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Atomic Theory Manual SophomoreSophomore Natural Natural Science Science An Introduction to the Atomic Theory Sophomore Natural Science Revised 2007 Thomas Aquinas College Revised 20172016 ©2017 This Thomas Aquinas College Sophomore Natural Science Manual is a modified and expanded version of the St. John’s College Freshman Laboratory Atomic Theory Manual. We thank St. John’s College for permission to use much of their manual. The original source for many, but not all, of the selections and editorial footnotes in the present manual is A Source Book in Chemistry: 1400-1900, eds. H. Leicester and H. Klickstein (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952). TABLE OF CONTENTS ATOMIC THEORY MANUAL Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….. 3 CHAPTER I: Aristotle’s Account of Chemistry and the Elements……………………………. 5 St. Thomas Aquinas, Proemium to In Libros De Generatione et Corruptione…………… 6 St. Thomas Aquinas, De Principiis Naturae, ch. 3, on “element”………………………….. 8 St. Thomas Aquinas, De Mixtione Elementorum…………………………………………… 9 Aristotle, Selections from On Coming to Be and Passing Away, bk. 1, chs. 1-4 and 10; bk. 2, chs. 1-3…………………….. 14 CHAPTER II: Modern Chemistry, Its New Language, and the Elements……………………… 31 The Problem of Classifying Substances…………………………………………………….. 31 An Introduction to the Phlogiston Theory…………………………………………………… 35 Lavoisier, Memoir on the Calcination of Tin and on the Cause of the Gain in Weight…….. 38 Lavoisier, Memoir on the Nature of the Principle that Combines with Metals During Calcination…………………………… 48 Lavoisier, Memoir on Combustion in General………………………………………………. 52 Lavoisier, Elements of Chemistry, Preface…………………………………………………... 57 Morveau, Memoir on Chemical Names……………………………………………………… 65 Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, Fourcroy, Method of Chemical Nomenclature……………. 66 Lavoisier, Elements of Chemistry, chs. 1-2………………………………………………….. 75 Is Heat a Substance? Two Papers to the Contrary (Davy and Rumford)……………………. 87 Lavoisier, Elements of Chemistry, ch. 8…………………………………………………….. 92 Lavoisier, Elements of Chemistry, chs. 5-7 and 16-17……………………………………… 98 On the “Acidifying Principle”……………………………………………………………….120 APPENDIX: St. Thomas Aquinas on Change of Density (optional reading)……………….122 CHAPTER III: Further Developments in the New Chemistry: Weight Laws………………….123 Berthollet, Essay on Chemical Statics………………………………………………………123 Proust, Researches on Copper………………………………………………………………128 Richter, Stoichiometry……………………………………………………………………….132 CHAPTER IV: Atoms Proposed……………………………………………………………….135 Dalton, A New System of Chemical Philosophy……………………………………………..135 Gay-Lussac, Memoir on the Combination of Gaseous Substances With Each Other……….142 APPENDIX: Dalton, “On Gay-Lussac’s Laws” (optional reading)…………………………152 CHAPTER V: Revisiting the Law of Equivalence and the Law of Multiple Proportions…..…155 Wollaston, A Synoptic Scale of Chemical Equivalents………………………………….......155 CHAPTER VI: Chemical Combination and Electricity…………………………………...……173 Davy’s Decomposition of the Alkalis and Salifiable Earths………………………………...176 Berzelius, The Electrochemical Theory……………………………………………………...178 1 CHAPTER VII: Determination of Atomic and Molecular Weights………………….………....181 Avogadro, Essay on a Manner of Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules…………………..……..181 Modern Chemical Symbols…………………………………….……………………………189 Dulong and Petit, Researches on Certain Important Points about the Theory of Heat……..192 Cannizzaro, Sketch of A Course of Chemical Philosophy…………………………………...196 Mendeleev: Letter to Voskresenski………………………………………………………….223 CHAPTER VIII: Structural Formulas and Valence………………………………..…………...225 Gerhardt’s System of Types…………………………………………………………………225 Couper, On A New Chemical Theory………………………………………………………..230 CHAPTER IX: The Periodic Table…………………………………………………..…….….. 249 Mendeleev, The Relation Between the Properties and Atomic Weights of the Elements……249 Mendeleev, The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements…………………………………...253 Mendeleev’s 1879 Periodic Table…………………………………………………………...271 Notes on the Modern Periodic Table………………………………………………………...273 Philosophical Questions regarding the Atomic Theory……………………………………...276 APPENDIX: Relative Atomic Weight (1962)……………………………………………….279 AFTERWORD: “Is the Atom Really an Atom?” J. J. Thomson………………………………..281 The Modern Periodic Table……………………………………………………………………..287 2 “It is of great advantage to the student of any subject to read the original memoirs on the subject, for the science is most completely assimilated when it is in the nascent state.” James Clerk Maxwell Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism Preface, p. xi INTRODUCTION The central issue in this laboratory is the atomic theory of matter. We will deal with (1) the questions to which the theory provides some sort of answer, (2) the background from which it developed, and (3) part of the explanatory and predictive power of the theory. Apparently the theory cannot be logically proved starting from undeniable premises. In what sense the theory may be considered right or true will probably only become clear by learning a great deal about the theory as it has been developed and modified. The belief that this is true has directed the way in which this laboratory has been organized. Some progress should be made in understanding the interaction between experimental work and the theory that both explains (in some sense) the experimental results and suggests further experimental work. To emphasize this interaction the laboratory has been arranged so that there is a general alternation between experimental work and discussions based on original papers that deal with theory and experimental work. We will not examine the support for a particle theory of matter provided by the kinetic molecular theory. To do this would require more sophistication in mathematics and mechanics on your part than you could be legitimately expected to possess now. However, a consistent case for atomism can be and was made without direct appeals to the kinetic molecular theory. This is the case we will examine. We have chosen to deal almost exclusively with the 18th and 19th century chemistry not because we have an interest in the past history as such, but because this seems to us the best way to learn something about the ways of this physical science. We will ask what the ideas and experimental results are, how they are come by, and how they fit together in a phase of science in which we have a good chance of finding answers to some of our questions. This laboratory will not concern itself with any 20th century developments in the atomic theory. Our concern is with understanding the building up and justification of this great theory as an example of scientific theory. The scientists of the 20th century generally accepted and still accept most of the essentials of the atomic theory as we will leave it. You may find it helpful to think of our task as, to a large extent, unpacking the meaning of four terms: element (Chapters I and II), compound—as distinguished from mixture as well as from element—(Chapter III, IV, V), atom (Chapter IV), and molecule (Chapters IV, VI, VII). Chapters VIII and IX, using the understanding of the terms now established, further the explanation of the nature of chemical change, and make some remarkable predictions on the basis of these explanations. 3 There is perhaps no theory of more pervasive importance in modern natural science than the atomic theory. How one can defend this theory—one positing entities that are not perceivable even sub-microscopically—should be of interest. * * * Measurement is the major link between mathematics and natural science. During the first weeks of this semester we were primarily concerned with studying measurement as such. In this lab we will be concerned with studying a science—chemical atomism—as such. However, the work of this lab is related to that of the measurement segment of the Freshman and Sophomore Natural Science in a variety of ways. Four of these are mentioned here. I. Many kinds of measurement previously studied will be used or referred to this semester— length, weight, volume, density, specific gravity, center of gravity, pressure, buoyancy, heat, temperature, specific heat, and the gas laws. Here all the measurements will serve a single major concern. II. In considering which characteristics of material are to be held as most important in explaining chemical composition, which are “measurable” in the light of what you now understand about measurement? Does this, in any way, direct which characteristics one chooses to emphasize? III. Consider the use made of measurement in the arguments presented. Compare, for example, the role of measurement in the readings from Aristotle and in the readings from Lavoisier. What significance can be attributed to the difference? IV. During the first part of this semester you probably tacitly (or explicitly) assumed all magnitudes were continuous, rather than composed of distinguishable parts (recall in the Measurement Manual Question 5, p. 10, and Question 3, p. 33). Should you reconsider this assumption in the face of a generally accepted atomic theory of matter? 4 CHAPTER I Aristotle’s Account of Chemistry and the Elements READINGS: FIRST: Introduction to this Manual (3-4) Aristotle, On Coming to Be and Passing Away, Book I, ch. 1, 314a1-7 (14) St. Thomas Aquinas, Prologue to the Commentary of On Coming to Be and Passing Away (6-7) St. Thomas Aquinas, on the meaning of “element,” On the Principles of Nature, n. 21 (8) SECOND: Aristotle, On Coming to
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