S.R.S.D. Memorial Shiksha Shodh Sansthan, Agra, India UGC Sl. No. 64416
UTOPIA OF GLOBAL EDUCATION
A Peer Reviewed Refereed International Research Journal ONLINE ISSN-2454-7387 Volume IV, Issue I, June 2018 www.srsshodhsansthan.org
Where do Women Stand in Assam of North East India? Examining Socio- Economic Status of Tribal and Non-Tribal Women in Assamese Societies
1 2 3 Dr. Ira Das , Dr. Gargee Sharmah , Dr. Runima Baishya 1Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati, Assam, India 2Assistant Professor, Department of History, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati, Assam, India 3Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati, Assam, India
Abstract
A detailed examination of women’s status in a specific location is necessary to have adequate and correct information for effective planning and implementation of government policies. The paper intends to examine and compare the socio-economic status of tribal and non-tribal women of different communities in Assam of North East India. It is found from the study that the status of women in Assam is somewhat better in terms of fulfilling strategic gender needs like participation in decision making process, control over own body etc.. In tribal societies, women are even in better position in terms of participation in decision making process in the society. However, the socio-economic status of women of Assam in respect of fulfilling practical gender needs like women workforce participation, health status
etc. is not at all better than the all India average. The paper concludes with the view that women should be aware of their rights and responsibilities to make a change in the society as well as for upliftment of
the status of women in the society.
Keywords: Status of women, strategic gender needs, practical gender needs, tribal and non- tribal women.
. Introduction Women constitute nearly half of the world population. But, one of the greatest challenges of 21st Century is that women are still not treated equally around the world. The socio-economic status of women is not equal vis-à-vis that of men in the society. The „Status of Women‟ can be defined as the position of women in society in relation to men in the same society, or among women in another society or sub-culture. „Women‟s status‟ is a multidimensional entity. The various components of status may move in different directions in a given time period. Status may be viewed in its relative context also. According to Ruth B. Dixon (in Strategies for Development in South Asia, 1978), the concept „women‟s status‟ should focus on “the degree of women's access to (and control over) material resources (including food, income, land, and other forms of wealth) and to social resources (including knowledge, power, and prestige) within the family, in the community, and in the society at large” [1]. Vol. IV, Issue I, June 2018 ONLINE ISSN-2454-7387
According to American Psychological Association, socioeconomic status is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation. In reality, there exists inequality in women‟s access to education, health care, physical and financial resources and opportunities in the political, economic, social and cultural field. Women need to fulfill both „Practical Gender Needs‟ (e.g provision of water, healthcare, employment etc.) and „Strategic Gender Needs‟ (e.g power and control, protection from domestic violence, equal wage, and control over own body etc.) to have equal status with men [2]. The decision on what to cook, about their own healthcare, and staying with their parents, the extent of mobility and women‟s ability to make these choices to go to the market or visit friends/relatives without seeking permission are also important.
The Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of Indian Constitution bear faithful application of the principle of non-discrimination so that women are entitled to the same rights as men as citizens of India. Yet, women are not treated equal to men.
There are various studies conducted about status of women all over the world. One of the studies was carried out by Sunita Kishor and Kamla Gupta for all the states of India which found that average women in India were absolutely disempowered relative to men, and there had been little change in her empowerment over time [3].
Assam is one of the major states of North East India. It is perceived that status of women in North East India is better than all India average. However, according to Assam Human Development Report, 2003, there exists vast inequality in the achievements between men and women of Assam in different spheres of life. The type and intensity of the inequality varied over geographical locations. Therefore, location specific individual policy is required to achieve gender development and gender equality within particular borders. Thus, a detailed examination of women‟s status for specific location is necessary to have the right information for effective planning and implementation of government policies.
Assam is land of many cultures, tribes and religions. Therefore, the culture of Assam is a composite and complex phenomenon that includes the cultures of the various tribes that make Assam their home. The different tribes residing in Assam are Bodo Kachari, Mising (Miri), Deori, Rabha, Tiwa or Lanlung, Khamti, Sonowal Kachari, Tai Phake or Phakial, Dimasa Kachari, Karbi, Barmans, Hmar, Kuki, Rengma Naga, Zeme Nagas, Hajong, Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Mech [4]. It is impossible to understand the status of women in Assam as a whole without understanding the status of women among the varied communities. Therefore, the study intends to examine the socio-economic status of women of different communities in Assam.
1. Objectives of the Study (i) To compare the socio-economic status of women in Assam with that of all India average.
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(ii) To examine and compare the socio-economic status of selected tribal and non-tribal women of Assam. Here, tribal women comprise of mainly Tiwa and Hmar Community women and non-tribal women comprise of mainly General Community women. 2. Study Area and Community A field study was conducted in Guwahati City (for the General Community women), Sonapur, on the outskirt of Guwahati (for the Tiwa Community women) and Haflong, North Cachar Hill District (for the Hmar Community women) on the basis of a questionnaire.
The survey was conducted among the General community non-tribal women that are living in Guwahati City. Information and data on tribal women were collected mainly from Tiwa1 and Hmar2 community women.
3. Data Source and Methodology Both primary and secondary data are used in the study. Primary data are collected from the field study conducted at Guwahati, Sonapur, and North Cachar Hills. Total of 206 samples are collected out of which 110 are for general non-tribal women and 96 are for tribal women. Secondary data are collected from the Census Reports, National Sample Survey Organisation Reports, National Family Health Survey Reports, Sample Registration System bulletins, etc. A questionnaire was prepared and the sample survey was conducted during December, 2014 to June, 2015.
The study tries to achieve the objectives by using different socio-economic parameters. The socio-economic status of women of Assam is compared with that of all India average by using ten parameters viz like literacy rate, female workforce participation rate, gross enrollment ratio, sex ratio, mean age at marriage, percentage of pregnant who are anemic, infant mortality rate, participation of women in household decisions, women who are allowed to go to market, access to health facility and establish contact outside the community and women who can use bank account themselves. The second objective is tried to achieve by examining and comparing the literacy rate, occupation level, ownership of the house, participation in different household decision making, experience of violence, etc. To collect data Random Sampling method was used. Simple mathematical and statistical calculations are used for analysis of data with the help of SPSS.
Although quantitative method is used to achieve the objectives, qualitative method like oral history method was also attempted for use in the study.
4. Comparison of the Socio-Economic Status of Women in Assam with that of all India Average The socio-economic condition of women in Assam is compared with that of all India average in Table 1. It is revealed from the table that from among the ten selected indicators, Assam performed better than all India average only in four indicators viz. literacy rate, sex ratio, mean age at marriage and participation in household decision. However, performance of Assam
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is behind in respect of other six important indicators viz. female workforce participation rate; gross enrollment ratio; percentage of pregnant anemic women; infant mortality rate; women who are allowed to go alone to the market, access health facility and establish contact outside the community; and women who can use own bank account themselves. Therefore it can be inferred that the socio-economic condition of women in Assam is not better than that of all India average.
Table 1. Comparison of the Status of Women in Assam and India
Sl. No. Parameters (%) Assam India
1 Literacy Rate 67.27 65.46
2 Female Workforce Participation Rate 20.8 35.6
3 Gross Enrollment Ratio [Classes I-VIII (6-13 years)] 84.9 101.09
4 Sex Ratio 954 940
5 Mean Age at Marriage 19.7 18.3
6 Pregnant women age 15-49 who are anemic (%) 72 57.9
7 Infant Mortality Rates (per 1000 live births) among Females 55 42
Married women who usually participate in household decisions 8 (%) 60.9 36.7
Women of age 15-49 who are allowed to go alone to three places 9 (market, health facility, and outside the community)(%) 35.3 36.8
10 A bank or savings account that they themselves use (%) 11.7 16.2
Sources: Census of India 2011 (Provisional Data); National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) (2010); Government of India (2012), Data for use of Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission, 10 April; National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-3; Sample Registration System (SRS) 2014 and Kishore and Gupta (2009) [5,6, 7] .
5. Examination and Comparison of the Socio-Economic Status of Women of General Community, Tiwa Community and Hmar Community of Assam 6.1 Education Level of the Respondent Women
In a developing society, formal education becomes a fundamental prerequisite for improving a person‟s status. Education is one of the most important means of empowering women with the knowledge and self-confidence necessary to participate fully in the development process. Elementary education empowers women by providing information and confidence while higher education encourages them so that they are confident about entering any field or profession, not previously open to women [8]. In the study, when the education level of the respondent women was analysed for the general community, the analysis shows that majority of
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women are not eager to respond about their education level. Highest percentage (i.e 18.18 per cent) of women who have responded are higher secondary passed only. Next 15.45 per cent is Class V to Class X passed only and 14.55 per cent is graduate. Only 12.73 per cent is master degree holder and 0.91 per cent is PhD holder. None of them is found to be illiterate.
When the education level of the respondent women was analysed for Tiwa community, it is found that HSLC passed and H.S passed women constitute 35.29 per cent and 37.25 per cent of the total respectively. 25.49 per cent is found as graduate. 1.96 per cent has completed L.L.B degree and 1.96 per cent has completed post-graduation. On the other hand, most of the respondent Hmar women are higher secondary passed only (15.56 per cent) following the HSLC passed women (11.11 per cent), Bachelor degree passed women (6.67 per cent) and Master degree passed women (6.67 per cent). Others are reluctant to answer the question.
6.2 Occupation Level of the Women
Women‟s economic participation and empowerment are fundamental to strengthening women‟s right and enabling women to have control over their lives and exert influence in societies [9]. The occupational level of the women is examined and is presented in Table 2 and Figure 1.
Table 2: Occupation Level of the Women (%)
Sl. Occupational Level General Tiwa Community Hmar Community No. Community 1 Government Service 11.82 2.92 17.78 2 Private Service 8.18 25.49 8.89 3 Business 7.28 5.88 13.33 4 Other Service 6.36 2.96 51.11 5 None 66.36 49.01 4.44 6 Missing Response 0 13.73 4.44 Source: Field Survey
Figure 1. Occupation Level of the Women (%)
70 60 50 40 30 20 General Community 10 0 Tiwa Community Hmar Community
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The occupation level of the respondent women is analysed for the general community and analysis reflects that majority of the respondent women (i.e 66.36 per cent) are not in service as some of them are house wives and some are students. Only 11.82 per cent women are in government service followed by private service (8.18 per cent) and other service (6.36 per cent). Business is the least preferred occupation for the women of general community. It can also be inferred that the female workforce participation rate is also lower than the state average for the general community women.
On the other hand, Tiwa women are employed mostly in private services. Majority of Tiwa women are housewives which is opposite to the Hmar women who are employed either in government services or in private and other services. It is noteworthy that among all non-tribal women and tribal women, the percentage of women employed in government services are more in Hmar community.
6.3 Decision of having number of Children
Decision to have children is ideally a consensus one between husband and wife. However, in our society it is often found that either no such decision is taken and the child is born out of consummate relationship or the husband alone takes the decision. The involvement of women in such decision making signifies grater power to women. The decision of how many children women are going to have is presented in Table 3 and Figure 2. It is found from the table and figure that husband is the main decision maker in this regard for all women irrespective of the community. It is encouraging to note that 25.45 per cent respondent women among the general community women can make their own decision on how many children they are going to have in their families. However, only a negligible portion of tribal women can take the decision themselves. Missing/null response is more as some respondents are unmarried women or girls students.
Table 3. Decision of having number of Children
% of Respondent % of Respondent % of Respondent
Sl. Women (General Women (Tiwa Women (Hmar
No. Decision by Community) Community) Community)
1 Respondent 25.45 1.96 4.44
2 Husband 32.73 52.94 28.89
3 Seniors of the family 3.64 0 0
4 Greatest say in the decision 11.82 0 8.89
5 Both Respondent and Husband 10.00 1.96 0
6 Missing Response 16.36 43.14 57.78
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Filed Survey
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Figure 2. Decision of having number of Children
Missing Response
Both Respondent and… % of Respondent Women (General Community) Greatest say in the decision % of Respondent Women (Tiwa Seniors of the family Community) % of Respondent Women Husband (Hmar Community) Respondent
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
6.4 Ownership of the House of Living
Ownership of a house or shelter is regarded as a major safety-net for women besides being a provider of economic power. The ownership of the house in which the respondent women is living is analysed in Table 4 and Figure 3. It is depicted in the table that in most of the failies whatever may be the community husband is the owner of the houses where the respondent women are living in most of the families whatever may be the community. Only 9.09 per cent respondent general category women are living in their own house. However a significant portion of Hmar women (33.33 per cent) are living in their own house. For general community women, 13.64 per cent are living in rented house while 10 per cent women are living the houses in which other family members are the owner. Same is the condition for other tribal women. It implies that achieving equal economic power by women is still a far cry for the women of all communities in Assam.
Table 4. Ownership of the House of Living
% of Respondent % of Respondent % of Respondent Sl. Women (General Women (Tiwa Women (Hmar No. Community) Community) Community)
1 Respondent 9.09 1.96 33.33
2 Husband 61.82 60.78 40.00
3 Other Family Members 10.00 3.92 24.44
4 Landowner (if living in a rented house) 13.64 3.92 2.22
5 Missing Response 5.45 29.41 0
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Filed Survey
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Figure 3. Ownership of the House of Living 70 60 50 40 30 % of Respondent Women (General Community) 20 10 % of Respondent Women (Tiwa Community) 0 % of Respondent Women (Hmar Community)
6.5 The Most Important Issue in Life
The most important issue in life for the respondent is categorized into six different responses based on general understanding of prevalent society. The responses are discussed in Table 5 and Figure 4. It is found from the table and the figure that family happiness is the most important issue for women of any community in Assam. Next important issue is children for general community women and Tiwa women whereas Health is the next important issue in life for the Hmar women. Only 8.18 per cent general community women and 3.92 per cent Tiwa women think that career is the most important issue in their life. Interestingly no women of Hmar community think that career should be given the priority in life showing in a society in Assam where careerist ideology is less predominant. Family is the major source of happiness for majority of the women reflecting prevalence of traditional Indian societal value system in the state. Table 5. The Most Important Issue in Life according to the Respondent Women % of Respondent % of Respondent % of Respondent Sl. Women (General Women (Tiwa Women (Hmar No. Issues Community) Community) Community)
1 Family Happiness 71.82 58.82 82.22
2 Career 8.18 3.92 0
3 Children 11.82 11.82 4.44
4 Health 3.63 0 13.33
5 Social Life 1.82 9.80 0
6 Missing Response 2.73 25.49 0
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Filed Survey
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Figure 4. The Most Important Issue in Life according to the Respondent Women
90 80 70 60 50 % of Respondent Women 40 (General Community) 30 % of Respondent Women 20 (Tiwa Community) 10 % of Respondent Women 0 (Hmar Community)
6.6 Women's Participation in Decision Making
Empowerment of women refers to giving decision making power to women in social, economic and political sphere of life. Women‟s position in the household determines women‟s autonomy in family. It is worth to examine whether they can decide about household matters like buying household assets, decision about their own health care, having access to money, having mobility to go relatives etc. [10]. The participation of women in different decision making process is presented in Table 6. It is revealed from the table that 79.09 per cent general women, 86.27 per cent Tiwa women and 84.44 per cent Hmar women participate in household decision which is more than the state average (60.9 per cent) and country average (36.7 per cent). This is a positive development regarding status of women in the society in Assam.
Similarly more than 80 per cent women can take decision on their own health care regardless of community in the state and more than 75 per cent women can take decision on purchases of daily household needs. However, only 64.55 per cent general community women are allowed to use own bank account whereas more than 85 per cent tribal women are allowed to use own bank account in the state. 70 per cent non-tribal women are allowed to go alone to the market and 70.91 per cent non-tribal women are allowed to meet their friends or relatives outside the house. However the percentage of tribal women is higher in these two parameters of decision making. Women who can take decision to go alone to the market, to health care, and to meet friends or relatives outside the house are 73.94 per cent, 84.97 per cent and 94.07 per cent for general non-tribal women, Tiwa women and Hmar women respectively which are above than the state average (35.3 per cent) and country average (36.8 per cent). This implies that the status of women in decision making in the study localities is above the state average and country average. Similarly 64.55 per cent general women, 88.24 per cent Tiwa women and 93.33 per cent Hmar women are allowed to use own bank account which are also far above the state average as well as the country average of 11.7 per cent and 16.2 per cent respectively. This shows the better economic independency of
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the women in Assam. In tribal society, women are even in better position regarding participation in decision making process in the society.
Table 6. Women's Participation in Decision Making
% of Respondent Women (General % of Respondent Women (Tiwa % of Respondent Women (Hmar Community) Community) Community)
Sl. Some Some Some No Women's Missing Missing Missing . Participation (%) Yes No times Response Yes No times Response Yes No times Response
1 Participation in Household Decision 79.09 0.91 18.18 1.82 86.27 3.92 9.8 0 84.44 0 15.55 0
2 Decision about own Health Care 80.91 5.45 11.82 1.82 82.35 5.88 9.8 3.92 95.56 2.22 2.22 0
3 Decision on purchases of Daily Household Needs 77.27 2.73 19.09 0.91 76.47 3.92 15.69 3.92 93.33 0 6.67 0
4 Decision to meet Friends or Other Relatives outside the house 70.91 9.09 18.18 1.82 88.24 3.92 7.84 0 86.67 4.44 6.67 2.22
5 Reading of News Paper 49.09 23.64 26.36 0.91 62.75 1.96 27.45 1.96 8.88 4.44 86.67 0
6 Permission to go alone to the Market 70 6.36 21.82 1.82 86.27 1.96 11.76 0 100 0 0 0
7 Permission to use Own Bank Account 64.55 28.18 5.45 1.82 88.24 3.92 5.88 0 93.33 2.22 4.44 0
8 Women who can take decision to go alone to the market, to health care, and to meet friends or relatives outside the house 73.94 6.97 17.27 1.82 84.97 3.92 9.80 1.31 94.07 2.22 2.96 0.74
Source: Filed Survey
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6.7 Experience of Different forms of Violence
The experience of different forms of violence is reflected in Table 7 and Figure 5. The table and figure reveal that majority of general community non-tribal women (53.64 per cent) are not ready to answer the question about their experiences of different forms of violence. Whatever reported is presented in the table shows that 4.55 per cent general women have their experience with the physical violence. Both physical and sexual violence are reported by 1.82 per cent general women. No report was found about sexual violence while 40 per cent general women denied any form of violence in their life at all. Similar response has been received from the tribal women too. However, it can be observed from the table that the percentage of women who can confidently deny about any kind of violence in their life is more in tribal society than in non-tribal one.
Table 7. Experience of Different forms of Violence
% of Respondent % of Respondent % of Respondent Sl. Women (General Women (Tiwa Women (Hmar No. Categories Community) Community) Community)
1 Physical Violence only 4.55 5.88 4.44
2 Sexual Violence only 0.00 0.00 0.00
Either Physical or 3 Sexual Violence 0.00 0.00 0.00
Both Physical and 4 Sexual Violence 1.82 1.96 0.00
5 No 40.00 64.71 86.67
6 Missing Response 53.64 27.45 8.89
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Filed Survey Figure 5.Experience of Different forms of Violence 100 80 60 % of Respondent Women 40 (General Community) 20 % of Respondent Women (Tiwa 0 Community) Physical Sexual Either Both No Missing % of Respondent Women (Hmar Violence Violence Physical Physical Response Community) only only or Sexual and Violence Sexual Violence
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6.8 Participation in Election Procedure
Political empowerment of women can only be achieved when there is proper representation in the political decision making bodies. However, women are generally underrepresented in all the facets of the political process. It is mainly due to the socio-cultural barriers, lack of financial means, lack of confidence, lack of access to technology, gender discrimination etc. [11]. The participation in the election procedure is presented in Table 8 and Figure 6. It is seen from the table and figure that 90 per cent general women and 97.78 per cent Hmar women have participated in the last election procedure as voter. Ten per cent has come out as missing response in case of general women. However, it can be said that majority of women among general community and Hmar community are conscious about their voting right as citizen. Also they have the capability to exercise this right. However, it was surprising that Tiwa women are not conscious about their voting right.
Table 8. Participation in the Last Election Procedure
% of Respondent % of Respondent % of Respondent Sl. Women (General Women (Tiwa Women (Hmar No. Categories Community) Community) Community)
1 As Voter 90.00 50.98 97.78
2 As Contestants 0.00 0.00 0.00
3 As Winner 0.00 0.00 0.00
4 Missing Response 10.00 49.02 2.22
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
Source: Filed Survey
Figure 6. Participation in the Last Election Procedure
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Missing Response
% of Respondent Women (Hmar As Winner Community) % of Respondent Women (Tiwa Community) As Contestants % of Respondent Women (General Community)
As Voter
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
6.9 Discussion with the Respondent Women
The respondent women are asked to comment anything about their status in the society. Kanan Kalita (Name changed) commented that this type of study will help women to know their present position in the family and society as well. She is unhappy with her present status in the family. Sonali Das (Name Changed) remarked that the study is a good initiative which is praise worthy. Daisy Zote (Name Changed) stated aggressively that women should not be dependent on men.
6. Conclusion From the above analysis it is apparent that the socio-economic status of women of Assam is somewhat better in fulfilling the strategic gender needs like participation in decision making process, control over own body etc.. However, the socio-economic status of women of Assam in fulfilling practical gender needs like workforce participation, health status etc. is not at all better than all India average, rather the status is found worse in case of many important indicators. From the study the following findings may be derived:
(i) It is found that majority of women are not eager to respond to their education level. Most women who have responded are higher secondary passed only. (ii) The female workforce participation rate is also lower than the state average both for tribal and non-tribal women in the study localities of Assam. (iii) Husband is the owner of the houses where the respondent women are living in most of the families. It implies that women are not achieving equal economic power in the families in the study localities of Assam. (iv) It is encouraging that a major portion of the general community non-tribal women can make their own decision on how many children they are going to have in their families. However, only a negligible portion of tribal women can take decision themselves. (v) The study shows that careerist ideology is less predominant for women in Assam. Family is the major source of happiness for majority of the women reflecting prevalence of traditional Indian societal value system in the locality.
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(vi) The status of women in decision making in the study localities is above the state average and the country average. The study shows better economic independency for women in the state. In tribal society, women are even in better position regarding participation in decision making process in the society. (vii) The majority of women of the study localities are not ready to answer the question about their experiences of different forms of violence. Only a few responses were found about their experience with sexual violence and physical violence while 40 per cent non-tribal women denied about any form of violence in their life. However, it can be observed from the table that the percentage of women who can confidently deny about any kind of violence in their life is more in tribal society than in non-tribal one. (viii) The majority of women except Tiwa women are conscious about their voting right as citizen. The above findings reflect the status of women in Assam. This study is a humble attempt to have an idea about the status of women of different communities in the state. A more intensive location specific examination of women‟s status is necessary to have the right information for effective planning and implementation of government policy.
One salient and important feature in the Assamese society was the absence of the dowry system. But as time passes by, the evil of dowry system has silently crept into the Assamese society. Moreover, incidents of molestation, trafficking, murder and domestic violence have also gone up in the state, indicating that the status of women in Assam is not commendable at present.
Women themselves should be aware of their rights and responsibilities in the society to make a change in the society as well as for upliftment of status of women in the society. Equal access to all resources both by men and women is very important for better development of any country.
Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to acknowledge Women Study Centre, Pragjyotish College for recommendation for conducting a study for general community women in Guwahati. The authors would also like to acknowledge Ms. Kabita Doloi, Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Pragjyotish College and Ms. Laltlanzuol Khawbung, Assistant Professor Department of English, Pragjyotish College for their kind help collecting data for tribal women from the field.
Notes:
1. Tiwa is an ethnic group/indigenous tribe inhabiting Assam and Meghalaya in the North East India. They are recognized as a scheduled tribe within the State of Assam. They were known as Lalungs in the Assamese History, Colonial literature and in the Constitution of India. The vast majority of them speak Assamese as their mother tongue, Tiwa language being still spoken on the foothills of Meghalaya and in a few villages of the plains of Assam. Their descent system is patrilineal. Their patronymics are not derived from their clan's names but are common Assamese/Other ethnic Tribes surname-names such as Pator, Bordoloi, Konwar, Das, Doloi, Kakoti, Deka, Deuri, Borah etc. [12]. 2. Hmar is the name of one of the numerous Chin-Kuki-Mizo tribes of India, spread over a large area in the North East. The Hmars belong to the Chin-Kuki-Mizo group of tribes, and are recognised as Scheduled Tribe. Hmars live mostly in the hills of South Manipur, Mizoram, Cachar, Dima Hasao district of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Chittagong Hill Tracts. Although these areas are within different administrative divisions, they are geographically connected. In Assam, the Hmars live in the
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Cachar and North Cachar Hills District. There are about 1, 00, 000 Hmar people in Assam. The Hmar tribe comprises numerous sub-tribes or clans. In the past these clans had their own villages and their own dialects. However, today majority of the Hmar population use Hmar language. Some of the major clans are: Biate, Darngawn, Faihriem (Saivate, Chawngthu, Vangsie/Vangchhia ,Chunthang, Ngendum, Ngenzo); Lawitlang; Khawbung; Lungtau; Leiri; Thiek, Zote, Hrangkhawl, Changsan, Ngurte ,Ngente, Khiengte etc. [12]. References
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