116 Radabaugh, Geiger, and Moyer, editors

Chapter 7 Southeast Florida

Stephen P. Geiger, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Kara R. Radabaugh, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Ryan P. Moyer, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

Description of the region Southeast Florida features some of the most high- ly altered landscapes in the state, in Broward and Mi- ami-Dade counties, as well as unique habitats in the Florida Keys archipelago. Broward and Miami-Dade counties are the most populous in Florida; the estimated 2017 population between the two counties was nearly 4.7 million (U.S. Census 2018). Oyster reefs are extreme- ly limited, primarily due to suboptimal salinity, so there are no mapped oyster reefs or shellfish harvesting areas in this region of Florida.

Broward County Before it was developed, much of the coast of Brow­ard County (Fig. 7.1) was dominated by sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) and other freshwater marsh plants (USFWS 1999a, FDEP 2006). The Intracoastal Waterway was con- structed in Broward County in 1912, and the creation of inlets through barrier islands led to a brackish nearshore environment, killing freshwater species (FDEP 2006). The Intracoastal Waterway connects to the Atlantic Ocean in the north in Palm Beach County at Boca Raton Inlet, at the Hillsboro Inlet, and at Port Everglades. Dense urban development is now found along the coast of Broward Figure 7.1. Major features of the Broward County County, including thousands of residences lining fin- coast. There are no mapped oyster reefs in this area. ger canals in dredge-and-fill developments. Most of this county has a hardened shoreline consisting of seawalls and riprap, and the main source of freshwater is urban lations of oysters live on many of the extensive seawalls runoff. in this area. Oyster species include the flat tree oyster The few natural areas remaining in Broward Coun- (Isognomon­ ­alatus) and the eastern oyster (Crassostrea ty include Deerfield Island Park, Von D. Mizell and virginica). Oysters have been noted during some sea- Eula Johnson State Park, Hugh Taylor Birch State Park grass surveys, but there are no known studies on the ex- (oysters uncommon), and the areas around West Lake tent of oysters in Broward County (Linda Sunderland, (some oysters attached to mangrove roots). Small popu- pers. comm.). Oyster Integrated Mapping and Monitoring Program Report for the State of Florida 117

Figure 7.2. Major features of Biscayne Bay. Oyster extent is not mapped in Biscayne Bay.

Miami-Dade County: Biscayne Bay excluding dredged channels (Comp and Seaman 1985). Biscayne Bay was historically connected to the Everglades Biscayne Bay is a semienclosed basin in Miami-Dade watershed via rivers and creeks that ran through and County approximately 75 km (47 mi) long and 16 km around the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, a ridge of limestone (10 mi) across at its widest point. The bay includes two that runs along part of Biscayne Bay’s western shore. Wet- aquatic preserves and Biscayne Bay National Park (Fig. lands surrounded Biscayne Bay, and surface water entered 7.2). The average depth of the bay is around 2 m (6.5 ft), the bay as a diffuse sheet of freshwater and through nu- 118 Radabaugh, Geiger, and Moyer, editors merous small creeks and groundwater springs (Browder ered the water table, and groundwater levels continue to et al. 2005). Northern Biscayne Bay, which is partly en- decline due to urban and agricultural freshwater with- closed and separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a series drawal (FDEP 2013). of barrier islands, used to be a brackish estuary as a result The western shore of the southern half of the Bis- of freshwater input from the Everglades. Eastern oysters, cayne Bay is largely lined with mangrove forests that are whose survival and reproductive rates are greatest be- often cut through by tidal creeks. Historically, these creeks tween 14 and 28 salinity (Shumway 1996), were relatively drained a small watershed, but as the area was developed, abundant in northern Biscayne Bay in those moderate-sa- many of the creeks were disconnected by a series of water linity waters, as evidenced by remnant oyster shells in management canals and mosquito control ditches. The sediments and historical accounts (Smith 1896, Meeder et main waterflow is bisected by the L-31E canal, which dis- al. 1999, 2001, CERP 2012). Shell middens along Biscayne rupts the coastal sheet flow that once fed the creeks. The Bay also show evidence of oyster harvest by Native Amer- canal system still diverts most of the local watershed flow icans (Gambordella 2007, FDEP 2013). The northern part into a few canals, such that sheet flow from land into the of the bay supported numerous oyster reefs and even a bay has been largely eliminated by 1962 (Buchnan and small oyster fishery in the late 1890s (Smith 1896, Meeder Klein 1976). Near the southernmost point of the bay, the et al. 2001). Smith (1896) described oysters as being abun- Turkey Point nuclear power plant dispenses water into an dant on mangrove roots, pilings, boats, and submerged impoundment containing a large series of dredged canals, logs. Dense reefs also existed in the bay and near rivers, the intent of which is to cool thermal effluent. particularly near Little River and Indian Creek. Under the present hydrological regime, salinity ex- Central Biscayne Bay is broadly connected to the ceeds 30 across Biscayne Bay in the spring and ranges from Atlantic Ocean. It is separated by a submerged ridge of 25 to 30 in the fall, although areas along the coast with Pleistocene-age coral reef, which is emergent at Key Bis- many canals can have an average salinity of 12–20 (CERP cayne, Elliott Key, and several smaller keys. Southern Bis- 2012). Today, the extent of oyster distribution is smaller cayne Bay is partly sheltered from the Atlantic by Elliott than that before the hydrology was altered. In northern Key and other islands in the northernmost extent of the Biscayne Bay, where oysters had been abundant enough Florida Keys. The central and southern parts of the bay to support a fishery, they are now found, only occasional- historically had higher salinity than did northern Bis- ly, on mangrove roots, docks, or pilings. Oyster reefs are cayne Bay, as determined by the marine mollusk species now limited to upstream areas of the Oleta River (FDEP whose shells were found in sediment cores from those ar- 2013). Oleta River State Park has a large area of urban eas (Stone et al. 2000, Gambordella 2007). Relict oyster park with mangrove-lined creeks, but few oysters. Land reefs have been found at the mouths of mangrove creeks between Oleta River State Park and Virginia Key is most- in central Biscayne Bay (Meeder et al. 2001), but central ly urbanized with hardened shorelines. Oysters are occa- and southern Biscayne Bay likely did not host extensive sionally found on these seawalls and riprap, especially in oyster reefs even before humans altered the watershed those areas that receive urban runoff from storm drains (Gambordella 2007). (Voss 1976). Most are eastern oysters. At some creeks, flat The construction of canals, ditches, and levees in tree oysters are also found, but they do not form reefs or the 1800s and 1900s drastically altered the hydrology of accumulate substrate. In central Biscayne Bay, relict oys- Biscayne Bay and concentrated freshwater flow into con- ter reefs are present near some tidal creeks (Meeder et al. structed canals. This led to the loss of many of the man- 2001) and a small number of live oysters may occasionally grove creeks and resulted in large seasonal fluctuations be found associated with mangrove roots. in salinity due to variable freshwater input (Browder et The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan al. 2005). The high-velocity release of fresh water does (CERP) includes efforts to redirect freshwater flow from not readily mix with salt water in the bay, resulting in canals into coastal wetlands to restore hydrology to a rapid changes in salinity that may kill estuarine organ- more natural state (CERP 2012). Projects relevant to isms (Chin-Fatt and Wang 1987, CERP 2012). The Bis- Biscayne Bay include the Biscayne Bay coastal wetlands cayne Aquifer, which contributes fresh groundwater to plan, the C-111 spreader project, and L31-N seepage Biscayne Bay, is found in highly permeable limestone management (Browder et al. 2005, FDEP 2013). These and sand from Miami-Dade County through Broward projects focus on four important stressors: altered fresh- to southern Palm Beach County and supplies water for water inflow, input of toxicants and pathogens, altered much of the population of south Florida (USFWS 1999b, input of solids and nutrients, and physical changes in CERP 2010). Canal construction in the early 1900s low- structures. Oyster Integrated Mapping and Monitoring Program Report for the State of Florida 119

Figure 7.3. Major features of the Florida Keys. There are no mapped oyster reefs in the Florida Keys. Oysters in the Everglades and Florida Bay are mapped and discussed in Chapter 6.

Monroe County: Florida Keys they are occasionally found on hardened shorelines The Florida Keys are a 210-km-long (130 mi) archi- or mangrove prop roots (Mikkelsen and Bieler 2000). pelago on the southern edge of Florida (Fig. 7.3). The Several species of non-reef-building oysters are present region is encompassed by the Florida Keys National in the Florida Keys, including two other species within Marine Sanctuary. Additional protected regions in the the family Ostreidae: the root oyster (C. rhizophorae) Sanctuary include Key West National Wildlife Refuge and the crested oyster (Ostrea stentina) (Mikkelsen (NWR), Great White Heron NWR, National Key Deer and Bieler 2000). The morphology of these oysters is Refuge, and Crocodile Lake NWR, as well as several state plastic, as they often develop around their settlement parks and aquatic preserves. Beginning near the border substrate. The root oyster has a straighter and more of Miami-Dade and Monroe counties, a series of sounds elongate hinge than does the eastern oyster, as well as an are found between the mainland and the primary tract of elongate muscle scar. The crested oyster has a series of the Florida Keys. These sounds are all semienclosed and fine marginal teeth, lacking in bothCrassotrea species, have low tidal amplitude and minimal exchange with and a lighter muscle scar (Mikkelsen and Bieler 2007). other water bodies. The shoreline in these areas is mostly The other most common oyster in the Keys is the scaly lined with mangroves. The lack of freshwater input and pearl oyster (Pinctada longisquamosa), which can at poor water circulation makes these sounds largely inhos- times be abundant in seagrass meadows. Other oyster pitable to oysters. Oysters in the Everglades and Florida species present include the sponge oyster (O. permollis), Bay are described in Chapter 6. Atlantic pearl oyster (P. imbricata), black-lipped pearl Continuing south, the middle and lower Florida oyster (P. margaritifera), Atlantic wing oyster (Pteria Keys are a mix of hardened shorelines, mangroves, colymbus), glassy wing oyster (P. hirundo), tree oysters and occasional sandy beaches. Sources of fresh water (Isognomon alatus, I. bicolor, and I. radiatus), hammer include small amounts of terrestrial runoff, including oyster (Malleus candeanus), frond oyster (Dendostrea runoff from watering lawns. Salinity is too high to sup­ frons), threaded oyster (Teskeyostrea weberi), and port extensive populations of the eastern oyster, but foam oysters (Hyotissa mcgintyi, H. hyotis, and Neo­ pycnodonte cochlear) (Mikkelsen and Bieler 2000, 2007). 120 Radabaugh, Geiger, and Moyer, editors

Threats to Oysters • Harmful algal blooms: Harmful algal blooms have been tied to pollution from fertilizers, animal wastes, Reef-building eastern oysters are rare in this region, and increased soil erosion, all conditions that exist in largely as a result of suboptimal salinity regimes. The south Florida watersheds. Toxins from cyanobacteria threats to oysters listed here are therefore restricted to blooms have been detected in both Biscayne Bay and those areas (namely Biscayne Bay) that are known to have Florida Bay (Brand 2010). hosted significant oyster reefs in the past. • Altered hydrology: The hydrology of Biscayne Bay Mapping and Monitoring Efforts has been significantly altered by intense urbanization and the construction of drainage canals, which has The compilation of oyster maps used in figures in decreased sheet flow through coastal wetlands and this report are available for download at http://geodata. natural creeks. Water management canals preclude myfwc.com/datasets/oyster-beds-in-florida. natural coastal flow and deliver large pulses of sedi- ment-rich water through few large canals. Such canals Historical oyster distribution study allow rapid delivery of water that is often hypoxic and contaminated with urban runoff (SFWMD 1995). Meeder et al. (2001) completed a study to identify tid- Additionally, the canals are generally steep-walled al creek sites along western Biscayne Bay that were ap- and linear, so their shorelines offer little habitat val- propriate for restoration of freshwater discharge. Site se- ue. Restoration of minimal flows to the many man- lection was based on evidence of past oyster populations grove-lined tidal creeks around the bay would enhance (determined by presence of oyster shell in sediments), and their chances of supporting small oyster communities salinity targets were based upon physiological require- (Meeder et al. 2001). ments of oysters. • Isolated populations: The survival and resilience of any remaining oyster populations are of concern due FWC baseline mapping and monitoring to their isolation from other oyster populations and In the winter of 2005–2006, FWC and Golder Asso- vulnerability to continued urban development (Arnold ciates surveyed oyster distribution in the Sebastian River, et al. 2008). Biscayne Bay oysters are isolated from oth- Saint Lucie Estuary, Lake Worth Lagoon, and Biscayne er oyster reefs on the southeast coast of Florida; the Bay using a real-time kinematic global positioning system closest significant population of oysters is in the Lake (RTK GPS) (Gambordella et al. 2007). Oyster reefs were Worth Lagoon, in Palm Beach County. identified using earlier oyster maps, helicopter aerial sur- • Habitat loss: The coast of Broward County and veys, and sounding lines. Few live oysters and no oyster northern Biscayne Bay is heavily developed, and much reefs were found in Biscayne Bay, so no oyster maps were of the natural shoreline has been replaced by seawalls produced for the bay. and other structures. Oyster reefs have directly faced habitat loss as a result of dredging and hardened Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Program shorelines. oyster monitoring • Sea-level rise: Sea-level rise is another contributor to the high salinity of Biscayne Bay. Sea-level rise will Oysters were monitored as part of the CERP Res- continue to suppress freshwater influence in the bay, toration Coordination and Verification (RECOVER) such that brackish conditions may be completely elim- program by FWC from 2005–2007 (RECOVER 2007, inated in the bay except for waters adjacent to man- Arnold et al. 2008, Parker et al. 2013). Monitored ba- aged drainage canals. Sea-level rise may also result in sins included the Saint Lucie Estuary, Loxahatchee Riv- increased submergence times, which would limit the er, Mosquito Lagoon, Sebastian River, Lake Worth La- intertidal exposure time for oysters that offers them goon, Biscayne Bay, and Tampa Bay (Arnold et al. 2008). refuge from predation, pests, and disease (Bahr and Metrics included spatial and size distribution of oyster Lanier 1981). Increased submergence times as a result populations, physiological condition, disease frequency, of sea-level rise, along with increasing salinity, lead and rates of reproduction, recruitment, growth, and sur- to greater susceptibility to predation, pests (e.g., the vival in south Florida estuaries (RECOVER 2007). Too boring sponge Cliona celata; Carroll et al. 2015), and few oysters were present in Biscayne Bay for systematic pathogens (Shumway 1996). density surveys. Most oysters existed as rare inhabitants Oyster Integrated Mapping and Monitoring Program Report for the State of Florida 121 of mangrove roots, and others were occasionally found Recommendations for mapping, monitoring, along seawalls, where fresh water was supplied by lawn and management watering. Relict reefs were found at the mouths of sev- eral creeks (Parker et al. 2013). A few oysters did settle • Conduct a rapid assessment to determine if oysters are on settlement arrays monitored from July to November, present in natural areas along Broward and Miami-Dade but settlement rates were much lower than those in other counties. Natural areas that may be able to support oys- Florida estuaries. Because oysters were found only in- ter communities include Deerfield Island Park, Hugh consistently and in small numbers, there was not a clear Taylor Birch State Park, and numerous tidal creeks pattern of reproductive development or condition indi- along the western shoreline of Biscayne Bay. A presence– ces (Arnold et al. 2008). absence assessment would enable determination of need Growth and mortality were monitored in the estuar- for future mapping and monitoring. These areas should ies mentioned above by monitoring planted juvenile oys- also be assessed periodically for oyster larvae. ters. Oysters in Biscayne Bay had a mean shell height in a • Restore freshwater supply from the L-31E canal to middle to low range compared with oysters in the other some of the natural tidal creeks in Biscayne Bay. If oys- estuaries (RECOVER 2007). Condition indices of oysters ter larvae are present, the placement of suitable sub- in Biscayne Bay were in the middle of the range compared strate might allow settlement and rebuilding of oyster with oysters in other south Florida estuaries. A few oys- populations. If no larvae are present, transplanting of ters were collected in 2005 and 2007 for investigation of live oysters from the nearest suitable population, likely disease intensity of dermo (Perkinsus marinus) and MSX Lake Worth Lagoon, may be required. Small-scale ef- (Haplosporidium nelsoni) (Arnold et al. 2008). Infection forts should be implemented before broader, large-scale intensities and prevalence of dermo were low, and mean efforts are planned. infection intensity was below 1 on the scale of 0 to 5 de- veloped by Mackin (1962). There were no signs of MSX (Arnold et al. 2008). Works cited Alleman R, Markley S, Ortner P, Pitts PA. 2005. NOAA Mussel Watch Biscayne Bay conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25:854–869. The NOAA National Status and Trends Program Arnold WS, Parker ML, Stephenson SP. 2008. Oyster has monitored pollutants in bivalves through the Mus- monitoring in the northern estuaries. Florida Fish and sel Watch program across the coastal United States since Wildlife Research Institute. St. Petersburg, Florida. 1986. Monitoring locations in this region include Maule https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268062522_ Lake in North Miami and Gould’s Canal in Biscayne Bay Oyster_monitoring_in_the_northern_estuaries, (Kimbrough et al. 2008). 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