - 54.72 kcal/55.5 grams of Fe

This calculation translates to -0.1053 GJ/ton of molten steel. The above figures are summed to derive the following estimates: Integrated Mills 2.6492 GJ/ton of molten steel DRI/EAF Mills 0.8460 GJ/ton of molten steel EAF Mills -0.2483 GJ/ton of molten steel These figures are applied to the tables showing the final calculation results. The sum of fuel and chemical energy always equates to the total energy. The fuel energy is the total energy minus the chemical energy in the inventory results for each product category.

3.4.2 Process versus combustion emissions to air The separation of emission streams based on energy categories can be done only for the gaseous species listed in the tables in Section 4. The user can calculate the “gaseous process emissions” using the ratio of the chemical energy to total energy and multiply this ratio with the “gaseous total emissions” appearing in the tables for each product category. Other “non-gaseous process emissions” cannot be separated by this method, because there is no rational method for measurements and confirmation of their actual values.

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3.5 Combined US Mills LCI estimates have been developed for the combined US mills (integrated + mini-mills) by adjusting the Canadian steel production data to take account of differences in selected aspects of US production such as recycling rates, emissions to water and the ratio of products from different process routes. For example, data on emissions to water for Ontario steel mills, obtained from the Ministry of Environment, was adjusted to reflect data from the AISI Annual Report of Steel Production and Consumption for year 2000, and the IISI: ”World Steel Life Cycle Inventory”. Similarly, data describing scrap recycling, energy consumption, and other environmental factors were obtained from a variety of sources and used to either modify or confirm the applicability of the Canadian data. Emissions of particulate matter and water sludge are two instances where the Canadian data has been applied without any modification.

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4 LCI RESULTS BY PRODUCT

4.1 Introduction Having established the energy and materials balances and the associated environmental effects for each process step from mine to finished products for each type of mill, it was possible to total the LCI estimates that could be assigned to each product under study by mill types and then for the combined total all Canadian mills as per the approach described in the previous section. Moving through the various process modules (and allowing for process yield), the cumulative amounts of energy used, the different types of emissions and solid wastes generated, and the raw materials required were summed. The combined US mill results were then derived by adjusting the Canadian results as noted in Section 3.5. As noted in Section 3, discharge water quality was evaluated on the basis of "one comprehensive stream" for each mill type because of the nature of through-plant flow in steel mills. Measured contaminants in process and non-contact cooling water components were pro-rated on the basis of steel production in the "common" technology and “best available technology” plants so that overall final discharge water quality could be established.

4.2 LCI Estimates The final LCI results (major and accountable raw material and energy inputs and emissions to air, land and water) are shown by product at the end of the section in a series of tables as follows: Table 13 — Canadian integrated mills Table 14 — Canadian mini-mills Table 15 — Combined Canadian mills Table 16 — Combined US mills. As noted previously the combined Canadian mill and US mill results were obtained by aggregating the results by product for the different types of plants, using weights derived from Tables 2 and 5. In other words, the combined results for each country represent typical ‘market baskets’ of applicable technologies by product. It should be noted that in all cases the results are as measured or calculated at the plant boundaries, and take account of upstream mining, transportation, scrap processing and related activities. For example, emissions to air are after gases have been passed through treatment/collection equipment, and emissions to water are after process/cooling water has been passed through treatment plants. With reference to the solid wastes shown in the tables, blast furnace slag is not considered by the industry to be a ‘waste’ product in the conventional sense. This slag is normally sold to companies that process it into various materials used in a range of building and construction products. Efforts to recycle precipitator dust, the red dust that

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 45 is collected from steel making off-gases, are proceeding on a variety of fronts. This dust contains high concentrations of iron oxide and certain non-ferrous metal oxides that can be recovered. Handling, logistic and metal recovery problems have impeded progress in recycling the dust, but these problems are gradually being resolved. Other useful conversion products, not directly considered in the current study, include anhydrous ammonia, light oil, coke breeze, iron chlorides, iron oxides, steel making slag, and other similar materials. Note that the estimates in the tables for emissions to water and land reflect plant processing operations only. Water used in exploration and transportation is negligible compared to that required in steel processing, as is solid waste. Water emissions data for mining was not available.

4.2.1 The effects of processing steps and yield A comprehensive examination of the tables will indicate the way in which the number (and complexity) of processing steps and associated yields affect the LCI results. For example, hot rolled sheet, made by rolling continuously cast slabs on a Hot Strip Mill, has the lowest associated elementary flows. If this hot rolled sheet is further processed by, say, cold rolling and galvanizing and subjected to finishing operations, the resulting galvanized decking and galvanized studs have associated effects as much as 13 percent greater. Processing route also has a major effect on the results. The results shown for rebar, rod and light sections, for example, are significantly higher than those for hot rolled sheet. Most of the difference can be attributed to the rolling of ingots that produce significantly less usable product than the rolling of the same tonnage of continuously cast blooms or billets — the reason that continuous casting has been widely adopted by the steel industry throughout the world. In general, reduced material and energy use means more economical, more competitive products and, coincidentally, reduced disturbances of the environment.

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Table 13 LCI ESTIMATES BY PRODUCT: CANADIAN INTEGRATED MILLS (per tonne of product) Welded Wire Screws Mesh, Nuts UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Bolts INPUTS Lime (kg) 81.29 81.12 87.79 Limestone (kg) 67.51 67.38 72.92 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1506.42 1505.35 1590.37 Prompt Scrap (kg) 36.66 36.58 39.59 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 90.47 90.28 97.71 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 127.13 126.87 137.30 Coal Total (kg) 664.67 663.31 700.78 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 3577.18 3569.87 3863.54 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 840.96 839.24 908.28 Energy from Coal MJ 19946.03 19905.17 21029.58 Energy to pellets MJ 0.00 0.00 0.00 Electricity MJ 8821.82 9661.58 7737.07 Natural gas MJ 8111.39 10367.07 10014.62 Bunker Oil MJ 588.70 587.50 620.70 Oxygen MJ 460.45 459.51 497.31 Diesel Fuel MJ 124.46 125.14 88.21 Light Fuel oil MJ 292.40 291.80 308.30 Coke MJ 0.00 0.00 0.00 Gasoline MJ 3.80 3.80 4.00 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 2305.11 2416.69 2502.87 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 26.78 26.85 28.30 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 6.68 6.69 7.05 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 3.04 3.18 3.27 Methane (kg) 0.11 0.11 0.11 Particulate (kg) 1.60 1.60 1.69 Organic Compounds (kg) 3.77 3.78 3.98 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 230.73 231.32 243.81 BOF dust (kg) 17.86 17.90 18.87

1/Yield Ratio 1.350 1.348 1.458

Tonnes sold 18458 399756 20176

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 47

Table 13 Continued

Welded Wire Screws Mesh, Nuts UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Bolts EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 93659.3 93351.1 101113.5 Benzene (kg) -6.616E-02 -6.595E-02 -7.143E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.810 0.808 0.875 Ammonium (kg) -15.584 -15.532 -16.824 Lead (kg) 0.172 0.172 0.186 Phenolics MISA (kg) 8.345E-03 8.318E-03 9.009E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 7.079E-03 7.055E-03 7.642E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -5.406E-02 -5.388E-02 -5.837E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 45.074 44.926 48.662 Oil & Grease (kg) 22.761 22.686 24.572 Zinc (kg) -8.236E-02 -8.208E-02 -8.891E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -2.137E-03 -2.130E-03 -2.307E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.880E-03 1.874E-03 2.029E-03 Chlorides (kg) 8.476 8.448 9.151 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.513 2.505 2.713 Fluorides (kg) 0.240 0.239 0.259 Iron IISI (kg) 0.286 0.285 0.309 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.884 0.881 0.954 Phosphates (kg) -1.094E-02 -1.091E-02 -1.182E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 1.784E-02 1.778E-02 1.926E-02 Sulphides (kg) 2.383 2.375 2.572 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 52.390 50.998 55.716 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.609 0.567 0.630 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.152 0.141 0.157 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 6.904E-02 6.701E-02 7.281E-02 Methane (kg) 2.480E-03 2.311E-03 2.434E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.638E-02 3.370E-02 3.752E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 8.578E-02 7.972E-02 8.863E-02

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Table 13 Continued

Rebar, Rod, Heavy Open Web Light UNITS trusses joists sections INPUTS Lime (kg) 80.07 80.46 78.85 Limestone (kg) 66.51 66.83 65.49 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1485.91 1493.00 1463.14 Prompt Scrap (kg) 36.11 36.28 35.56 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 89.12 89.55 87.75 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 125.23 125.83 123.31 Coal Total (kg) 654.75 657.87 644.72 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 3523.71 3540.66 3469.73 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 828.39 832.37 815.70 Energy from Coal MJ 19648.24 19741.99 19347.24 Energy to pellets MJ 0.00 0.00 0.00 Electricity MJ 6673.99 4924.70 3889.46 Natural gas MJ 7382.97 5429.63 5321.02 Bunker Oil MJ 579.90 582.70 571.00 Oxygen MJ 453.57 455.75 446.62 Diesel Fuel MJ 129.65 128.05 134.94 Light Fuel oil MJ 288.10 289.40 263.70 Coke MJ 0.00 0.00 0.00 Gasoline MJ 3.74 3.80 3.69 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 2157.64 2151.13 2111.29 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 26.34 26.39 25.89 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 5.36 6.59 6.46 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.70 2.86 2.81 Methane (kg) 0.10 0.10 0.10 Particulate (kg) 1.57 1.62 1.54 Organic Compounds (kg) 3.71 3.72 3.65 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 226.98 226.95 222.40 BOF dust (kg) 17.57 17.56 17.21

1/Yield Ratio 1.330 1.337 1.310

Tonnes sold 360250 12539 252264

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 49

Table 13 Continued

Rebar, Rod, Heavy Open Web Light UNITS trusses joists sections EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 92338.2 92977.7 91230.4 Benzene (kg) -6.523E-02 -6.568E-02 -6.445E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.799 0.804 0.789 Ammonium (kg) -15.364 -15.470 -15.179 Lead (kg) 0.170 0.171 0.168 Phenolics MISA (kg) 8.227E-03 8.284E-03 8.129E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 6.979E-03 7.027E-03 6.895E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -5.330E-02 -5.367E-02 -5.266E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 44.439 44.746 43.905 Oil & Grease (kg) 22.440 22.595 22.171 Zinc (kg) -8.119E-02 -8.176E-02 -8.022E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -2.107E-03 -2.122E-03 -2.082E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.853E-03 1.866E-03 1.831E-03 Chlorides (kg) 8.357 8.415 8.256 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.477 2.495 2.448 Fluorides (kg) 0.236 0.238 0.233 Iron IISI (kg) 0.282 0.284 0.279 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.871 0.877 0.861 Phosphates (kg) -1.079E-02 -1.086E-02 -1.066E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 1.759E-02 1.771E-02 1.738E-02 Sulphides (kg) 2.349 2.365 2.321 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 50.044 53.577 52.538 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.611 0.657 0.644 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.124 0.164 0.161 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 6.262E-02 7.112E-02 7.001E-02 Methane (kg) 2.319E-03 2.483E-03 2.484E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.647E-02 4.041E-02 3.839E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 8.602E-02 9.256E-02 9.079E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 50

Table 13 Continued

Hot rolled UNITS HSS Tubing sheet INPUTS Lime (kg) 68.907 70.264 63.052 Limestone (kg) 57.232 58.359 52.368 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1278.640 1303.900 1170.04 Prompt Scrap (kg) 31.073 31.685 28.433 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 76.690 78.201 70.174 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 107.764 109.886 98.606 Coal Total (kg) 563.441 574.548 515.559 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 3032.359 3092.083 2774.686 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 712.875 726.915 652.299 Energy from Coal MJ 16908.272 17241.587 15471.384 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Electricity MJ 3860.062 3370.567 5158.720 Natural gas MJ 1986.013 2025.248 1817.331 Bunker Oil MJ 499.000 508.900 456.600 Oxygen MJ 390.320 398.007 357.152 Diesel Fuel MJ 177.384 171.612 202.416 Light Fuel oil MJ 247.900 252.800 226.800 Coke MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Gasoline MJ 3.220 3.290 2.950 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1712.806 1802.300 1562.589 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 22.488 22.952 20.603 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 5.532 5.641 5.065 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.319 2.419 2.149 Methane (kg) 0.081 0.090 0.081 Particulate (kg) 1.336 1.363 1.228 Organic Compounds (kg) 3.177 3.240 2.907 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 192.650 196.444 176.333 BOF dust (kg) 14.910 15.199 13.643

1/Yield Ratio 1.145 1.167 1.047

Tonnes sold 30264 160736 4542032

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 51

Table 13 Continued

Hot rolled UNITS HSS Tubing sheet EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 79980.4 81572.8 73199.3 Benzene (kg) -5.650E-02 -5.763E-02 -5.171E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.692 0.706 0.633 Ammonium (kg) -13.308 -13.573 -12.179 Lead (kg) 0.147 0.150 0.135 Phenolics MISA (kg) 7.126E-03 7.268E-03 6.522E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 6.045E-03 6.165E-03 5.532E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -4.617E-02 -4.709E-02 -4.225E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 38.491 39.258 35.228 Oil & Grease (kg) 19.437 19.824 17.789 Zinc (kg) -7.033E-02 -7.173E-02 -6.436E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.825E-03 -1.861E-03 -1.670E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.605E-03 1.637E-03 1.469E-03 Chlorides (kg) 7.238 7.382 6.625 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.146 2.189 1.964 Fluorides (kg) 0.205 0.209 0.187 Iron IISI (kg) 0.245 0.249 0.224 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.755 0.770 0.691 Phosphates (kg) -9.346E-03 -9.532E-03 -8.554E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.523E-02 1.554E-02 1.394E-02 Sulphides (kg) 2.035 2.075 1.862 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 48.036 50.557 43.717 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.631 0.644 0.576 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.155 0.158 0.142 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 6.504E-02 6.785E-02 6.012E-02 Methane (kg) 2.278E-03 2.532E-03 2.273E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.746E-02 3.823E-02 3.435E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 8.909E-02 9.089E-02 8.134E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 52

Table 13 Continued

Cold rolled Galvanized Galvanized UNITS sheet sheet deck INPUTS Lime (kg) 66.434 69.055 69.405 Limestone (kg) 55.177 57.355 57.645 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1232.740 1185.900 1191.860 Prompt Scrap (kg) 29.958 31.140 31.298 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 73.938 76.855 77.244 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 103.896 107.995 108.542 Coal Total (kg) 543.194 522.555 525.180 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 2923.516 3038.879 3054.267 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 687.287 714.408 718.025 Energy from Coal MJ 16300.666 15681.308 15760.097 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Electricity MJ 5697.955 6300.715 6292.566 Natural gas MJ 1914.725 1841.965 1851.218 Bunker Oil MJ 481.100 462.800 465.200 Oxygen MJ 376.309 391.159 393.139 Diesel Fuel MJ 187.927 156.053 154.449 Light Fuel oil MJ 239.000 229.600 231.100 Coke MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Gasoline MJ 3.110 2.990 3.000 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1720.851 1751.900 1759.365 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 21.663 20.842 20.927 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 5.560 6.095 6.118 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.325 2.431 2.438 Methane (kg) 0.081 0.081 0.081 Particulate (kg) 1.289 1.242 1.242 Organic Compounds (kg) 3.235 2.944 2.933 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 185.755 178.304 179.202 BOF dust (kg) 14.377 13.803 13.864

1/Yield Ratio 1.104 1.147 1.153

Tonnes sold 1200875 2458807 17518

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 53

Table 13 Continued

Cold rolled Galvanized Galvanized UNITS sheet sheet deck EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 76988.3 80129.9 80482.5 Benzene (kg) -5.439E-02 -5.661E-02 -5.686E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.666 0.693 0.696 Ammonium (kg) -12.810 -13.332 -13.391 Lead (kg) 0.142 0.147 0.148 Phenolics MISA (kg) 6.860E-03 7.140E-03 7.171E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 5.819E-03 6.056E-03 6.083E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -4.444E-02 -4.625E-02 -4.646E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 37.051 38.563 38.733 Oil & Grease (kg) 18.710 19.473 19.559 Zinc (kg) -6.770E-02 -7.046E-02 -7.077E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.757E-03 -1.828E-03 -1.837E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.545E-03 1.608E-03 1.615E-03 Chlorides (kg) 6.968 7.252 7.284 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.066 2.150 2.159 Fluorides (kg) 0.197 0.205 0.206 Iron IISI (kg) 0.235 0.245 0.246 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.726 0.756 0.759 Phosphates (kg) -8.996E-03 -9.364E-03 -9.405E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.466E-02 1.526E-02 1.533E-02 Sulphides (kg) 1.959 2.039 2.047 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 48.296 53.130 53.400 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.608 0.632 0.635 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.156 0.185 0.186 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 6.525E-02 7.372E-02 7.400E-02 Methane (kg) 2.276E-03 2.457E-03 2.458E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.616E-02 3.768E-02 3.768E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 9.079E-02 8.928E-02 8.902E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 54

Table 13 Continued

Galvanized UNITS Studs INPUTS Lime (kg) 69.334 Limestone (kg) 57.586 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1190.660 Prompt Scrap (kg) 31.266 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 77.165 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 108.431 Coal Total (kg) 524.646 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 3051.137 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 717.289 Energy from Coal MJ 15744.072 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 Electricity MJ 4689.029 Natural gas MJ 1849.365 Bunker Oil MJ 464.700 Oxygen MJ 392.737 Diesel Fuel MJ 154.740 Light Fuel oil MJ 230.800 Coke MJ 0.000 Gasoline MJ 3.000 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1757.632 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 20.909 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 6.109 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.438 Methane (kg) 0.081 Particulate (kg) 1.242 Organic Compounds (kg) 2.951 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 179.019 BOF dust (kg) 13.855

1/Yield Ratio 1.152

Tonnes sold 23108

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 55

Table 13 Continued

Galvanized UNITS Studs EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 80400.0 Benzene (kg) -5.680E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.696 Ammonium (kg) -13.377 Lead (kg) 0.148 Phenolics MISA (kg) 7.164E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 6.076E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -4.641E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 38.693 Oil & Grease (kg) 19.539 Zinc (kg) -7.070E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.835E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.614E-03 Chlorides (kg) 7.276 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.157 Fluorides (kg) 0.206 Iron IISI (kg) 0.246 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.758 Phosphates (kg) -9.395E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.531E-02 Sulphides (kg) 2.045 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 53.345 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.635 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.185 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 7.400E-02 Methane (kg) 2.458E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.768E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 8.956E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 56

Table 14 LCI ESTIMATES BY PRODUCT: CANADIAN MINI-MILLS (per tonne of product) Welded Wire Screws Mesh, Nuts UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Bolts INPUTS Lime (kg) 51.590 51.500 54.450 Limestone (kg) 0.000 0.000 0.000 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 266.398 560.977 406.453 Prompt Scrap (kg) 415.623 414.775 438.525 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 649.244 647.919 685.020 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 1064.867 1062.694 1123.545 Coal Total (kg) 0.000 0.000 0.000 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 44.149 416.044 204.610 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 8010.874 6000.199 7605.058 Energy from Coal MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Energy to pellets MJ 192.699 405.783 294.008 Electricity MJ 3766.592 3951.359 4188.687 Natural gas MJ 6884.989 8486.675 7762.458 Bunker Oil MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Oxygen MJ 93.950 93.760 99.130 Diesel Fuel MJ 217.385 236.642 234.274 Light Fuel oil MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Coke MJ 303.964 312.842 324.762 Gasoline MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 695.277 819.879 638.274 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.440 0.320 0.361 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.095 0.123 0.110 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 1.533 1.710 1.493 Methane (kg) 0.034 0.034 0.035 Particulate (kg) 0.026 0.044 0.037 Organic Compounds (kg) 0.093 0.100 0.099 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 98.57 112.77 107.36 BOF dust (kg) 24.84 24.36 20.50

1/Yield Ratio 1.175 1.172 1.239

Tonnes sold 38277.00 9070.00 26470.00

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 57

Table 14 Continued

Welded Wire Screws Mesh, Nuts UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Bolts EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 4205.27 3604.09 4212.09 Benzene (kg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cyanide (kg) 1.437E-05 1.232E-05 1.439E-05 Ammonium (kg) 2.191E-03 1.878E-03 2.194E-03 Lead (kg) 1.978E-02 1.695E-02 1.981E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 2.551E-05 2.187E-05 2.556E-05 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Naphtalene (kg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Suspended Solids (kg) 5.885 5.044 5.895 Oil & Grease (kg) 4.845E-02 4.153E-02 4.853E-02 Zinc (kg) 6.187E-02 5.303E-02 6.197E-02 pH factor ratio 8.046 8.046 8.046 Chromium (kg) 2.637E-05 2.260E-05 2.642E-05 Nickel (kg) 1.303E-04 1.117E-04 1.305E-04 Chlorides (kg) 0.178 0.153 0.178 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 8.570E-02 7.345E-02 8.584E-02 Fluorides (kg) 2.671E-02 2.289E-02 2.675E-02 Iron IISI (kg) 6.358E-03 5.449E-03 6.368E-03 Nitrogen Total (kg) -4.360E-03 -3.737E-03 -4.367E-03 Phosphates (kg) 2.439E-02 2.091E-02 2.443E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 0.145 0.124 0.145 Sulphides (kg) 1.205E-02 1.033E-02 1.207E-02 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 16.263 21.596 16.789 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 8.849E-03 6.694E-03 7.676E-03 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 2.418E-03 3.570E-03 3.038E-03 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 3.582E-02 4.564E-02 3.873E-02 Methane (kg) 7.884E-04 8.992E-04 8.771E-04 Particulate (kg) 7.387E-04 1.335E-03 1.080E-03 Organic Compounds (kg) 2.205E-03 2.740E-03 2.549E-03

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 58

Table 14 Continued

Hot rolled Cold rolled UNITS Tubing sheet sheet INPUTS Lime (kg) 55.400 50.597 55.434 Limestone (kg) 0.000 0.000 0.000 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1095.580 264.245 573.565 Prompt Scrap (kg) 447.238 407.568 446.706 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 698.630 636.661 697.800 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 1145.867 1044.229 1144.506 Coal Total (kg) 0.000 0.000 0.000 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 1069.215 47.088 409.750 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 2892.047 7827.612 6523.610 Energy from Coal MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Energy to pellets MJ 386.961 617.097 506.523 Electricity MJ 4200.888 3033.253 3637.208 Natural gas MJ 13016.262 6845.422 9218.876 Bunker Oil MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Oxygen MJ 101.100 92.148 100.995 Diesel Fuel MJ 291.461 237.441 227.921 Light Fuel oil MJ 0.000 0.000 0.000 Coke MJ 290.660 283.166 303.307 Gasoline MJ 5.140 1.239 2.691 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 894.169 506.817 670.736 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.063 0.516 0.290 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.190 0.092 0.133 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 1.963 1.311 1.597 Methane (kg) 0.038 0.034 0.037 Particulate (kg) 0.076 0.028 0.048 Organic Compounds (kg) 0.127 0.093 0.109 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 115.01 105.75 101.82 BOF dust (kg) 20.03 26.47 23.85

1/Yield Ratio 1.264 1.152 1.262

Tonnes sold 25946.00 3303823.00 419750.00

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 59

Table 14 Continued

Hot rolled Cold rolled UNITS Tubing sheet sheet EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 2855.30 4227.92 4076.90 Benzene (kg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cyanide (kg) 9.757E-06 1.445E-05 1.393E-05 Ammonium (kg) 1.487E-03 2.202E-03 2.124E-03 Lead (kg) 1.343E-02 1.989E-02 1.918E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 1.732E-05 2.565E-05 2.474E-05 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Naphtalene (kg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Suspended Solids (kg) 3.996 5.917 5.705 Oil & Grease (kg) 3.290E-02 4.871E-02 4.697E-02 Zinc (kg) 4.201E-02 6.221E-02 5.999E-02 pH factor ratio 8.046 8.046 8.046 Chromium (kg) 1.791E-05 2.651E-05 2.557E-05 Nickel (kg) 8.846E-05 1.310E-04 1.263E-04 Chlorides (kg) 0.121 0.179 0.173 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 5.819E-02 8.616E-02 8.308E-02 Fluorides (kg) 1.813E-02 2.685E-02 2.589E-02 Iron IISI (kg) 4.317E-03 6.392E-03 6.164E-03 Nitrogen Total (kg) -2.961E-03 -4.384E-03 -4.227E-03 Phosphates (kg) 1.656E-02 2.452E-02 2.365E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 0.098 0.146 0.140 Sulphides (kg) 8.180E-03 1.211E-02 1.168E-02 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 27.192 11.996 18.461 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.002 0.011 0.006 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.006 0.002 0.004 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 0.060 0.030 0.043 Methane (kg) 0.001 0.001 0.001 Particulate (kg) 0.002 0.001 0.001 Organic Compounds (kg) 0.004 0.002 0.003

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 60

Table 14 Continued

UNITS Galvanized Galvanized sheet deck INPUTS Lime (kg) 53.363 54.080 Limestone (kg) 0.000 0.000 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 0.000 1069.490 Prompt Scrap (kg) 429.732 453.258 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 671.284 708.034 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 1101.016 1161.293 Coal Total (kg) 0.000 0.000 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ -301.530 1083.608 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 10144.148 3138.795 Energy from Coal MJ 0.000 0.000 Energy to pellets MJ 408.612 723.300 Electricity MJ 3034.530 4331.384 Natural gas MJ 5431.002 13825.911 Bunker Oil MJ 0.000 0.000 Oxygen MJ 97.162 98.570 Diesel Fuel MJ 43.864 285.066 Light Fuel oil MJ 0.000 0.000 Coke MJ 305.487 283.400 Gasoline MJ 0.000 5.010 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 435.906 948.828 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.524 0.589 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.072 0.185 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 1.212 1.848 Methane (kg) 0.036 0.035 Particulate (kg) 0.018 0.069 Organic Compounds (kg) 0.090 0.127 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 88.85 129.57 BOF dust (kg) 26.15 24.42

1/Yield Ratio 1.214 1.281

Tonnes sold 100000.00 5590.00

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 61

Table 14 Continued

Galvanized Galvanized UNITS sheet decking EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 5187.91 2907.65 Benzene (kg) 0.0 0.0 Cyanide (kg) 1.773E-05 9.936E-06 Ammonium (kg) 2.703E-03 1.515E-03 Lead (kg) 2.440E-02 1.368E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 3.148E-05 1.764E-05 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 0.0 0.0 Naphtalene (kg) 0.0 0.0 Suspended Solids (kg) 7.260 4.069 Oil & Grease (kg) 5.978E-02 3.350E-02 Zinc (kg) 7.633E-02 4.278E-02 pH factor ratio 8.046 8.046 Chromium (kg) 3.253E-05 1.823E-05 Nickel (kg) 1.607E-04 9.008E-05 Chlorides (kg) 0.220 1.231E-01 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 1.057E-01 5.925E-02 Fluorides (kg) 3.295E-02 1.847E-02 Iron IISI (kg) 7.844E-03 4.396E-03 Nitrogen Total (kg) -5.379E-03 -3.015E-03 Phosphates (kg) 3.009E-02 1.687E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 0.179 0.100 Sulphides (kg) 1.486E-02 8.330E-03 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 8.566 27.636 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.010 0.017 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.001 0.005 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 0.024 0.054 Methane (kg) 0.001 0.001 Particulate (kg) 0.000 0.002 Organic Compounds (kg) 0.002 0.004

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 62

Table 15 LCI ESTIMATES BY PRODUCT: COMBINED CANADIAN MILLS (per tonne of product) Welded Wire Screws Mesh, Nuts UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Bolts INPUTS Lime (kg) 61.252 80.464 68.873 Limestone (kg) 21.965 65.882 31.540 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 669.823 1484.399 918.538 Prompt Scrap (kg) 292.331 44.972 265.972 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 467.454 102.656 430.989 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 759.785 147.628 696.961 Coal Total (kg) 216.242 648.592 303.110 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 1193.574 3499.905 1787.223 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 5678.234 953.737 4708.470 Energy from Coal MJ 6489.185 19463.566 9096.015 Energy to pellets MJ 130.007 9.002 166.839 Electricity MJ 5411.244 9534.894 5723.485 Natural gas MJ 7283.981 10325.348 8736.593 Bunker Oil MJ 191.526 574.466 268.474 Oxygen MJ 213.185 451.393 271.355 Diesel Fuel MJ 187.152 127.609 171.096 Light Fuel oil MJ 95.129 285.326 133.350 Coke MJ 205.073 6.941 184.291 Gasoline MJ 1.236 3.716 1.730 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1219.016 2381.260 1444.775 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 9.011 26.266 12.445 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 2.236 6.543 3.113 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.022 3.143 2.262 Methane (kg) 0.059 0.108 0.067 Particulate (kg) 0.539 1.562 0.750 Organic Compounds (kg) 1.291 3.696 1.778 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 141.566 228.694 166.381 BOF dust (kg) 22.567 18.041 19.797

1/Yield Ratio 1.232 1.344 1.334

Tonnes sold 56735 408826 46646

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 63

Table 15 Continued

Welded Wire Screws Mesh, Nuts UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Bolts EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 33307.99 91360.04 46125.29 Benzene (kg) -2.153E-02 -6.448E-02 -3.090E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.264 0.790 0.378 Ammonium (kg) -5.068 -15.188 -7.276 Lead (kg) 6.937E-02 1.682E-01 9.166E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 2.732E-03 8.133E-03 3.911E-03 Benzopyrene (kg) 2.303E-03 6.899E-03 3.305E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -1.759E-02 -5.269E-02 -2.524E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 18.635 44.041 24.393 Oil & Grease (kg) 7.438 22.184 10.656 Zinc (kg) 1.495E-02 -7.909E-02 -3.288E-03 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -6.775E-04 -2.082E-03 -9.830E-04 Nickel (kg) 6.995E-04 1.835E-03 9.518E-04 Chlorides (kg) 2.878 8.264 4.059 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 0.875 2.451 1.222 Fluorides (kg) 9.594E-02 0.234 0.127 Iron IISI (kg) 9.746E-02 0.279 0.137 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.285 0.861 0.410 Phosphates (kg) 1.290E-02 -1.020E-02 8.754E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 0.103 2.014E-02 9.060E-02 Sulphides (kg) 0.783 2.322 1.119 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 28.016 50.346 33.626 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.204 0.554 0.277 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 5.099E-02 1.381E-01 6.962E-02 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 4.663E-02 6.654E-02 5.347E-02 Methane (kg) 1.339E-03 2.279E-03 1.550E-03 Particulate (kg) 1.233E-02 3.298E-02 1.684E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 2.939E-02 7.801E-02 3.978E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 64

Table 15 Continued

Rebar, Rod, Heavy Open Web Light UNITS trusses joists sections INPUTS Lime (kg) 64.313 66.991 52.660 Limestone (kg) 30.318 36.161 5.833 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 677.379 1053.380 130.320 Prompt Scrap (kg) 240.420 208.501 370.676 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 390.472 343.485 581.901 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 765.023 527.949 1172.703 Coal Total (kg) 298.478 355.991 57.424 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 1449.204 2092.837 51.174 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 5664.357 3249.933 8747.980 Energy from Coal MJ 8957.012 10682.926 1723.234 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 83.498 0.000 Electricity MJ 4623.938 4142.777 2441.103 Natural gas MJ 6320.844 6757.247 5421.206 Bunker Oil MJ 264.358 315.315 50.858 Oxygen MJ 257.403 289.320 122.857 Diesel Fuel MJ 139.187 188.154 181.436 Light Fuel oil MJ 131.336 156.602 23.487 Coke MJ 159.207 142.165 261.200 Gasoline MJ 1.705 2.056 0.329 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1221.508 1447.713 589.739 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 12.295 14.405 2.798 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 2.484 3.622 0.643 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 1.892 2.223 1.387 Methane (kg) 0.065 0.070 0.026 Particulate (kg) 0.727 0.898 0.154 Organic Compounds (kg) 1.740 2.057 0.410 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 143.906 177.025 95.551 BOF dust (kg) 19.902 21.146 23.819

1/Yield Ratio 1.239 1.257 1.155

Tonnes sold 790250 23172 2832240

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 65

Table 15 Continued

Rebar, Rod, Heavy Open Web Light UNITS trusses joists sections EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 44743.54 52014.62 12583.13 Benzene (kg) -2.974E-02 -3.554E-02 -5.740E-03 Cyanide (kg) 0.364 0.435 0.070 Ammonium (kg) -7.002 -8.370 -1.350 Lead (kg) 8.986E-02 1.005E-01 3.591E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 3.767E-03 4.493E-03 7.510E-04 Benzopyrene (kg) 3.181E-03 3.803E-03 6.141E-04 Naphtalene (kg) -2.430E-02 -2.904E-02 -4.690E-03 Suspended Solids (kg) 23.966 26.595 10.149 Oil & Grease (kg) 10.260 12.247 2.026 Zinc (kg) 1.969E-03 -1.920E-02 5.844E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.046 Chromium (kg) -9.439E-04 -1.137E-03 -1.575E-04 Nickel (kg) 9.269E-04 1.063E-03 3.012E-04 Chlorides (kg) 3.922 4.625 0.924 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 1.183 1.385 0.309 Fluorides (kg) 0.124 0.139 4.909E-02 Iron IISI (kg) 0.133 0.156 3.159E-02 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.394 0.473 7.204E-02 Phosphates (kg) 1.045E-02 3.993E-03 2.491E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 9.921E-02 6.816E-02 0.155 Sulphides (kg) 1.078 1.285 0.219 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 27.313 36.846 11.902 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.284 0.358 0.066 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 5.745E-02 9.040E-02 1.554E-02 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 4.105E-02 5.676E-02 2.666E-02 Methane (kg) 1.431E-03 1.749E-03 5.261E-04 Particulate (kg) 1.681E-02 2.246E-02 3.724E-03 Organic Compounds (kg) 4.015E-02 5.132E-02 9.611E-03

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 66

Table 15 Continued

Hot rolled UNITS HSS Tubing sheet INPUTS Lime (kg) 68.907 68.198 57.807 Limestone (kg) 57.232 50.248 30.316 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1278.640 1274.947 788.618 Prompt Scrap (kg) 31.073 89.441 188.083 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 76.690 164.431 308.717 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 107.764 253.872 496.800 Coal Total (kg) 563.441 494.695 298.462 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 3032.359 2810.935 1626.117 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 712.875 1027.836 3673.762 Energy from Coal MJ 16908.272 14845.265 8956.515 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 53.782 259.854 Electricity MJ 3860.062 3485.969 4263.704 Natural gas MJ 1986.013 3552.834 3934.618 Bunker Oil MJ 499.000 438.171 264.330 Oxygen MJ 390.320 356.741 245.561 Diesel Fuel MJ 177.384 188.269 217.165 Light Fuel oil MJ 247.900 217.665 131.296 Coke MJ 0.000 40.397 119.239 Gasoline MJ 3.220 3.547 2.230 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1712.806 1676.083 1118.012 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 22.488 19.771 12.145 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 5.532 4.883 2.971 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.319 2.355 1.796 Methane (kg) 0.081 0.083 0.061 Particulate (kg) 1.336 1.184 0.723 Organic Compounds (kg) 3.177 2.807 1.722 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 192.650 185.126 146.609 BOF dust (kg) 14.910 15.870 19.045

1/Yield Ratio 1.145 1.181 1.091

Tonnes sold 30264 186682 7845855

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 67

Table 15 Continued

Hot rolled UNITS HSS Tubing sheet EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 79980.39 70632.28 44156.03 Benzene (kg) -5.650E-02 -4.962E-02 -2.994E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.692 0.608 0.367 Ammonium (kg) -13.308 -11.686 -7.050 Lead (kg) 1.471E-01 1.310E-01 8.629E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 7.126E-03 6.260E-03 3.786E-03 Benzopyrene (kg) 6.045E-03 5.308E-03 3.203E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -4.617E-02 -4.054E-02 -2.446E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 38.491 34.357 22.885 Oil & Grease (kg) 19.437 17.073 10.319 Zinc (kg) -7.033E-02 -5.592E-02 -1.107E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.825E-03 -1.600E-03 -9.558E-04 Nickel (kg) 1.605E-03 1.422E-03 9.057E-04 Chlorides (kg) 7.238 6.373 3.910 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.146 1.893 1.173 Fluorides (kg) 0.205 0.182 0.120 Iron IISI (kg) 0.245 0.215 0.132 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.755 0.662 0.398 Phosphates (kg) -9.346E-03 -5.905E-03 5.375E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.523E-02 2.704E-02 6.935E-02 Sulphides (kg) 2.035 1.788 1.083 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 48.036 47.309 30.360 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.631 0.555 0.338 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 1.551E-01 1.370E-01 8.298E-02 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 6.504E-02 6.672E-02 4.751E-02 Methane (kg) 2.278E-03 2.340E-03 1.623E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.746E-02 3.324E-02 2.019E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 8.909E-02 7.879E-02 4.797E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 68

Table 15 Continued

Cold rolled Galvanized Galvanized UNITS sheet sheet deck INPUTS Lime (kg) 63.584 68.442 65.698 Limestone (kg) 40.886 55.113 43.700 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1062.010 1139.554 1162.258 Prompt Scrap (kg) 137.898 46.717 133.373 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 235.521 100.086 229.837 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 373.419 146.803 363.210 Coal Total (kg) 402.504 502.133 398.135 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 2272.438 2908.334 2577.549 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 2198.924 1082.929 1303.628 Energy from Coal MJ 12078.712 15068.472 11947.610 Energy to pellets MJ 131.192 15.969 174.972 Electricity MJ 5164.211 6173.070 5818.141 Natural gas MJ 3806.537 1982.227 4747.987 Bunker Oil MJ 356.493 444.713 352.665 Oxygen MJ 305.001 379.669 321.881 Diesel Fuel MJ 198.286 151.669 186.046 Light Fuel oil MJ 177.098 220.627 175.195 Coke MJ 78.558 11.939 68.557 Gasoline MJ 3.001 2.873 3.486 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1448.866 1700.470 1563.290 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 16.127 20.048 16.007 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 4.154 5.860 4.683 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.136 2.383 2.295 Methane (kg) 0.070 0.079 0.070 Particulate (kg) 0.967 1.195 0.958 Organic Compounds (kg) 2.425 2.832 2.254 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 164.015 174.808 167.196 BOF dust (kg) 16.830 14.286 16.419

1/Yield Ratio 1.145 1.150 1.184

Tonnes sold 1620625 2558807 23108

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 69

Table 15 Continued

Cold rolled Galvanized Galvanized UNITS sheet sheet deck EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 58103.91 77201.11 61716.58 Benzene (kg) -4.030E-02 -5.439E-02 -4.310E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.494 0.666 0.528 Ammonium (kg) -9.491 -12.811 -10.151 Lead (kg) 1.099E-01 1.425E-01 1.155E-01 Phenolics MISA (kg) 5.089E-03 6.862E-03 5.440E-03 Benzopyrene (kg) 4.312E-03 5.819E-03 4.611E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -3.293E-02 -4.445E-02 -3.522E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 28.933 37.340 30.347 Oil & Grease (kg) 13.876 18.714 14.835 Zinc (kg) -3.463E-02 -6.472E-02 -4.330E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.295E-03 -1.756E-03 -1.388E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.178E-03 1.552E-03 1.246E-03 Chlorides (kg) 5.208 6.977 5.552 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 1.552 2.070 1.651 Fluorides (kg) 0.153 0.198 0.160 Iron IISI (kg) 0.176 0.236 0.188 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.537 0.726 0.575 Phosphates (kg) -5.412E-04 -7.822E-03 -3.050E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 4.721E-02 2.164E-02 3.583E-02 Sulphides (kg) 1.454 1.959 1.554 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 40.569 51.389 47.167 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.452 0.608 0.486 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 1.166E-01 1.777E-01 1.421E-01 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 5.949E-02 7.177E-02 6.912E-02 Methane (kg) 1.934E-03 2.389E-03 2.107E-03 Particulate (kg) 2.716E-02 3.622E-02 2.906E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 6.802E-02 8.586E-02 6.838E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 70

Table 15 Continued

1/Yield Ratio 1.152

Tonnes sold 23108

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 71

Table 15 Continued

Galvanized UNITS Studs EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 80399.96 Benzene (kg) -5.680E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.696 Ammonium (kg) -13.377 Lead (kg) 0.148 Phenolics MISA (kg) 7.164E-03 Benzopyrene (kg) 6.076E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -4.641E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 38.693 Oil & Grease (kg) 19.539 Zinc (kg) -7.070E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.835E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.614E-03 Chlorides (kg) 7.276 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.157 Fluorides (kg) 0.206 Iron IISI (kg) 0.246 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.758 Phosphates (kg) -9.395E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.531E-02 Sulphides (kg) 2.045 EMISSIONS Transport Carbon Dioxide (kg) 53.345 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.635 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.185 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 7.400E-02 Methane (kg) 2.458E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.768E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 8.956E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 72

Table 16 LCI ESTIMATES BY PRODUCT: COMBINED US MILLS (per tonne of product)

Welded Wire Mesh, Screws UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Nuts Bolts INPUTS Lime (kg) 70.824 56.823 68.713 Limestone (kg) 41.484 11.487 29.682 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 997.970 252.385 754.511 Prompt Scrap (kg) 185.966 342.715 274.188 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 313.573 546.505 447.127 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 499.539 889.219 721.316 Coal Total (kg) 395.689 109.564 276.376 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 2064.285 330.705 1444.318 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 3253.147 6832.780 4867.314 Energy from Coal MJ 11874.206 3287.889 8293.743 Energy to pellets MJ 74.360 4.179 108.875 Electricity MJ 6763.658 4638.803 5515.209 Natural gas MJ 7578.877 6266.675 7968.876 Bunker Oil MJ 350.463 97.042 244.795 Oxygen MJ 320.939 156.612 262.466 Diesel Fuel MJ 148.421 163.663 154.089 Light Fuel oil MJ 174.071 48.199 121.589 Coke MJ 122.795 246.214 192.855 Gasoline MJ 2.262 0.628 1.578 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1633.618 1059.675 1316.845 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 16.099 4.921 11.401 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 4.007 1.157 2.831 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.385 1.824 2.080 Methane (kg) 0.078 0.045 0.063 Particulate (kg) 0.962 0.277 0.680 Organic Compounds (kg) 2.280 0.690 1.622 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 176.825 109.800 156.214 BOF dust (kg) 20.685 23.973 19.997

1/Yield Ratio 1.305 1.208 1.344

Tonnes sold 1007867 13621699 5071191

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 73

Table 16 Continued

Welded Wire Mesh; Screws UNITS Nails Ladder Wire Nuts Bolts EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 54359.70 18723.93 40558.46 Benzene (kg) -3.713E-02 -1.028E-02 -2.657E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.455 0.126 0.325 Ammonium (kg) -8.745 -2.420 -6.256 Lead (kg) 1.051E-01 4.637E-02 8.302E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 4.694E-03 1.322E-03 3.369E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 3.973E-03 1.100E-03 2.843E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -3.034E-02 -8.402E-03 -2.171E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 27.809 12.839 22.225 Oil & Grease (kg) 12.795 3.585 9.174 Zinc (kg) -1.982E-02 4.854E-02 1.029E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.188E-03 -3.060E-04 -8.398E-04 Nickel (kg) 1.111E-03 4.213E-04 8.462E-04 Chlorides (kg) 4.833 1.494 3.529 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 1.447 0.475 1.069 Fluorides (kg) 1.458E-01 0.064 0.115 Iron IISI (kg) 1.634E-01 0.051 0.119 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.494 0.133 0.352 Phosphates (kg) 4.266E-03 2.248E-02 1.270E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 0.072 1.463E-01 1.086E-01 Sulphides (kg) 1.342 0.382 0.965 EMISSIONS (Transport) Carbon Dioxide (kg) 38.692 23.037 31.094 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.378 0.107 0.262 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 9.417E-02 2.523E-02 6.527E-02 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 5.674E-02 3.964E-02 4.958E-02 Methane (kg) 1.841E-03 9.695E-04 1.477E-03 Particulate (kg) 2.264E-02 6.039E-03 1.572E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 5.359E-02 1.503E-02 3.740E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 74

Table 16 Continued

Rebar, Rod, Heavy Open Web Light UNITS trusses joists sections INPUTS Lime (kg) 59.300 54.970 53.377 Limestone (kg) 17.826 8.337 7.081 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 385.895 241.488 153.274 Prompt Scrap (kg) 305.767 356.142 354.817 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 491.247 566.177 563.480 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 996.722 1125.383 1155.044 Coal Total (kg) 170.039 79.517 67.539 ENERGY Chemical Heat MJ 669.188 235.966 97.287 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 6122.294 6808.833 7087.534 Energy from Coal MJ 5102.704 2386.233 2026.762 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 41.110 0.000 Electricity MJ 3881.085 3184.454 2464.544 Natural gas MJ 5937.934 5760.736 5419.480 Bunker Oil MJ 150.602 70.432 59.816 Oxygen MJ 190.469 138.668 129.936 Diesel Fuel MJ 137.076 191.524 178.431 Light Fuel oil MJ 74.820 34.980 27.624 Coke MJ 216.604 259.189 256.702 Gasoline MJ 0.971 0.459 0.387 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 853.366 630.752 578.055 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 7.189 3.580 3.147 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 1.440 0.860 0.737 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 1.516 1.348 1.304 Methane (kg) 0.050 0.041 0.026 Particulate (kg) 0.420 0.213 0.177 Organic Compounds (kg) 1.023 0.523 0.457 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 113.911 105.822 97.717 BOF dust (kg) 20.739 24.125 23.704

1/Yield Ratio 1.218 1.189 1.162

Tonnes sold 813449 1654657 10048718

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 75

Table 16 Continued

Rebar, Rod, Heavy Open Web Light UNITS trusses joists sections EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 26416.31 14971.15 13631.90 Benzene (kg) -1.596E-02 -7.463E-03 -6.338E-03 Cyanide (kg) 0.195 0.091 0.078 Ammonium (kg) -3.756 -1.755 -1.490 Lead (kg) 5.954E-02 4.015E-02 3.841E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 2.036E-03 9.680E-04 8.277E-04 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 1.707E-03 7.984E-04 6.781E-04 Naphtalene (kg) -1.304E-02 -6.098E-03 -5.179E-03 Suspended Solids (kg) 16.228 11.252 10.839 Oil & Grease (kg) 5.534 2.618 2.234 Zinc (kg) 3.646E-02 5.556E-02 6.067E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.046 8.046 Chromium (kg) -4.914E-04 -2.134E-04 -1.755E-04 Nickel (kg) 5.720E-04 3.486E-04 3.244E-04 Chlorides (kg) 2.206 1.143 1.009 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 0.684 0.373 0.336 Fluorides (kg) 8.207E-02 5.500E-02 5.254E-02 Iron IISI (kg) 7.486E-02 3.897E-02 3.448E-02 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.209 0.095 7.981E-02 Phosphates (kg) 1.956E-02 2.433E-02 2.598E-02 Phosphorus (kg) 1.361E-01 1.537E-01 0.162 Sulphides (kg) 0.586 0.281 0.242 EMISSIONS (Transport) Carbon Dioxide (kg) 19.535 14.913 12.778 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.171 0.090 0.078 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 3.436E-02 2.191E-02 1.858E-02 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 3.380E-02 3.086E-02 2.764E-02 Methane (kg) 1.130E-03 9.314E-04 5.682E-04 Particulate (kg) 1.003E-02 5.449E-03 4.451E-03 Organic Compounds (kg) 2.433E-02 1.316E-02 1.131E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 76

Table 16 Continued

Hot rolled UNITS HSS Tubing sheet MATERIAL INPUTS Lime (kg) 71.121 72.044 61.022 Limestone (kg) 59.070 58.556 38.949 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1278.640 1298.097 1106.697 Prompt Scrap (kg) 32.072 43.898 131.804 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 79.154 97.573 226.858 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 111.226 141.471 358.663 Coal Total (kg) 563.441 558.544 371.511 ENERGY INPUTS Chemical Heat MJ 2925.887 2930.191 2181.538 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 713.143 787.846 1345.706 Energy from Coal MJ 16908.272 16761.326 11148.641 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 10.779 45.712 Electricity MJ 3847.522 3381.265 4668.056 Natural gas MJ 1986.013 2331.401 4237.799 Bunker Oil MJ 499.000 494.725 329.025 Oxygen MJ 402.859 402.168 291.376 Diesel Fuel MJ 158.997 156.723 225.777 Light Fuel oil MJ 247.900 245.758 163.432 Coke MJ 0.000 8.096 74.404 Gasoline MJ 3.220 3.342 3.362 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1711.273 1775.451 1317.762 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 22.468 22.295 14.971 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 5.527 5.484 3.686 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.317 2.404 1.985 Methane (kg) 0.081 0.089 0.066 Particulate (kg) 1.334 1.326 0.899 Organic Compounds (kg) 3.174 3.151 2.121 SOLID WASTES Slag calculated (kg) 192.472 193.998 172.098 BOF dust (kg) 14.896 15.320 18.473

1/Yield Ratio 1.181 4.570 1.675

Tonnes sold 5000000 5385062 9484525

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 77

Table 16 Continued

Hot rolled UNITS HSS Tubing sheet EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 74849.96 74291.35 50676.12 Benzene (kg) -5.288E-02 -5.242E-02 -3.486E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.648 0.642 0.427 Ammonium (kg) -12.454 -12.345 -8.211 Lead (kg) 1.376E-01 1.369E-01 9.697E-02 Phenolics MISA (kg) 6.669E-03 6.612E-03 4.405E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 5.657E-03 5.608E-03 3.730E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -4.321E-02 -4.283E-02 -2.849E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 36.022 35.839 25.603 Oil & Grease (kg) 18.190 18.033 12.009 Zinc (kg) -6.582E-02 -6.387E-02 -2.394E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.708E-03 -1.693E-03 -1.118E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.502E-03 1.492E-03 1.032E-03 Chlorides (kg) 6.774 6.719 4.523 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.008 1.993 1.351 Fluorides (kg) 0.191 0.190 0.135 Iron IISI (kg) 0.229 0.227 0.153 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.706 0.700 0.464 Phosphates (kg) -8.747E-03 -8.130E-03 1.905E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.426E-02 1.734E-02 5.493E-02 Sulphides (kg) 1.904 1.888 1.259 EMISSIONS (Transport) Carbon Dioxide (kg) 49.579 51.485 38.646 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.651 0.646 0.433 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.160 0.159 0.107 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 6.713E-02 6.974E-02 5.861E-02 Methane (kg) 2.351E-03 2.573E-03 1.935E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.866E-02 3.842E-02 2.602E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 9.195E-02 9.131E-02 6.138E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 78

Table 16 Continued

Cold rolled Galvanized Galvanized UNITS sheet sheet decking MATERIAL INPUTS Lime (kg) 60.174 65.313 71.178 Limestone (kg) 20.466 39.498 57.948 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 491.408 791.272 1188.675 Prompt Scrap (kg) 289.200 160.405 42.928 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 466.372 272.268 95.748 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 755.572 432.672 138.676 Coal Total (kg) 195.205 348.666 511.509 ENERGY INPUTS Chemical Heat MJ 873.952 1856.109 2898.519 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 5539.526 3249.150 781.663 Energy from Coal MJ 5857.891 10463.096 15349.851 Energy to pellets MJ 442.056 17.912 18.828 Electricity MJ 4104.863 5205.453 6229.213 Natural gas MJ 4487.043 3036.276 2162.926 Bunker Oil MJ 172.891 308.796 453.091 Oxygen MJ 204.281 301.712 397.773 Diesel Fuel MJ 185.268 106.426 139.812 Light Fuel oil MJ 85.888 153.197 225.084 Coke MJ 202.234 101.656 7.377 Gasoline MJ 1.345 1.995 3.052 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 898.958 1299.045 1736.616 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 8.072 14.051 20.377 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 2.045 4.085 5.958 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 1.594 1.985 2.420 Methane (kg) 0.051 0.065 0.080 Particulate (kg) 0.476 0.834 1.210 Organic Compounds (kg) 1.217 1.990 2.857 SOLID WASTES 0.000 0.000 0.000 Slag calculated (kg) 126.683 148.417 177.735 BOF dust (kg) 22.300 17.902 14.126

1/Yield Ratio 1.218 1.194 1.192

Tonnes sold 22633798 21035777 3841626

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 79

Table 16 Continued

Cold rolled Galvanized Galvanized UNITS sheet sheet decking EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 29398.90 51883.43 73517.30 Benzene (kg) -1.832E-02 -3.536E-02 -5.187E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.224 0.433 0.635 Ammonium (kg) -4.313 -8.327 -12.217 Lead (kg) 6.399E-02 1.007E-01 1.354E-01 Phenolics MISA (kg) 2.332E-03 4.471E-03 6.543E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 1.960E-03 3.783E-03 5.550E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -1.497E-02 -2.889E-02 -4.238E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 17.331 26.653 35.463 Oil & Grease (kg) 6.342 12.184 17.845 Zinc (kg) 2.819E-02 -1.703E-02 -6.326E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 8.045 8.045 Chromium (kg) -5.700E-04 -1.131E-03 -1.675E-03 Nickel (kg) 6.279E-04 1.061E-03 1.477E-03 Chlorides (kg) 2.494 4.607 6.649 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 0.766 1.380 1.972 Fluorides (kg) 0.088 0.140 0.188 Iron IISI (kg) 0.085 0.156 0.225 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.241 0.470 0.693 Phosphates (kg) 1.707E-02 4.788E-03 -8.064E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.242E-01 7.265E-02 1.705E-02 Sulphides (kg) 0.670 1.279 1.868 EMISSIONS (Transport) Carbon Dioxide (kg) 24.424 39.440 54.400 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.232 0.439 0.639 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.059 0.128 0.187 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 4.160E-02 5.869E-02 7.579E-02 Methane (kg) 1.336E-03 1.929E-03 2.497E-03 Particulate (kg) 1.374E-02 2.607E-02 3.793E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 3.495E-02 6.208E-02 8.958E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 80

Table 16 Continued

Galvanized UNITS Studs MATERIAL INPUTS Lime (kg) 71.561 Limestone (kg) 59.436 Iron ore (pellets) (kg) 1190.660 Prompt Scrap (kg) 32.270 Obsolete Scrap (kg) 79.644 Scrap Prompt and Obsolete (kg) 111.915 Coal Total (kg) 524.646 ENERGY INPUTS Chemical Heat MJ 2944.005 Embodied Energy - Prompt Scrap MJ 717.559 Energy from Coal MJ 15744.072 Energy to pellets MJ 0.000 Electricity MJ 5306.151 Natural gas MJ 1849.365 Bunker Oil MJ 464.700 Oxygen MJ 405.354 Diesel Fuel MJ 136.239 Light Fuel oil MJ 230.800 Coke MJ 0.000 Gasoline MJ 3.000 EMISSIONS TO AIR Carbon Dioxide (kg) 1755.923 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 20.888 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 6.103 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 2.436 Methane (kg) 0.081 Particulate (kg) 1.240 Organic Compounds (kg) 2.948 SOLID WASTES 0.000 Slag calculated (kg) 178.840 BOF dust (kg) 13.842

1/Yield Ratio 1.189

Tonnes sold 1247325

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 81

Table 16 Continued

Galvanized UNITS Studs EMISSIONS TO WATER Water rate (Liters) 75313.47 Benzene (kg) -5.320E-02 Cyanide (kg) 0.652 Ammonium (kg) -12.531 Lead (kg) 1.385E-01 Phenolics MISA (kg) 6.710E-03 Benzo-pyrene (kg) 5.692E-03 Naphtalene (kg) -4.347E-02 Suspended Solids (kg) 36.245 Oil & Grease (kg) 18.303 Zinc (kg) -6.622E-02 pH factor ratio 8.045 Chromium (kg) -1.719E-03 Nickel (kg) 1.512E-03 Chlorides (kg) 6.816 Chemical Oxygen Demand (kg) 2.021 Fluorides (kg) 0.193 Iron IISI (kg) 0.230 Nitrogen Total (kg) 0.711 Phosphates (kg) -8.801E-03 Phosphorus (kg) 1.434E-02 Sulphides (kg) 1.916 EMISSIONS (Transport) Carbon Dioxide (kg) 55.059 Carbon Monoxide (kg) 0.655 Sulfur Oxides (kg) 0.191 Nitrogen Oxides (kg) 7.638E-02 Methane (kg) 2.536E-03 Particulate (kg) 3.889E-02 Organic Compounds (kg) 9.244E-02

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 82

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ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 83

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ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 84

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ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 85

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ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 86

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ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 87

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5.2 Mini-mills 1. “Electric Furnace Roundup”, 33 Metal Producing, May 1991, pp 39-48.

2. “EAF and BOF Compete - and Mini-Mills Make the Running”, Joseph K. Stone, Steel Times International, October 1987, pp 20, 23, 46.

3. “Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking with Quasi-Submerged Arcs and Foamy Slags”, Edgar G. Wunsche, Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1984, pp 35-42.

4. ‘Oxy-Coal Burners to Replace Electricity in the EAF', Brian Welburn, STI, 1990/91, pp 93-95.

5. “Quality Assured Scrap is now a reality”, Frazer Wright, STI, 1992, pp 79-83. 6. “Electric Steelmaking Using Direct Reduced Iron”, Jose Manuel Cenoz, STI, 1992, pp 85-89.

7. “Meltshop Emission Control In North America”, Manfred Bender, STI, 1988, pp 167-170.

8. “Modern Arc Furnace Technology”, R. Heinke et al, STI, 1988, pp 151-158.

9. “The Consteel Process for Continuous Steelmaking”, John A. Vallomy, STI, 1989, pp 161-163.

10. “Oxy-Fuel Burners for Electric Steelmaking”, Jim Untz, STI, 1989, pp 155 - 159.

11. “Saving of Electrical Energy in the EAF Through a new Fume Emission Control”, Rudolf Stockmeyer, MPT, 3/91, pp 40-43.

12. “Scrap Preheating Fuels Energy Savings”, George Hess, Iron Age, Dec 1990, pp 16-20.

13. “Recovery Metals from Flue Dust with Plasma Technology”, David Pocklinton, STI, 1989, pp 351- 353.

14. “Lukens to Install Environmental System”, Iron and Steel Engineer, August 1991, p 7.

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17. “Optimization of Electric Arc Furnace Performance Through Closed-Loop Control of Electrical Power”, Thomas A. Harper, Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1990, pp 40-44.

18. “Optimal Distribution of Oxygen in High-Efficiency Electric Arc Furnaces”, Henrik Gripenberg, Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1990, pp 33-37.

19. “Horizontal-Oriented Tapping of 1000 Heats at HYLSA”, Porfirio Gonzales, Iron and Steel Engineer, May 1989, pp 15-16.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 88

20. “Inclined Rotary Reduction System for Recycling Electric Arc Furnace Bag House Dust”, Norman L. Kotrabe, Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1991, pp 43-45.

21. “Neural Networking an Electric Arc Furnace to become an Intelligent Arc Furnace (EAF)', William E. Staib, Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1991, p 70.

22. “Computer Analysis of Electric Arc Furnace Fume Control: Application and Validation”, Peter Brand, Iron and Steel Engineer, September 1991, p 70.

23. “Scrap Preheating Fuels Energy Savings”, George Hess, Iron Age, December 1990, pp 16-20.

24. “Improving Environmental Performance in Mini-Mills, Part 1”, L. L. Teoh, Steel Times International, January 1991, pp 29-31.

25. “Saving of Electrical Energy in the Arc Furnace Through a new Fume Control System”, Rudolf Stockmeyer et al, Stahl und Eisen, 110, December 13, 1990, pp 113-116.

26. “Design Criteria for the Modern UHP Electric Arc Furnace with Auxiliaries”, Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1990, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp 282-287.

27. “New Technology for Treating Electric Arc Furnace Dust”, Toshio Matsuoka et al, Iron and Steel Engineer, Feb 1991, pp 37-40.

28. “The Semi-Robotic Melt-Cast Shop”, Joseph Rokop, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 533-538.

29. “Reflections on the Possibilities and Limitations of Cost Saving in Steel Production in Electric Arc Furnaces”, Karl-Heinz Klein et al, MPT, 1/1989, pp 32-42.

30. “Improvement of Water-Cooled Electric Arc Furnace Electrodes”, Dieter Zoellner et al, MPT, 6/1988, pp 22-25.

31. “New Concept in EAF Energy Savings”, Steel Times Supplement, March 1992, pp 22-24.

32. “Technical and Commercial Benefits of DR-Based Steelmaking at OEMK”, Direct from Midrex, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp 6-7.

33. “The Influence of Coke Injection on Power Consumption in an UHP Electric Furnace”, M. Motlagh, I&SM, Oct 1991, pp 73-78.

34. “New Developments in Electric Arc Furnace Technology”, Gianni Gensini, MPT, 1/1991, pp 52-56.

35. “Advantages of Electric Arc Furnace Operation with Low System Reactance”, Emil A. Eisner et a!, MPT, 2/1991, pp 44-51.

36. Hi-Plas Treating Steelwork Dust”, R. Lightfoot, Steel Times, Oct 1991, pp 559-?.

37. “Is it Time for Wider DRI Acceptance?”, David Edwards et a!, 33 Metal Producing, 10/91, pp 33- 35.

38. “Fine-Tuning the Electric Arc Furnace”, Wallace D. Huskonen, 33 Metal Producing, 10/91, pp 23- 24.

39. “Benefits of HBI in the EAF Melt Shop”, John T. Kopfle et al, Direct from Midrex, Vol. 16, No. 4, 3rd Quarter 1991, pp 6-9.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 89

40. “Conversion of Zn and Pb-bearing EAF Dust”, (news), MPT, 5/1990, p 29.

41. “Modernization of Swedish EAF”, (news), MPT, 3/1990, p 78.

42. “BSW Modernizes Electric Steelmaking”, MPT, 4/1991, p 36.

43. “Badische Stahiwerke - Out in Front of the Pack”, T. P. McAloon, I&SM, Jan 1990, pp 12-13.

44. “The Hyl Hytemp Systems for Direct Linking of a DR Plant to the EAF”, David Yañez, Thomas M. Scarnati, MPT International, 4/1992, pp 42-46.

45. “A New Concept for Using Oxy-Fuel Burners and Oxygen Lances to Optimize Electric Arc Furnace Operation”, A. Adolph et a!, La Revue de Metallurgie -CIT, Jan 1990, pp 47-53.

46. “Productive Maintenance of a Modern EAF Steelmaking Process”, Tatsumi Kimura et al, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 233- 240.

47. “Arc Furnace Control System”, (news), I&SE, Dec 1989, p 73.

48. “Efficient EAF Steelmaking Using DRI as the Main Raw Material”, Tachia Jooji, IISI 21, 21st Annual Meeting/Conference, IISI, Washington, DC, October 1987, pp 122-125.

49. “Direct Reduction Electric Arc Furnace; The Techno-economic Overview of Performance”, Arturo Tomas Acevedo, IISI 21, 21st Annual Meeting/Conference, IISI, Washington, DC, October 1987, pp 109-117.

50. “Development of EAF Steelmaking Technology in Japan - Past, Present and Future”, Kohji Ishihara, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 72-81.

51. “The 90’s Electric Arc Furnace Route: The Leap Forward”, Aristide Jean Berthet, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 180-189.

52. “The Systems Approach to the Design of Advanced Electric Arc Furnaces”, Thomas L. Ochs et al, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 158- 162.

53. “DR-EAF Coupling Through Direct Charging of Hot Reduced Iron”, Paul Quintero et al, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 111-1 16.

54. “Improvement in Productivity of the 80 tonne UHP-EAF”, Shigefumi Takaha et al, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 90-97.

55. “The K-ES Process - High Productivity EAF Steelmaking With Reduced Electrical Energy Consumption”, F. Hauck et al, I&SM, May 1991, pp 65-67.

56. “A Future Direction for the Minimill”, Jacques E. Astier, Steel Times International, March 1992, pp 26-27.

57. “Environmental Control in the Steel Industry”, compilation of papers prepared for 1991 Encosteel World Conference, pp 355-378.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 90

58. “Reducing Energy Costs in Electric Steelmaking Plants with a Load Control System”, Manfred Bock, Kurt Hohendahi, Bernd Puchinger, MPT International, April 1992, pp 62-68.

59. “New Concept for Using Oxy-fuel Burners and Oxygen Lances to Optimize Electric Arc Furnace Operation”, N. Adolph, G. Pau. K. N. Klein, E. Lepoutre, J. C. Vuillermoz, M. Devaux, 1988 Electric Furnace Conference.

60. “Worldwide Experience of Electric Arc Furnace Bottom Stirring”, Sara Hornby Anderson, Etienne Lepoutre, Michel Devaux, Nicolas Perrin, EAF Conference, New Orleans, December 1990, pp 1-28.

61. “Continuous Fume Analysis at Vallourec Saint-Saulve”, N. Perrin, C. Dworat zek, J. C. Vuillermoz, B. Daudin and S. H. Anderson, 1991 Electric Furnace Conference Proceedings.

62. “Improving the Efficiency of Electric Arc Furnaces in the United States”, Group Study Proposed, November 1992, pp 8-19.

63. “The True Cost of Scrap for Electric Steelmaking”, John W. Clayton, pp 137. 139.

64. “University Research for Improved Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking and Scrap Utilization”, R. J. Fruehan and A. McLean, I&SM, October 1987, pp 11-14.

65. “Batch Charging Hot Briquetted Iron in the Electric Arc Furnace”, Tan Su Haw, D. W. Clark and B. A. Lewis, SEAISI Quarterly, January 1986, pp 23 28.

66. “Electric Arc Steelmaking in the 4th Generation”, G. A. Ligot and P. J. Salomon, edited version of paper presented at electric arc furnace symposium, December 1981, Metal Bulletin Monthly, November 1992, pp 7-21.199.

67. “The Role of Electric Furnaces with Direct Reduced Iron”, T. E. Dancy, I&SM, May 1983, pp 36- 42.

68. “Innovative Melting Process of Iron and Scrap”, Koichiro Semura, Testuo Sato, Shuzo Ito, Tomio Suzuki, Takeo Yoshigae, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 793-799.

69. “Glassification of Electric Arc Furnace Dust”, J. Kenneth Bray, Steel Times International, November 1992, p 33.

70. “Variables Influencing Electric Energy and Electrode Consumption in Electric Arc Furnaces”, Siegfried Köhle, MPT International, 6/1992, pp 48-53.

71. “Electric Arc Furnace Roundup - Canada”, I&SM, May 1992, pp 10-31.

72. “Ladle Metallurgy Roundup”, 33 Metal Producing, May 1991, pp 60-65.

73. “Ladle Preheating Roundup”, 33 Metal Producing, May 1991, pp 55-59.

74. “Continuing Developments in Secondary Steelmaking”, Hermann P. Hastert et al, 1989, STI, 1989, pp 189-193.

75. “A Process Control System for Ladle Steelmaking”, Diana L. Brown, STI,1990/91, pp 145.

76. “Ladle Furnaces: Better Output and Lower Cost”, AMM, 9/23/85, pp 8A, 14A.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 91

77. “Technology to Upgrade Galvanized Steel Scrap to Clean Scrap”, Iron and Steel Engineer, December 1991, p 51.

78. “Experience with Advanced Secondary Steelmaking Technologies”, G. Stolte et al, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 471-480.

79. “Exchange of Gas Purging Cones in Steel Casting Ladles - Operating Experience with New Mounting System”, Hans Rothfuss, MPT, 5/1989, pp 51-53.

80. “Secondary Steelmaking, a Must for Meeting Steel Consumers’ Demand”, Paul Nilles et al, MPT, 5/1989, pp 72-88.

81. “Energy Balance of a Ladle Furnace”, Wolfgang Hoppmann et a!, MPT, 3/1989, pp 38-51.

82. “Development of a Small Sized Ladle Metallurgy System”, Richard U. Swaney et al, MPT, 5/1990, pp 64-73.

83. “Ladle Metallurgy”, William T. Hogan, I&SE, Nov 1989, pp 38-39.

84. “Commercial Application of New Ladle Technology”, MPT International, 1/1992, p 92.

85. “Trends and Technology in Refining”, Goran Carlsson, STI, 7/1992, pp 25-29.

86. “Ladle-Furnace”, VAI-Technology.

87. “Continuous Casting Roundup”, 33 Metal Producing, May 1991, pp 68-76.

88. “Tundish Metallurgy Roundup”, 33 Metal Producing, May 1991, pp 77-84.

89. “CSP - The New Casting and Rolling Process for Economical Production of Strips - for both New Plants and Modernization Projects”, Rudolf Guse, Proceedings International Conference on Modernization of Steel Rolling, CSM, Beijing, China, April 10-15, 1989, pp 185-192.

90. “World Continuous Casting Report: New Projects on the Horizon”, Iron Age, July 16, 1984, pp 23- 31.

91. “Continuous Casting for Hot Direct Rolling”, Akira Shirayama, STI, 1988, pp 234-237.

92. “The Tundish: A Continuous Metallurgical Refiner”, Prof. Alex McLean, STI, 1989, pp 195-199.

93. “Thin Slab Casting for Strip and Plate Production”, H. E. Wiemer et a!, STI, 1989, pp 215.

94. “Increasing the Productivity of Continuous Casting”, W. Kerry Phillips, STI, 988, pp 217-219.

95. “New technology to Tackle Centreline Segregation”, Masayuki Hattori et at, STI, 1990/91, pp 189- 193.

96. “High Speed Continuous Casting of Blooms and Billets”, A. Depierreux, STI, 992, pp 155-159.

97. “The Bloom Casting of Engineering Steels”, Robert Ruddlestone, STI, 1990- 91, pp 177-183.

98. “Current R&D Work on the Near-net-shape Continuous Casting Technology in Europe”, Jean-Pierre Birat, MPT International, 3/1991, pp 44-57.

99. “The Tundish - Transmitter of Signals of Quality”, Prof. Alex McLean, STI, 1990/91, pp 165-168.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 92

100. “Development of Plant Technology for Hot Strip Production in the Future”, Wolfgang Rohde, MPT International, 2/1991, pp 70-83.

101. “Canadian Producers Form Casting Venture”, Angela Kryhul, AMM, 10/26/89, p 4.

102. “Application of the Spray-Tech Mold System”, Cass R. Kurzinski, Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1989, pp 32-33.

103. “CTG/Scientific Systems Services to Provide Process Control System for New Canadian Steel Plant”, Iron and Steel Engineer, January 199?, p 48.

104. “Italimpanti Receives Contract from NICK Canada”, Iron and Steel Engineer, January 1991, p 9.

105. “Continuous Casting of Steel in the 21st Century”, Robert D. Pehike, Metallurgical Processes for the year 2000 and Beyond, AIME Annual Meeting, Feb 1989, Las Vegas, Nevada, pp 115-127.

106. “Automatic Surface Inspection of Continuously Cast Billets”, Yngve Strom, ISE, Sept 1991, P-62.

107. “A Review on Theoretical Analysis of Rolling in Europe”, P. Montmitonnet et al, ISIJ International, Vol. 31, 1991, No. 6, pp 525-538.

108. “Improvement of Internal Quality of Large Section Bloom with Soft Reduction”, Tohru Shumiya, The Sumitomo Search, No. 42, April 1990, pp 25-31.

109. “Development of Thin Slab Caster”, Kawasaki Steel Technical Report No. 22, May 1990, pp 22-31.

110. “Economic Analysis of Thin Section Casting”, J. C. Agarwal et al, I&SM.

111. “The Sandalin Effect and Continuously Cast Steels”, A. J. Vazquez Vaamonde et al, International Journal of Materials and Product Technology, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1991, pp 175-216.

112. “Continuous Casting and Rolling of Thin Slabs”, Horst Wiesinger et at, Stahl und Eisen, Nov. 14, 1990, pp 81-88.

113. “Metallurgy Above the Mold”, J0 Isenberg-O’Loughlin, 33 Metal Producing, 7/91, pp 23-28.

114. “Transport Phenomena in Tundishes: Heat Transfer and the Rate of Auxiliary Heating”, Olusegun Johnson Ilegbusi, Steel Research 62, No. 5, 1991, pp 193-200.

115. “Development of Sophisticated Super Efficient Slab Caster at Kakogawa Works”, Tadashi Saito et at, Kobelco Technology Review, No. 10, Mar 1991, pp 26-31.

116. “The Continuous Casting Mold: A Basic Tool for Surface Quality and Strand Productivity”, Jean- Pierre Birat, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 39-48.

117. “Future Trends in the Development of Continuous Casting Moulds”, J. K. Brimacombe, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 189-196.

118. “Mold Instrumentation for Breakout Detection and Control”, W. H. Emling, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 197-217.

119. “Improvement in the Production of High Grade Wire Rods and Bars by Using a Bloom Caster”, Toyoshi Takimoto et al, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 547-552.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 93

120. “Development of a New Type of Continuous Casting Process”, Isao Matsui, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 57 1-575.

121. “Development of High Power Plasma Torch in the Tundish”, H. Iritani et a!, 1991 Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, pp 699-705.

122. “Billet Caster Automation for South Korea”, (news), MPT, 6/1989, p 70.

123. “Continuous Casting Today - Status and Prospects”, Paul Nilles, MPT, 6/1991, p 56.

124. “Less Water Consumption Through Spray Molds”, (news), MPT, 6/1991, p 92.

125. “Process Control System for Dofasco No. 1 Continuous Slab Caster”, Mark D. Harshaw et a!, MPT, 4/1989, pp 102-111.

126. “Casting and Cast-Rolling of Thin Slabs at the Mannesmannroehren Werke AG”, Hans-Juergen Ehrenberg, MPT, 3/1989, pp 52-69.

127. “New Technologies and Facilities for Continuous Casting and Rolling of Steel”, Klaus Brueckner, MPT, 6/1988, pp 34-44.

128. “Rolling of Continuously Cast Strips and the Technical Consequences with Respect to the Design of Hot Strip Production Plants”, Guenter Flemming et al, MPT, 1/1988, pp 16-35.

129. “Near-Net-Shape Casting of Flat Products”, Wolfgang Reichelt, MPT, 2/1988, pp 18-24.

130. “Improvement of Internal Quality by Stable Casting under Low Teeming Temperature Using Tundish Induction Heater”, Aimei Shiraishi et al, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, pp 264-270.

131. “Improvement of Center Segregation in Continuously Cast Blooms by Soft Reduction in the Final Stage of Solidification”, Shigeaki Ogibayashi et al, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, pp 271-278.

132. “First Minimill in Italy for High-Quality Inline-Strip-Production at Arvedi”, Giovanni Gosio et al, MPT, 5/1991, pp 60-69.

133. “Process Technology and Quality Control for Continuous Casting of Special Steel Billets”, Karl- Josef Kremer et al, MPT, 1/1987, pp 42-52.

134. “The Status of Continuous Casting”, IISI, MPT, 2/1987, pp 6-9.

135. “The New Single and Twin Slab Continuous Caster at Hoogovens B.V., Ijmuiden, The Netherlands”, Johan Herman Verhaus et a!, MPT, 3/1987, pp 8-20.

136. “Current R&D Work on Near-Net-Shape Continuous Casting Technologies in Europe”, Jean-Pierre Birat et al, MPT, 3/1991, pp 44-57.

137. “Improvement in the Production of High Grade Wire Rods and Bars by Using a Billet Caster”, S. Watanabe et a!, La Revue de Metallurgy - CIT, Feb 1991, pp 151-158.

138. “Current R&D Work on Near-Net-Shape Continuous Casting Technologies in Europe”, J. P. Birat et a!, La Revue de Metallurgy - CIT, June 1991, pp 543- 556.

139. “New Billet Caster for Producing Quality Steel’, T. Kominami et al.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 94

140. “Process Computer System for Billet Casting”, Wolfgang Oberaigner, MPT, 4/1991, pp 72.

141. “New Developments in Continuous Casting Technology”, Dieter Kothe et al, MPT, 1/1990, pp 12- 26.

142. “Thin Section Casting and the Need for DRI/HBI”, J. C. Agarwal et a!, Direct from Midrex, 3rd Quarter 1991, pp 3-5.

143. “Modernization of Italian Continuous Casting Plant”, (news), MPT, 3/1990, p 80.

144. “Modernization of Billet caster”, MPT, 4/1990, p 94.

145. “CTG/Scientific Systems Services to provide process control system for new Canadian steel plant”, Iron and Steel Engineer, January 199?, p 48.

146. “Integrated Monitoring Systems for Continuous Casting Plants and Their Components”, Clemens Miller, MPT International, 1/1992, pp 38-47.261.

147. “Continuous Casting Today Status and Prospects”, P. Nilles and A. Etienne, MPT International, pp 56-67.

148. “Industry Waste Management”, James W. Patterson, Lewis Publishers Inc., Chelsea, Michigan, 1985, pp 71-97.

149. “How German Steel Industry is Managing Waste Disposal”, Juergen A. Phillip et a!, STI, 1990/91, pp 275-279.

150. “Efficient Operation of Dust Collection Systems”, Marilyn Slayden, STI, 1989, pp 347-350.

151. “Removing Heavy Metals from Steelworks Waste Waters”, Carl Batliner et al, STI, 1989, pp 355- 359.

152. “Needs and Implications of Effluent Monitoring”, Barry E. Prater, STI, 1992, pp 241-248.

153. “Impact of 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment on the Iron and Steel Industry”, Bruce A. Steiner, ISE, Jan 1992, pp 41-43.

154. “1990 Clean Air Act Amendments: Technical/Economic Impact on US Coke and Steelmaking Operations”, Damodar U. Prabhu, ISE, Jan 1992, pp 33-40.

155. “Making Better Use of Carbon: The Co-Production of Iron and Liquid Fuels”, John H. Walsh, 30th Annual Conference of Metallurgists of the CIM, Aug 18-21, 1991, Ottawa, pp 1-38.

156. “Approaching Zero Effluent”, Dennis R. Poulson, ISE, Sep 1989, p 122.

157. “Innovative Technologies for Treatment of Oily Wastewaters in the Iron and Steel Industry”, Andrew Benedek, ISE, Sep 1991, p 65.

158. “Westinghouse Plasma-Fired Cupola Process for Treatment of Industrial Wastes”, S. V. Dighe, ISE, Sep 1991, p 49.

159. “The Metallurgy of Direct Reduction of Metallurgical Wastes According to the Inmetco Process”, Klaus Grebe et a!, Stahl und Eisen, 110, Nr. 7, July 13, 1990, pp 99-106.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 95

160. “Utilization of Steelmaking Slags”, Juergen Giseler, Stahl und Eisen, 111, Nr. 1, Jan 15, 1991, pp 133-138.

161. “Pollution Control and Clean Technologies, a Dilemma for Industry”, MPT, 2/1988, p 4.

162. “Hi-Plas Treating Steelwork Dust”, R. Lightfoot, Steel Times, Oct 1991, pp 559-562.

163. “Technology for Treatment of Steel-Plant Dust”, N. A. Barcza et al, World Steel Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 1991, pp 134-144.

164. “Environmental Protection in the Steel Industry”, Juergen A. Philipp, World Steel Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 1991, pp 62-73.

165. “The Path to Sustainable Development”, Jean-Philippe Barde, MPTI, 4/1990, pp 8 - 12.

166. “Steel Industry Measures to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions”, Y. Shinohara and M. Yoshida, “Environmental Control in the Steel Industry”, compilation of papers prepared for 1991 Encosteel World Conference, pp 605-625.

167. “A Total Management System for Steelworks Waste”, A. Shimizu, “Environmental Control in the Steel Industry”, compilation of papers prepared for 1991 Encosteel World Conference, pp 197-205.

168. “Processing of Wastes from the Steel Industry”, Jurgen Kohl, Stahl und Eisen 112 (1992), n. 8, pp 83-86.

169. “Recycling of Zinc from Scrap Used in the Electric Arc Furnace”, Erich Höffken, Josef Wolf and Peter KUhn, Thyssen Technische Berichte, Heft 1/92, pp 119-127.

170. “Dispenser Reduces Flue Dust Treatment”, Dan Bergman, MEFOS, Environment and Energy.

171. “Gas-Fired Flame Reactor: EAF Dust Process”, Dr. Anil P. Lingras and John F. Pusateri, Gas Research Institute.

172. “Energy, the Environment, and Iron and Steel Technology”, John F. Elliott, Conference Proceedings, “Energy and the Environment in the 21st Century”, MIT, Cambridge, Mass, March 26-28, 1990, pp 373-382.

173. “Proposed Changes to Ontario’s Legislation and Regulations Relating to Air Emissions: Their Effect on the Iron and Steel Industry”, John M. Hewings, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, 1991 Electric Furnace Conference Proceedings, pp 147-149.

174. “Saving the Environment Can Save Energy”, Steel Times International, November 1992, pp 37,40.

175. “Current State of the Direct Reduction of Iron Ores to Sponge”, Rolf Steffen, MPT, 3/1988, pp 18- 25.

176. “The Evolution of Direct Reduction”, Terence E. Dancy, 1991 Ironmaking Conference Proceedings, AISI, pp 611-624.

177. “Has DRI’ s Time for Wider Acceptance Come?”, A Ullah et al, 1991 Iron-making Conference Proceedings, AISI, pp 777-788.

178. “Direct-Reduction Technology and Economics”, C. G. Davis, J. F. McFarlin and H. R. Pratt, reprinted from Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1982, No. 3, pp 93-129.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 96

179. “Coal-based Direct Reduction in the Inmetco Process and Subsequent Melting Techniques”, Dr. H. Franzen, Prof. W. Reichelt, Dr. G. Rottmann and Dr. H. Vorwerk, 1984 Metec Exhibition, pp 1-3.

180. “Scrap Processing with the Latest Fragmentizers”, Frazer Wright, STI, 1989, pp 129-139.

181. “The True Cost of Scrap for Electric Steelmaking”, John W. Clayton, STI, 1989, pp 137-139.

182. “Evolution of the Kondirator for Processing Scrap”, Wilhelm Linnerz, STI, 1989, pp 133-135.

183. “AMG Resources Corp. Growing with Recycling”, Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1989.

184. “Proler Unveils Detinning Plant”, Iron and Steel Engineer, June 1990, p 67.

185. “Steel Industry Recycling - Over 50% for Nearly 50 Years”, Iron and Steel Engineer, June 1990, p 55.

186. “U.S. Demand for Recycled Steel Equals 77.3 % of Finished Steel Shipments”, Iron and Steel Engineer, May 1990, p 25.

187. “Improved Scrap Handling at Inland Steel Co.’s Indiana Harbor Works No. 1 Electric Furnace, Iron and Steel Engineer, December 1990, p 5 1-56.

188. “DOE to Study Scrap Preheating System”, Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1990, p 55.

189. “Integrated Scrap Management System”, (news), Iron and Steel Engineer, January 1991, p 73.

190. “Steel Can Recycling - Feedstock for BOF’s and Electric Furnaces”, Gregory L. Crawford, Iron and Steel Engineer, May 1990, pp 45-47.

191. “Technology to Upgrade Galvanized Steel Scrap to Clean Scrap”, Iron and Steel Engineer, December 1991, p 51.

192. “A New Automated Scrap Handling System”, Roif Hofmann, MPT, 3/1989, pp 108-111.

193. “Scrap Melting with Cost-Effective Energies”, F. Hoefer et al, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 1-?.

194. “Comparative Study with Modern Scrap Melting Processes”, Alexander Patuzzi et a!, Proceedings of the Sixth International Iron and Steel Congress, 1990, Nagoya, Japan, ISIJ, pp 49-?.

195. “Steel Mills Consume More Purchased Scrap”, (news), I&SE, Dec 1989, p 32.

196. “The Future of Scrap Specifications”, Albert Cozzi, 33 Metal Producing, 10/91, p 30.

197. “Possibilities for Scrap Preparation in the Shredder for Qualified Use in Steel Works, Hans Gotthelf, World Steel Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 1991, pp 130-131.

198. “Kinetics of Scrap Dissolution in the Converter, Theoretical Model and Plant Experimentation”, H. Gaye, M. Wanin, P. Gugliermina, Ph. Schittly, Steelmaking Proceedings, Detroit, 1985, Vol. 68, pp 91-104.

199. “Auto Shredding Benefits Cited”, American Metal Market, Vol. 100, No. 38, February 26/92, pp 2,16.

200. “Mobile Flexible Scrap Shear”, MPT 1/1992, p 95.

ATHENA INSTITUTE: LCI OF CANADIAN AND US STEEL PRODUCTS 97

201. “New Concept for Recycling Autos”, Kerstin Garbracht, Stahl u. Eisen 112 (1992), No. 5, pp 73-76.

202. “Steel Recycles Its Image”, Bob Kehoe, Iron Age, June 1992, pp 16-20.

203. “Galvanized Products Require Complete Recycling”, George J. McManus, Iron Age, June 1992, pp 2 1-23.

204. “Scrap Generation and Utilization for the Iron and Steel Industry of the World”, Hans Wilhelm Kreutzer, Stahl u. Eisen 112 (1992), No. 5, pp 65-69.

205. “A Technical Evaluation of Dezincification of Galvanized Steel Scrap”, J. C. Niedringhaus, R. D. Radabaugh, J. W. Leeker, A. E. Streibick, pp 1-37.

206. “Recycling of Zinc from Scrap Used in the Electric Arc Furnace”, Erich Höffken, Josef Wolf and Peter Kuhn, Thyssen Technische Berichte, January 1992, pp 119-127.

APPENDIX 7

SHAPES PRODUCTS ENERGY AND EMISSION DIAGRAMS