Agroforestry News
(ISSN 0967-649X)
Volume 24 Number 2 February 2016 ______
Contents
2 News: Pharmabees / Darliner Farm Italy / Small forest garden – update / A new micro Forest garden 10 Book reviews: The Carbon Farming Solution / Miraculous Abundance / The Forest Garden Greenhouse / 555 Obstsorten 13 Designing an Aspen Agroforestry Scheme 21 Marsh woundwort – a forgotten food plant 25 Himalayan sea buckthorn 30 Leptospermum scoparium: Manuka / tea tree 39 Araucaria araucana photos ______The views expressed in Agroforestry News are not necessarily those of the Editor or officials of the Trust. Contributions are welcomed, and should be typed clearly or sent on disk in a common format. Many articles in Agroforestry News refer to edible and medicinal crops; such crops, if unknown to the reader, should be tested carefully before major use, and medicinal plants should only be administered on the advice of a qualified practitioner; somebody, somewhere, may be fatally allergic to even tame species. The editor, authors and publishers of Agroforestry News cannot be held responsible for any illness caused by the use or misuse of such crops. Editor: Martin Crawford. Publisher: Agroforestry News is published quarterly by the Agroforestry Research Trust. Editorial, Advertising & Subscriptions: Agroforestry Research Trust, 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon, TQ9 6JT. U.K. Fax: +44 (0)1803 840776 Email: [email protected] Website: www.agroforestry.co.uk Araucaria araucana
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NEWS
Pharmabees: Using honey bees as a drug discovery tool Les Baillie
Numerous species of bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics due to their overuse, and as a consequence there is an urgent need to identify new compounds to treat human and animal pathogens. To address this issue we have recruited honeybees to help us discovery natural antibacterial plant derived compounds.
Honey has been used for thousands of years to treat human infections due to its antimicrobial properties which are due to a range of factors including plant derived compounds called phytochemicals. The contribution of individual phytochemicals to the overall antibacterial activity of a particular honey will depend on the range of plants which have been visited by the bees. A well-known example of an antibacterial honey comes from New Zealand and is produced by bees foraging on the Manuka bush (Leptospermum scoparium), a plant that produces a compound called Methylgloxal and which is a potent antibiotic. In an attempt to identify additional antimicrobial phytochemicals, researchers from Cardiff University and the National Botanic Garden of Wales teamed up with the bees and beekeepers of Wales in a unique research project funded by the European Union.
The project was based on the fact that the bees from a particular hive will visit the flowering plants which surround the hive and upon their return will incorporate plant derived nectar and pollen into the honey. If the nectar contained antimicrobial phytochemicals such as Methylgoxal, the resulting honey will demonstrate enhanced antimicrobial activity which can be detected using a simple laboratory test. Using this approach we screened over 200 honey samples from hives across Wales. From this collection we identified a hive in north Wales, which contained potent antibacterial phytochemicals with activity against clinically important human pathogens. Studies are currently underway to identify the nature of the compounds responsible for this activity.
While our primary focus has been the characterization of phytochemicals present in the honey we were also keen to identify the plants which were the original source of these compounds. We did this because the concentration of the phytochemicals of interest were likely to be higher in the donating plant thus making them easier to extract and characterize. Fortunately honey contains a record of all of the plants which have contributed to its making in the form of pollen which contains the plants’ DNA. We are fortunate in Wales that all of the native flowering plants have been DNA barcoded and thus can be identified on the basis of unique DNA signatures. By extracting, analyzing and comparing the DNA from the pollen harvested from a single honey sample we are able to identify the donor plants. Using this approach we have been able to identify a number of plants with potent antibacterial properties. A great view of the cones on monkey puzzle (Araucaria araucana)
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and filling it with their droppings. This can cause complete defoliation in small plants and Thus we are working with the honeybees of Wales to survey the plants of Wales, to may even cause death. The easiest and safest means of control, if the problem is found identify new drugs that can be used to treat the people of Wales. early enough, is to remove the mass of grubs, webbing and frass with the fingers and squash it. Another prevalent pest is scale, which is usually associated with black smut Les Baillie is a Professor of Microbiology at Cardiff University. For more information causing an unsightly blackening of the foliage. Borers may also attack tea-trees and their about the project please contact: [email protected]. presence is made apparent by small piles of sawdust-like frass on the branch forks or near the base of the shrub. The safest method of control is to use a small syringe containing Source: Non-wood Forest Products Update Issue 7, FAO, February 2016. methylated spirits and squirt it into the hole made by the borer.
References http://www.manukanatural.com/manuka-essential-oil-bibliography/ Darliner farm (Italy): http://www.manukanatural.com/manuka-essential-oil-bibliography/ toward self-sustaining production of food and energy http://www.manukanatural.com/manuka-essential-oil-monograph-manuka-natural/
“Darliner” is a small-scale farm constituted in 2010 by Veronica and Stefano, with their 3
young sons (Giorgio, Flavio and Emiliano). The farm is located in the southern-west part of
Umbria Region, Central Italy. Around the farm, a mosaic of agroforestry systems, at different
level of complexity, characterizes the rural landscape. Olive groves, often managed in
combination with pasture or intercropped with cereals, and vineyards are the most common
agricultural crops on hilly lands. Other crops, such as sunflower and tobacco are cultivated Courses at the Agroforestry Research Trust in 2016 in small portion of plain lands. Agricultural fields are usually alternated with wooded lands with oaks, ash, maple, etc. managed as coppice to produce fuelwood destined to local Forest Gardening / Food Forests Design Course £220.00 energy market. The overall aim of this 2½ day course is to give you an overview of how to design, implement and maintain a temperate forest garden or food forest. Course size: up to 25 Veronica and Stefano are 40 years old and were born in Rome. They moved to Umbria participants. Region about 10 years ago, wishing to find a better quality of live in a rural area in comparison to the big city, in particular for their children. The overall objective of the farmers 6-8 May 2016 is to produce enough food and energy to self-sustain the family in an environmental friendly 27-29 May 2016 way. Since Veronica and Stefano started agricultural activity without any specific 17-19 June 2016 background and experience, they began to get basic technical skills and knowledge by 15-17 July 2016 consulting their neighbour farmers.
Forest Gardening / Food Forests Seminar £180.00 The farm size is about 7 ha, including the house where the family lives. About 0.7 ha are This course is for those already under way with their own forest gardens or food forests. We managed as fruit orchards in which several traditional varieties of fruit species, such also advise that you should already have attended the forest gardening course run by the as mulberry, apricot, apple, almond, quince tree, etc., are currently cultivated intercropped ART or alternatively have reasonable experience. with aspagarus and artichokes.
24-25 September 2016 Fruits are usually processed to produce delicious homemade jams. Farm includes also 0.2 ha of arable field where cereals are produced mainly to feed poultry, and legumes are grown Growing Nut Crops £180.00 for home consumption. In addition, in a small portion of the farm land, the feasibility of This weekend course will cover all aspects of growing common and uncommon nut crops in producing new products such as raspberries and other secondary products is being tested Britain, Europe and North America. and experimented with the aim to integrate farm income.
15-16 October 2016 About 4 ha of the farm land are managed with olive orchards. Olive trees comprise local and traditional varieties and are managed according to two planting schemes: in the first one about 600 trees (approximately 40 years old) are planted at a spacing of 6x6 m; in the second about 300 older olive trees are planted at wider distance (about 12x12 m) allowing the intercropping with arable crops.
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The bark/leaves/sap/seed capsules of manuka have been used for beverages or medicinal preparations. Decoctions of leaves used for aromatic teas for treating fevers and for treating colds, as an emetic, purgative and diuretic; oil infusion of leaves used against chronic sores.
Dyeing. A yellow-green dye is obtained from manuka flowers whilst a greenish-black dye from the flowers, branches & leaves. Traditionally the tannin-rich manuka vegetation is boiled with the leaves of Phormiun tenax and plunged into mud to make a traditional black dye for bark- cloth and baskets by Maori weavers.
Other properties & applications of Manuka oil.
Anti-oxidant effect. There are several noted anti-oxidant effects for manuka oil. Anti-oxidant and free radical quenching abilities of various manuka honeys have been investigated.
Effects against proteases. Manuka can be effective against cysteine proteases implicated in muscle wasting diseases, such as muscular dystrophy, viral replication, tumour invasion etc.
Cosmetic uses. Beta-triketone fractions of manuka oil have been incorporated, with other active ingredients, as components of an anti-dandruff shampoo, based on the alleged fungiostatic properties of the manuka fractions towards Malassezia ( a lipophilic yeast) species which proliferate in the scalp sebum. In the fruit orchard, traditional varieties are combined with different crops Manuka is used in fragrances for toiletries in New Zealand's domestic market. Farm comprises also small wooded areas managed to collect wood that is used to satisfy the energy need of the farm. In addition, a water source and a small artificial water basin are Insecticidal uses. included in the farm. The water is used to irrigate the homegarden where various seasonal Leptospermone has previously been shown to have anti-helmintic properties, and to have vegetables are cultivated in rotation, allowing the production of different vegetables during some synergistic insecticidal properties. A patent has been filed concerning the use of the whole year. manuka oil against arthropods.
In terms of economic revenue, the extra-virgin olive oil is the most important product of the farm. Olive orchards usually produce about 9 tons of olives per year. Olives are usually Cultivation collected at the beginning of November and processed in a local olive mill. The annual extra- Grow in well-drained soil in a sheltered, warm, sunny position. In warmer climates, virgin olive oil production is about 1,200 litres. The olive oil is mainly destined to domestic considerable shade is tolerated. market; a limited percentage is sold abroad. Pruning olive trees and harvesting olives are the most costly management practices, in terms of labour. Soil fertility is integrated using Tip pruning after flowering improves the vigour of most species and tends to avoid the only manure, without any chemical fertilizers or treatments, and all the farm products are woody appearance that may develop in some. really organic. Moreover, phytosanitary control of pathogens, in particular olive fly, is carried out adoption biological methods. Olive orchards are kept with natural grass between the tree Propagate by seed (not dormant, sow in spring on the surface of a compost) or semi- rows and weed is periodically mown. In terms of expenses, the olive process at the oil mill hardwood cuttings in July-August. accounts about 43% of the total cost. In addition, about 26% of the expenses are related to the administrative management costs. Since they are a young family with 3 children, Outside of Australasia, tea tree is generally pest and disease free. Veronica and Stefano claim the lack of appropriate economic support (i.e. subsides) from the public institutions to their farm. The Single Farmer Payment, within the current CAP, is In Australasia, probably the worst and most common is the webbing caterpillar, which feeds limited and it allows to cover just taxes and farmer association costs. on the foliage of most of the smaller-leaf species, matting the leaves together with webbing
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the latter study good activity was noted against Staphylococcus aureus and Moraxella catarrhalis, with total kill times determined at 240 mins. for both types of admixture, which was superior to that for myrtol, the proprietary product for the treatment of acute and chronic bronchitis and sinusitis. Combinations of manuka and tea tree, calendula and tea extracts & essential oils were tested for potential use as an oral mouthwash against the periodontal pathogens Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Tanerella forsythensis but the results did not reach statistical significance.
Combinations of the β-trietone fraction of manuka oil and antibiotics have also been investigated against a number of pathogenic organisms.
Comparative anti-microbiological activity testing. Researchers found that Lema oil® came`second in kill time performance in a series of oils tested against Staphylococcus aureus (Australian tea-tree oil, cajuput oil, niaouli oil, Lema oil, kanuka oil, manuka & the beta-triketone isolate of manuka oil).
Manuka oil had a higher kill activity against Gram-positive bacteria than tea tree oil. The authors of this study also found that both manuka and tea tree had a good activity against anti-biotic resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus, but only a poor activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Olive orchard in which trees are planted at 6x6 m spacing Another group investigated a number of essential oils including manuka oil, tea tree oil, eucalyptus oil, lavandula oil, and rosmarinus oil against a number of oral Veronica and Stefano attempt to get new ideas and to improve their skills by means of pathogens, Porphyromonasgingivalis, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, technical journals and through the exchange of knowledge with other farmers living around. Fusobacterium nucleatum, Streptococcus mutans, and Streptococcus sobrinus, finding that, Currently, they are starting to breed poultry free-range grazing, with the main aim to among the essential oils tested, manuka oil and tea tree oil in particular had strong increase the household income respecting the animal welfare. antibacterial activity against periodontopathic and cariogenic bacteria.
Source: EURAF Newsletter No 14, November 2015. Researchers tried a number of essential oils including manuka oil, Listerine Coolmint, and menthol & thymol, alone and in combination with chlorhexidine gluconate, against biofilm and planktonic cultures of Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus plantarum. Manuka oil showed some activity but less than cinnamon oil.
Virucidal Properties. Researchers established the virucial activity of beta-triketone rich manuka oil fractions Update on small forest garden against the Herpes Simplexorganisms HSV-1 & HSV-2 in vitro on RC-37 cells (monkey The small (400 sq metre) forest garden on the ART site at Littlehempston was kidney cells) using a plaque reduction assay. Pretreatment of the viruses with manuka oil for introduced in Vol 23 No 2. 1 h prior to cell infection showed that significant inhibition could be achieved for both HSV-1 & HSV-2 strains. About 150 sq metres was underplanted with shrubs and perennials last winter (2015/16). The remaining 250 sq metres was sheet mulched during 2016, then Dermatophytic organisms. mulched with chipped bark in autumn. Over the winter this area was planted out with Action of manuka oil against the dermatophyte Trichophyton mentagrophytes was shrubs and perennials (a total of about 1320 plants), a list of which is below. In investigated. Tea tree oil was found to have no action but the manuka oil was effective addition, as with the area underplanted last winter, the newly planted area will also be against this organism in this study. oversown with trefoil (Medicago lupulina) to utilise the open space and good light (and fix some nitrogen) while the perennials are establishing. Ethnic Uses of Manuka. Manuka was renowned for its use as a tea substitute by sailors visiting Aotearoa, hence the name “tea-tree” was born, although manuka is of course, quite different from tea-tree.
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Species Number High triketone plants with triketone levels of >20% only have a limited distribution within the Acacia dealbata (Acacia) 2 East Cape area, and commercial exploitation of this chemotype is dependent on maximizing Agastache rugosa (Korean mint) 10 foliage production and regrowth. Allium ampeloprasum babingtonii (Babingtons leek) 5 Allium fistulosum (Welsh onion) 15 Under agricultural pressure, wild stands of Manuka are being cleared and therapeutic lines Allium neapolitanum (Neapolitan garlic) 20 of the East Cape variety may be lost, although trial plantations have been established. High Allium tuberosum (Garlic chives) 30 levels of these compounds are aided by companies involved in East Cape oil Alnus viridis (Green alder) 2 production (e.g. Tairawhiti Pharmaceuticals which distills foliage from Te Araroa, East Althaea officinalis (Marsh mallow) 2 Cape) by prolonging distillation times (4-6 hours), and/or by high-vacuum fractionation of the oil, making oil production a more expensive exercise than, for say, tea-tree oil Amelanchier alnifolia JB30 (Saskatoon) 1 from Melaleuca alternifolia. Careful analytical monitoring of production batches has to be Apios americana (Groundnut) 30 maintained to ensure product consistency due to the variability of the essential oil from the Aquilegia vulgaris (Columbine) 60 East Cape vegetation sources. A high β-triketone containing fraction of East Cape manuka Aronia Nero (Chokeberry) 1 oil is commercially available containing over 96% β-triketone ocontent.: Beta vulgaris maritima (Sea beet) 60 Bunias orientalis (Turkish rocket) 2 Bunium bulbocastanum (Pig nut) 30 Leptospermone 57.7% to 67.0% Campanula latifolia Macrantha White (Campanula) 20 Isoleptospermone 13.0% to 23.0% Chaenomeles Crimson and Gold (Flowering quince) 1 Flavesone 13.0% to 23.0% Chaenomeles Fusion (Flowering quince) 1 Chaenomeles japonica Cido (Flowering quince) 1 Constituents of high β-triketone fraction of manuka oil. Chaenomeles japonica Cido Red (Flowering quince) 1 Chaenomeles speciosa)Nivalis (Flowering quince) 1 Claytonia sibirica (Siberian purslane) 30 Flavonoids. Cryptotaenia japonica (Mitsuba) 10 The flavonoids in a petroleum extract of the aerial parts of manuka, confirmed the identity of Dioscorea japonica (Japanese yam) 10 seven compounds, four of which were already noted in the literature, and found that a Diplotaxis tenuifolia Dragons Tongue (Wild rocket) 10 triterpene diol previously identified as betulinol was in fact a mixture of uvaol & betulinol. The Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel) 30 new flavonoids were 5-methoxy-7-hydroxy-6,8-dimethylflavone, 5-hydroxy-6-methyl-7- Fragaria moschata (Musk strawberry) 30 methoxyflavone & 5,7-dimethoxy-6-methylflavone, A further flavanoid, 5,7-dimethoxy-6- Fragaria nubicola (Himalayan strawberry) 40 methylflavone was also discovered. Fragaria vesca (Wild strawberry) 70 Fragaria vesca Blanc Ameloire (Wild strawberry) 50 Anti-microbial properties of Manuka oil. Fragaria vesca Capron Royale (Wild strawberry) 50 The manuka oil chemotype, the manuka oil composition and the microbiological testing Glycyrrhiza glabra (Liquorice) 5 method employed are some of the major factors with respect to reported anti-microbial Hablitzia tamnoides 10 activity of manuka oil. Intimate contact between essential oil molecules and micro- Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus (Day lily) 5 organisms, is notoriously difficult to achieve in aqueous media because of the Lathyrus latifolius (Perennial sweet pea) 10 hydrophobicity of essential oils. The effect of any surfactant employed may have a direct Laurus nobilis (Bay) 1 bearing on the results. Thus on testing 20 nature identical essential oil constituents Levisticum officinale (Lovage) 7 researchers remarked that in their findings “the relative inactivity of citronellal, (+)-αβ- Ligusticum scoticum (Scots lovage) 2 thujone, p-cymene and 1,8-cineol has been associated with low water solubility and Lonicera caerulea kamtchatka Balalaika (Honeyberry) 1 hydrogen bonding capacity, thus limiting their entry into Gram-negative organisms that possess sufficient hydrophobic pathways in the outer membrane. Other researchers remark Lonicera caerulea kamtchatka Eisbar (Honeyberry) 1 that Gram-negative bacteria are less susceptible to the action of essential oils due to the Lonicera caerulea kamtchatka Kalinka (Honeyberry) 1 presence of an lipopolysaccharide coving to the outer membrane to their cell wall which Malva moschata (Musk mallow) 50 restricts the diffusion of lipophilic compounds. Matteuccia struthiopteris (Ostrich fern) 30 Melissa officinalis Lemona (Lemon balm) 30 The anti-microbial properties of mixtures of a high β-triketone fraction of manuka oil with Mentha spicata (Spearmint) 10 other essential oils have also been investigated e.g. with niaouli or Australian tea tree oil. In
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an unpublished survey carried out by the New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research Species Limited, studied prepared essential oils from manuka leaves gathered from various locations Mentha spicata Russian Mint (Russian mint) on the South Island, revealing the presence of four separate chemotypes: monoterpene rich; Mentha suaveolens - Apple mint (Apple Mint) sesquiterpene rich; enhanced triketones in sesquiterpene rich oils and mixed oils with a Mentha x piperita f.citrara Grapefruit Mint (Grapefruit mint) balance of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. A later survey analyzing oils from 261 Myrica gale (Bog myrtle) manuka plants across 87 sites in New Zealand and identified 11 chemotypes: a-pinene, Myrrhis odorata (Sweet cicily) sesquiterpene-rich with high myrcene, sesquiterpene-rich with elevated (β-)-caryophyllene Origanum vulgare Greek (Oregano) and (α-)-humulene; sesquiterpene-rich with an unidentified sesquiterpene hydrocarbon; high Oxdendrum arboreum (Sorrel tree) geranyl acetate; sesquiterpene-rich with high a-ylangene + a-copaene and elevated Phormium colensoi (Mountain flax) triketones; sesquiterpene-rich with no distinctive components; sesquiterpene-rich with Phytolacca americana (Poke) high trans-methyl cinnamate; high linalol; and sesquiterpene-rich with elevated elemene and Polygonatum biflorum (Solomon’s seal) selinene. Prunus cerasifera Ruby / Pixy (Cherry plum) Monterpenes Pulmonaria officinalis (Lungwort) Monoterpenes are generally below 3% in Manuka oils, although a high a-pinene Rheum palmatum tanguticum Turkish Red (Turkish rhubarb) chemotypes were identified in the North of the North Island. Other monoterpenes Ribes aureum (Golden currant) hydrocarbons such as myrcene, and oxygenated monoterpenes such as 1,8-cineole & Ribes hybrid (Jostaberry) linalool are also common. The presence of a cluster of a high geranyl acetate.(to 48.6%) Ribes nigrum Cassis Blanc (Blackberry) chemoptype towards the South of the N. Island, was also identified. Ribes rubrum Blanka (Whitecurrant) Ribes rubrum Cascade (Redcurrant) Esters Ribes rubrum Jonkheer Van Tets (Redcurrant) Low levels of esters are found in manuka oils, but the ocuurence of a trans-methyl Ribes rubrum Junifer (Redcurrant) cinnamate chemotype (at up to 30% methyl cinnamate) was reported in several South Island Ribes rubrum Laxtons No.1 (Redcurrant) samples. Ribes rubrum Weisse Langtraubige (Whitecurrant) Ribes uva-crispa Larell (Gooseberry) Sesquiterpenes. Ribes uva-crispa Mucurines (Gooseberry) The sesquiterpenes found in mauka oils include those components with cubebene/copaene, Ribes uva-crispa Pax (Gooseberry) elemene, gurjunene/aromadendrene, farnescene/caryophyllene, selinene, calamenene & Ribes uva-crispa Spinefree (Gooseberry) cadinene types of skeletons. Rosmarinus officinalis Miss Jessops (Rosemary) Rubus fruticosus Adrienne (Blackberry) Beta-triketones. Rubus fruticosus Helen (Blackberry) Of the North Island oils, the triketone-enriched East Cape chemotype is rich in the b- Rubus fruticosus Thornfree (Blackberry) triketones flavesone, leptospermone & iso-leptospermone, and has a much lower Rubus hybrid (Sunberry) discernable odour, especially if the oil is fractionated to enhance the concentration of these components. Analytically, the presence of the b-triketones distinguishes manuka oil from Rubus idaeus Autumn Bliss (Raspberry) Kanuka oil from Kunzea ericoides. Rubus idaeus Glen Fyne (Raspberry) Rubus loganobaccus Thornless (Loganberry) The presence of 3 further minor ketonic compounds in Manuka oil illustrated below was Rubus nepalensis (Groundcover Raspberry) established. One of these compounds, 2-(1-oxobutyl)-4,4,6,6-tetramethylcyclohexan-1,3,5- Rubus pentalobus Emerald Carpet (Groundcover Raspberry) trione has previously been named grandiflorone after it was found as a substituent of the Rubus phoenicolasius (Japanese wineberry) Australian essential oil of L. flavescens. Rumex acetosa Large Leaved (Sorrel) Rumex acetosella (Sheeps Sorrel) The East Cape Chemotype of Manuka Oil. Rumex scutatus (French sorrel) Essential oils prepared from manuka vegetation in the North Island were found to contain Sambucus canadensis York (American elder) from 0.1 to 33.3% (average 5.8%) of the triketones flavescone, isoleptospermone, and Sanguisorba minor (Salad burnet) leptosepermone. The same researchers identified b-triketone levels of >20% with only a Sedum kamtschaticum slight seasonal variation, from surveying 36 plants in the East Cape area, although triketone Sedum telephium (Orpine) levels of up to 20% were also found in the Marlborough Sounds area of the South Island. Sedum telephium Ringmore Ruby (Orpine)
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Species Number Symphytum Bocking 14 (Russian comfrey) 30 Symphytum ibericum (Dwarf comfrey) 20 Symphytum officinale (Comfrey) 40 Tropaeolum tuberosum (Mashua) 20 Wisteria sinensis (Wisteria) 5
A new micro forest garden Those of you who follow the ART on Facebook will have seen the start of a new micro forest garden at the ART office address. The front garden here is about 50 sq metres in area and was previously rather an inherited mess. It took some heavy manual work to clear the old and half dead shrubs (and 2 small rowan trees) to leave a bare soil ‘blank canvas’.
Mankua bush (Wikimedia / Kenpei)
As with many species of the Myrtaceae, the essential oil of manuka occurs in schizogenous cavities (oil sacs) on the (underside) leaf surfaces and the seed capsules, and is obtained in practice by the steam distillation of the wild harvested terminal leaves and branches. Yields of essential oil range from 0.14% to 0.80% dry weight of vegetation. The volatile oil is extremely variable in composition according to vegetation source (see chemotypes listed below), and variation of certain components has been reported from to maturity, and from natural variability within plants sourced at a single location. The ‘normal’ oil presented commercially has been described as an amber coloured liquid; the odour is fresh but rather unpleasant-bitter, clove-terpene like/bitter-herbaceous, resinous, with a hint of fruitiness. The dry-out on a perfumers strip is ambery, slightly scented, and soapy. Cleared and ready for planting Although analytical work on Manuka oil has been carried out for nearly 100 years initially This new micro forest garden has the typical challenges of a small garden next to a with the identification of leptospermol (later to be renamed leptospermone), only in the last house – no big trees are suitable. So the forest garden here starts with large shrubs few years has the chemistry associated with the high variability of the oil started to become and dwarf fruit trees about 2.5-3m (8-10ft) high with underplanted layers beneath. clear. Some 130 plants were planted over the winter, mainly shrubby species, and the whole garden mulched thickly with chipped bark. More perennials will be introduced in future Chemotypes years although low growing edibles are inadvisable because of the large cat Studies of oil distilled from the foliage of 132 samples from 44 collecting sites on the North population in the area! Island of New Zealand, and distinguished 5 chemotypes: mono-terpene-rich, sesquiterpene- rich, triketone-enriched, mono-sesquiterpene type and methyl cinnamate types. Previously,
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Amenity Plant L. scoparium is used in amenity plantings along roadsides in New Zealand, and the many attractive cultivars are extensively used as garden ornamentals in many countries, including Britain, the United States, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. Cultivars which have gaine the RHS Award of Garden Merit include ‘Kiwi’, ‘Nichollsii Nanum’, ‘Red Damask’ and ‘Silver Sheen’.
In warm climates tea tree is suitable for hedging.
Many more cultivars are available in New Zealand but often the plant performs better in cultivation overseas. This is because in its homeland it is subject to attack by scale insects that secrete a honeydew on which grows a sooty mold that eventually debilitates the plant.
Social Benefit New Zealand Maori traditionally used L. scoparium for food, medicine and timber. A sugary gum sometimes found on the branches was given to infants or used to treat coughs in adults. Infusions of leaves or bark were used for various ailments, and the timber was used for implements. L. scoparium is named tea-tree because Captain James Cook used its leaves for brewing tea when he first arrived in New Zealand in 1769.
Environmental Services Planted with mulching in progress The species germinates and grows quickly, making it ideal as a soil stabiliser for erosion control and dune stabilisation. Under natural conditions in New Zealand, dense stands (Apple tree in centre of photo, Elaeagnus x ebbingei hedge on right hand side by new eventually thin and the species is replaced by taller-growing forest species. In chestnut and hazel woven fence. Daylilies just starting into growth bottom left. Feb Hawaii, L. scoparium was introduced partly for this reason, but is now regarded as invasive. 2016) However they have provided some benefits (as well as to bees) by stabilising ridge tops that have eroded following grazing by goats. The two Italian alder may appear surprising, as they of course quickly become large trees! However these are here as nurse and shelter trees, to help shelter other Medicinal, pharmaceutical species and also to provide fast privacy inside the lower rooms of the adjacent house. Source of medicine/pharmaceutical products. See Essential oils below. The leaves exude a They will both be cut and removed after about 4-5 years. sweet manna which is composed of d-mannitol – there is a debate as to the cause of this exudation, whether it be natural or as a result of insect damage. Species Number Alnus cordata (Italian alder) 2 Manuka was used in pre-European times by the traditional people of New Zealand, the Amelanchier alnifolia Northline (Saskatoon) 1 Maori, and still is. A decoction of the leaves was drunk for urinary complaints and as a Bunium bulbocastanum (Pig nut) 10 febrifuge (an agent for reducing fever). The steam from leaves boiled in water was inhaled Caragana arborescens(Siberian pea) 1 for head colds. A decoction was prepared from the leaves and bark and the warm liquid was Chaenomeles japonica Cido (Flowering quince) 2 rubbed on stiff muscles and aching joints. The emollient white gum, called pai Manuka, was Chaenomeles japonica Cido Red (Flowering quince) 2 given to nursing babies and also used to treat scalds and burns. Chewing the bark is said to Elaeagnus x ebbingei 14 have a relaxing effect and it enhances sleep. Hemerocallis Stella de Oro (Day lily) 5
Levisticum officinale (Lovage) 1 Essential Oils Lonicera caerulea kamtchatka Borealis (Honeyberry) 1 It is also used for carving and producing essential oils by steam distillation of it's leaves. Manuka Essential Oil is modernly used widely as a potent natural anti-fungal and Lonicera caerulea kamtchatka Indigo Gem (Honeyberry 1 antibacterial agent. Malus domestica Bramley 20 / M27 (Apple) 1 Malus domestica Newton Wonder / M27 (Apple) 1 Mentha suaveolens (Apple mint) 10 Myrrhis odordata (Sweet cicily) 4
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Species Number Ribes uva-crispa Pax (Gooseberry) 2 Ribes uva-crispa Spinefree (Gooseberry) 1 Rosa rugosa (Apple rose) 2 Rosmarinus officinalis Miss Jessops (Rosemary) 1 Rubus idaeus Glen Ample (Raspberry) 1 Rubus idaeus Tulameen (Raspberry) 1 Rubus nepalensis (Nepalese raspberry) 15 Rubus pentalobus Emerald Carpet (Groundcover raspberry) 15 Rubus phoenicolasius (Japanese wineberry) 1 Rubus spp. (Tayberry) 2 Symphytum ibericum (Dwarf comfrey) 13
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Book Reviews
Leptospermum scoparium leaves and flowers The Carbon Farming Solution (Wikimedia / MurielBendel)
A Global Toolkit of Perennial Crops and Regenerative Uses Agriculture Practices for Climate Change Mitigations and Food Security Wood New Zealand Maori used L.scoparium as firewood, among other uses, and it continues to be Eric Toensmeier highly valued as firewood. Manuka firewood burns extremely hot and slow, suitable for open Chelsea Green Publishing, March 2016, US$ 75.00 fires, pizza ovens and log fires. ISBN 978-1-60358-571-2
The wood was often used for tool handles and carving small items. Manuka sawdust imparts Agriculture is currently a major net producer of greenhouse gases, with little prospect of a delicious flavour when used for smoking meats and fish. improvement unless things change markedly. In The Carbon Farming Solution, Eric
Toensmeier puts carbon sequestration at the forefront and shows how agriculture can be a Manuka Honey net absorber of carbon. L. scoparium is a major source of honey harvested by the introduced honeybee (Apis Improved forms of annual-based agriculture can help to a degree, however to maximise mellifera) and the production of manuka honey has become a major industry both in New carbon sequestration it is perennial crops we must look at, whether it be perennial grains, Zealand and elsewhere. Although many honey types have antibacterial properties because other perennial staples or agroforestry systems incorporating trees and other crops. of the presence of hydrogen peroxide, only manuka honey has a high level of non-peroxide In this impressive book, backed up with numerous tables and references, the author has anti-bacterial activity. This non-peroxide antibacterial factor has been named Unique assembled a toolkit that will be of great use to anybody involved in agriculture whether in the Manuka Factor (UMF). Manuka honey is now used in many medical products in many tropics or colder northern regions. For me the highlights are the large sections dealing with countries.
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perennial crop species (split into chapters by use – staple crops, protein crops, oil crops, Leptospermum scoparium: industrial crops etc.), with some 700 species described. There are crops here for all climate types, with good information on cultivation and yields, so that wherever you are, you will be able to find suitable recommended perennial crops. Manuka / tea tree This is an excellent book which gives great hope without being naïve, and makes a clear Introduction reasoned argument for a more perennial-based agriculture to both feed people and take Leptospermum scoparium, commonly called manuka, manuka myrtle, New Zealand carbon out of the air. teatree, broom tea-tree, or just tea tree, is a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family Myrtaceae, native to southeast Australia.
Evidence suggests that L. scoparium originated in Australia and dispersed relatively recently from eastern Australia to New Zealand. It is likely that on arrival in New Zealand, its Miraculous Abundance establishement was limited until the arrival of the Polynesian people, whose fire and forest- One Quarter Acre, Two French Farmers, and Enough Food clearing brought about the low-nutrient-status soils for which it was preadapted. to Feed the World Perrine and Charles Hervé-Gruyer Description Chelsea Green Publishing, April 2016, US$ 24.95. ISBN 978-1-60358-642-9 Manuka is an evergreen shrub or tree of diverse habit, usually growing 2-4m (6-13ft) high.
Most often a compact shrub up to 2m (6ft) high by 2m (6 ft) wide. It has distinctive bark Can farming a tiny quarter-acre piece of land be sustainable, economic and fulfilling? In shedding in long strips. The branchlets and young leaves are clothed in silky hairs. Miraculous Abundance, Perrine and Charles Herve-Gruyer tackle that very questions and
answer it positively in the affirmative. Leaves are small, around 12mm (1/2”) by 1-4 mm (0.1”) in size, variable in shape and size.
They may be elliptical, broadly lanceolate or obovate. Leaves are rigid and aromatic with a This fascinating book describes the evolution of their farm from its beginnings in 2004, when short spine at the tip. the authors knew little, over the next ten years as they discovered biointensive agriculture,
permaculture, forest gardens and more. Flowers are borne axillary, or occasionally terminal on branchlets, usually singly, 8-15mm
(0.3-0.6”) in diameter with 5 petals. Petals are about 6mm (1/4”) long, usually white, rarely The authors are passionate about small, human-scale farming and the role it can play in the pink. Tiny dust-like seeds are borne in a woody capsule. future, and they envisage a future with numerous small farms, enabling many more people
to live on the land and lessening the effects of climate change. Tea tree is hardy to about -7°C (Hardiness zone 8 to 9; RHS zone H3).
Their farm in France now attracts farmers, chefs and scientists as well as hosting a school to L. scoparium plays an integral part in many of New Zealand’s natural ecosystems, and is teach how a diverse edible landscape can be created to both earn a living and make a now considered valuable for its role in succession and slope stabilisation. beautiful space and a fulfilling life.
Manuka is native to New Zealand and Australia but has been introduced and cultivated in a number of countries, including the United States, Britain, South Africa and Madeira. In Australia, it is generally found in coastal areas in Tasmania and Victoria and has a broad range within New South Wales. The species is also widespread in New Zealand (it is the most abundant shrub/small tree found in New Zealand), but is particularly common on the The Forest Garden Greenhouse drier east coasts of the North and South Islands. How to Design and Manage an Indoor Permaculture Oasis This species is often confused with the closely related species kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) – Jerome Osentowski the easiest way to tell the difference between the two species in the field is to feel their Chelsea Green Publishing, 2015. US$ 34.95. foliage – manuka leaves are prickly, while kanuka leaves are soft. The wood is tough and ISBN 978-1-60358-426-5 hard.
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A few years ago I built a couple of polytunnels for our nursery and, on the basis of an article in the American Permaculture Activist magazine, built in a simple underground air-blown heating and cooling system which has worked pretty well since. The article was by Jerome Osentowski, and in this book he vastly expands our knowledge of how to use the ‘climate battery’ system (which is what he calls his heating/cooling system) to create indoor spaces with Mediterranean, subtropical or tropical climates using little external energy.
The author founded the Central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute in Colorado, where the winters can get pretty cold, and part of this book describes how his indoor spaces have evolved over the years as his own knowledge of greenhouse design and management also evolved. But there are also over a dozen case studies from his own site and elsewhere of greenhouses designed with climate batteries, which make fascinating reading.
As well as detailed information on greenhouse design and on how to install climate battery systems, Jerome also describes how to create and manage a forest garden in your greenhouse, how to manage water, air flow, pests and diseases etc.
I found this book informative and inspiring – so much so that I am now designing a new greenhouse for one of our sites which will incorporate a full climate battery system. Highly recommended.
Fruit of H.salicifolia
555 Obstsorten Other uses Für den Permakulturgarten und –balkon Besides its medicinal usage, H.salicifolia has manifold applications as an efficient Siegfried R Tatschl source of timber, fuel and fodder. The plant as a whole is used as fences around Iöwenzahn, 2015. houses and cultivated-fields for protection against wild animals. The seed cake can ISBN 978-3-7066-2553-1 also be used as animal feed due to its rich protein and mineral content.
As you might have guessed, this book is in German, so non-German readers may Propagation struggle with the text! However, “555 Fruit types” is a very good compendium of fruit H.salicifolia is propagated by hardwood/softwood cuttings, root suckers and seeds. and nut trees, shrubs and perennials which can be grown in colder climates. Most Cuttings generally have a low success rate. Propagation via seeds is a slightly easier entries have a photo accompanying them and there are useful appendices, option, however seed dormancy and poor germination rates (about 20-30%) are particularly of lesser-known nurseries in Europe which specialise in rarer edibles. known to hamper large scale multiplication via seeds. Pre-sowing treatments with chemicals like sodium chloride, warm-water, gibberellic acid, etc. have been reported to significantly improve the germination rates.
Reference Manu Pant, Ankita Lal, Anju Rani: Hippophae Salicifolia D Don- A Plant With Multifarious Benefits. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol 6, Issue 11, 2014.
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are effective at preventing wind erosion in open areas. The root system of H.salicifolia is an extensive, subterranean rhizomatous type that help in strong soil -binding, soil Designing an Aspen Agroforestry Scheme stabilization and water retention. Eadha Enterprises
The roots are in symbiotic association with Frankia in its nodules and nodulation varies with plant height. This association accounts for atmospheric nitrogen fixation, Introduction hence adding to the soil-fertility. The expanded root-system helps to fix atmospheric There has been renewed interest in agroforestry in the farming sector, with benefits being nitrogen @60 - 80kg/ha/ annum. This property aided by rapid growth, strong recognised of increased sustainability and productivity. This interest is anticipated to coppicing, wide ecological adaptations of the plant makes it efficient for soil increase with CAP reform and anticipated new support for such systems. This coupled with conservation, improvement and restoration of degraded land in hilly areas. Enhanced new highly reputable research in Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales which has confirmed nitrogen supply from the plant has also been shown to augment the growth of trees that there are increases in forage and livestock production (shelter, frost protection, drought like poplar, pine etc. protection, shade) in the agricultural component of silvo-pastoral systems under UK conditions (Agroforestry Trust), has made it even more of an attractive option for land Chemical constituents and nutritive value management. Many farmers like trees, but hate loss of agricultural production. New Pharmacological investigations on H.salicifolia have established the species to be a support through SRDP will mean that the Single Farm Payments will be maintained in rich source of vitamins, the content being 5-100 times higher than in other agroforestry systems. fruit/vegetables (Table 1). The fruit are particularly rich in vitamins A, B1, B12, C, E (including α, β, γ – Vitamin E), K and are a rich source of a large number of Aspen is most suited to use in an agroforestry/wood pasture system as it is a fast growing polyphenols (flavanoids: isorhamnetin, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol and their native species and casts a light shade compared with other species. In addition it can glycoside compounds and non-flavanoids). Major carotenoid pigments include δ and deliver a range of other specific benefits as detailed below. β-carotene, lycopene flavoxanthin, progestin, cryptoxanthin, violaxanthin and neoxanthin. Eadha Enterprises is working with landowners to develop aspen agroforestry schemes which will replicate a traditional wood pasture system using native aspen on upland pasture The seed-oil is a rich source of highest vitamin E (1290 ppm-1919 ppm) while vitamin and exploiting the benefits of aspen to stabilise soils, neutralise soil chemistry, and provide a K content ranges from 1.1 - 2.3 mg/g. It also possesses high amounts of biomass crop for use as supplementary fodder for livestock, in on-site biochar manufacture triacylglycerol and β-carotene content as compared to other Hippophae species. and/or as woodfuel.
High nutrient and bioactive content of the fruit has given H.salicifoila the reputation of a ‘Super-fruit’. It has been widely used in traditional system of medicine for treatment of asthma, skin diseases, gastric ulcers, lung disorders, cough, diarrhoea and Aspen Project menstrual disorders. Towering multivitamin content, flavanoids and fatty acids in H.salicifolia account for its antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-cancer, Eadha Enterprises is a social enterprise with charitable status supported by both of Oxfam antiinflammatory, immunomodulatory, radioprotective, adaptogenic, anti-cancer, anti- and the Scottish Environmental Technology Network (SETN). Eadha’s main focus has been atheroscelerosis and anti-sterility properties. in developing a native aspen conservation project and researching and promoting the use of aspen in productive forestry and community woodlands. The seed oil of H.salicifolia is employed in several pharmaceutical preparations and can be stored for a period of about 6 months at a temperature of 14.6°C - 26.1°C. It is Aspen is nationally rare and of conservation concern. It rarely sets seed and historically used for bacterial disinfection, tissue regeneration, inhibition of platelet –aggregation, there has been very limited planting stock of local provenance available. Eadha has been improved blood-circulation, treatment of gastric ulcers and diminishing inflammation. addressing this by taking a clonal forestry approach to tree production. Eadha has built up a The Vitamin K content of the seed oil makes it useful in promoting blood coagulation. national collection of aspen clones from the full geographical and topographical range across Scotland. Each clone has evolved as a genetically unique specimen with unique The high amount of triacylglycerol and fatty acids in the seed oil account for its use in growth characteristics and tolerances to different physical conditions. Eadha has developed a variety of skin-treatments and cosmetic preparations like moisturizers, lotions and a stock of clones using vegetative cuttings, propagated by hand in its nursery. However, creams for skin care. It is also used in many nutraceutical formulations and as a Eadha also uses a micropropagation laboratory to mass produce stock by plant tissue natural preservative. The plant products are also processed for commercial culture methods. Eadha is developing projects in Scotland to trial native aspen in different preparations of a variety of oils, juices, alcoholic beverages, tea, food colours, environments and under different conditions, and to explore how systems can be designed candies, biscuits, ice-creams etc. to integrate productive woodland with other community and amenity uses. Currently more than 150 pharmaceuticals/nutraceuticals companies around the world are engaged in the utilization of Himalayan sea buckthorn in manufacturing life saving drugs, health tonics, food, cosmetics etc. with China being the lead producer.
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Clones Eadha has built up the national aspen clone collection for Scotland and can select suitable clones for planting in different geographical areas and topographies.
However another consideration in a productive system is clonal performance and Eadha has some comparative growth trial data which can inform clonal selection based on superior qualities, albeit from a limited clonal mix.
In clonal forestry, it is crucial to create plantings with a sufficiently diverse genetic range and the collection allows a sufficient genetic mix to be selected for projects to create robust and sustainable systems.
Proposed System Although there have been some agroforestry trials in Scotland over the last couple of decades, notably by the James Hutton Institute (JHI), (formerly the Macauley Land Use Research Institute), this practice has never been taken up widely by individual farmers and landowners. Wood pasture is a traditional system for which there is evidence across Scotland, and with some remnants still visible to this day.
The typical density of a traditional wood pasture system is 400 trees/Ha (5m centres). In such a system, trees were typically pollarded above browsing height at 3m to produce supplementary feeding for livestock.
Poplar Wood Pasture in Eastern Europe Himalayan sea buckthorn
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H.salicifolia prefers to grow in low humidity, alluvial gravel, wet landslips and It would be assumed that pollarding the trees would also promote suckering although the riverside. However, it can also grow in arid to very wet conditions. It is part wind extent of suckering is difficult to predict. Trials in Germany have indicated that where a crop pollinated and part hydrophilous (pollen distributed in water via streams and rivers) in of aspen is harvested (cut at ground level) after 10 years, as much as 45 stems/tree on nature; growing most often in areas receiving an annual precipitation of 400-600mm average can regenerate. This will reduce naturally in more dense plantings through (16-24”), although it will grow in regions with annual precipitation of 1000mm (40”) or competition to 2 dominant stems from the stump and 3 suckers. more on a well drained site. Although the ideal temperature conditions are –10°C (in winter) to 30°C (in summer), the plant has also been growing in areas of Finland at a Forage temperature range of 40°C to – 40°C. Best germination rates are observed only at a Aspen has been found to be a particularly nutritious which can form a substantial portion of temperature of 24-27°C. Thus, the species can be regarded as stress-tolerant which the diet of both livestock and wild ungulates. Aspen leaves have been to found to contain on can survive a range of temperatures, high soil pH (about 8.0) and increased soil- average up to 17% protein (peaking in June) with a fat content of up to 10% (peaking in salinity. September). The variation in nutrient content between clones, however, can be substantial.
The bark and wood of mature aspen trees also has a potential value as livestock feed. H.salicifolia is a dioecious shrub or a small tree, about 2-6m (6-20ft) high and 50cm Aspen bark is about 50% digestible and aspen wood about 35% digestible. Ground and (20”) in diameter with a thick grey crown. The bark is brown or black in colour with a pelleted aspen wood, supplemented with standard cattle feed, could comprise as much as rough appearance. The leaves are alternate, narrow, lanceolate with a greyish 48% of the diet of growing cattle without adversely affecting weight gains and meat quality. appearance. Flowering occurs after 3 –4 years. Male flowers, without petals, are Aspen pellets made from whole trees also can substitute for up to half of the silage borne in clusters of 4 to 6, releasing pollen at a temperature of about 6°C. Female roughage fed to dairy cows. Steam-cooked aspen wood is very similar to alfalfa in energy flowers, also without petals, are borne singly. Pollination is extensively wind – digestibility, and presumably can satisfactorily replace much of the hay ordinarily used in dependent. The fruit (6-9mm in size) are generally round but may also be ovate in ruminant feed. Feeding trials in the U.S. indicate that steamed aspen can make up 30% of some cases. They are initially pale green in colour and turn orange or golden-brown the dry matter diet of beef steers without adversely affecting gains or meat quality and that on ripening in September or October. The berries have a tough skin covering the juicy up to 30% steam-processed aspen chips can be used as a roughage substitute in pulp and a small, hard, oval seed. maintenance rations for mature sheep.
Table 1: Vitamin C content of primary vitamin rich fruit. Biomass Species Vitamin C (mg/100g Vitamin K (mg/100g Based on the findings of Short Rotation Forestry (SRF) trials by Forest Research, the fruit) fruit) anticipated total biomass produced from such an aspen agroforestry scheme would be in the Hippophae salicifolia 2960 - 3000 100 - 200 order 1T to 1.7T /Ha/yr depending on clonal variation. Biomass volume would be similar to Actinidia chinensis 120 - 180 that produced in an equivalent system utilising ash and would be more productive than a Citrus sinensis 50 system utilising birch. While all the biomass available will not be utilised with pollarding, it Lycopersicon sp. 12 gives some idea of the productivity of aspen. Citrus aurantifolia 29 Biochar Table 2: Vitamin C and polyphenol content of different Hipppophae species In addition to woodfuel and forage, another use for harvesting material would be for on-site biochar. Small scale low tech kilns are now becoming available for farm scale production. Species Vitamin C (mg/100g Polyphenols Biochar can be used as a soil and growth promoter as well as providing a mechanism to fruit) (mg/100g fruit) sequester carbon in the soil. Eadha has been undertaking research in partnership with Hippophae rhamnoides 227 – 233 518 – 524 Strathclyde University on the properties of aspen biochar. The results show that aspen char Hippophae salicifolia 2960 - 3000 587 – 595 has a neutral pH unlike other tree species such as willow which produced alkaline char Hippophae tibetana 872 - 884 568 - 574 which can alter soil chemistry. The research also indicates that aspen char can be produced at relatively low temperatures and still have high absorption properties. Ecological Impact
H.salicifolia is useful in reclaiming and conserving soil, especially on fragile slopes, due to its extensive root system. Because it is resistant to drought and tolerates soil salinity and low temperatures, it is suitable for many situations that are simply too demanding for most plants. Riverbanks, lakeshores, steep slopes and other susceptible terrain can benefit from the establishment of sea buckthorn. Windbreaks made up of H.salicifolia
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An interesting feature of S.palustris is its very late development in spring. This fits Additional Benefits ideally with the agricultural cycle of late spring-planted crops such as potatoes, making it a troublesome weed. But on the other hand, late ploughing or tilling (in Biodiversity Poland—at the turn of April and May) encourages its growth and removes the A wood pasture will provide a transition between enclosed woodland and open competition of other weeds, if it is grown as the main crop. farmland/hedgerows, providing ecological connectivity. The value of wood pasture is increasingly being recognised in this context and it is one of the Priority Habitats in the UK The tolerance of S.palustris for wet and marshy land also offers a utilisation for land Biodiversity Action Plan. In ancient wood pasture, stable grazing-maintained plant unsuitable for ‘normal’ agriculture. communities are likely to have evolved with elements of both woodland and open vegetation communities present. S.palustris could become a local indigenous European vegetable grown on a small scale in home gardens. As it is a perennial species, it fits well into the current trends Establishment of an agroforestry scheme would be appropriate adjacent to a moorland of permaculture gardening and sustainable use of food plants of local origin. Its habitat where there are sensitive ecological issues such as the conservation of bird life such presumed high oligosaccharide content could make it a pre–biotic food supplement. as ground nesting birds and waders which may have precluded the establishment of woodland. An agroforestry system, is compatible with these ecological concerns as it would Reference not create increased cover for predators such as foxes or nesting sites for crows if managed Łukasz J. Łuczaj, Ingvar Svanberg and Piotr Köhler: Marsh woundwort, Stachys (pollarding/species choice etc). palustris L. (Lamiaceae): an overlooked food plant. Genet Resour Crop Evol. DOI 10.1007/s10722-011-9710-9. Landscape The open nature of a wood pasture system together with the beauty of native aspen and the variation provided by different clones will deliver a stunning landscape feature (see below).
Flooding Trees increase interception of rainfall and lead to reduced runoff which has particular Himalayan sea buckthorn benefits on upper catchment areas (Hippophae salicifolia) A broadleaved woodland will intercept nearly 20% of rainfall. No figures are available for a typical agroforestry/wood pasture system, however adjusting for reduced tree densities the proportion will be around 4%. Introduction Himalayan sea buckthorn is one of 5 (sometimes described as 7) species of the Soil Remineralisation genus Hippophae. H.salicifolia can be considered as one of the most valuable in terms of high vitamin C content, high quality fruit, high yield and less thorns. Fruit and Upland soils in Scotland are typically depleted of nitrogen, calcium and organic matter due vegetables viz. Citrus fruit, kiwi fruit, tomatoes etc. are regarded as excellent sources to the long term removal of sheep and cattle from the hills and the tradition of droving, with of vitamin C. However, none of these available plant species are at par with cattle being taken to Scottish lowland and English markets. Furthermore, acid rain has significantly high vitamin content of Hippophae salicifolia fruit. As shown in Table 1, contributed to soil acidification. The role of aspen trees as a nutrient sink for calcium has H.salicifolia possesses a considerably high amount of vitamin C as compared to recently emerged from several studies. Unlike most tree species, it has been well Citrus aurantifolia (lime). Like other Sea buckthorn species H.salicifolia is also a rich documented that aspen take up large amounts of calcium from the soil pool and retain this source of carotenoid, minerals, vitamin B, vitamin E and vitamin K. nutrient in the perennial tissues of the plant. In addition to calcium, it is also particularly efficient at retaining sulphur, and zinc, especially in the bark, which has photosynthetic capability. Aspen foliage is shed annually, but it decomposes rapidly and tends to be Description efficiently cycled within the forest ecosystem. It is well known that aspen is one of the key H.salicifolia grows widely in regions of China and Russia with a large but uneven distribution pioneer species however, new research has crystallised this further. For example, it has in Eurasia between 27° and 69°N latitude and 7°W and 122°E longitudes. In India, found that aspen although not leguminous, can fix atmospheric nitrogen. A large community H.salicifolia is the most common and widely distributed Hippophae species which is of endophytic bacteria resides in the stem tissue of aspen. Among these endophytes, restricted to the Himalayan region, between 1500-3600m (5000-11800ft) altitude including several diazotrophic (nitrogen-fixing) bacteria have been identified. the north-west Himalayan region of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and eastern India.
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Other uses Design It is mentioned among traditional Scottish dye plants. Yellow and blue can be It is recommended that aspen clones are planted in discrete blocks to allow for a obtained from the whole plant. If it is used with Tormentil (Potentilla erecta) it also comparison of clonal performance for the particular site. This will inform future restocking gives a red dye. It is also known from nineteenth–century Shetland Islands for and expansion including other projects in the wider geographical area. The creation of producing a yellow dye called hundie when mixed with tormentil or the non–native clonal blocks also mimics natural aspen woodland as seen here in the image below where logwood (Haematoxylum campechianum). Gosiute Indians used the seeds of clonal differences create a mosaic of colour throughout the year and can provide an S.palustris as food, however, no use of the seeds from European sources was found. interesting landscape feature (see photo below).
Prospects for cultivating S.palustris However, for the future survival of this species in Scotland, sexual preproduction needs to occur and new clones created. Surviving clones in the wild are typically isolated (especially So why did one of the most productive and tasty wild indigenous root crops never in the south of Scotland) and are therefore not given the opportunity to cross-pollinate. On become established as a domesticated plant? this basis, every new aspen woodland should be seen as a future seed orchard and for this
reason we would recommend that perimeter strips are planted in an intimate clonal mix to One answer is that it was probably available in large quantities in the wild growing maximise cross-pollination during a future seed year. among other crops, and so was widely used as supplementary nutrition, like fat hen
(Chenopodium album). In the eighteenth and nineteenth century when potatoes became a staple food in Northern Europe its role diminished and it was used only as emergency food.
Yet another explanation may lie in its chemical composition. There is hardly any data on the nutritive value of S.palustris, however the closely related S.affinis. contains some 60% stachyose, which is not digested by humans and passes to the guts where it is broken down in the process of fermentation by gut bacteria, causing flatulence. Similar substances are present in pulses. However both these edible Stachys species probably contain other, more digestible carbohydrates as well, as S.palustris is sought after by rodents and pigs. Although stachyose can cause flatulence, these substances selectively stimulate the growth of bifidobacteria in the colonic microbiota and they are model type prebiotics.
In SE Poland it is known to many farmers as ‘‘the root which mice store’’. Stories about large caches with these tubers found during autumn and winter ploughing of fields are still frequently mentioned by farmers in the Krosno area. The tubers are probably stored by voles—Microtus spp. or, less likely, Agricola amphibius. Plundering rodent nests, particularly those of root vole (Microtus oeconomus), in search of edible seeds and roots was a common practice among the inhabitants of Siberia in previous centuries.
In China, the tubers of S.affinis are often eaten in the fermented state. This preparation technique causes the transformation of stachyose and other indigestible materials into substances which are digestible by humans, e.g., lactic acid. Tree Protection S.palustris has a pleasant taste. When cooked or fried it becomes slightly sweet. This Sheep fact was emphasized by many authors and should be borne in mind as many other For individual tree protection against sheep grazing, Forestry Commission guidance (Best wild plants used in the times of food shortages had an unpleasant taste. One of the Practice Guidance for Land Regeneration, BPG Note 12) suggests that for regular grazing, authors of the paper referenced below has served dishes of raw, boiled, fried and 1.8m height tree guards are used with two stout posts. However, consultation with the lacto–fermented S.palustris to a few hundred participants of wild food culinary James Hutton Institute who manage the Glensaugh Agroforestry trial in Perthshire workshops over the last 7 years (www.luczaj.com), where it has always been the successfully used 1.2m tree guards with a single stout post (roundwood sheep stake) in favourite dish, out of dozens of plant species, to the extent that many participants tandem with a single standard tree stake. took it home to cultivate it in their gardens for food.
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At Glensaugh, the tree tubes were replaced with tree netting once the trees were well S.palustris as food in Scandinavia enough established to support the netting and without bending to the weight of a leaning The tubers of S.palustris were used for feeding pigs by the 18th Century, with sheep. For the aspen this would be between 8 and 10 years. At this time the trees would observations noted that pigs preferred the tubers to eating oats. Writers soon argued likely fill the tubes which can trap moisture and cause rot. They would need to be removed that the tubers could be utilized by humans, and either boiled or crushed, dried and at this time anyway. ground, used to substitute flour in baking bread. The tubers of have been used in
Scandinavian famine food recipe books and handbooks for using wild plants as food, Maintenance is the key for an agroforestry system to be successful. However in this time up to the twentieth century, although there is no proof from Scandinavia that it had the stakes may be susceptible to breakage and rot and will therefore need to be monitored been used as a food plant by peasants. and replaced on an ongoing basis. Protection from sheep would also protect against any
Roe Deer incursions without the need for a perimeter fence. S.palustris as food in Great Britain In 1828 Joseph Houlton from Lisson Grove received a Silver Ceres Medal from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce for introducing the Roots of Stachys palustris as a new Esculent Vegetable. In his letter to the Society he described his experiences with the cultivation of the species and proposed selection towards increasing the size of rhizomes. Houlton’s results were very much publicized in contemporary magazines and newspapers, which indicates the interest for this potential crop in the late 1820s.
Henfrey in 1870 says the fleshy, subterranean rhizomes are sometimes collected as a table vegetable. Loudon says these, when grown on rich moist soils, are white, crisp and agreeable to the taste.
Uses in other countries An attempt to cultivate the species in northern Germany was made in the mid- nineteenth century. The tubers were also used as emergency food in western Ukraine, in the Carpathians, south from Lviv. Surprisingly, there are no confirmed records of the medicinal or alimentary uses of S.palustris from the countries south of Poland: Slovakia, Hungary and Romania.
Fodder for pigs Many observers have noted that free–ranging pigs searched for tubers of S.palustris on the fields in pre–industrial northern Europe. That the pigs sought after its tubers in the fields seems to have been observed in many places in Europe, which is also reflected in the popular names recorded. In Scottish Banffshire it was known as swinen arnit i.e., ‘swine earth–nut’ referring to its tubers. In Shetland it was referred to as swine’s beads and on Orkney swines murricks. Similar names are also recorded from other Germanic languages. Trees with netting at Glensaugh (JHI) A few sources from Scandinavia mention that the tubers were actually gathered as The fence posts are likely to be in good enough condition to be reused for the netting food for pigs, sometimes after cooking. It was also recommended as a fodder plant, without the need for additional stakes. for instance for chickens, in some Swedish nineteenth–century agricultural Cattle handbooks. In Poland the plant is regarded as food, which pigs eat eagerly and, According to BPG Note 12, individual tree protection for cattle would require 1.8 m high steel although the human food value is forgotten, the attraction of the animals to this plant netting with 2–3 stout stakes which would render this unviable other than for specimen trees. is still remembered. The JHI advised that at their research station, cattle were only introduced once the trees were well established at about 20 years of age. It is recommended that a similar approach is adopted.
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A similar species, Stachys affinis (syn. Stachys sieboldii), called Chinese artichoke or Harvesting Regime crosne, originating from northern China, with similar tubers, has been cultivated and The management regime to be adopted very much depends on the landowner’s priorities. eaten in China and Japan for centuries. It has been cultivated in Europe since the There will be a trade off between cutting regularly (every 2-6 years) to promote leafy growth nineteenth century and it resembles S.palustris closely enough that some suspected that it was a subspecies of S.palustris. S.affinis has broader leaves. Its tubers are or less frequently (8-15 years) to promote woody material for biomass use assuming fuel very similar to those of S.palustris, but shorter and thicker. logs rather than chipping are desired.
For biochar use relatively thin branches would be required which would necessitate a Uses of S.palustris in Poland regular harvesting regime (every 2-6 years). Biochar would need to be cut in the winter The species has been used in southern and south–eastern Poland, predominantly by before the sap has risen as opposed to summer harvesting for fodder. poor peasants from the Carpathians. They gathered it mainly in spring (more rarely in autumn), dried the tubers and, by pounding, obtained a kind of crude flour which was For fodder (dried leaves and bark), small branches would need to be cut in late summer and then used for making flatbread or soup. The use of the plant ceased almost stored over winter. Trees can be designated for different uses or alternatively, different completely at the turn of the nineteen and twentieth century, with the exception of pruning regimes trialled on a single tree to provide for a range of uses. For example, side some instances when it was eaten as a sort of raw snack, after World War II, even up branches could be removed on a 2-6 year rotation leaving a leader to be harvested on a 10- until the 1970s. Children were known to use the tubers as a raw snack. The tubers 15 year rotation for biomass to be cut in winter. (In Norway branches are harvested on a 5 were also added to the ingredients to make vodka. year cycle to be dried for forage.) This would mimic the traditional “Shredded Tree” variant of pollarding practiced in medieval times where side branches are repeatedly cropped leaving a tuft at the top to provide forage, and timber.
For timber and/or woodfuel the trees can be felled (coppiced) on a 10-15year rotation. Once the tree protection infrastructure is removed it is recommended that tree are manually felled to avoid the use of heavy plant which may damage the pasture. Timber can then be removed by heavy horse to minimise impacts. Tree protection infrastructure would then be replaced to protect regrowth. On average, two shoots are likely to regrow from each stump. After a couple of year’s growth the weaker of the two should be cut, leaving a single stem.
It is recommended that clonal blocks are harvested on a rolling programme to provide a continuous supply of product. This will also maximise biodiversity value. If there is a plentiful supply of labour including volunteers, it may be appropriate and viable to consider hand pruning. This would be a low impact method (see photo below).
Pollarding will promote suckering, however, without protection, any sucker growth will immediately be grazed by livestock and will not regenerate. To protect suckers, temporary fencing would need to be erected. It would be cost prohibitive to fence a sufficient area around each individual tree. However one option could be to rotate temporary fencing around discrete clonal blocks. This fencing would be provided in addition to individual tree protection and erected following the installation of the tree netting, whereby selected fence posts supporting the tree netting at perimeter trees within the block could be utilised saving any additional fence posts. In conjunction with pollarding, the temporary deer fencing could be rotated block by block every 3-5 years and erected around each new block following pollarding. Redundant tree guards or netting could be reused for protection of selected suckers for growing on for timber or to replace any losses of the original trees.
Tubers of Marsh woundwort
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Marsh woundwort (Stachys palustris): A forgotten food plant
Introduction Although the use of S.palustris tubers as potential food received some attention in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, information about its use in various countries has never been reviewed apart from a short article in Polish. A more recent paper (on which this article is based) presents evidence on the use of this species in Europe as food for humans and animals, based on both published and unpublished sources from Poland, Scandinavia and Great Britain.
Description Marsh woundwort (also called marsh hedge nettle) is an erect slightly-smelling perennial growing from 0.5-1m (20-40”) high, with stalked glands in its upper parts, with strong branching surface rhizomes, whose parts swell in September into oblong tubers divided into segments, sometimes even 20 cm long and 2 cm broad. The above ground shoots emerge as some of the latest of all the commoner grassland and ruderal plants (often in mid or late May). It has pinkish-purple flowers, which develop in mid-summer.
S.palustris is a highly variable species with a wide circumboreal range: races have been distinguished, which are sometimes regarded as separate species. Marsh woundwort occurs in most of the territory of Europe. In Asia it is found mainly in Russia, parts of Central Asia and western China, reaching the Indian side of the Himalayas.
Marsh woundwort is a common weed in a variety of crops, e.g., cereals, potatoes and beet. Although its abundance has recently been highly reduced in some areas, in the Czech Republic it is regarded as a Pruning by hand (JHI, Glensaugh) significant weed occurring in sugar beet plantations due to its high resistance to We are keen to learn of any examples of aspen agroforestry in Europe and I would much herbicides. It is also regarded as a noxious appreciate any feedback or further information on this. agricultural weed in Hungary. The species was a very common weed in the fields in Contact: pre–industrial Scandinavia. Peter Livingstone, CEO
Eadha Enterprises
T: 07968745196 www.eadha.co.uk Stachys palustris (Wikimedia / Fice)
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