Tuesday, January 5, 2010

Part IV

Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing Foreign Bird Species in Peru and Bolivia as Endangered Throughout Their Range; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703– Douglas Krofta, Chief, Branch of Listing, 358–2171. Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish Background and Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax 50 CFR Part 17 Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; Section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires telephone 703-358-2105; facsimile 703- us to make a finding (known as a ‘‘90– [Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2009-0059] day finding’’) on whether a petition to [96100-1671-0000-B6] 358-1735. If you use a telecommunications device for the deaf add a species to, remove a species from, [RIN 1018-AV77] (TDD), call the Federal Information or reclassify a species on the Federal Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339. Lists of Endangered and Threatened Endangered and Threatened Wildlife Wildlife and Plants has presented SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: and Plants; Listing Foreign Bird substantial information indicating that Species in Peru and Bolivia as Public Comments the requested action may be warranted. Endangered Throughout Their Range We intend that any final action To the maximum extent practicable, we make the finding within 90 days AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, resulting from this proposal will be as Interior. accurate and as effective as possible. following receipt of the petition and publish our finding promptly in the ACTION: Therefore, we request comments or Proposed rule. Federal Register. If we find that the suggestions on this proposed rule. We petition has presented substantial SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and particularly seek comments concerning: information indicating that the Wildlife Service (Service), propose to (1) Biological, commercial trade, or requested action may be warranted (a list the following six South American other relevant data concerning any positive finding), section 4(b)(3)(A) of bird species (collectively referred to as threats (or lack thereof) to these species the Act requires us to commence a ‘‘species’’ for purposes of this proposed and regulations that may be addressing status review of the species if one has rule) as endangered under the those threats. Endangered Species Act of 1973, as not already been initiated under our (2) Additional information concerning internal candidate assessment process. amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.): the taxonomy, range, distribution, and ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Anairetes In addition, section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act population size of these species, requires us to make a finding within 12 alpinus), Junı´n grebe (Podiceps including the locations of any taczanowskii), Junı´n rail (Laterallus months following receipt of the petition additional populations of these species. (‘‘12–month finding’’) on whether the tuerosi), Peruvian plantcutter (3) Additional information on the (Phytotoma raimondii), royal cinclodes requested action is warranted, not biological or ecological requirements of warranted, or warranted but precluded (Cinclodes aricomae), and white-browed these species. tit-spinetail (Leptasthenura by higher priority listing actions. (4) Current or planned activities in the Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act requires xenothorax)—all native to Peru. The areas occupied by these species and that a finding of warranted but ash-breasted tit-tyrant and royal possible impacts of such activities on precluded for petitioned species should cinclodes are also native to Bolivia. This these species. be treated as having been resubmitted proposal, if made final, would extend (5) Any information concerning the on the date of the warranted but the Act’s protection to these species. effects of climate change on these precluded finding, and is, therefore, The Service seeks data and comments species or their habitats. subject to a new finding within 1 year from the public on this proposed rule. You may submit your comments and and subsequently thereafter until we DATES: We will accept comments materials concerning this proposed rule publish a proposal to list or a finding received or postmarked on or before by one of the methods listed in the that the petitioned action is not March 8, 2010. We must receive ADDRESSES section. We will not warranted. The Service publishes an requests for public hearings, in writing, consider comments sent by e-mail or fax annual notice of review (ANOR) of at the address shown in the FOR FURTHER or to an address not listed in the findings on resubmitted petitions for all INFORMATION CONTACT section by ADDRESSES section. foreign species for which listings were February 19, 2010. If you submit a comment via http:// previously found to be warranted but ADDRESSES: You may submit comments www.regulations.gov, your entire precluded. by one of the following methods: comment—including any personal • Federal eRulemaking Portal: http:// identifying information—will be posted Previous Federal Actions www.regulations.gov. Follow the on the website. If you submit a On May 6, 1991, we received a instructions for submitting hardcopy comment that includes petition (the 1991 petition) from the comments on Docket No. FWS-R9- personal identifying information, you International Council for Bird IA-2009-0059. may request at the top of your document Preservation (ICBP) to add 53 foreign • U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public that we withhold this information from bird species to the List of Endangered Comments Processing, Attn: FWS- public review. However, we cannot and Threatened Wildlife, including the R9-IA-2009-0059; Division of Policy guarantee that we will be able to do so. six Peruvian bird species that are the and Directives Management; U.S. We will post all hardcopy comments on subject of this proposed rule. In Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. http://www.regulations.gov. response to the 1991 petition, we Fairfax Drive, Suite 222; Arlington, Comments and materials we receive, published a substantial 90–day finding VA 22203. as well as supporting documentation we on December 16, 1991 (56 FR 65207), for We will not accept comments by e- used in preparing this proposed rule, all 53 species and initiated a status mail or fax. We will post all comments will be available for public inspection at review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR on http://www.regulations.gov. This http://www.regulations.gov, or by 14496), we published a 12–month generally means that we will post any appointment, during normal business finding on the 1991 petition, along with personal information you provide us hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife a proposed rule to list 30 African birds (see the Public Comments section below Service, Endangered Species Program, under the Act (which included 15 for more information). 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, species from the 1991 petition). In that

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document, we announced our finding Species Information and Factors 10). It was not until the 1960s that that listing the remaining 38 species Affecting the Species Yanacea was merged into Anairetes (a from the 1991 petition, including the six Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), genus long-known as Spizitornis) by Peruvian bird species that are the and its implementing regulations at 50 Meyer de Schauensee (1966, p. 376). subject of this proposed rule, was CFR part 424, set forth the procedures Some contemporary researchers have warranted but precluded by higher for adding species to the Federal Lists suggested retaining the species within priority listing actions. We made a of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife Yanacea (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. subsequent warranted–but-precluded and Plants. A species may be 468). Smith (1971, pp. 269, 275) and finding for all outstanding foreign determined to be an endangered or Roy et al. (1999, p. 74) confirmed that species from the 1991 petition, threatened species due to one or more the ash-breasted tit tyrant is a valid including the six Peruvian bird species of the five factors described in section species based on its phylogenetic that are the subject of this proposed 4(a)(1) of the Act. The five factors are: placement and degree of genetic rule, as published in our ANOR on May (A) The present or threatened divergence from other species of 21, 2004 (69 FR 29354). destruction, modification, or Anairetes, and recent texts continue to Per the Service’s listing priority curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) place it in Anairetes (e.g., del Hoyo et guidelines (September 21, 1983; 48 FR overutilization for commercial, al. 2004, p. 281). Therefore, we accept 43098), our 2007 ANOR identified the recreational, scientific, or educational the species as Anairetes alpinus, which listing priority numbers (LPNs) (ranging purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) also follows the Integrated Taxonomic from 1 to 12) for all outstanding foreign the inadequacy of existing regulatory Information System (ITIS 2009, p. 1). species. The six Peruvian bird species mechanisms; and (E) other natural or Two subspecies are recognized, that are the subject of this proposed rule manmade factors affecting its continued including, A. alpinus alpinus (the were designated with an LPN of 2, and existence. Listing actions may be nominate subspecies) and A. alpinus it was determined that their listing warranted based on any of the above bolivianus. These subspecies occur in continued to be warranted but threat factors, singly or in combination. two disjunct (widely separated) areas precluded because of other listing Below is a species-by-species analysis (see Current Range) (BLI 2000, p. 392; actions. A listing priority of 2 indicates of the five factors. The species are del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281; ITIS 2009, that the subject species face imminent considered in alphabetical order, p. 1) and are distinguished by the color threats of high magnitude. With the beginning with the ash-breasted tit- of their underbellies (see Taxonomy) exception of the listing priority ranking tyrant, followed by the Junı´n grebe, (BLI 2009o, p. 1). of 1, which addresses monotypic genera Junı´n rail, Peruvian plantcutter, royal that face imminent threats of high Habitat and Life History cinclodes, and the white-browed tit- magnitude, categories 2 and 3 represent The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is spinetail. the Service’s highest priorities. restricted to semihumid Polylepis or On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we I. Ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Anairetes Polylepis - Gynoxys woodlands, where published in the Federal Register a alpinus) the species is found at elevations notice announcing our annual petition between 12,139 and 15,092 feet (ft) findings for foreign species. In that Species Description (3,700 and 4,600 meters (m)) above sea notice, we announced listing to be The ash-breasted tit-tyrant, locally level (BLI 2000, p. 392; Collar et al. warranted for 30 foreign bird species, known as ‘‘torito pechicenizo,’’ is a 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. including the six Peruvian bird species small New World tyrant flycatcher in 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, pp. 468- which are the subject of this proposed the Tyrannidae family that is native to 469; InfoNatura 2007, p. 1). The genus rule, and stated that we would high-altitude woodlands of the Bolivian Polylepis (no English common name; ‘‘promptly publish proposals to list and Peruvian Andes (BirdLife locally referred to as ‘‘queun˜ a’’) (Aucca these 30 taxa.’’ In selecting these six International (BLI) 2000, p. 392; Collar and Ramsay 2005, p. 1), in the Rosaceae species from the list of warranted-but- et al. 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et al. 2004, family, comprises approximately 20 precluded species, we took into pp. 170, 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, species of evergreen bushes and trees consideration the magnitude and pp. 468-469; InfoNatura 2007, p. 1; (De la Via 2004, p. 10; Kessler 1998, p. immediacy of the threats to the species, Supreme Decree No. 034-2004-AG 2004, 1; Kessler and Schmidt-Lebuhn 2006, consistent with the Service’s listing p. 276854). The sexes are similar, with pp. 1-2), 19 of which occur in Peru priority guidelines. adults approximately 5 inches (in) (13 (Chutas et al. 2008, p. 3). In Bolivia, the On September 8, 2008, the Service centimeters (cm)) in length, with dark ash-breasted tit-tyrant is associated only received a 60–day notice of intent to sue gray, inconspicuously black-streaked with P. pepei forests, but the bird is from the Center for Biological Diversity upperparts (BLI 2009o, p. 1; del Hoyo et found among a greater variety of (CBD) and Peter Galvin over violations al. 2004, p. 281). Two subspecies (see Polylepis species in Peru (Chutas et al. of section 4 of the Act for the Service’s Taxonomy) are distinguished by their 2008, p. 16; I. Go´mez, National Museum failure to promptly publish listing underbelly color, which is yellowish- of National History-Ornithology proposals for the 30 ‘‘warranted’’ white in the nominate subspecies and Section-Bolivian Fauna Collection, La species identified in our 2008 ANOR. white in the other (BLI 2009o, p. 1) (see Paz, Bolivia, e-mail to Division of Under a settlement agreement approved Taxonomy). Juvenile plumage is duller Scientific Authority, in litt. December 4, by the U.S. District Court for the in appearance, but otherwise similar to 2007, p. 1). On average, Polylepis Northern District of California on June the adult coloration (del Hoyo et al. species are 10-33 ft (3-10 m) tall, but 15, 2009, (CBD, et al. v. Salazar, 09-cv- 2004, p. 281). may grow to a height of 118 ft (36 m) 02578-CRB), the Service must submit to (Purcell et al. 2004, p. 455). the Federal Register proposed listing Taxonomy Polylepis woodlands occur as dense rules for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant, When the species was first forests, as open-canopied stands with Junı´n grebe, Junı´n rail, Peruvian taxonomically described by Carriker more arid understories, or as shrubland plantcutter, royal cinclodes, and white- (1933, pp. 27-29), it was placed in its with scattered trees (De la Via 2004, pp. browed tit-spinetail by December 29, own genus, Yanacea; this decision was 10-11; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited 2009. soon questioned by Zimmer (1940, p. in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113; Lloyd and

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Marsden in press, as cited in Lloyd burning and grazing, which have p. 1; BLI 2009l, p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1; 2008, p. 532). Ash-breasted tit-tyrants prevented regeneration of the Collar et al. 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et prefer dense Polylepis forests (Fjeldsa˚ woodlands and resulted in the al. 2004, p. 281). Until 1992, the taxon 2002a, p. 114; Smith 1971, p. 269), fragmented habitat distribution seen in this locality was highly localized and which often include a mixture of today (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, Kessler known only in Ancash Region (Collar et Gynoxys trees (no common name), in 1995a, Kessler 1995b, and L#gaard al. 1992, p. 753). The species was the Asteraceae family (De la Via 2004, 1992, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112; subsequently reported in Hua´nuco pp. 10; International Plant Names Index Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Kessler 2002, Region, in 2003 (BLI 2007, p. 5; BLI (IPNI) 2009, p. 1). Dense Polylepis pp. 97-101; Kessler and Herzog 1998, 2009i, p. 1); La Libertad Region, in 2004 woodlands are characterized by moss- pp. 50-51). Modeling studies by Fjeldsa˚ (del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281); and Lima or vine-laden vegetation, with a shaded (2002a, p. 116) indicate that this habitat Region and again in Hua´nuco Region, in understory and a rich diversity of reduction was accompanied by a loss in 2007 (BLI 2007, pp. 1, 5). Also in 2007, insects, making good feeding grounds species richness. It is estimated that the ash-breasted tit-tyrant was also for insectivorous birds (De la Via 2004, only 2-3 and 10 percent of the original observed in a new locality in Ancash p. 10), such as the ash-breasted tit-tyrant forest cover still remain in Peru and Region, Corredor Conchucos (Chutas (BLI 2009o, p. 1; Lloyd 2008, p. 535). Bolivia, respectively (Fjeldsa˚ and 2007, pp. 4, 8), where a Polylepis There is little information about the Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, reforestation project is under way to ecology and breeding behavior of the p. 113). Of this amount, only 1 percent connect two protected areas where ash- ash-breasted tit-tyrant. The species’ of the remaining Polylepis woodlands breasted tit-tyrants were already known territory ranges from 2.5–5 acres (ac) (1– are found in humid areas, where denser to occur, Parque Nacional Huascara´n 2 hectares (ha)) (BLI 2009o, p. 1). The stands occur (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, and Zona Reservada de la Cordillera breeding season appears to occur during as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113) and Huayhuash (Antamina Mine 2006, p. 5; late dry season (Collar et al. 1992, p. which are preferred by the ash-breasted MacLennan 2009, p. 1) (see Factor A). 754)—November and December (BLI tit-tyrant (BLI 2009o, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ The second location spans the 2009o, p. 1). Juveniles have been 2002a, p. 114; Lloyd 2008, p. 535; Smith Peruvian-Bolivian border—in the observed in March and July (Collar et al. 1971, p. 269) (see Factor A). Peruvian Administrative Regions of 1992, p. 754; del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. Apurı´mac, Cusco, Puno, and Arequipa 281). Although species-specific Current Range and Distribution (from north to south) and in the information is not available, tit-tyrant The current range of the ash-breasted Bolivian Department of La Paz. Here, nests are generally finely woven, open tit-tyrant is estimated to be 4,595 square the southern subspecies (A. alpinus cups, built in a bush (Fjeldsa˚ and miles (mi2) (11,900 square kilometers bolivianus) occurs in Cordillera Oriental Krabbe 1990, p. 468). The species may (km2)) (BLI 2009o, p. 1). However, (Apurı´mac and Cusco), Cordilleras share in rearing responsibilities, as pairs BirdLife International (2000, pp. 22, 27) Vilcanota and Vilcabamba (Cusco), and of ash-breasted tit-tyrants have been defines a species’ ‘‘Range’’ as the Cordillera de Carabaya (Puno)—in observed feeding young (BLI 2009o, p. ‘‘Extent of Occurrence,’’ which is ‘‘the Peru—and ranges into Bolivia, where it 1; Collar et al. 1992, p. 754). area contained within the shortest is found in the Cordillera Real and the The ash-breasted tit-tyrant forages continuous imaginary boundary which Cordillera Apolobamba (La Paz) (BLI alone, in family groups, and sometimes can be drawn to encompass all the 2000, p. 392; BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, in mixed-species flocks. The bird takes known, inferred, or projected sites of p. 1; BLI 2009c, p. 1; BLI 2009d, p. 1; short flights, either hovering or perching present occurrence of a species, BLI 2009e, p. 1; BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI to consume invertebrates near the tops excluding cases of vagrancy.’’ Given that 2009k, p. 1; BLI 2009m, p. 1; BLI 2009n, and outer edges of Polylepis shrubs and the species is known to occur in two p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 5; Chutas 2007, p. 8; trees (BLI 2009o, p. 1; del Hoyo et al. disjunct locations, this range estimate, Collar et al. 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et 2004, p. 281; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 58; therefore, includes a large area of habitat al. 2004, p. 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 468; Lloyd where the species is not known to 1990, pp. 468-469; InfoNatura 2007, p. 2008, p. 535). In winter, when occur. 1). The ash-breasted tit-tyrant was only invertebrate populations diminish, tit- The species is restricted to patches of recently (in 2008) reported in Arequipa tyrants may also forage on seeds (Fjeldsa˚ high-elevation semihumid Polylepis or Region, Peru (BLI 2009j, p. 1). and Krabbe 1990, p. 468). Polylepis - Gynoxys woodlands of Peru The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is highly and Bolivia, where ash-breasted tit- Historical Range and Distribution localized (Collar et al. 1992, p. 753) and tyrant is found only at 12,139–15,092 ft has been described as ‘‘very rare and The ash-breasted tit-tyrant may once (3,700–4,600 m) (BLI 2000, p. 392; local, with usually only 1–2 pairs per have been well-distributed throughout Collar et al. 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et occupied woodland’’ (Fjeldsa˚ and previously dense and contiguous al. 2004, pp. 170, 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 469). It exists at such Polylepis high-Andes woodlands of Peru Krabbe 1990, pp. 468-469; InfoNatura low densities in some places that it goes and Bolivia. Researchers believe that 2007, p. 1). The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is undetected (Collar et al. 1992, p. 753). these woodlands were historically known only in two disjunct areas: one The species appears to be unable to contiguous with lower-elevation location in west-central Peru and persist in forest remnants smaller than cloudforests and widespread above another ranging from southern Peru into 2.5 ac (1 ha) (BLI 2009o, p. 1). 9,843 ft (3,000 m) (Collar et al. 1992, p. northern Bolivia (BLI 2000, p. 392; del 753; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111-112, 115; Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281; ITIS 2009, p. Population Estimates Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Kessler 2002, 1). Population information is presented pp. 97-101). Today, Polylepis In west-central Peru, the northern first on the range country level and then woodlands are found only at elevations subspecies (A. alpinus alpinus) occurs in terms of a global population estimate. of 11,483 to 16,404 ft (3,500 to 5,000 m) in the Cordilleras Central and The range country estimates begin with (Fjeldsa˚ 1992, p. 10). Researchers Occidental (in the Peruvian Peru, where the majority of the consider the reduction in Polylepis Administrative Regions of Ancash, population resides. forest habitat to be the result of Hua´nuco, La Libertad, and Lima) (BLI Local population estimate, Peru: historical human activities, including 2007, p. 1; BLI 2009g, p. 1; BLI 2009i, Chutas (2007, p. 8) surveyed five

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disjunct Polylepis forest patches in Peru number of breeding individuals that Conservation Status and estimated that 461 ash-breasted tit- contribute to the next generation) The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is tyrants were located there. This (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; Soule´ 1980, considered ‘‘endangered’’ by the included 30 birds in Corredor pp. 160-162). Because the ash-breasted Peruvian Government under Supreme Conchucos (Ancash Region); 181 birds tit-tyrant exists as two subspecies (BLI Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. and 33 birds in Cordilleras Vilcanota 2000, p. 392; BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, 276855). The IUCN considers the ash- and Vilcabamba, respectively (Cusco p. 1; BLI 2009c, p. 1; BLI 2009d, p. 1; breasted tit-tyrant to be ‘‘Endangered’’ Region); 22 birds in Cordillera de BLI 2009e, p. 1; BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI because it has a very small population Carabaya (Puno Region); and 195 birds 2009k, p. 1; BLI 2009m, p. 1; BLI 2009n, that is undergoing continued decline in in a study site called ‘‘Cordillera del p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 5; Chutas 2007, p. 8; the number of mature individuals and is Apurı´mac’’ (Apurı´mac Region) (Chutas Collar et al. 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et confined to a habitat that is severely 2007, pp. 4, 8), referring to an area al. 2004, p. 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe fragmented and is also undergoing a within the Runtacocha highlands. Other 1990, pp. 468-469; InfoNatura 2007, p. continuing decline in extent, area, and research in the Runtacocha highlands 1; ITIS 2009, p. 1), it is reasonable to quality (BLI 2008, p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 4; has indicated that the ash-breasted tit- conclude that there is little or no gene IUCN 2001, pp. 8-12). The ash-breasted tyrant is ‘‘relatively common’’ there (BLI flow between the two subspecies and tit-tyrant occurs within the following 2007, p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1), with an that the species does not breed as a Peruvian protected areas: Parque estimated 100 pairs of birds found in single population. Therefore, even if all Nacional Huascara´n, in Ancash, and approximately 40 forest patches (Fjeldsa˚ 641 individuals were mature, they Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu, in in litt. 1990, as cited in Collar et al. would not breed as a single population, Cusco, and Zona Reservada de la 1992, p. 753). ‘‘Small numbers’’ of birds such that the species’ effective Cordillera Huayhuash, spanning are reported in La Libertad Region (del population size is less than 641. Ancash, Hua´nuco, and Lima (BLI 2009i, Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281). There are no There are also constraints to p. 1; BLI 2009l, p. 1; BLI 2009n, p. 1; population estimates within Arequipa, determining the effective population Chutas et al. 2008, p. 16). In La Paz Hua´nuco, or Lima Regions, where the size on a subspecies level. According to Department, Bolivia, the species is ash-breasted tit-tyrant is also reported to International Union for Conservation of found in Parque Nacional y a´rea Natural occur (BLI 2009g, p. 1; BLI 2009i, p. 1; Nature (IUCN) criteria, it is estimated de Manejo Integrado Madidi, Parque BLI 2009j, p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1). that there are no more than 250 mature Nacional y a´rea Natural de Manejo Local population estimate, Bolivia: individuals in any single subpopulation Integrado Cotapata, and the co-located Although BirdLife International reports of the ash-breasted tit-tyrant (IUCN protected areas of Reserva Nacional de an estimated population size of 150–300 2001, pp. 8-12). However, the Fauna de Apolobamba, a´rea Natural de ash-breasted tit-tyrants in Bolivia parameters of a subpopulation are not Manejo Integrado de Apolobamba, and (Go´mez in litt., 2003 and 2007, as cited provided in existing research. For Reserva de la Biosfera de Apolobamba in BLI 2009o, p. 1), recent surveys instance, while ash-breasted tit-tyrants (Auza and Hennessey 2005, p. 81; BLI indicate that the estimate is smaller. occupy territories of 2.5–5 ac (1–2 ha) 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009c, Over a six-year period, Go´mez (in litt. (BLI 2009o, p. 1), there is no p. 1; BLI 2009e, p. 1; BLI 2009i, p. 1; 2007, p. 1) conducted intensive searches information as to the taxon’s ability or Chutas et al. 2008, p. 16). throughout 80 percent of the suitable tendency to travel between territories or habitat in Bolivia in the Cordillera Real Summary of Factors Affecting the Ash- and the Cordillera Apolobamba (La Paz forest patches. Research on Bolivian breasted Tit-tyrant localities indicates that gene flow occurs Department), using song playback and A. The Present or Threatened point census, to detect the presence of between some subpopulations, but not ´ Destruction, Modification, or the ash-breasted tit-tyrant. From this all (Gomez 2005, p. 86). In Bolivia, where only 1 subspecies occurs, the Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or work, researchers inferred or observed Range the presence of 2–10 individuals in each birds are distributed in 2 of four forest patches and estimated that metapopulations, with at least 5 The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is approximately 180 ash-breasted tit- subpopulations in one location and 14 dependent upon high-elevation tyrants occur in Bolivia. subpopulations in the other (Go´mez semihumid Polylepis or Polylepis - Global population estimate: BirdLife 2005, p. 86). Peruvian population Gynoxys woodlands (BLI 2000, p. 392; International, a global organization that estimates are incomplete, with no Collar et al. 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et consults with and assimilates estimates for the ash-breasted tit-tyrants al. 2004, pp. 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe information from species experts, occurring in Arequipa, Hua´nuco, La 1990, pp. 468-469; InfoNatura 2007, p. categorizes the ash-breasted tit-tyrant as Libertad or Lima (BLI 2009g, p. 1; BLI 1). Researchers believe that this habitat having a population size between 250 2009i, p. 1; BLI 2009j, p. 1; BLI 2009o, was historically contiguous with lower- and 999 individuals, with an estimated p. 1; del Hoyo et al. 2004, p. 281). elevation cloudforests and widespread actual population size to be in the mid- Therefore, we can conclude that gene above 9,843 ft (3,000 m) (Collar et al. to upper-hundreds (BLI 2000, p. 392; flow occurs at the subspecies level, but 1992, p. 753; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111, BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1). there is not sufficient information to 115), but Polylepis woodlands occur Combining the estimated number of ash- determine the extent to which today only between 11,483–16,404 ft breasted tit-tyrants in Peru and Bolivia, subpopulations interbreed. (3,500–5,000 m) (Fjeldsa˚ 1992, p. 10). the total population consists of at least The species has experienced a As described above (see Habitat and Life 641 individuals (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8; population decline of between 10 and History), the species prefers dense Go´mez in litt. 2007, p. 1), consistent 19 percent in the past 10 years, and this woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 114; Smith with the BirdLife International category rate of decline is predicted to continue 1971, p. 269), where the best foraging of 250–999 individuals. (BLI 2009o, pp. 1, 4). The population is habitat occurs (De la Via 2004, p. 10), However, the total population size, considered to be declining in close and ash-breasted tit-tyrant occurs at which includes immature individuals, association with continued habitat loss altitudes of 12,139–15,092 ft (3,700– is not an accurate reflection of the and degradation (see Factors A and E) 4,600 m) (BLI 2000, p. 392; Collar et al. species’ effective population size (the (BLI 2007, pp. 1, 4; BLI 2009o, p. 5). 1992, p. 753; del Hoyo et al. 2004, pp.

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170, 281; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, pp. 2002b, p. 8; WCMC 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1; Lloyd 2009, p. 10), and in the Ancash 468-469; InfoNatura 2007, p. 1). 1998b, p. 1). In some areas, the burns Region (MacLennan 2009, p. 2). Known High-Andean Polylepis woodlands are escape control, causing further habitat as the ‘‘Vilcanota Project’’ or ECOAN considered by experts to be the most destruction (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009e, Projects (Aucca and Ramsey 2005, p. threatened habitat in Peru and Bolivia pp. 1, 5). Burning and clearcutting occur 287; ECOAN n.d., p. 1), local (Purcell et al. 2004, p. 457), throughout throughout the ash-breasted tit-tyrant’s communities enter into and enforce the Andean region (BLI 2009a, p. 2), and range, including in Ancash (BLI 2009h, management agreements aimed at the one of the most threatened woodland p. 1), Apurı´mac (BLI 2009m, p. 1), and primary causes for Polylepis ecosystems in the world (Renison et al. Cusco (BLI 2009n, p. 4), in Peru; and La deforestation: burning, grazing, and 2005, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 10). The Paz, Bolivia (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009c, wood-cutting. These projects foster IUCN has listed several Polylepis pp. 1-2; BLI 2009d, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009e, local, sustainable use of resources species as ‘‘Vulnerable,’’ including two pp. 1, 5). These activities are also (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. 287; species that occur within the ash- ongoing within protected areas, ECOAN n.d., p. 1; Engblom et al. 2002, breasted tit-tyrant’s range, Polylepis including Parque Nacional Huascara´n, p. 56), such as the use of more fuel- incana and P. pepei (WCMC 1998a, p. Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu, and efficient wood-burning stoves that 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). Peruvian and Zona Reservada de la Cordillera require half the amount of wood fuel Bolivian Polylepis woodlands today are Huayhuash (Barrio 2005, p. 564; BLI (MacLennan 2009, p. 2) (see the Factor highly fragmented. In the late 1990s, 2009l, p. 4; BLI 2009n, p. 2) (see Factor A analyses for royal cinclodes and Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler (1996, as cited in D). white-browed tit-spinetail for additional Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113) conducted As a result of the intensity of burning examples). comprehensive ground surveys and and grazing, Polylepis species are Polylepis wood is also harvested for analyzed maps and satellite images of restricted to areas where fires cannot local commercial use, including within the area. They estimated that the current spread, and where cattle and sheep do protected areas (BLI 2009a, p. 2; WCMC range of Polylepis woodlands had been not normally roam—in stream ravines 1998a, p. 1) (Factor D). At one site, near reduced from historical levels by 97– and on boulders, rock ledges, and sandy Abra Ma´laga (Cusco Region), wood is 98% in Peru and 90 percent in Bolivia. ridges (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112; Fjeldsa˚ harvested for sale to local hotels in the Contemporary Polylepis woodlands are 2002b, p. 8). Grazing and trampling by towns of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo dispersed and sparse, covering an domesticated animals further limit to support tourism activity (Engblom estimated area of 386 mi2 (1,000 km2) forest regeneration (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 2000, p. 1). Engblom (2000, p. 1) and 1,931 mi2 (5,000 km2) in Peru and 120) and contribute to the degradation documented felling for firewood at this Bolivia, respectively (Fjeldsa˚ and of remaining forest patches. Sheep and site in Cusco over a 2–day period that Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, cattle have solid, sharp hooves that significantly reduced the size and p. 113). Of the remaining Polylepis churn up the earth, damaging vegetation quality of the forest patch. Purcell et al. woodlands, only 1 percent are found in and triggering erosion (Engblom et al. (2004, p. 458) noted a positive humid areas, where denser Polylepis 2002, p. 56; Purcell et al. 2004, p. 458). correlation between habitat destruction forests tend to occur (Fjeldsa˚ and The loss of nutrient-rich soils leads to and increased demand for (and the Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, habitat degradation, which reduces the concomitant rise in the price of) fuel. p. 113). Dense habitat is preferred by the ability of the habitat to support dense Polylepis is also harvested for ash-breasted tit-tyrant (BLI 2009o, p. 1; stands of Polylepis woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ construction, fencing, and tool-making Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 114; Lloyd 2008, p. 2002b, p. 8; Jameson and Ramsay 2007, (Aucca and Ramsey 2005, p. 287; BLI 535; Smith 1971, p. 269). p. 42; Purcell et al. 2004, p. 458). 2009a, p. 2). Commercial-scale Habitat loss, conversion, and Ash-breasted tit-tyrant habitat is also activities, such as clearcutting, logging, degradation throughout the ash-breasted subject to conversion, degradation, or tourism, and infrastructure tit-tyrant’s range have been and destruction caused by extractive development, are ongoing throughout continue to occur as a result of ongoing activities, such as firewood collection, this species’ range, and alter otherwise human activity, including (1) timber harvest, and mining. Cutting sustainable resource use practices Clearcutting and burning; (2) extractive wood for fuel has a consistent and (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. 287; activities; (3) human encroachment; and ongoing impact throughout the species’ Engblom 2000, p. 2; Engblom et al. (4) unpredictable climate fluctuations range (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, pp. 2002, p. 56; MacLennan 2009, p. 2; that exacerbate the effects of habitat 1-2; BLI 2009c, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009d, pp. Purcell and Brelsford 2004, pp. 156-157; fragmentation. Clearcutting and burning 1-2; BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI 2009l, p. 1; Purcell et al. 2004, pp. 458-459; WCMC are among the most destructive WCMC 1998a, p. 1). The high-altitude 1998a, p. 1). Commercial-scale resource activities, and are a leading cause for zones where Polylepis occurs have long use is exacerbated by ongoing human Polylepis habitat loss (WCMC 1998a, p. been inhabited by subsistence farmers, encroachment, discussed below. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). Forested areas who rely on Polylepis wood for Mining in Polylepis habitat occurs in are cleared for agriculture and to create firewood and charcoal production the Peruvian Regions of Ancash and pastureland for cattle, sheep, and (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. 287). Many Hua´naco and in the Bolivian camels (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009c, pp. locals manage woodlands for firewood Department of La Paz (BLI 2009b, p. 1; 1-2; BLI 2009d, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009e, pp. extraction (Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56), BLI 2009d, p. 1; BLI 2009g, p. 1). 1, 5; BLI 2009h, p. 1; BLI 2009m, p. 1; and community-based Polylepis Ancash (Peru) is home to the largest BLI 2009n, p. 4). Grazing lands situated conservation programs fostered by the zinc and copper mine ‘‘in the world,’’ amongst remaining forest patches are Peruvian nongovernmental organization with a monthly average production rate regularly burned in order to maintain Asociacio´n Ecosistemas Andinos of 231,485 pounds (105,000 metric tons) the grassland vegetation (locally known (ECOAN) have been under way in Peru of minerals per day and a 186-mile (mi) as, ‘‘chaqueo’’). Regular burning and Bolivia since 2004, encompassing (300 kilometer (km)) pipeline that prevents regeneration of native forests Cordilleras Vilcanota and Vilcabamba stretches from the mine to the port of and is considered the key factor limiting (Cusco Region), highlands of the Punta Lobitos along the coast (Antamina the distribution of Polylepis forests (BLI Apurı´mac Region (Aucca and Ramsey Mine 2006, pp. 4, 9; 2009f, p. 1; BLI 2009n, p. 4; Fjeldsa˚ 2005, p. 287; ECOAN no date (n.d.), p. www.antamina.com/02_operacion/

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En_puerto.html). Mining occurs in ash- the Apolobamba protected areas in Cordillera Vilcanota during 2003–2005. breast tit-tyrant habitat in La Paz, Bolivia) is considered a growing The sites were described as highly Bolivia, where there are active gold, tin, problem (Barrio 2005, p. 564; BLI 2009e, fragmented, consisting of many small silver, and tungsten mines, in addition p. 5) (see Factor D). In the Department remnant patches (less than 2.5 ac (1 ha)) to gravel excavation for cement of La Paz, Bolivia, which encompasses and scattered trees, separated from production (USGS Minerals Yearbook Bolivia’s largest urban area, most of the larger woodland tracts (greater than 25 2005, pp. 4-7). Antamina Mine has Polylepis forest had been eliminated ac (10 ha)) by distances of 98–4,921 ft undertaken habitat conservation prior to the late 1990s (Purcell and (30–1,500 m) (Lloyd and Marsden in programs within the areas affected by Brelsford 2004, p. 157). Recently, an press, as cited in Lloyd 2008, p. 532). mineral extraction, similar to the accelerated rate of Polylepis forest Given that the species territory ranges ECOAN Polylepis conservation destruction has been attributed to from 2.5–5 ac (1–2 ha) and that the ash- programs, investing millions of dollars clearcutting for road building and breasted tit-tyrant appears to be unable in programs ranging from education and industrialization projects, such as to persist in forest remnants smaller tourism, to organic agriculture and mining and construction of than 2.5 ac (1 ha) (BLI 2009o, p. 1), sustainable development. However, hydroelectric power stations (Purcell these patch sizes have met or are tourism has had negative effects in other and Brelsford 2004, pp. 156-157). approaching the lower threshold of the areas where the ash-breasted tit-tyrant Between 1991 and 2003, approximately species’ ecological requirements. occurs, including Ancash, Hua´nuco, 494 ac (200 ha) of Polylepis habitat was Moreover, 10 percent of the remaining and Lima, Peru, and La Paz, Bolivia destroyed. Thus, nearly two-thirds of forest patches showed a decline in forest (Barrio 2005, p. 564; BLI 2009e, p. 5) the forest cover that existed in the 1990s density over this time-period. (see below). The Antamina Mining no longer existed in 2003 (Purcell and Thus, habitat degradation also has Company conservation program also Brelsford 2004, p. 155). With this serious impacts in Polylepis woodlands supports the planned reforestation of research, it was estimated that only (Jameson and Ramsay 2007, p. 42), 123,552 ac (50,000 ha) of Polylepis 1,285 ac (520 ha) of Polylepis forest especially given the species’ preference forest that will connect two protected remain in the Bolivian Department of La for dense woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. areas, Parque Nacional Huascara´n and Paz, representing approximately a 40 114; Smith 1971, p. 269). The fact that Zona Reservada de la Cordillera percent rate of habitat loss in just over no new Polylepis forest patches had Huayhuash (Antamina Mine 2006, p. 5). one decade. The researchers inferred become established between 1956 and To date, the project has succeeded in that thisrate of destruction could result 2005 underscores the long-term restoring 371 ac (150 ha) of forest, with in extirpation of the remaining Polylepis ramifications of ongoing burning, a 95 percent survival rate (MacLennan forest in La Paz within the next 30 years clearing, grazing, and other habitat- 2009, p. 1). Known as Corredor (Purcell and Brelsford 2004, pp. 157). altering human activities that are Conchucos, at least 30 ash-breasted tit- Larger concentrations of people put pervasive throughout the ash-breasted tyrants have recently been observed greater demand on the natural resources tit-tyrant’s range (BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI there (Chutas 2007, p. 8). in the area. Increasing demand for 2009n, p. 4; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8; WCMC Human encroachment and firewood upsets informal and otherwise 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). These concomitant increasing human sustainable community-based forest activities are considered to be key population pressures exacerbate the management traditions (Purcell and factors both in preventing regeneration destructive effects of ongoing human Brelsford, 2004, p. 157). Increasing of Polylepis woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, activities throughout the ash-breasted human populations in the high-Andes p. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8) and in tit-tyrant’s habitat. Mining and of Bolivia and Peru have also resulted the historical decline of Polylepis hydroelectric projects open new areas to in a scarcity of arable land. This has led -dependent bird species, including the exploitation and attract people seeking many farmers to burn down additional ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. employment (Purcell et al. 2004, p. patches of Polylepis forests to plant 116). Researchers consider the species’ 458). Increased urbanization and mining crops, even on steep hillsides not population to be declining in close have led to increased infrastructure suitable for cultivation (BLI 2009b, p. 2; association with the continued habitat development. Road building and mining BLI 2009h, p. 1; Hensen 2002, p. 199). loss and degradation (BLI 2007, pp. 1, projects further facilitate human access These ongoing farming practices result 4; BLI 2008, p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1). to remaining Polylepis forest fragments, in the rapid loss of Polylepis forests Therefore, further habitat loss will throughout the ash-breasted tit-tyrant’s from Bolivia to Peru. continue to impact the species’ already range (Purcell et al. 2004, pp. 458-459; Habitat destruction is often caused by small population size (see Factor E). Purcell and Brelsford, 2004, pp. 156- a combination of human activities that Peru is subject to unpredictable 157), including protected areas. In the promote habitat degradation. In the climate fluctuations that exacerbate the Bolivian Department of La Paz, one of Cordillera de Vilcanota (Cusco, Peru), effects of habitat fragmentation, such as the most transited highways in the where an estimated 181 birds are found those that are related to the El Nin˜ o country is located a short distance from (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8), the rate of Southern Oscillation (ENSO). According the Parque Nacional y a´rea Natural de habitat loss was studied by comparing to the U.S. Dept. of Commerce–National Manejo Integrado Cotapata (BLI 2009b, forest cover between 1956 and 2005. Oceanic and Atmospheric p. 2) (see Factor D). Road building, This study revealed a rate of habitat loss Administration (NOAA), the term ENSO mining, and other large-scale resource averaging only 1 percent. However, refers to a range of variability associated exploitations are considered to have remaining patches of Polylepis with the southern trade winds in the major impacts on the habitat, as woodland were small, with a mean eastern and central equatorial Pacific compared to exploitation by local patch size of 7.4 ac (3 ha); four forest Ocean. El Nin˜ o events are characterized communities (Purcell and Brelsford patches had disappeared completely; by unusual warming of the ocean, while 2004, p. 157). and no new patches were located within La Nin˜ a events bring cooler ocean Ecotourism within protected areas the study area (Jameson and Ramsay temperatures (Tropical Atmosphere where the ash-breasted tit-tyrant occurs 2007, p. 42). Lloyd (2008, p. 532) Ocean (TAO) Project no date (n.d.), p. (such as in the Zona Reservada de la studied bird foraging habits at three 1). Generally speaking, extreme ENSO Cordillera Huayhuash in Peru, and in Polylepis woodland sites in the events alter weather patterns, so that

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precipitation increases in normally dry In 1999, Timmermann (1999, p. 694) breasted tit-tyrant’s range has been and areas, and decreases in normally wet predicted that climate change events continues to be altered and destroyed as areas. During an El Nin˜ o event, rainfall would increase the periodicity and a result of human activities, including dramatically increases, whereas a La severity of droughts and excessive clearcutting and burning for agriculture, Nin˜ a event brings near-drought rainfalls, such as those caused by El grazing lands, tourism, and conditions (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89). Nin˜ o and La Nin˜ a events. Evidence industrialization; extractive activities, If we consider that wildlife habitat is suggests that this is the case in Peru including firewood, timber, and mineral not only defined by substrates (Richter 2005, p. 24-25). Over the past extraction; and human encroachment (vegetation, soil, water), but also decade, there have been four El Nin˜ o and concomitant increased pressure on atmospheric conditions, then changes in events (1997–1998, 2002–2003, 2004– natural resources. Researchers estimate air temperature and moisture can 2005, and 2006–2007) and three La Nin˜ a that 1 percent of the dense woodlands effectively change a species’ habitat. events (1998-2000, 2000-2001, and preferred by the species remains, and Climate change is characterized by 2007-2008) (National Weather Service that all remaining habitat is fragmented variations in the earth’s temperature and (NWS) 2009, p. 2). In Peru, the Andean and degraded. The ash-breasted tit- precipitation, causing changes in highlands, and Polylepis species in tyrant currently occupies an area of atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial particular, are strongly influenced by approximately 4,595 mi2 (11,900 km2) conditions (Parmesan and Mathews ENSO events (Christie et al. 2008, p. 1). and appears to be unable to persist in 2005, p. 334). Global climate change and Christie et al. (2008, p. 1) found that tree forest remnants smaller than 2.5 ac (1 other periodic climatic patterns (e.g., El growth in P. tarapacana is highly ha). Forest fragments in some portions Nin˜ o and La Nin˜ a) can cause or influenced by ENSO events because of the ash-breasted tit-tyrant’s range are exacerbate such negative impacts on a ENSO cycles on the Peruvian Coast are approaching the lower threshold of the broad range of terrestrial ecosystems strongest during the growing season species’ ecological requirements. The and Neotropical bird populations (December–February). ENSO-related historical decline of habitat suitable for (England 2000, p. 86; Holmgren et al. droughts can increase tree mortality and this species is attributed to the same 2001, p. 89; Plumart 2007, pp. 1-2; dramatically alter age structure within human activities that are causing habitat Timmermann 1999, p. 694). tree populations, especially where loss today. Ongoing and accelerated Unpredictable climate fluctuations woodlands have undergone disturbance, habitat destruction of the remaining negatively impact populations such as fire and grazing (Villalba and Polylepis forest fragments in Peru and undergoing habitat fragmentation. In the Veblen 1997, pp. 121-123; Villalba and Bolivia continues to reduce the face of an unpredictable climate, the Veblen 1998, pp. 2624, 2637). quantity, quality, distribution, and risk of population decline due to habitat With years of extremely high rainfall regeneration of remaining patches. fragmentation is heightened. Mora et al. followed by years of extremely dry Human activities that degrade, alter, and (2007, p. 1027) found that the combined weather (Block and Richter 2007, p. 1), destroy habitat are ongoing throughout effects of habitat fragmentation and fire hazard is increased from the the species’ range, including within climate change (in this case, warming) biomass accumulated during the wet protected areas (see also Factor D). had a synergistic effect, rather than period that dries and adds to the fuel Current research indicates that climate additive. In other words, the interactive load in the dry season (Block and fluctuations exacerbate the risks to effects of both climate fluctuation and Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. 2007, p. species that are already undergoing habitat fragmentation led to a greater 898). Evidence suggests that the fire range reduction due to habitat population decline than if either climate cycle in Peru has shortened, particularly alteration. Climate models predict that change or habitat fragmentation were in coastal Peru and west of the Andes this species’ habitat will continue to acting alone on populations. Jetz et al. (Power et al. 2007, pp. 897-898). decline. Experts consider the species’ (2007, p. 1211) investigated the effects Changes in the fire-regime can have population decline to be commensurate of climate change on 8,750 land bird broad ecological consequences (Block with the declining habitat (Factor E). species, including the ash-breasted tit- and Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. Therefore, we find that destruction and tyrant, that are exposed to ongoing 2007, p. 898). In the case of the ash- modification of habitat are threats to the manmade land cover changes (i.e., breasted tit-tyrant, burning is continued existence of the ash-breasted habitat loss). They determined that a considered to be a key factor preventing tit-tyrant throughout its range. narrow endemic, such as the ash- Polylepis regeneration (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. breasted tit-tyrant, is likely to suffer 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8). Research B. Overutilization for Commercial, greater impacts from climate change, in Ecuadorian Polylepis - Gynoxys Recreational, Scientific, or Educational especially where projected range mixed woodlands indicated a strong Purposes contractions are driven by manmade reduction in P. incana adult and land conversion activities (Jetz et al. seedling survival following a single fire. We are not aware of any information 2007, p. 1213). This is due to the This indicates that the species does not currently available that indicates that species’ already small population size, recover well from even a single fire overutilization of the species for specialized habitat requirements, and event (Cierjacks et al. 2007, p. 176). An commercial, recreational, scientific, or heightened risk of extinction from accelerated fire cycle would exacerbate educational purposes has occurred or is stochastic demographic processes (see this situation. occurring at this time. As a result, we also Factor E). According to this study, Activities that destroy and alter are not considering overutilization to be by 2050, up to 18 percent of the ash- habitat are ongoing within protected a threat to the continued existence of breasted tit-tyrant’s current remaining areas. This is further discussed under the ash-breasted tit-tyrant. range is likely to be unsuitable for this Factor D. C. Disease or Predation species due to climate change; and, by 2100, it is predicted that about 18 to 42 Summary of Factor A We are not aware of any scientific or percent of the species’ range is likely to The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is commercial information that indicate be lost as a direct result of global dependent on Polylepis habitat, with a disease or predation poses a threat to climate change (Jetz et al. 2007, preference for dense woodlands. this species. As a result, we are not Supplementary Table 2, p. 73). Polylepis habitat throughout the ash- considering disease or predation to be a

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threat to the continued existence of the (spanning Ancash, Hua´nuco, and Lima) nor does it mitigate the threats to the ash-breasted tit-tyrant. (Barrio 2005, p. 563; BLI 2009i, p. 1; BLI species from ongoing habitat loss 2009l, p. 1; BLI 2009n, p. 1). Habitat (Factor A) and concomitant population D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory destruction and alteration, including decline (Factor E). Mechanisms burning, cutting, and grazing are Bolivia passed an overarching This analysis of regulatory ongoing within Parque Nacional environmental law in 1992 (Law No. mechanisms is discussed on a country- Huascara´n and Santuario Histo´rico 1,333 1992), with the intent of by-country basis, beginning with Peru. Machu Picchu (BLI 2009l, p. 4; BLI protecting and conserving the Peru: The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is 2009n, p. 2; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 58), environment and natural resources. considered ‘‘endangered’’ by the where resources are supposed to be However, there is no specific legislation Peruvian Government under Supreme managed for conservation (Rodrı´guez to implement these laws (eLAW 2003, p. Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. and Young 2000, p. 330). Reserved 1). Therefore, we cannot determine that 276855). This Decree prohibits hunting, zones are intended to be protected this law protects the species or mitigates take, transport, and trade of protected pending further study (Rodrı´guez and the threats to the species from ongoing species, except as permitted by Young 2000, p. 330). However, burning habitat loss (Factor A) and concomitant regulation. As hunting, take, transport, for habitat conversion and maintenance population decline (Factor E). and trade are not currently threats to the of pastures for grazing and increasing In Bolivia, habitat is protected either ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Factor B), this ecotourism are ongoing within Zona on the national or departmental level regulation does not mitigate any current Reservada de la Cordillera Huayhuash through the following designations: (1) threats to this species. (Barrio 2005, p. 564). Therefore, the Parque (Park, for strict and permanent The Peruvian national protected area occurrence of the ash-breasted tit-tyrant protection of representative of system includes several categories of within protected areas in Peru does not ecosystems and provincial habitats, as habitat protection. Habitat may be protect the species, nor does it mitigate well as plant and animal resources, designated as any of the following: (1) the threats to the species from ongoing along with the geographical, scenic and Parque Nacional (National Park, an area habitat loss (Factor A) and concomitant natural landscapes that contain them); managed mainly for ecosystem population decline (Factor E). (2) Santuario (Sanctuary, for the strict conservation and recreation ); (2) Recent studies by the Peruvian and permanent protection of sites that Santuario (Sanctuary, for the Society for Environmental Law (SPDA) house endemic plants and animals that preservation of sites of notable natural have concluded that there are are threatened or in danger of or historical importance); (3) Reserva approximately 5,000 laws and extinction); (3) Monumento Natural Nacional (National Reserve, for regulations directly or indirectly related (Natural Monument, to preserve areas sustainable extraction of certain to environmental protection and natural such as those with distinctive natural biological resources); (4) Bosque de resource conservation in Peru. However, landscapes or geologic formations, and Proteccio´n (Protection Forest, to many of these are not effective because to conserve the biological diversity safeguard soils and forests, especially of limited implementation and/or contained therein); (4) Reserva de Vida for watershed conservation); (5) Zona enforcement capability (Muller 2001, Silvestre (Wildlife Reserve, for Reservada (Reserved Zone, for pp. 1-2). protection, management, sustainable use temporary protection while further Bolivia: The 1975 Law on Wildlife, and monitoring of wildlife); (5) Area study is under way to determine their National Parks, Hunting and Fishing Natural de Manejo Integrado (Natural importance); (6) Bosque Nacional (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1-34) Area of Integrated Management, where (National Forest, to be managed for has the fundamental objective of conservation of biological diversity is utilization); (7) Reserva Comunal protecting the country’s natural balanced with sustainable development (Communal Reserve, for local area use resources. This law governs the of the local population; and (6) Reserva and management, with national protection, management, utilization, Natural de Inmovilizacio´n oversight); and (8) Cotos de Caza transportation, and selling of wildlife (‘‘Immobilized’’ Natural Reserve, a (Hunting Reserve, for local use and and their products; the protection of temporary (5–year) designation for an management, with national oversight) endangered species; habitat area that requires further research before (BLI 2008, p. 1; Rodrı´guez and Young conservation of fauna and flora; and the any official designations can be made 2000, p. 330). National reserves, declaration of national parks, biological and during which time no natural national forests, communal reserves, reserves, refuges, and wildlife resource concessions can be made and hunting reserves are managed for sanctuaries, tending to the preservation, within the area) (Supreme Decree No. the sustainable use of resources (IUCN promotion, and rational use of these 24,781 1997, p. 3). Within parks, 1994, p. 2). The designations of National resources (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, sanctuaries and natural monuments, Parks, Sanctuaries, and Protection pp. 1-34; eLAW 2003, p. 2). Although extraction or consumption of all Forests, are established by supreme this law designates national protection resources are prohibited, except for decree that supersedes all other legal for all wildlife, there is no information ‘‘scientific research, eco-tourism, claim to the land and, thus, these areas as to the actual protections this confers environmental education, and activities tend to provide more habitat protection. to ash-breasted tit-tyrants. Law No. of subsistence of original towns, All other protected areas are established 12,301 (1975, pp. 1-34) also placed into properly described and authorized.’’ by supreme resolution, which is viewed public trust all national parks, reserves, National protected areas are under the as a less powerful form of protection refuges, and wildlife sanctuaries. management of the national (Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). However, there is no specific government, while departmental Protected areas have been established information as to the governmental protected areas are managed at the through regulation in at least three sites protections afforded within the department level (eLAW 2003, p. 3; occupied by the ash-breasted tit-tyrant protected areas to either the ash- Supreme Decree No. 24,781 1997, p. 3). in Peru: Parque Nacional Huascara´n breasted tit-tyrant or its habitat. Given The ash-breasted tit-tyrant occurs (Ancash), and Santuario Histo´rico the ongoing habitat destruction within several protected areas in the Machu Picchu (Cusco); and Zona throughout the species’ range in Bolivia, Department of La Paz, Bolivia: Parque Reservada de la Cordillera Huayhuash this law does not protect the species, Nacional y a´rea Natural de Manejo

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Integrado Madidi, Parque Nacional y and mineral extraction; and human Shaffer 1981, p. 131), such as reduced a´rea Natural de Manejo Integrado encroachment and concomitant reproductive success of individuals and Cotapata, and the co-located protected increased pressure on natural resources. chance disequilibrium of sex ratios. areas of Reserva Nacional de Fauna de Despite the species’ ‘‘endangered’’ Species tend to have a higher risk of Apolobamba, a´rea Natural de Manejo status in Peru and Bolivian laws extinction if they occupy a small Integrado de Apolobamba, and Reserva intended to protect all wildlife and geographic range and occur at low de la Biosfera de Apolobamba (Auza natural resources, these activities are density (Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949). and Hennessey 2005, p. 81; BLI 2009a, ongoing within protected areas, The ash-breasted tit-tyrant population p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009c, p. 1; indicating that the laws governing declined at a rate between 10 and 19 BLI 2009e, p. 1). Although national wildlife and habitat protection in both percent in the past 10 years, and this parks are intended to be strictly countries are either inadequate or decline is expected to continue in close protected, the two parks in which the inadequately enforced to protect the association with continued habitat loss species occurs (Parque Nacional y a´rea species or to mitigate ongoing habitat and degradation (see Factor A) (BLI Natural de Manejo Integrado Madidi loss (Factor A) and population declines 2009o, p. 1). Extinction risk is and Parque Nacional y a´rea Natural de (Factor E). Therefore, we find that the heightened in small, declining Manejo Integrado Cotapata) are also existing regulatory mechanisms are populations by an increased designated as areas of integrated inadequate to mitigate the current vulnerability to the loss of genetic management, which are managed for the threats to the continued existence of the variation due to inbreeding depression biological conservation balanced with ash-breasted tit-tyrant throughout its and genetic drift (changes in relative the sustainable development of the local range. frequency of gene sequences). This, in population (Supreme Decree No. 24,781 turn, compromises a species’ ability to E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors 1997, p. 3). Grazing and firewood adapt genetically to changing Affecting the Continued Existence of the extraction are ongoing within Parque environments (Frankham 1996, p. 1507) Species Nacional y a´rea Natural de Manejo and reduces fitness, thus increasing Integrado Cotapata (BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI An additional factor that affects the extinction risk (Reed and Frankham 2009c, p. 2). Commercial logging has continued existence of the ash-breasted 2003, pp. 233-234). Once a population occurred within Parque Nacional y a´rea tit-tyrant is the species’ small is reduced below a certain number of Natural de Manejo Integrado Madidi population size. As discussed above (see individuals, it tends to rapidly decline (BLI 2009a, p. 2; WCMC 1998a, p. 1). Population Estimates), the global towards extinction (Franklin 1980, pp. Uncontrolled clearing, extensive population estimate is not an accurate 147-148; Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, p. 25; agriculture, grazing, and ‘‘irresponsible’’ reflection of the species’ effective Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; Soule´ 1987, tourism are ongoing within the population size because gene flow does p. 181). Apolobamba protected areas (Auza and not occur between the subspecies. At Complications arising from the Hennessey 2005, p. 81; BLI 2009e, p. 5). the same time, there is insufficient species’ small population size are Habitat degradation and destruction information on the subspecies or exacerbated by the species’ fragmented from grazing, forest fires, and timber subpopulation level (in terms of distribution. The ash-breasted tit-tyrant extraction are ongoing in other numbers of individuals and breeding is currently confined to restricted and protected areas, such as Tunari National structure) to estimate the effective severely fragmented forest patches in Park (Department of Cochabamba, population size at the subspecies level. the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia (BLI Bolivia), where suitable habitat exists However, with an estimated global 2000, p. 392; BLI 2007, pp. 1; BLI 2008, for this species (De la Vie 2004, p. 7). population size in the mid- to upper- p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1; Collar et al. 1992, Therefore, the occurrence of the ash- hundreds (BLI 2000, p. 392; BLI 2007, p. 753; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as breasted tit-tyrant within protected p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1), and the most cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113; del Hoyo areas in Bolivia does not protect the recent estimate of 641 individuals et al. 2004, p. 281; InfoNatura 2007, p. species, nor does it mitigate the threats (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8; Go´mez in litt. 1) , where it is estimated that only 1 to the species from ongoing habitat loss 2007, p. 1), the ash-breasted tit-tyrant is percent of the dense woodlands (Factor A) and concomitant population considered to have a ‘‘very small preferred by the species remain (Fjeldsa˚ decline (Factor E). population’’ size (BLI 2000, p. 392; BLI 2002a, p. 114; Smith 1971, p. 269) (see 2008, p. 1; BLI 2009o, p. 1). Habitat and Life History). Habitat Summary of Factor D Small population size renders a fragmentation can cause genetic Peru and Bolivia have enacted various species vulnerable to any of several isolation and heighten the risks to the laws and regulatory mechanisms to risks, including inbreeding depression, species associated with short-term protect and manage wildlife and their loss of genetic variation, and genetic viability. Species with a small habitats. The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is accumulation of new mutations. population size, combined with a ‘‘endangered’’ under Peruvian law and Inbreeding can have individual or restricted and severely fragmented occurs within several protected areas in population-level consequences either by range, are exposed to increased Peru and Bolivia. As discussed under increasing the phenotypic expression vulnerability to adverse natural events Factor A, the ash-breasted tit-tyrant (the outward appearance or observable and manmade activities that destroy prefers dense woodlands, which have structure, function, or behavior of a individuals and their habitat (Holsinger been reduced by an estimated 99 living organism) of recessive, 2000, pp. 64-65; Primack 1998, pp. 279- percent in Peru and Bolivia, and the deleterious alleles (harmful gene 308; Young and Clarke 2000, pp. 361- remaining habitat is fragmented and sequences) or by reducing the overall 366). degraded. Habitat throughout the fitness of individuals in the population species’ range has been and continues to (Charlesworth and Charlesworth 1987, Summary of Factor E be altered as a result of human p. 231; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Small, The ash-breasted tit-tyrant has a small activities, including clearcutting and isolated wildlife populations are also population size that renders it burning for agriculture, grazing lands, more susceptible to environmental vulnerable to genetic risks that and industrialization; extractive fluctuations and demographic shifts negatively impact the species’ viability. activities, including, firewood, timber, (Pimm et al. 1988, pp. 757, 773-775; The species occurs in two disjunct

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populations, where habitat is highly isolation of remaining populations; and curbing the threats to the ash-breasted fragmented and continues to be altered (3) inadequate regulatory mechanisms. tit-tyrant of habitat loss (Factor A) and by human activities (Factor A). The Human activities that degrade, alter, corresponding population decline restricted and fragmented range, as well and destroy habitat are ongoing (Factor E). throughout the ash-breasted tit-tyrant’s as its small population size, increases Section 3 of the Act defines an range. Widespread deforestation and the the species’ vulnerability to extinction, ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species conversion of forests for grazing, through demographic or environmental which is in danger of extinction agriculture, and human settlement have fluctuations. Based on its small throughout all or a significant portion of led to the fragmentation and population size and fragmented its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as distribution, we have determined that degradation of habitat throughout the range of the ash-breasted tit-tyrant ‘‘any species which is likely to become the ash-breasted tit-tyrant is particularly an endangered species within the vulnerable to the threat of adverse (Factor A). Researchers estimate that only 1 percent of the dense Polylepis foreseeable future throughout all or a natural events (e.g., genetic, significant portion of its range.’’ Based demographic, or environmental) and woodlands preferred by the species remain extant. Limited by the on the immediate and ongoing threats to human activities (e.g., deforestation, the ash-breasted tit-tyrant throughout its habitat alteration, and infrastructure availability of suitable habitat, the entire range, as described above, we development) that destroy individuals species occurs today only in some of determine that the ash-breasted tit- and their habitat. The genetic and these fragmented and disjunct locations. tyrant is in danger of extinction demographic risks associated with small Ash-breasted tit-tyrant habitat continues throughout all of its range. Therefore, on population sizes are exacerbated by to be altered by human activities, such the basis of the best available scientific ongoing human activities that continue as burning, grazing, extractive activities, and commercial information, we are to curtail the species’ habitat throughout and human encroachment, which result proposing to list the ash-breasted tit- its range. The species’ population has in the continued degradation, tyrant as an endangered species declined and is predicted to continue conversion, and destruction of habitat throughout all of its range. declining commensurate with ongoing and reduce the quantity, quality, habitat loss (Factor A). Therefore, we distribution, and regeneration of II. Junı´n grebe (Podiceps remaining forest patches. find that the species’ small population taczanowskii) size, in concert with its fragmented The ash-breasted tit-tyrant population distribution and its heightened is small, rendering the species Species Description vulnerability to adverse natural events particularly vulnerable to the threat of adverse natural events (e.g., genetic, The Junı´n grebe is a highly social, and manmade activities, are threats to flightless water bird in the the continued existence of the ash- demographic, or environmental) and human activities (e.g., deforestation and Podicipedidae family that is endemic to breasted tit-tyrant throughout its range. habitat alteration) that destroy a single location (Lake Junı´n) in Peru. Status Determination for the Ash- individuals and their habitat. Ongoing Other common names for the species (in Breasted Tit-Tyrant human activities that curtail the species’ English) are: Junı´n flightless grebe, puna habitat throughout its range exacerbate grebe, and Taczanowski’s grebe. This The ash-breasted tit-tyrant, a small the genetic and demographic risks species is also known by two Spanish New World tyrant flycatcher, exists in associated with small population sizes names: ‘‘zampullı´n del Junı´n’’ or two disjunct areas in Peru and Bolivia. (Factor E). The population has declined ‘‘zambullidor de Junı´n’’ (del Hoyo et al. Preferring dense, semihumid Polylepis 10–19 percent in the past 10 years (see 1992, p. 195; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 199; or Polylepis -mixed woodlands, the ash- Population Estimates), and is predicted Instituto Nacional de Recursos breasted tit-tyrant occupies a narrow to continue declining commensurate Naturales (INRENA) 1996, p. 3; Ramsen range of distribution, at elevations with ongoing habitat loss (Factor A). et al. 2007, p. 18; Supreme Decree 034- between 12,139 and 15,092 ft (3,700 and Habitat loss was a factor in the ash- 2004-AG 2004, p. 276854). 4,600 m). The species has a highly breasted tit-tyrant’s historical A slim, long-necked bird, the Junı´n restricted and severely fragmented range population decline (see Historical Range 2 2 grebe is about 13.78 in (35 cm) in (approximately 4,595 mi (11,900 km )), and Distribution), and the species is length, and its weight ranges from 0.66 and is known only in two disjunct areas: considered to be declining today in to 1.04 pounds (0.30 to 0.47 kilograms) one location in west-central Peru (in the association with the continued (BLI 2009b, p. 1; UNEP-WCMC 2009, p. Peruvian Administrative Regions of reduction in habitat (Factors A and E). 1). The Junı´n grebe has a pointed head, Ancash, Hua´nuco, La Libertad, and Moreover, current research indicates Lima) and another location ranging from that narrow endemics, such as the ash- with dark feathers on its back, a white southern Peru (Apurı´mac, Cusco, Puno, breasted tit-tyrant, are especially throat, and mottled, dusky-colored and Arequipa Regions) into northern susceptible to climate fluctuations, underparts. This grebe is distinguished Bolivia (in the Department of La Paz). because of the synergistic effect these by its slender gray bill, red iris, and dull The known population of the ash- fluctuations have on declining yellow-orange colored feet. Immature breasted tit-tyrant is estimated to be 641 populations that are also experiencing birds are darker gray on the flanks than individuals. range reductions due to human mature birds (BLI 2009b, p. 1). We have carefully assessed the best activities (Factor A). Taxonomy available scientific and commercial Despite the species’ ‘‘endangered’’ information regarding the past, present, status in Peru and its occurrence within The Junı´n grebe was taxonomically and potential future threats faced by the several protected areas in Peru and described by Berlepsch and Stolzmann ash-breasted tit-tyrant and have Bolivia (Factor D), human activities that in 1894 (ITIS 2009, p. 1). It is one of concluded that there are three primary degrade, alter, and destroy habitat are nine species of grebes in the genus factors that threaten the continued ongoing throughout the species’ range, Podiceps worldwide (Dickinson 2003, existence of the ash-breasted tit-tyrant: including within protected areas. p.80). The species’ taxonomic status as (1) Habitat destruction, fragmentation, Therefore, regulatory mechanisms are Podiceps taczanowskii is valid (ITIS and degradation; (2) limited size and either inadequate or ineffective at 2009, p. 1).

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Habitat and Life History (BLI 2009a, pp. 2-3; ParksWatch 2009, p. Historical Range and Distribution The Junı´n grebe is endemic to the 3; Tello 2007, p. 2). Mammals are The Junı´n grebe was historically open waters and marshlands of Lake relatively scarce in the area, although known to be endemic to Lake Junı´n, in Junı´n, located at 13,390 ft (4,080 m) there are some predators (ParksWatch the Peruvian Administrative Region of above sea level in the Peruvian 2009, p. 4) (see Factor C). Junı´n (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 238; Fjeldsa˚ Administrative Region of Junı´n (BLI Breeding season for this species 2004, p. 200; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, 2003, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1). The 57-mi2 occurs annually from November to p. 70; INRENA 1996, p. 1). Experts (147-km2) lake, also known as March (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 44, 246; believe that the species was previously ‘‘Chinchaycocha’’ or ‘‘Lago de Junı´n,’’ is O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). The distributed throughout the entire 57-mi2 large but fairly shallow (BLI 2003, p. 1; Junı´n grebe nests in the protective cover (147-km2) lake (BLI 2003, p. 1; BLI BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; of the marshlands during the breeding 2009a, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254; F. Gill ParksWatch 2009, p. 1; Tello 2007, p. 1). season (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 247; Tello 2007, and R.W. Storer, pers. comm. as cited in Situated within ‘‘puna’’ habitat, the p. 3), particularly in stands of giant Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200). In 1938, the Junı´n climate is seasonal and can be ‘‘bitterly bulrush (ParksWatch 2009, p. 4). Under grebe was encountered throughout the cold’’ in the dry season (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. natural conditions, winter rains increase entire lake (Morrison 1939, p. 645). The 240). Local vegetation is characterized the lake water level during the breeding Junı´n grebe is now absent from the by tall dense grasslands and scrubland season, allowing the grebes to venture northwest portion of Lake Junı´n due to with open, rocky areas, all interspersed into local bays and canals, although mine waste contamination and a severe with wetlands and woodlands (BLI they are never found nesting on the decline in population (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 2003, p. 1; ParksWatch 2009, pp. 1, 4). lake’s shore (Tello 2007, p. 3). The 254; F. Gill and R.W. Storer, pers. The dominant terrestrial plant species species nests in the giant bulrush comm. as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200). surrounding the lake includes 43 marshlands (ParksWatch 2009, p. 4). Current Range and Distribution species of grass (Poaceae family), 15 Well-hidden floating nests can contain species of asters (Asteraceae family), up to three eggs, with an average of two The Junı´n grebe continues to be and 10 species of legumes (Fabaceae eggs, laid during November and endemic to the 57-mi2 (147-km2) Lake family) (ParksWatch 2009, p. 1). Aquatic December (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 245). The Junı´n, located at 13,390 ft (4,080 m) vegetation includes Andean species is believed to have a deferred above sea level in the Peruvian High watermilfoil (Myriophyllum quitense), sexual maturation (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 201) Andes (BLI 2003, p. 1; BLI 2009a, p. 1; several species of pondweed (including and exhibits low breeding potential, BLI 2009b, p. 1). Although BirdLife Elodea potamogeton, Potamogeton perhaps as a reflection to adaptation to International (2009b, p. 1) reports the ferrugineus, and P. filliformis), and a ‘‘highly predictable, stable current estimated range of the species as 2 2 bladderwort (Utricularia spp.). Floating environment’’ (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 55 mi (143 km ), their definition of a plants, such as duckweed (Lemna 195), laying one clutch during the species’ range is the total area within its species (spp.)), large duckweed breeding season (ParksWatch 2009, p. extent of occurrence (see Current Range (Spiodela spp.), and water fern (Azolla 4). Junı´n grebes occasionally produce a and Distribution of the ash-breasted tit- filiculoides), also occur on the lake replacement clutch if their original nest tyrant) (BLI 2000, pp. 22, 27). Noting 2 (ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). The Lake is is disturbed (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, pp. 199, 201). that Lake Junı´n is only a 57-mi (147- 2 surrounded by extensive marshland After the eggs hatch, the male grebe km ) lake (BLI 2003, p. 1; BLI 2009a, p. along the lake shore (BLI 2009a, p. 1; cares for the chicks, and does not leave 1) and that the Junı´n grebe is restricted BLI 2009b, p. 1) that extends into the the nest to feed. The female grebe is to the southern portion of the lake ˚ lake up to 1–3 mi (2–5 km) from shore responsible for feeding the male and (Fjeldsa 1981, p. 254; F. Gill and R.W. ˚ ˚ (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa 1997, p. 29). The chicks until the chicks can leave the Storer, pers. comm. as cited in Fjeldsa marshes are dominated by two robust nest (Tello 2007, p. 3). The Junı´n grebe 2004, p. 200), its current range is species of cattails, giant bulrush is likely a long-lived species (Fjeldsa˚ actually smaller than the figure reported (Schoenoplectus californicus var. totara) 2004, p. 201), and its breeding success by BirdLife International. The entire and totorilla (Juncus articus var. population of this species is located and population size are highly andicola) (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 244, 246). within a protected area, the Junı´n influenced by the climate (BLI 2008, pp. Both cattail species can reach nearly 6.6 National Reserve (BLI 2008, p. 2; BLI 1, 3-4; BLI 2009b, p. 2; Elton 2000, p. ft (2 m) in height. These plant 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch 3; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; Hirshfeld 2007, communities, or ‘‘tortoras,’’ grow so 2009, p. 4). p. 107) (see Factor A). densely that stands are often Population Estimates impenetrable (ParksWatch 2009, p. 1). The Junı´n grebe feeds in the open In shallow water, during low lake levels, waters of the lake and around the marsh The current population of the Junı´n ‘‘tortora’’ communities can become edges, moving into the open waters of grebe is estimated to be 100–300 partially or completely dry (BLI 2009b, the lake to feed where it is easier to dive individuals (BLI 2009b, p. 3), having p. 1; ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). for food during the winter (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, undergone a severe population decline Lake Junı´n supports one of the richest pp. 247-248; Tello 2007, p. 3). Fish in the latter half of the 20th century, and most diverse arrays of bird species (primarily pupfish (Orestias spp.)) with extreme population fluctuations of all Peruvian high Andean wetlands account for over 90 percent of the during this time (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254). (ParksWatch 2009, p. 3). These bird grebe’s diet (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 251-252). Field studies in 1938 indicated that the species include migratory birds, birds Pupfish become scarce when the Junı´n grebe was ‘‘extremely abundant’’ that nest at high altitude, aquatic birds, marshlands dry during periods of throughout Lake Junı´n (Morrison 1939, and local endemic species, such as the reduced water levels, and the Junı´n p. 645). Between 1961 and 1979 the Junı´n grebe and the Junı´n rail grebe is then known to vary its diet with population fell from greater than 1,000 (Laterallus tuerosi; also the subject of midges (Order Diptera), corixid bugs individuals to an estimated 250–300 this proposed rule), the giant coot (Trichocorixa reticulata), amphipods birds (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, (Fulica ardesiaca), and the Chilean (Hyalella simplex), and shore fly p. 43; Harris 1981, as cited in O’Donnell flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis) maggots and pupa (Ephydriid spp.). and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p.

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254). Surveys during the mid-1980s Summary of Factors Affecting the Junı´n become completely desiccated (Fjeldsa˚ estimated a total of 250 individuals Grebe 2004, p. 123). Reduced water levels directly impact inhabiting the southern portion of Lake A. The Present or Threatened the Junı´n grebe’s breeding success, by Junı´n (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, Destruction, Modification, or reducing the amount of available p. 43). In 1992, only 100 birds were Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or nesting habitat (BLI 2008, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ observed and, by 1993, the population Range had declined to 50 birds, of which fewer 2004, p. 200). The giant bulrush The Junı´n grebe is endemic to Lake ´ than half were breeding adults (BLI marshlands, upon which the Junın grebe Junı´n, where it resides year-round. The relies for nesting and foraging habitat, 2008, p. 3; BLI 2009b, p. 2). In 1995, an species is completely dependent on the have virtually disappeared from some estimated 205 Junı´n grebes were present open waters and marshland margins of sections of the lake (O’Donnel and ´ ˚ on Lake Junın (O’Donnell and Fjeldsa the lake for feeding and on the Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). When the 1997, p. 30). Breeding and fledging were protective cover of the marshlands marshlands are completely desiccated, apparently unsuccessful from 1995 to during the breeding season (BLI 2008, p. the Junı´n grebe does not breed at all 1997. However, there were two 1; BLI 2009a, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 247; (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123). successful broods fledged during the Tello 2007, p. 3). The current estimated Reduced water levels also impact the 1997 and 1998 breeding seasons (BLI range of the species is 55 mi2 (143 km2) species by reducing the Junı´n grebe’s 2008, p. 3; T. Valqui in litt., as cited in (BLI 2009b, p. 1). However, as described primary prey, pupfish (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. BLI 2009b, p. 2). In 1998, more than 250 under Current Range and Distribution, 200) (see Habitat and Life History). The Junı´n grebes were counted in a 1.5-mi2 its actual range is smaller, because the perimeter of the flooded marshlands (4-km2) area in the southern portion of species is restricted to the southern provides the primary recruitment Lake Junı´n, suggesting a total portion of the lake (BLI 2009b, p. 1; habitat for fish in the lake during population of 350 to 400 birds (T. Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254; F. Gill and R.W. extremely dry years, including 1983– Valqui in litt., as cited in BLI 2009b, p. Storer, pers. comm. as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 1987, 1991, and 1994–1997 (Fjeldsa˚ 2). In 2001, field surveys indicated that 2004, p. 200). Breeding season begins in 2004, p. 200; O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ November (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 44, 246; there may have been a total population 1997, p. 29). Submerged aquatic O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). Junı´n of 300 birds, but that estimate has been vegetation, habitat for pupfish, has grebes build their nests (BLI 2008, p. 1; become very patchy, further triggering considered overly optimistic (Fjeldsa˚ in Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 247; Tello 2007, p. 3) declines in the prey population. Few litt. 2003, as cited in BLI 2009b, p. 2). and obtain their primary prey, pupfish, marshlands are permanently inundated ˚ Fjeldsa (in litt. 2003, as cited in BLI in the expansive offshore flooded now, due to the power generation 2009b, p. 2) postulated that perhaps marshlands that may extend into the requirements of the Upamayo Dam, and only half that number would have been lake up to 1–3 mi (2–5 km) from shore the giant bulrushes that previously grew mature individuals. These population (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200; O’Donnel and tall and provided extensive cover for fluctuations are strongly linked to Fjeldsa˚ 1997, pp. 29-30). this species for breeding and feeding precipitation (see Factor A). The quality of Junı´n grebe habitat and have virtually disappeared, reducing The species has experienced a the species’ reproductive success is both nesting and foraging habitat for the population decline of 14 percent in the highly influenced by water levels and Junı´n grebe. The reduction in nesting past 10 years, and is expected to the water quality of the lake. Water and foraging habitat are believed to levels in the lake are affected by continue to decline (BLI 2009b, pp. 1, 6- contribute to mass mortality of Junı´n manmade activities (such as 7). The species’ decline is associated grebes during extreme drought years hydropower generation) that are with continued habitat loss and (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30). exacerbated by unpredictable climate Manipulation of the Lake Junı´n’s degradation (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254; F. Gill fluctuations (such as drought or water levels also results in competition and R.W. Storer, pers. comm. as cited in excessive rain). Water quality in Lake between the white-tufted grebe Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200) (See Factors, A, C, Junı´n has been compromised by (Rollandia rolland) and the Junı´n grebe and E). contamination. for food resources during the Junı´n Conservation Status The Upamayo Dam, located at the grebe’s breeding season (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. northwest end of the lake, has been in 200). Under normal conditions, the The Junı´n grebe is considered operation since 1936, and lake water is expansive offshore marshlands may ‘‘critically endangered’’ by the Peruvian used to power the 54-megawatt Malpaso extend into the lake up to 1–3 mi (2–5 Government under Supreme Decree No. hydroelectric plant (Martin et al. 2001, km) from shore (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276853). The p. 178; ParksWatch 2006, p. 5). Dam 1997, p. 29). In years when water levels IUCN categorizes the Junı´n grebe as operations have caused seasonal water remain high, the Junı´n grebe and white- ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ because it is level fluctuations of as much as 6 ft (2 tufted grebe are spatially segregated endemic to one location and has m) in Lake Junı´n (Martin and McNee during the breeding season, with white- undergone ‘‘significant population 1999, p. 659). Under normal conditions, tufted grebes utilizing the interior of the declines, such that an extremely small water levels are lower in the dry season reed marsh and Junı´n grebes remaining and the marshlands can become at the edges of the marshlands, closer to number of adults remain’’ (BLI 2008, p. partially or completely dry (BLI 2009b, the center of the lake (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 1; BLI 2009b, pp. 1, 3). The single p. 1; ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). The 245, 255). Near the end of the dry known population of the Junı´n grebe floodgates of the dam are often opened season, as early as October, when water occurs wholly within one protected area during the dry season (June to levels are lower in the lake and the in Peru, the Junı´n National Reserve (BLI November) (BLI 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch marshlands can partially or completely 2009b, pp. 1-2). 2009, p. 2), and water offtake for dry out (BLI 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch hydropower generation further drains 2009, p. 2), thousands of white-tufted the lake, such that by the end of the dry grebes move from the interior of the season, in November, the marshlands marshlands to the edges, where they encircling the lake are more apt to compete with the Junı´n grebe for food

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(Fjeldsa˚ 1984, pp. 413-414). As the ParksWatch 2006, pp. 20-21), and this water contamination) are accentuated by breeding season for the Junı´n grebe portion of the lake has been rendered unpredictable climate fluctuations (such begins in November (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. lifeless by the precipitation of iron as droughts or excessive rains) (Jetz et 44, 246; O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. oxide from mining wastewaters (BLI al. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; Mora et al. 29), Junı´n grebes build floating nests 2008, p. 4). The giant bulrush 2007, p. 1027). Peru is subject to and breed on the margins of marshlands marshlands, which once existed in great unpredictable climate fluctuations, such (BLI 2008, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 247; expanses around the entire perimeter of as those that are related to the El Nin˜ o Tello 2007, p. 3), and a plentiful supply the lake and upon which the Junı´n grebe Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Changes of fish becomes more important relies for nesting and foraging habitat, in weather patterns, such as ENSO (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). have virtually disappeared and at least cycles (El Nin˜ o and La Nin˜ a events), Competition becomes more critical the one species of catfish (Pygidium oroyae) tend to increase precipitation in longer the water level remains low at may have been extirpated from the lake normally dry areas, and decrease the end of the dry season, and activities (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). precipitation in normally wet areas that further reduce low water levels Heavy metal contamination is not (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; TAO only accentuate this competition limited to the northern end of the lake Project n.d., p. 1); thereby exacerbating (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. 252-253). (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20), but extends the effects of habitat reduction and Water quality affects the availability throughout the southern end (Martin alteration on the decline of a species of habitat for the endemic Junı´n grebe. and McNee 1999, p. 662), where the (England 2000, p. 86; Holmgren et al. The water in Lake Junı´n has been Junı´n grebe is now restricted (BLI 2003, 2001, p. 89; Jetz et al. 2007, pp. 1211, contaminated from mining waste, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 1213; Mora et al. 2007, p. 1027; agricultural runoff, and organic matter 254; F. Gill and R.W. Storer, pers. Parmesan and Mathews 2005, p. 334; from the land surrounding the lake. comm. as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200). Plumart 2007, pp. 1-2; Timmermann There are several mining operations Near the center of the lake, the bottom 1999, p. 694), especially for narrow (lead, copper, and zinc) north of Lake has been described as ‘‘lifeless,’’ due to endemics (Jetz et al. 2007, p. 1213) such Junı´n, and wastewater from the mines sedimentation of iron oxides (Fjeldsa˚ as the Junı´n grebe (see also Factor E). flows untreated into the lake via the Rı´o 1981, pp. 255-256; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124). Moreover, the Junı´n grebe’s low San Juan (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 255; Martin Martin et al. (2001, p. 180) determined breeding potential is considered to be a and McNee 1999, pp. 660-661; that sediments at the lake’s center are reflection of its adaptation to being in a ParksWatch 2006, p. 2; Shoobridge enriched with copper, zinc, and lead ‘‘highly predictable, stable 2006, p. 3). Agricultural insecticides and are anoxic (having low levels of environment’’ (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. wash into Lake Junı´n from surrounding dissolved oxygen). High concentrations 195). fields and through drainage systems of dissolved copper, lead, and zinc have ´ from villages around the lake damaged an estimated one-third of the The Junın grebe’s breeding success (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 5, 19). Organic lake, increasing turbidity of the lake, and population size are highly matter originating from local and exceeding established aquatic life influenced by the climate, with communities is piped untreated into the thresholds (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. population declines occurring during lake, resulting in eutrophication (a 660-661; ParksWatch 2006, pp. 2, 20; dry years, population increases during process whereby excess nutrients Shoobridge 2006, p. 3). This has rainy years, and mortality during facilitate excessive plant growth, which severely affected animal and plant extreme cold weather events. Several ultimately reduces the amount of populations in the area, contributing to times during the last two decades (e.g., dissolved oxygen in the water, harming mortality of species, including the Junı´n 1983–1987, 1991–1992, 1994–1997), the oxygen-dependent organisms) grebe, around the lake (ParksWatch population has declined to 100 birds or (ParksWatch 2006, p. 5; Shoobridge 2006, pp. 3, 20) (see Factor C). less following particularly dry years 2006, p. 3). In 2009, conservation organizations (BLI 2008, pp. 1, 3-4; BLI 2009b, p. 2; Lake Junı´n is a sink for several and civil society groups demanded Elton 2000, p. 3; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200). streams that transport mining wastes action to reverse the deterioration of There have been short-term population and other pollution downstream and Lake Junı´n and requested an increases of 200 to 300 birds in years into the lake (ParksWatch 2006, p. 19). independent environmental audit and with higher rainfall amounts following The Rı´o San Juan is the primary source continuous monitoring of the lake (BLI El Nin˜ o events (such as the 1997–1998 of water for Lake Junı´n and feeds into 2009b p. 4; BLI 2009c, p. 1). The and 2001–2002 breeding seasons) the lake from the northern end (Fjeldsa˚ conservation groups BLI, American Bird (PROFONANPE 2002, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 255; Martin and McNee 1999, Conservancy (ABC), Asociacio´n 2004, p. 133; T. Valqui pers. comm., as pp. 660-661; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3). Ecosistemas Andinos (ECOAN), and cited in BLI 2009b, p. 2). However, Tests indicate that the Rı´o San Juan INRENA adopted the Junı´n grebe as the excessive rains also increase contains trace metals, including copper, symbol of wetland conservation for the contamination in Lake Junı´n, which lead, mercury, and zinc, in excess of high Andes (BLI 2009c, p. 1). Although decreases the amount of suitable habitat currently accepted aquatic life translocation has been a consideration for the species (as described above) and thresholds (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. for the conservation of the Junı´n grebe has adverse effects on the species’ 660-661). Non-point source pollutants since the mid-1990s, no suitable habitat health (see Factor C). Many Junı´n grebes from agricultural fertilizers, such as for the species has been located died during extremely cold conditions ammonium and nitrate concentrations, (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, pp. 30, 35; in 1982 (BLI 2008, p. 4). In 2007, the are also suspended in the water column BLI 2008, p. 5; BLI 2009b, p. 2). None population declined again following (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660-661). of these conservation organization’s another cold weather event (Hirshfeld Iron oxide contamination is visible near activities have been effective at curbing 2007, p. 107). ENSO cycles are ongoing, the outflow of the Rı´o San Juan because the ongoing habitat degradation (see having occurred several times within iron oxide produces a reddish tinge to also Factor D). the last decade (NWS 2009, p. 2), and the water and reed borders. Vegetation The effects of habitat alteration and evidence suggests that ENSO cycles near the river’s outflow is completely destruction (such as those caused by have already increased in periodicity absent (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; artificially reduced water levels and and severity (Richter 2005, pp. 24-25;

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Timmermann 1999, p. 694), which will mortality of the species (see Factor C). particulate matter increases the exacerbate the negative impacts of Severe water contamination has turbidity of the water, making it less habitat destruction on a species. rendered the northwest portion of the penetrable to sunlight and resulting in Habitat degradation and alteration lake lifeless, devoid of aquatic and die-off of aquatic plants and algae caused by fluctuating water levels and terrestrial species. Experts believe that (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20). Chemical environmental contamination are the Junı´n grebe once inhabited the waste has damaged at least one third of considered key factors in the species’ entire Lake, but the species is now the lake and has severely affected historical decline (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254; confined to the southern portion of the animal and plant populations in the F. Gill and R.W. Storer, pers. comm. as lake due to water contamination area (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29; cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 200). The (Historical Range and Distribution). ParksWatch 2006, pp. 3, 20; Shoobridge species has experienced a population Elevated levels of heavy metals may 2006, p. 3). The northern portion of the decline of 14 percent in the past 10 reduce the fitness and overall viability lake is completely devoid of vegetation years, and is expected to continue to of the Junı´n grebe (Factor C), which (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; ParksWatch 2006, decline as a result of deteriorating would heighten risks associated with pp. 20-21), and the giant bulrush habitat and water quality (BLI 2009b, short- and long-term genetic viability marshlands, which once existed in great pp. 1, 6-7). Therefore, further habitat (Factor E). Therefore, we find that expanses around the entire perimeter of degradation is expected to continue destruction and modification of habitat the lake and upon which the Junı´n grebe impacting this species’ already small are threats to the continued existence of relies for nesting and foraging habitat, population size (see Factor E). the Junı´n grebe throughout its range. have virtually disappeared. At least one Summary of Factor A B. Overutilization for Commercial, species of catfish (Pygidium oroyae) may have been extirpated from the lake ´ Recreational, Scientific, or Educational The habitat in and around Lake Junın, (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). where the Junı´n grebe is endemic, has Purposes During years of heavy rainfall, the lake been and continues to be altered and We are not aware of any information is filled, and the lakeshore becomes degraded as a result of human activities, currently available that indicates that polluted with ‘‘toxic acid gray including artificial water level ´ overutilization of Junın grebe for sediment’’ that has caused large-scale fluctuations to generate hydropower and commercial, recreation, scientific, or mortality of cattle (approximately 2,000 water contamination caused by mining education purposes has occurred or is in 1994) and birds, apparently due to waste, agricultural and organic runoff occurring at this time. Fjeldsa˚ (1981, pp. lead poisoning (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ from surrounding lands, and wastewater 254-255) notes that local hunters are not 1997, p. 30). Lead poisoning from the from local communities. The Junı´n interested in grebes as food because they presence of mine wastes is a common grebe is dependent on the quantity and have ‘‘too little meat.’’ As a result, we cause of mortality in waterbirds, and is quality of lake water for breeding and are not considering overutilization to be medically described as an intoxication feeding. Water levels in Lake Junı´n are a threat to the continued existence of resulting from absorption of hazardous manipulated to generate electricity, the Junı´n grebe. which leads to dramatic fluctuations in levels of lead into body tissues (Friend water levels of up to 6 ft (1.8 m). The C. Disease or Predation and Franson 1999, p. 317). Junı´n grebe relies on the protective Disease: Although no specific disease Water contamination has directly cover of flooded marshlands for nesting. threat has been identified for the Junı´n affected the health of the Junı´n grebe As water drawdown occurs near the end grebe, contamination of Lake Junı´n has population. As predators of aquatic of the dry season and the inception of contributed directly and indirectly to organisms, the Junı´n grebe occupies a the Junı´n grebe’s mating season, Junı´n grebe mortality and has mid-tertiary level position in the food portions of the marshlands may dry out potentially reduced the overall fitness chain and is prone to bioaccumulation completely. Reductions in water levels and health of the species. As discussed of pesticides, heavy metals, and other decrease the availability of suitable under Factor A, lead, copper, and zinc contaminants that are absorbed or breeding and foraging habitat, and mining residues (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 255; ingested by its prey (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, pp. decrease the availability of the Junı´n Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660-661; 255-256; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123). Green grebe’s primary prey, forcing Shoobridge 2006, p. 3), agricultural plants form the first trophic, or feeding, competition with the white-tufted grebe runoff, organic matter, and wastewater level; they are the primary producers. for food. Drought years have a negative are discharged directly into Lake Junı´n Herbivores form the second trophic impact on the Junı´n grebe, resulting in (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 5, 19; Shoobridge level, while carnivores form the third severe population fluctuations due to 2006, p. 3). High concentrations of and even fourth trophic levels (The poor breeding success and limited environmental contaminants (including University of the Western Cape 2009, p. recruitment of juveniles into the adult ammonium, copper, iron oxide, lead, 1). Moreover, species such as the Junı´n population. Severed dry conditions can mercury, nitrate, and zinc) have been grebe, which inhabit high trophic levels, cause total breeding failure (see also detected throughout the lake (Fjeldsa˚ are strictly dependent upon the Factor E). 1981, pp. 255-256; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; functioning of a multitude of ecosystem Although the population appears to Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660-662; processes. The loss or absence of species rebound during wetter years (i.e., ParksWatch 2006, pp. 20-21) and exceed at lower trophic levels can result in following El Nin˜ o events) (see Habitat established thresholds for aquatic life cascading ecosystem effects, causing and Life History and Population (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660-661; imbalances in the food web at all higher Estimate), excessive rain decreases the ParksWatch 2006, p. 20). Chemical trophic levels (The University of the suitable habitat for the species, as waste has rendered the northern portion Western Cape 2009, p. 1). In parts of the pollution washes into the water from of the lake lifeless due to eutrophication lake, increased turbidity has caused die- around the lake and the upstream rivers (BLI 2008, p. 4; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3) off of aquatic plants and algae, that feed the lake, increasing and the sediments in the center of the disrupting the food chain (ParksWatch contamination levels in Lake Junı´n. This lake anoxic (containing no dissolved 2006, p. 20). Studies indicate that lead increased contamination also affects the oxygen) (Martin et al. 2001, p. 180). mining effluents severely reduce or Junı´n grebe’s health and has resulted in High concentrations of suspended eliminate primary prey populations of

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fish and aquatic invertebrates, either (Pseudalopex culpaues), the long-tailed Reserve has an area of 133,437 ac directly through lethal toxicity, or weasel (Mustela frenata), Pampas cat (53,000 ha), bordering Lake Junı´n and indirectly through toxicity to their prey (Onicifelis colocolo), and hog-nosed its adjacent territories (Wege and Long species (Demayo et al. 1982, as cited in skunk (Conepatus chinga) (ParksWatch 1995, p. 264). In Peru, National Reserves Eisler 1988, p. 5). Analysis of feathers 2009, p. 4). However, nest sites of the are also created for the sustainable and bone tissue of Junı´n grebes and of Junı´n grebe are generally inaccessible to extraction of certain biological resources pupfish, the species’ primary prey, mammalian predators (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. (BLI 2008, p. 1; Rodrı´guez and Young indicate that both the grebe and its prey 254). The only raptor likely to take a 2000, p. 330). Established in 1974, contain elevated lead levels (Fjeldsa˚ grebe on Lake Junı´n is the Cinereus through Supreme Decree No. 0750-74- 1981, pp. 255-256). harrier (Circus cinereus), which AG, the stated objectives of the Junı´n Drought conditions exacerbate the primarily feeds in white-tufted grebe National Reserve include: integrated effects of water contamination and habitats. Moorhens (Gallinula conservation of the local ecosystem, its bioaccumulation of contaminants in chloropus), which also inhabit the lake associated flora and wildlife; aquatic species. From 1989 to 1992, an (ParksWatch 2009, p. 3; Tello 2007, p. preservation of the scenic beauty of the extensive drought occurred in the Lake 2), are egg stealers and may steal Junı´n lake; and support of socioeconomic Junı´n area. During that time, many dead grebe eggs for food (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. development in the area through the Junı´n grebes and other waterbirds were 254). However, there is no direct sustainable use of its renewable natural found along the edges of the lakeshore evidence of predation upon the Junı´n resources (BLI 2009a, p. 2; Hirshfeld (T. Valqui and J. Barrio in litt. 1992, as grebe. 2007, p. 107). Most of the lakeshore is cited in Collar et al. 1992, p. 45, 190). Summary of Factor C designated a ‘‘Direct Use Zone,’’ which In 1992, one of the driest years in allows fishing, grazing, and other decades, up to 10 dead grebes per Environmental contamination poses educational, research, and recreational month were reported around the lake. direct and indirect threats to the Junı´n activities (ParksWatch 2006, p. 12). Three Junı´n grebe carcasses were found grebe’s overall health and survival. The Although designation of this reserve has along 1.2 mi (2 km) of shoreline in one species’ trophic level also exposes it to heightened awareness of the ecological month alone (T. Valqui and J. Barrio in bioaccumulation of toxins accumulated problems at Lake Junı´n (BLI 2009c, p. litt. 1992, as cited in Collar et al. 1992, in the tissue of prey species. Research 1), it has not reduced or eliminated the p. 45). Experts consider the cause of indicates that the species has elevated primary threats to the Junı´n grebe: water death to have been either heavy metal lead levels and carries a high load of fluctuations and contamination (Factor nematodes, a possible indicator of contamination, which increased in A), contamination resulting in poor overall poor health. Junı´n grebes have concentration as water levels decreased health (Factor C), and small population died as a direct result of contaminant (T. Valqui and J. Barrio in litt. 1992, as size (Factor E). Therefore, the existence poisoning or reduction in the pupfish, cited in Collar et al. 1992, p. 45), or of this species within a protected area ˚ which has also been found to carry reduced prey availability (Fjeldsa 2004, has not reduced or mitigated the threats elevated lead levels. Therefore, we find p. 124). Reduced prey availability is to the species. exacerbated by manmade activities that that disease is a threat to the continued are reducing the water levels of the lake, existence of the Junı´n grebe. However, The Junı´n National Reserve was increasing competition among there is no available evidence to designated a Ramsar site under the sympatric grebe species (different indicate that predation is causing Convention on Wetlands of species that occupy the same range) and declines in Junı´n grebe populations or International Importance (Ramsar decreasing the marshlands that provide otherwise contributing to the species’ Convention) in 1997 (BLI 2009a, p. 2; primary spawning habitat for the risk of extinction. Therefore, we find Hirshfeld 2007, p. 107; INRENA 1996, pupfish, the grebe’s primary prey that predation is not a threat to the pp. 1-14). The Ramsar Convention, species (Factor A). Junı´n grebe. signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an Persistent exposure to contaminants intergovernmental treaty which D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory can contribute to a decline in fitness for provides the framework for national long-lived, mid-trophic level species, Mechanisms action and international cooperation for which is inherited by offspring and can The Junı´n grebe is listed as ‘‘critically the conservation and wise use of impact embryonic development, endangered’’ by the Peruvian wetlands and their resources. There are juvenile health, or viability (Rose 2008, Government under Supreme Decree No. presently 159 Contracting Parties to the p. 624). The excessive contaminant load 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276853). This Convention (including Lake Junı´n), with in Lake Junı´n could also allow Decree prohibits hunting, take, 1,874 wetland sites, totaling more than opportunistic bacterial and viral transport, and trade of protected 457 million ac (185 million ha), infections to overcome individuals. species, except as permitted by designated for inclusion in the Ramsar According to Fjeldsa˚ (1981, p. 254), the regulation. As hunting, take, transport, List of Wetlands of International Junı´n grebe bears a heavy infestation of and trade do not currently threaten the Importance (Ramsar 2009, p. 1). Peru stomach nematodes (parasitic Junı´n grebe, this regulation does not acceded to Ramsar in 1992. It has 13 roundworms), especially as compared to mitigate any current threats to this sites on the Ramsar list, comprising 16.8 other grebe species. Stomach contents of species. million ac (6.8 million ha) (Ramsar Junı´n grebes that have been examined Peru has several categories of national 2009, p. 5). In an examination of 5 had an average of 16.7 nematodes, habitat protection, which were Ramsar sites, experts noted that Ramsar compared with no nematodes in silver described above as part of the Factor D designation may provide nominal grebes and 1.6 nematodes in white- analysis for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant protection (protection in name only) by tufted grebes. Fjeldsa˚ (1981, p. 254) (BLI 2008, p. 1; IUCN 1994, p. 2; increasing both international awareness postulates that the higher nematode Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). The of a site’s ecological value and infestation in Junı´n grebes may be an Junı´n grebe population occurs wholly stakeholder involvement in indicator of poor health. within one protected area: the Junı´n conservation (Jellison et al. 2004, pp. 1, Predation: Predators around Lake National Reserve (Junı´n, Peru) (BLI 4, 19). However, activities that Junı´n include the Andean fox 2009b, pp. 1-2). The Junı´n National negatively impact the Junı´n grebe are

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ongoing within this Ramsar wetland, ‘‘critically endangered’’ under Peruvian consequences, such as inbreeding including water fluctuations and law, and its entire population occurs depression, loss of genetic variation, contamination (Factor A), within one protected area. As discussed and accumulation of new mutations, contamination resulting in poor health under Factor A, the Junı´n grebe’s and may affect the species’ viability by (Factor C), and small population size distribution, breeding success and increasing its susceptibility to (Factor E). Therefore, the Ramsar recruitment, and food availability on demographic shifts or environmental designation has not mitigated the Lake Junı´n has been curtailed, and are fluctuations, as explained in more detail impact of threats on the Junı´n grebe. negatively impacted due to habitat above in the Factor E analysis for the In 2002, the Peruvian Government destruction that is caused by artificial ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Charlesworth passed an emergency law to protect water fluctuations and water and Charlesworth 1987, p. 238; Pimm et Lake Junı´n. This law makes provisions contamination from human activities. al. 1988, pp. 757, 773-775; Shaffer 1981, for the cleanup of Lake Junı´n, and These habitat-altering activities are p. 131). Small population size also leads places greater restrictions on extraction ongoing throughout the species’ range, to a higher risk of extinction and, once of water for hydropower and mining which is wholly encompassed within a population is reduced below a certain activities (J. Fjeldsa˚ in litt. 2003, as cited one protected area. Thus, despite the number of individuals, it tends to in BLI 2007, p. 3). However, this law has species’ critically endangered status and rapidly decline towards extinction not been effectively implemented, and presence within a designated protected (Frankham 1996, p. 1507; Franklin conditions around the lake may even area, laws governing wildlife and 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and Soule´ have worsened after passage of this law habitat protection in Peru are 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; (BLI 2009c, p. 1). The Ministry of inadequately enforced or ineffective at Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949; Reed and Energy and Mining has implemented a protecting the species or mitigating Frankham 2003, pp. 233-234; Soule´ series of Environmental Mitigation ongoing habitat degradation (Factor A), 1987, p. 181). In addition, species that Programs (PAMA) to combat mine waste impacts from contaminants, and inhabit a small geographic range, occur pollution in the Junı´n National Reserve concomitant population declines (Factor at low density, occupy a high trophic (ParksWatch 2006, p. 21; ParksWatch E). Therefore, we find that the existing level, and exhibit low reproductive rates 2009 p. 3). The PAMAs were scheduled regulatory mechanisms are inadequate tend to have a higher risk of extinction to have been completed by 2002, but to mitigate the threats to the continued than species that are not limited by the extensions have been granted, existence of the Junı´n grebe throughout same risk factors (Purvis et al. 2000, p. indicating that many of the mines its range. 1949). currently in operation are still functioning without a valid PAMA. E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Complications arising from the Reductions in pollution are reported Affecting the Continued Existence of the species’ small population size are because some mine companies have Species exacerbated by the species’ restricted begun to utilize drainage fields and An additional factor that affects the range and threat of disease (Factor C). recycle residual water. However, continued existence of the Junı´n grebe The Junı´n grebe is known only from a analysis of existing PAMAs indicate that is the species’ small population size. single Andean lake, Lake Junı´n, in they do not address specific The current population of the Junı´n central Peru (BLI 2000, p. 45; BLI 2009b, responsibilities for mining waste grebe is estimated to be 100–300 p. 1; Collar et al. 1992, p. 43). Although discharged into the Rı´o San Juan and individuals, however, only an the species was believed to have been delta, nor do they address deposition of ‘‘extremely small number of adults previously distributed throughout the 2 2 heavy metal-laced sediments in Lake remain’’ (BLI 2008, p. 1; BLI 2009b, pp. entire 57-mi (147-km ) lake (Fjeldsa˚ Junı´n (ParksWatch 2006, p. 21; 1, 3). The number of adults in a 1981, p. 254; F. Gill and R.W. Storer, ParksWatch 2009, p. 3). Recent population are important because these pers. comm. as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. information indicates that mining waste individuals contribute to the next 200; Morrison 1939, p. 645), it is now contamination in the lake continues to generation (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; restricted to the southern portion of be a source of pollution (ParksWatch Soule´ 1980, pp. 160-162). The Junı´n Lake Junı´n (BLI 2009b, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 2006, pp. 20-21; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; grebe underwent a severe population 1981, p. 254; F. Gill and R.W. Storer, BLI 2009b, p. 1). Therefore, this law is decline in the latter half of the 20th pers. comm. as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. not effective at mitigating the threat of century, with extreme population 200). The population has declined by at habitat degradation (Factor A), health fluctuations (Fjeldsa˚ 1981, p. 254) (see least 14 percent in the last 10 years and issues associated with contamination Population Estimates). For example, in is expected to continue to decline, as a (Factor C) and small population size of 1993, the population size declined to result of declining water quality and the species (Factor E). below 50 individuals, of which fewer extreme water level fluctuations (BLI There are approximately 5,000 laws than half were breeding adults (BLI 2009b, pp. 1, 4, 6-7) (Factor A). We and regulations directly or indirectly 2008, p. 3; BLI 2009b, p. 2). Even if the consider that the risks associated with related to environmental protection and estimate of 100–300 individuals is small population size will continue to natural resource conservation in Peru. correct, the number of mature impact this species and may accelerate, Recent studies by the Peruvian Society individuals is likely to be far smaller, if habitat destruction continues for Environmental Law (SPDA) have perhaps only half (Fjeldsa˚ in litt. 2003, unabated. Environmental contamination concluded that many of these are not as cited in BLI 2009b, p. 2). Therefore, poses direct and indirect threats to the effective because of limited 100–300 individuals overestimates the Junı´n grebe’s overall health and implementation and/or enforcement species’ effective population size (the survival, including the presence of capability (Muller 2001, pp. 1-2). number of breeding individuals that toxins in both the Junı´n grebe and its contribute to the next generation) primary prey species and mass die-offs Summary of Factor D (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; Soule´ 1980, that are linked to contamination or Peru has enacted various laws and pp. 160-162). reduction in prey species (Factor C). A regulatory mechanisms for the Small population size renders species species’ small population size, protection and management of wildlife vulnerable to genetic risks that can have combined with its restricted range and and their habitats. The Junı´n grebe is individual or population-level genetic threat of disease, increases the species’

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vulnerability to adverse natural events number of mature individuals may be destroy individuals and their habitat. and manmade activities that destroy limited to half this amount. (Factor E). The Junı´n grebe’s individuals and their habitat (Holsinger We have carefully assessed the best reproductive success and life cycle 2000, pp. 64-65; Primack 1998, pp. 279- available scientific and commercial relies on the availability of sufficient 308; Young and Clarke 2000, pp. 361- information regarding the past, present, water in Lake Junı´n. During drought 366). and potential future threats faced by the years, nesting and reproduction decline. Junı´n grebe and have concluded that Although the population appears to Summary of Factor E there are four primary factors that rebound during wetter years (such as The Junı´n grebe has a small threaten the continued existence of the following excessive rains from El Nin˜ o population size that renders it Junı´n grebe: (1) Habitat destruction, events (see Population Estimate and vulnerable to genetic risks that fragmentation, and degradation; (2) Factor A), excessive rains also bring negatively impact the species’ long-term disease; (3) limited size and isolation of additional contaminants into the lake as viability and, possibly, its short-term remaining populations; and (4) runoff from lands surrounding the lake viability. The species has a restricted inadequate regulatory mechanisms. and upstream rivers. Research indicates range and occurs in habitat that Human activities that degrade, alter, that both the Junı´n grebe and its primary continues to undergo degradation and and destroy habitat are ongoing prey species, the pupfish, have curtailment due to human activities throughout the Junı´n grebe’s range. Lake accumulated toxins resulting in elevated (Factor A). Environmental contaminants waters are artificially manipulated to lead levels. Environmental have caused die-offs of the species and produce hydropower, resulting in contaminants have caused die-offs of have likely reduced the overall general reductions in water levels that impact the species and have likely reduced the health of the Junı´n grebe population the species’ nesting and foraging sites. general health of the Junı´n grebe (Factor C). The small population size, as Manipulation of water levels for population (Factor C). The population well as its restricted range and health hydropower production reduces prey has declined 14 percent in the past 10 issues associated with contamination, populations, causes increased food years (see Population Estimates), and increases the species’ vulnerability to competition with white-tufted grebes, this decline is predicted to continue extinction, through demographic or and results in the abandonment of commensurate with ongoing threats environmental fluctuations. Based on its breeding in drought years. Reduced from habitat destruction and water small population size, restricted range, water levels have permanently contamination (Factor A). and threat of disease, we have destroyed segments of giant bulrush Despite the species’ ‘‘critically determined that the Junı´n grebe is communities, compromising the amount endangered’’ status in Peru and its particularly vulnerable to the threat of of suitable flooded marshland available occurrence entirely within a protected adverse natural events (e.g., genetic, for nesting (Factor A). Mining, area, the lake continues to be destroyed demographic, or environmental) and agricultural, and organic materials have and degraded as a result of human human activities (e.g., water level contaminated the water, causing activities that alter the lake’s water manipulation) that destroy individuals eutrophication and anoxia in portions of levels and compromise water quality and their habitat. The genetic and the lake and the accumulation of trace (Factors A and C). Therefore, regulatory demographic risks associated with small minerals in lake bottom sediments. This mechanisms are either inadequate or ´ population sizes are exacerbated by has had direct effects on the Junın grebe, ineffective at mitigating the existing ongoing human activities that continue destroying habitat in the northwest threats to the Junı´n grebe and its habitat to curtail the species’ habitat throughout portion of the lake so that the species’ (Factor D). its range. The species’ population has range is restricted to only the southern Section 3 of the Act defines an declined and is predicted to continue portion of Lake Junı´n and causing Junı´n ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species declining due to an ongoing reduction grebe mortality during times of drought which is in danger of extinction in water quality and extreme water level (Factors A and C). Contaminants have throughout all or a significant portion of fluctuations (Factor A). Therefore, we also reduced or eliminated submerged its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as find that the species’ small population and emergent vegetation throughout the ‘‘any species which is likely to become size, in concert with its restricted range, lake, decreasing pupfish spawning an endangered species within the habitat and reducing prey availability threat of disease, and its heightened foreseeable future throughout all or a (Factor A). vulnerability to adverse natural events significant portion of its range.’’ Based Junı´n grebe habitat continues to be and manmade activities, are threats to on the immediate and ongoing threats to ´ altered by human activities, conversion, the continued existence of the Junın the Junı´n grebe throughout its entire grebe throughout its range. and destruction of habitat, which reduce the quantity, quality, distribution, and range, as described above, we determine ´ Status Determination for the Junı´n regeneration of habitat available for the that the Junın grebe is in danger of Grebe Junı´n grebe on Lake Junı´n. Habitat loss extinction throughout all of its range. The Junı´n grebe, a flightless grebe, is was a factor in the Junı´n grebe’s Therefore, on the basis of the best endemic to Lake Junı´n, found at 13,390 historical population decline (see available scientific and commercial ft (4,080 m) above sea level in Peru, Historical Range and Distribution). information, we are proposing to list the where it resides year-round. The species Population declines have been Junı´n grebe as an endangered species relies on the open waters and marshland correlated with water availability, and throughout all of its range. margins of the lake for feeding and on droughts have caused severe population III. Junı´n rail (Laterallus tuerosi) the protective cover of the marshland fluctuations that have likely margins for nesting during the breeding compromised the species’ long-term Species Description season. The species has a highly viability. The Junı´n grebe population is The Junı´n rail is a secretive bird of the restricted range (approximately 55 mi2 small, rendering the species vulnerable Rallidae family that is endemic to a (143 km2)) and is currently known only to the threat of adverse natural (e.g., single lake (Lake Junı´n) in Peru. The in one location in central Peru. The genetic, demographic) and human species is also referred to as the Junı´n species’ population size is estimated as activity (e.g., water extraction and black rail (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281) and is 100–300 individuals, although the contaminants from mining) events that locally known as ‘‘gallinetita de Junı´n’’

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(Supreme Decree 034-2004-AG 2004, p. a variety of species of grasses, asters, Current Range and Distribution 27684). This rail measures 4.7–5.1 in and trees of the bean family forming tall, The Junı´n rail is restricted to the (12–13 cm) in length, and has a dark dense grasslands and open scrubland, southwest shore of the lake, and is slate-colored head, throat and interspersed with wetlands and currently known in only two localities underparts. Its belly and vent (anal woodlands (ParksWatch 2006, p. 2; (near the towns of Ondores and Pari) aperture) are black, with heavily-barred ParksWatch 2009, pp. 1, 4). Giant (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, p. white primary feathers along the back bulrushes and totorilla dominate the 190; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). The current and side. The under-tail coverts extensive marshlands surrounding the estimated range of the species is 62 mi2 (feathers on the underside of the base of lake (BLI 2009b, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. (160 km2) (BLI 2009b, p. 1). However, the tail) are buff in color, with a dull 281; ParksWatch 2009, p. 1). In shallow this is likely an overestimate of the rufous-brown back. The remaining water, during low lake levels, ‘‘tortora’’ species’ actual range for several reasons. underparts are dark brown and boldly communities can become partially or First, BirdLife International’s definition barred in white, and the legs are completely dry (ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). of a species’ range results in an greenish-yellow (BLI 2009b, p. 1). The lake supports a wide variety of bird overestimate of the actual range (see Taxonomy species and aquatic vegetation (BLI Current Range and Distribution of the The Junı´n rail was first taxonomically 2003, p. 1; BLI 2009a, pp. 2-3; ash-breasted tit-tyrant) (BLI 2000, pp. described as Laterallus spilonotus after ParksWatch 2009, p. 3; Tello 2007, p. 2). 22, 27). Second, the species’ range was Gould’s 1841 description of the Mammals are relatively scarce in the calculated based on the availability of Galapagos crake (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281; area, although there are some predators presumed suitable habitat for the Junı´n ITIS 2009b, p. 1). Fjeldsa˚ (1983) later (ParksWatch 2009, p. 4) (see Factor C). rail. It has long been assumed that the described it as a subspecies of the black A more detailed discussion of the flora rail potentially occupies the entire rail (Laterallus jamaicensis tuerosi) and fauna of the lake are provided above marshland area surrounding Lake Junı´n (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, pp. 277-282; Fjeldsa˚ and as part of the analysis of the Habitat and (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). The total Krabbe 1990, p. 146; ITIS 2009a, p. 1), ´ marshland area has been estimated by Life History of the Junın grebe. 2 noting that the bird’s morphology may BirdLife International to be 58 mi (150 There is little information regarding 2 suggest that it is a distinct species km ) (BLI 2000, p. 170; BLI 2007, p. 1; the ecology of the Junı´n rail. The species (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). Laterallus BLI 2008, p. 3; BLI 2009b, p. 1). appears to be completely dependent on jamaicensis has since been split into L. However, the species has never been jamaicensis and L. tuerosi (BLI 2009b, p. the wide marshlands located around the confirmed outside the two known 1). ITIS continues to list the species as southeast shoreline of the lake for localities on the southwest shore of the the subspecies L. j. tuerosi based on nesting, foraging, and year-round lake. Moreover, a better understanding Fjeldsa˚’s work in 1983 (ITIS 2009a, p. residence (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. of the ‘‘puna’’ habitat, as well as the 1). BirdLife International considers this 1992, p. 190; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281) (see habitat specificity (the specific habitat rail a full species based on also Current Range and Distribution). needs) of other rail species, indicates morphological differences (BLI 2009b p. Similar to all rails, the Junı´n rail is that these may be the only two localities 1). Furthermore, the black rail, furtive and remains well-hidden in the for this species. Laterallus jamaicensis occurs at much marshes surrounding the lake (BLI Despite the apparently uniform lower elevations (i.e., 0 to 4,429 ft (0 to 2009b, p.2). The Junı´n rail reportedly appearance of the ‘‘puna,’’ the habitat 1,350 m) above sea level) (Collar et al. nests at the end of the dry season, in provides a complex mosaic of niches 1992, p. 190; BLI 2000, p. 170; BLI 2007, September and October. Nests are built that leads to the patchy distribution of p. 1). Based on the morphological on the ground within dense vegetative many bird species throughout the differences and the species’ distinct and cover, and the species’ clutch size is two region, indicating that the species have disjunct ranges, we consider the Junı´n eggs (BLI 2009b, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, specialized habitat requirements that are rail to be a discrete species and p. 190). The diet of the Junı´n rail has not only satisfied locally (Fjeldsa˚ and recognize it as L. tuerosi. been studied specifically, but other Krabbe 1990, p. 32). The species’ It should be noted that it appears that black rail species feed primarily on distribution is highly localized around only 2 specimens of the Junı´n rail have small aquatic and terrestrial the lake. The Junı´n rail apparently ever been collected (near Ondores) invertebrates and seeds (Eddleman et al. prefers the dense, interior marshlands (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, pp. 278-279) and that all 1994, p. 1). comprised primarily of rushes (Juncus expert accounts of this species rely spp.) and mosaics of rushes, mosses solely on that collection and a Historical Range and Distribution (division Bryophyta), and low herbs in subsequent observation of the species in more open marsh areas (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. The Junı´n rail is endemic to Lake Pari (Fjeldsa˚ in litt., 1992, as cited in 281). High habitat specificity is Junı´n (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 278; BLI 2009b, Collar et al. 1992, p. 190). consistent with related rail species. p. 2). The species may have been Studies of the closely related California Habitat and Life History historically common in the rush- black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis The Junı´n rail inhabits Lake Junı´n at dominated marshlands surrounding the coturniculus) indicate that this species 13,390 ft (4,080 m) above sea level in entire lake (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). In is a habitat specialist, whereby the the Andean highlands of Peru (Junı´n addition to the species’ specific habitat emergent vegetation used for cover, Region). The Junı´n rail occurs in the preferences (see Current Range and water depth, and access to upland dense, interior marshlands where rushes Distribution), it is believed that the vegetation, are all important factors in (Juncus spp.) predominate or in more Junı´n rail is now restricted to the the black rail’s habitat use (Flores and open mosaics of rushes, mosses marshes at the southwest corner of the Eddleman 1995, p. 362). Therefore, the (division Bryophyta), and low herbs lake because of the high level of water Junı´n rail’s actual range is clearly (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281). Lake Junı´n, home contamination that flows into the smaller than the figure that continues to to the Junı´n grebe that is also the subject northwest margins of the lake via the be reported by BirdLife International of this proposed rule, is located in the Rı´o San Juan (Martin and McNee 1999, since 2000 (BLI 2000, p. 170; BLI 2007, seasonally climatic ‘‘puna’’ habitat, with p. 662). p. 1; BLI 2008, p. 3; BLI 2009b, p. 1).

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Population Estimates is restricted to two localities within the nesting season disrupts nest initiation Rigorous population estimates have shallow marshlands encircling Lake by rails. Therefore, water drawdown not been made (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281), Junı´n (BLI 2008, p. 3; BLI 2009b, p. 2; near the end of the dry season that and the species’ elusiveness makes it Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 278). The current results in complete desiccation of the 2 difficult to locate (BLI 2009b, p. 2). In estimated range of the species, 62 mi shallow marshlands (BLI 2009b, p. 1; 2 1983, the Junı´n rail was characterized as (160 km ) (BLI 2009b, p. 1), is an ParksWatch 2009, p. 2) is likely to possibly common, based on local overestimate of this species’ range for disrupt Junı´n rail nest initiation. ´ fishers’ sightings of groups of up to a the reasons outlined above as part of the Experts believe that the Junın rail is restricted to the marshes at the dozen birds at a time (Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. analysis of this species’ Current Range southwest corner of the lake because of 281). The species continues to be and Distribution. The species is known the high level of contamination at the reported as ‘‘fairly common,’’ assuming only from two discrete locations, near northwest margins of the lake (Martin that it occurs throughout the marshland Ondores and Pari, on the southwest and McNee 1999, p. 662). Experts also surrounding the lake (BLI 2007, p. 1; shore of the lake. Breeding occurs near believe that pollution and artificial BLI 2009b, p. 1). The BirdLife the end of the dry season, in September water level fluctuations will continue to International estimate that this species’ and October, and the birds build their have adverse consequences for the population size falls within the nests on the ground within the dense vegetation surrounding the lake and, population range category of 1,000– vegetative cover of the rushes that make up the marshland perimeter of the lake therefore, the Junı´n rail (BLI 2000, p. 2,499 (BLI 2000, p. 170; BLI 2007, p. 1; 170; BLI 2007, p. 1; J. Fjeldsa˚ in litt., BLI 2009b, p. 1). This estimate is an (BLI 2000, p. 170; BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 2). 1987, as cited in Collar et al. 1992, p. extrapolation that continues to be based 190). Indeed, in some places, the tall The habitat in and around Lake Junı´n on the assumption that the species ‘‘may marshlands, which rely on inundated 2 is subjected to manmade activities that be fairly common in the entire c. 58 mi soils to thrive, have virtually 2 have altered, destroyed, and degraded (150 km ) of available marshland’’ disappeared because the reed-beds are the quantity and quality of habitat around Lake Junı´n (BLI 2000, p. 170; no longer permanently inundated available to the Junı´n rail. These BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI 2008, p. 3; BLI (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30). activities include: (1) artificial 2009b, p. 1). As indicated in the Moreover, as the marshes dry, livestock manipulation of water levels; (2) water analysis of this species’ Current Range (primarily sheep (Ovis aries), but also and Distribution, the species has never contamination; and (3) plant harvesting cattle (Bos taurus), and some llamas been confirmed outside its two known in the species’ breeding grounds. The (Llama glama) and alpacas (Llama localities and, therefore, it is possible negative impacts of these activities are pacos)) move into the desiccated that the species is locally common, but accentuated by unpredictable climate wetlands surrounding the lake to graze. not widely distributed. If the Junı´n rail fluctuations (such as droughts or Overgrazing is a year-round problem is not common throughout Lake Junı´n’s excessive rains) (Jetz et al. 2007, pp. around Lake Junı´n because the entire marshland, the actual population size 1211, 1213; Mora et al. 2007, p. 1027). lakeshore is zoned for grazing by a large may be much lower. The Upamayo Dam went into operation number of livestock (approximately The species has experienced a at the northwest end of Lake Junı´n in 60,000–70,000 head) (ParksWatch 2006, population decline of between 10 and 1936 to generate electricity using pp. 12, 19). During the dry season, the 19 percent in the past 10 years (BLI hydropower (Martin et al. 2001, p. 178; hoofed stock moves into the marshlands 2009b, p. 2). The population is ParksWatch 2006, p. 5). Under normal to graze, compacting the soil and considered to be declining in close conditions, water levels are lower trampling the vegetation (ParksWatch association with continued habitat loss during the dry season, and the 2006, p. 31). Increased access to the and degradation (see Factors A, C, and marshlands can become partially or wetlands during the end of the dry E) (BLI 2008, p. 1). completely desiccated (BLI 2009b, p. 1; season, which coincides with the ParksWatch 2009, p. 2). The dam is Conservation Status inception of the Junı´n rail’s nesting often opened during the dry season, to season, likely disrupts the rail’s nesting ´ The Junın rail is considered generate power (June to November) (BLI activities or leads to nest trampling. ‘‘endangered’’ by the Peruvian 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch 2009, p. 2), Therefore, activities that increase Government under Supreme Decree No. leading to further drawdown of the lake. lakeshore access, such as water 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276855). The Lake drawdown has been known to drawdown, decrease the amount of ´ IUCN categorizes the Junın rail as cause water levels to fluctuate available habitat for the Junı´n rail (for ‘‘Endangered’’ because it is known only seasonally up to 6 ft (2 m) (Martin and nesting and feeding) and are likely to from a small area of marshland (i.e., McNee 1999, p. 659) and has at times negatively impact the Junı´n rail’s near Ondores and Pari) around a single caused complete desiccation of the reproduction (through trampling) and lake, where habitat quality is declining marshlands by the end of the dry season mating habits (through disturbance) (BLI (BLI 2008, p. 3). The single known (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123). The ground 2009b, p. 1). population of the Junı´n rail occurs nesting Junı´n rail breeds near the end of Water quality is another factor wholly within one protected area in the dry season, in September and influencing the quality of habitat Peru, the Junı´n National Reserve (BLI October, and the species’ relies on the available to the Junı´n rail. The degraded 2008, p. 1; BLI 2009b, pp. 1-2). dense vegetative cover of the rushes on water quality in Lake Junı´n was fully Summary of Factors Affecting the Junı´n the lake perimeter in which to build discussed as part of the Factor A Rail their nests (BLI 2009b, p. 2). A similar analysis for the Junı´n grebe and is species, the California black rail, may summarized here. The water in Lake A. The Present or Threatened tolerate decreases in water depth, but Junı´n has been contaminated from Destruction, Modification, or only if the substrate remains moist mining (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or enough to support sufficient wetland 660-661; ParksWatch 2006, p. 2; Range vegetation (Flores and Eddleman 1995, Shoobridge 2006, p. 3), agricultural The Junı´n rail is endemic to Lake p. 362). Eddleman et al. (1988, p. 463) activities (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. Junı´n, where it resides year-round and noted that water drawdown before 660-661; ParksWatch 2006, p. 2;

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Shoobridge 2006, p. 3), and from 2007, p. 1027). Peru is subject to northwest portion of the lake has organic matter and wastewater runoff unpredictable climate fluctuations, such rendered it lifeless, and experts believe from local communities around the lake as those that are related to the El Nin˜ o that water contamination limits the (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 5, 19; Shoobridge Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Changes Junı´n rail’s foraging and breeding 2006, p. 3). Water pollution has resulted in weather patterns, such as ENSO activities to the southern portion of the in heavy metal contamination cycles (El Nin˜ o and La Nin˜ a events), lake. The effects of artificially reduced throughout the lake, exceeding tend to increase precipitation in water levels and water contamination established thresholds for aquatic life normally dry areas, and decrease are accentuated by droughts or throughout at least one-third of the lake precipitation in normally wet areas excessive rains caused by El Nin˜ o (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 660-661; (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; TAO events. Reduced water levels near the O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29; Project n.d., p. 1). ENSO events end of the dry season (during Junı´n rail ParksWatch 2006, pp. 3, 20; Shoobridge exacerbate the effects of habitat nesting season) expose the species to 2006, p. 3), and rendering the northern reduction and alteration on the decline greater vulnerability to predation (see portion of the lake lifeless (BLI 2008, p. of a species (England 2000, p. 86; Factor C), which also heightens the risks 4; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; Jetz et al. to the species that are associated with p. 124; Martin and McNee 1999, pp. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; Mora et al. 2007, short- and long-term genetic viability 660-662; ParksWatch 2006, pp. 20-21). p. 1027; Parmesan and Mathews 2005, (Factor E). Therefore, we find that At the lake’s center, lake bottom p. 334; Plumart 2007, pp. 1-2; destruction and modification of habitat sediments are lifeless and anoxic due to Timmermann 1999, p. 694), particularly are threats to the continued existence of contaminants (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; for narrow endemics (Jetz et al. 2007, p. the Junı´n rail throughout its range. Martin et al. 2001, p. 180), and the 1213) such as the Junı´n rail (see also B. Overutilization for Commercial, lakeshore has become polluted with Factor E). As discussed above, droughts Recreational, Scientific, or Educational ‘‘toxic acid gray sediment’’ (O’Donnel increase access to the wetlands where Purposes and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30). There is no Junı´n rails live and breed. Excessive vegetation at the northern end of the rain increases contamination in the We are not aware of any information lake (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; ParksWatch water and causes soil toxicity (see currently available that indicates that 2006, pp. 20-21), and ongoing Factor C). ENSO cycles are ongoing, overutilization of Junı´n rail for contamination has the potential to having occurred several times within commercial, recreation, scientific, or reduce vegetative cover in other areas of the last decade (NWS 2009, p. 2). education purposes has occurred or is the lake, including the marshlands Evidence suggests that ENSO cycles occurring at this time. As a result, we where the Junı´n rail occurs. In addition, have already increased in periodicity are not considering overutilization to be these pollutants have severely affected and severity (Richter 2005, pp. 24-25; a threat to the continued existence of animal and plant populations in the Timmermann 1999, p. 694), which will, the Junı´n rail. area, contributing to mortality of species thus, exacerbate the negative impacts on C. Disease or Predation around the lake (ParksWatch 2006, pp. a species. 3, 20) and have the potential to reduce Disease: Although no specific disease Summary of Factor A the health and fitness of the Junı´n rail threat has been identified for the Junı´n (see Factor C). The habitat in and around Lake Junı´n, rail, contamination of Lake Junı´n Local residents also harvest and burn where the Junı´n rail is endemic, has exposes the Junı´n rail to mortality and cattails from the marshland habitat, been and continues to be altered and a reduction the overall fitness and which the Junı´n rail depends upon. degraded as a result of human activities, health of the species. The effects of Cattails are harvested for use in including artificial water level water contamination on the health of construction (i.e., to assemble rafts, fluctuations to generate hydropower, species inhabiting Lake Junı´n were baskets, and mats) and as forage for water contamination caused by mining discussed as part of the analysis of livestock (ParksWatch 2006, p. 23). waste, agricultural and organic runoff Factor C for the Junı´n grebe and are Cattails are also burned to encourage from surrounding lands, and wastewater summarized here. In Lake Junı´n, mining shoot renewal (ParksWatch 2006, p. 23) from local area communities. The Junı´n activities (Martin and McNee 1999, pp. and for hunting the montane guinea pig rail is dependent on the marshland 660-661; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3), and (Cavia tschudii), which seeks cover in habitat surrounding the lake for agricultural runoff, organic matter, and the cattail marshes and is part of the breeding and feeding. Water levels in wastewater (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 5, 19; local diet. Burning cattail communities Lake Junı´n are manipulated to generate Shoobridge 2006, p. 3) have has a negative and long-lasting impact electricity, which leads to dramatic contaminated the entire lake with high on species that use the cattails as fluctuations in water levels of up to 6 ft concentrations of dissolved chemicals permanent habitat (INRENA 2000, as (1.8 m). The Junı´n rail nests on the (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; Martin and McNee cited in ParksWatch 2006, p. 22; ground, within the protective cover of 1999, pp. 660-662; ParksWatch 2006, Eddleman et al. 1988, p. 464), including the marshlands. As water drawdown pp. 20-21). Environmental contaminants the Junı´n rail, which relies on the dense occurs near the end of the dry season exceed current established thresholds vegetative cover of the marshlands for and during the inception of the Junı´n for aquatic life (Martin and McNee 1999, year-round residence and nesting (BLI rail’s mating season, portions of the pp. 660-661; ParksWatch 2006, p. 20) 2000, p. 170; BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI 2009b, marshlands may dry out completely, and have rendered the northern portion p. 2). affecting the availability of suitable of the lake lifeless from eutrophication The negative impacts of habitat breeding and foraging habitat. This (BLI 2008, p. 4; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3). alteration and destruction (such as species’ population decline has been Due to severe contamination, the artificially reduced water levels, water linked to deteriorating habitat quality sediments in the center of the lake are contamination, and cattail harvesting (see also Factor E). Overgrazing, cattail anoxic (Martin et al. 2001, p. 180), and and burning) are accentuated by harvest, and burning are ongoing around the lake’s turbidity has increased unpredictable climate fluctuations (such the lakeshore, and water drawdown (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20). Chemical as droughts or excessive rains) (Jetz et increases access to the marshlands. waste has damaged at least one third of al. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; Mora et al. Severe water contamination in the the lake, severely affecting animal and

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plant populations in the area (O’Donnel 2009, p. 4). Junı´n rails are preyed upon renders the species particularly and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29; ParksWatch by pampas cats (BLI 2008, p. 4; BLI vulnerable to local extirpation due to its 2006, pp. 3, 20; Shoobridge 2006, p. 3) 2009b, p 2). Under normal conditions, small population size (Factor E). and completely eliminating vegetation water levels are lower in the dry season Therefore, we find that predation, from the northern portion of the lake and the marshlands can become exacerbated by ongoing habitat (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; ParksWatch 2006, partially or completely dry (BLI 2009b, destruction (Factor A), are threats to the pp. 20-21). It is also believed that p. 1; ParksWatch 2009, p. 2) reducing continued existence of the Junı´n rail contamination may, in fact, be protective cover and allowing predators throughout its range. responsible forthe possible extirpation to more easily locate the rail. When the D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory of at least one fish species (a catfish) floodgates of the Upumayo Dam are Mechanisms (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 29). opened during the dry season (June to Contamination from mining waste November) (BLI 2009b, p. 1; ParksWatch The Junı´n rail is listed as may have direct and indirect impacts on 2009, p. 2), drawdown has led to ‘‘endangered’’ by the Peruvian the fitness and health of the Junı´n rail. complete desiccation of the marshlands Government under Supreme Decree No. As described above as part of the Factor by the end of the dry season (Fjeldsa˚ 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276855). This C analysis for the Junı´n grebe, a 2004, p. 123). The ground nesting Junı´n Decree prohibits hunting, take, waterbird that is sympatric with the rail breeds near the end of the dry transport, and trade of protected Junı´n rail, mine waste contamination season, in September and October, and species, except as permitted by may have caused heavy metal poisoning builds their nests in the dense regulation. As hunting, take, transport, (T. Valqui and J. Barrio in litt. 1992, as vegetative cover of the rushes on the and trade do not currently threaten the cited in Collar et al. 1992, pp. 45, 190) lake perimeter (BLI 2009b, p. 2). Water Junı´n rail, this regulation does not or reduced prey availability (Fjeldsa˚ drawdown and periods of drought mitigate any current threats to this 2004, p. 124), leading to Junı´n grebe increases the bird’s vulnerability to species. mortality during an extensive drought predation because nesting grounds Peru has several categories of national from 1989 to 1992. Large-scale bird become exposed and larger areas of the habitat protection, which were mortality has occurred on the lake, marsh are accessible to predators described above as part of the Factor D apparently due to lead poisoning from (ParksWatch 2006, p. 23). Predation analysis for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant mining effluents—a common cause of increases the risk of extirpation due to (BLI 2008, p. 1; IUCN 1994, p. 2; mortality in waterbirds (Friend and the species’ already small population Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). The Franson 1999, p. 317; O’Donnel and size. In addition, species that inhabit a single Junı´n rail population occurs Fjeldsa˚ 1997, p. 30). Heavy metals in the small geographic range, occur at low wholly within the Junı´n National water column and the lake’s sediments, density, occupy a high trophic level, Reserve (Junı´n, Peru) (BLI 2009b, pp. 1- where this species feeds, would have and exhibit low reproductive rates tend 2), which encompasses the lake and negative health consequences for the to have a higher risk of extinction than surrounding land and was established Junı´n rail, as in the case for the Junı´n species that are not limited by the same in 1974 by Supreme Decree 0750- 74-AG grebe and other waterbirds that inhabit risk factors (Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949) (BLI 2009a, p. 2; Wege and Long, p. the lake. Excessive contaminant load (Factor E). 264). Peruvian National Reserves are can contribute to a decline in fitness created for the sustainable extraction of and vigor for long-lived, mid-trophic Summary of Factor C certain biological resources (BLI 2008, level species (Rowe 2008, p. 624), such Environmental contaminants (Factor p. 1; Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. as the Junı´n rail. Increased turbidity of A) in Lake Junı´n may have negative 330), and most of the lakeshore is the water has resulted in die-offs of consequences on the health of the Junı´n designated a ‘‘Direct Use Zone,’’ aquatic plants and algae, which disrupts rail, given that extensive environmental allowing fishing, grazing, and other the food chain (ParksWatch 2006, p. 20). contamination in Lake Junı´n has educational, research, and recreational Higher trophic level species (discussed resulted in mortality of flora and fauna activities (ParksWatch 2006, p. 12). in more detail as part of the Factor C that inhabit the lake and its margins. Habitat destruction and alteration analysis for the Junı´n grebe), such as the The species’ trophic level also exposes (through artificial water level Junı´n rail, are more susceptible to it to bioaccumulation of toxins fluctuations, contamination (BLI 2009b, disruptions in the food chain at lower accumulated in the tissue of prey p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 124; ParksWatch trophic levels (Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123; The species. There is documented evidence 2006, pp. 20-21; Wege and Long 1995, University of the Western Cape 2009, p. that other waterbirds occupying the p. 264)), overgrazing, and cattail harvest 1) and prone to bioaccumulation same habitat have died as a direct result and burning (ParksWatch 2006, pp. 22- because they ingest pesticides, heavy of contaminant poisoning or reduction 23) are ongoing throughout the Reserve metals, and other contaminants that are of the availability of prey species. (Factor A), increasing the species’ present in their prey (Demayo et al. Therefore, we find that disease is a susceptibility to predation (ParksWatch 1982, as cited in Eisler 1988, p. 5; threat to the continued existence of the 2006, p. 23) (Factor C), and jeopardizing Fjeldsa˚ 2004, p. 123). Drought Junı´n rail. the continued existence of the species, conditions exacerbate the effects of Predation by the pampas cat results in given its already small population size water contamination and the direct removal of individuals from (Factor E). Therefore, the existence of bioaccumulation for species at higher the population and can remove this species within a protected area has trophic levels (Demayo et al. 1982, as potentially reproductive adults from the not reduced or mitigated the threats to cited in Eisler 1988, p. 5; Fjeldsa˚ 2004, breeding pool. Ongoing habitat the Junı´n rail. p. 123). destruction (through reduced water The Junı´n National Reserve was Predation: Predators around Lake levels and contamination) continues to designated a Ramsar site in 1997 (BLI Junı´n include the Andean fox degrade the quality of habitat available 2009a, p. 2; INRENA 1996, pp. 1-14; (Pseudalopex culpaues), the long-tailed to the Junı´n rail (Factor A) and the Ramsar 2009, p. 2). As more fully weasel (Mustela frenata), Pampas cat species’ habitat becomes more described for the Junı´n grebe, this (Onicifelis colocolo), and hog-nosed accessible to predators during droughts designation provides only nominal skunk (Conepatus chinga) (ParksWatch and water drawdowns. Predation protection of wetland habitat (Jellison et

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al. 2004, p. 19). Activities that individuals (BLI 2009b, p. 2), and restricted range and threat of predation, negatively impact the Junı´n rail are considers the population to be likely increases the species’ vulnerability to ongoing throughout this wetland, ‘‘very small and presumably declining’’ adverse natural events and manmade including water fluctuations and (BLI 2000, p. 170; BLI 2009b, p. 1). activities that destroy individuals and contamination (Factor A), water Small population size renders species their habitat (Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; fluctuations that increase the species’ vulnerable to genetic risks that can have Primack 1998, pp. 279-308; Young and risk of predation (Factor C), and small individual or population-level genetic Clarke 2000, pp. 361-366). population size (Factor E). Therefore, consequences, such as inbreeding Summary of Factor E the Ramsar designation has not depression, loss of genetic variation, mitigated the impact of threats on the and accumulation of new mutations, The Junı´n rail has a small population Junı´n rail. and may affect the species’ viability by size that renders it vulnerable to genetic There are approximately 5,000 laws increasing its susceptibility to risks that negatively impact the species’ and regulations directly or indirectly demographic shifts or environmental viability. The species occupies a related to environmental protection and fluctuations, as explained in more detail restricted range and occurs in habitat natural resource conservation in Peru. above in the Factor E analysis for the that continues to be altered and Recent studies by the Peruvian Society ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Charlesworth destroyed due to human activities for Environmental Law (SPDA) have and Charlesworth 1987, p. 238; Pimm et (Factor A). Predation jeopardizes the concluded that many of these are not al. 1988, pp. 757, 773-775; Shaffer 1981, species’ already small population size effective because of limited p. 131). Small population size leads to because it results in the direct removal implementation or enforcement a higher risk of extinction and, once a of Junı´n rail individuals from the capability (Muller 2001, pp. 1-2). population is reduced below a certain population, can remove potentially number of individuals, it tends to reproductive adults from the breeding Summary of Factor D rapidly decline towards extinction pool, and could lead to extirpation Peru has enacted various laws and (Frankham 1996, p. 1507; Franklin (Factor C). The small population size, as regulatory mechanisms for the 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and Soule´ well as its restricted range and threat of protection and management of wildlife 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; predation, increases the species’ and their habitats. The Junı´n rail is Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949; Reed and vulnerability to extinction through ‘‘endangered’’ under Peruvian law, and Frankham 2003, pp. 233-234; Soule´ demographic or environmental its entire population occurs within a 1987, p. 181). In addition, species that fluctuations. Based on the species’ small protected area. As discussed under inhabit a small geographic range, occur population size, restricted range, and Factor A, habitat destruction and at low density, occupy a high trophic threat of predation, we have determined alteration have curtailed the species’ level, and exhibit low reproductive rates that the Junı´n rail is particularly range and threaten the continued tend to have a higher risk of extinction vulnerable to the threat of adverse existence of the species. Ongoing habitat than species that are not limited by the natural events (e.g., genetic, destruction (including water level same risk factors (Purvis et al. 2000, p. demographic, or environmental) and manipulation, contamination, 1949). We consider that the risks human activities (e.g., water level overgrazing, and cattail harvest and associated with small population size manipulation, contamination, cattail burning (Factor A)), predation (Factor will continue to impact this species and harvest, and overgrazing) that destroy C), and predators’ increased access due may accelerate, if habitat destruction individuals and their habitat. The to habitat destruction intensify the risks continues unabated. genetic and demographic risks to the species from its already small Complications arising from the associated with small population sizes population size (Factor E). These species’ small population size are are exacerbated by ongoing human activities are ongoing throughout the exacerbated by its restricted range and activities that continue to curtail the species’ range, which is entirely the threat of predation (Factor C). The species’ habitat throughout its range. encompassed within a protected area. Junı´n rail is known from two localities The species’ population has declined Thus, despite its endangered status and (Ondores and Pari) on the southwest and is predicted to continue declining its presence within a designated shore of a single Andean lake, Lake due to an ongoing reduction in the protected area, laws governing wildlife Junı´n, in central Peru (BLI 2000, p. 170; quality of its habitat (Factor A). and habitat protection in Peru are BLI 2009b, pp. 1-2; Fjeldsa˚ 1983, p. 281; Therefore, we find that the species’ inadequately enforced or ineffective at Fjeldsa˚ in litt. 1992, as cited in Collar small population size, in concert with protecting the species or mitigating et al. 1992, p. 190) (see Current Range its restricted range, threat of predation, ongoing habitat degradation (Factor A) and Distribution). The population has and its heightened vulnerability to and concomitant population declines declined at a rate between 10 and 19 adverse natural events and manmade (Factor E). Therefore, we find that the percent in the past 10 years, and this activities, are threats to the continued existing regulatory mechanisms are decline is expected to continue, as a existence of the Junı´n rail throughout its inadequate to mitigate the threats to the result of the declining quality of habitat range. continued existence of the Junı´n rail within its small, restricted range (BLI Status Determination for the Junı´n Rail throughout its range. 2009b, pp. 4-5) (Factor A). The pampas cat is a known predator of Junı´n rails The Junı´n rail is a ground nesting bird E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors (BLI 2008, p. 4; BLI 2009b, p 2). The endemic to Lake Junı´n, found at 13,390 Affecting the Continued Existence of the ground nesting Junı´n rail is particularly ft (4,080 m) above sea level in Peru, Species vulnerable to predation near the end of where it resides year-round. The species An additional factor that affects the the dry season, when nesting begins and has high habitat specificity and occurs continued existence of the Junı´n rail is the vegetative cover of the marshlands only in two localities within the the species’ small population size. As within which they build their nests (BLI marshland mosaic habitat that discussed above (see Population 2009b, p. 2) is more exposed and surrounds the lake. The current Estimates), BirdLife International has accessible to predators (ParksWatch estimated range of the species is 62 mi2 placed the Junı´n rail in the population 2006, p. 23). The Junı´n rail’s small (160 km2), and its population size is category of between 1,000 and 2,499 population size, combined with its estimated to be 1,000–2,499. However,

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both of these figures are likely to be overgrazing) that destroy individuals (Bucher et al. 2003, p. 211; Schulenberg overestimates; despite suggestions that and their habitat. Human activities that et al. 2007, p. 488; Walther 2004, p. 73). the species inhabits the entire area of continue to curtail the species’ habitat Plantcutters have bright yellow eyes, marshland surrounding the lake, the throughout its range exacerbate the short wings and rather long tails, and species has only been confirmed in two genetic and demographic risks their crown feathers form a slight crest localities. associated with small population sizes (Goodall 1965, p. 635; Ridgely and We have carefully assessed the best (Factor E). Predation jeopardizes the Tudor 1994, p. 732). Adult birds are available scientific and commercial species’ already small population size 7.28 to 7.48 in (18.5 to 9 cm) in length information regarding the past, present, because it results in the direct removal and weigh approximately 1.26 to 1.55 and potential future threats faced by the of Junı´n rail individuals from the ounces (oz) (36 to 44 grams (g)) Junı´n rail and have concluded that there population, can remove potentially (Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; are four primary factors that threaten the reproductive adults from the breeding Walther 2004, p. 73). Males are pale continued existence of the rail: (1) pool, and could lead to extirpation ashy gray, except a broad cinnamon- Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and (Factor C). The Junı´n rail population has rufous color band on the belly and degradation; (2) disease and predation; declined at a rate between 10 and 19 above the bill, and white colored bands (3) limited size and isolation of percent during the past 10 years (see on their wings (BLI 2000, p. 401; BLI remaining populations; and (4) Population Estimates), and this decline 2009a, p. 1; Goodall 1965, p. 636; inadequate regulatory mechanisms. is predicted to continue commensurate Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 733). Human activities that degrade, alter, with ongoing threats from habitat Females are buff-brown with broad, and destroy habitat are ongoing destruction, water contamination, dark brown stripes above, and white throughout the Junı´n rail’s range. Lake overgrazing, and cattail harvest and with heavy black-striped underparts waters are artificially manipulated to burning (Factor A). (BLI 2009a, p. 1; Collar et al. 1992, p. produce hydropower, resulting in Despite the species’ endangered status 805). Juvenile birds have not been reductions in water levels that impact in Peru and its occurrence entirely described (Walther 2004, p. 73). The the species’ nesting and foraging sites, within one protected area (Factor D), Peruvian plantcutter’s bill is stout, especially near the end of the dry season habitat destruction and degradation short, conical, and finely serrated with when this ground nesting bird begins continue as a result of human activities sharp tooth-like projections that run the breeding. Reduced water levels and that alter lake levels and compromise length of the beak on both sides, and aquatic contaminants have permanently water quality and increase the species’ which are well suited for plucking buds, destroyed segments of cattail susceptibility to overgrazing and leaves, shoots, and fruits (Goodall 1965, communities, compromising the amount predation (Factors A and C). Therefore, p. 635; Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 732; of suitable flooded marshland available regulatory mechanisms are either Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488) (see for nesting. Climate fluctuations inadequate or ineffective at mitigating Habitat and Life History). exacerbate the effects of habitat the existing threats to the species and its Taxonomy alteration, as droughts further decrease habitat (Factor D). The Peruvian plantcutter was first available nesting grounds and excessive Section 3 of the Act defines an taxonomically described as Phytotoma rains increase contaminant runoff into ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species raimondii by Taczanowski in 1883 (ITIS the lake (Factor A). Environmental which is in danger of extinction 2009, p. 1; Sibley and Monroe 1990, p. contaminants have caused mortality in throughout all or a significant portion of 371). The type-specimen of the Peruvian other waterbirds and have likely its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as plantcutter (the specimen that was reduced the overall general health of the ‘‘any species which is likely to become ´ described by Taczanowski) was Junın rail population (Factor C). an endangered species within the collected by the ornithologist Konstanty Overgrazing and cattail harvest and foreseeable future throughout all or a Jelski, who recorded the specimen as burning further alter and destroy the significant portion of its range.’’ Based marshland upon which the rails depend being collected in the Tumbes on the immediate and ongoing threats to Department of Peru (Flanagan et al. in (Factor A). Water drawdown exposes the Junı´n rail throughout its entire the birds and their marshland nesting litt. 2009, p. 2). However, the reported range, as described above, we determine areas to greater access by grazing collection location may have been that the Junı´n rail is in danger of animals, cattail harvesters, and inaccurate (see Historical range and extinction throughout all of its range. predators (Factors A and C). Distribution, below). Junı´n rail habitat continues to be Therefore, on the basis of the best The genus Phytotoma contains three altered by human activities, which available scientific and commercial species of plantcutters, all endemic to results in the continued degradation and information, we are proposing to list the South America (Dickinson 2003, p. 346; destruction of habitat and reduces the Junı´n rail as an endangered species Goodall 1965, p. 635; Sibley and quality and distribution of remaining throughout all of its range. Monroe 1990, p. 371; Walther 2004, p. suitable habitat. Habitat loss was a IV. Peruvian plantcutter (Phytotoma 73). Ornithologists have long debated to factor in the Junı´n rail’s historical raimondii) which family this genus belongs. Some decline (see Historical Range and ornithologists have recommended that Distribution), and the species is Species Description the genus be placed in its own family, considered to be declining today due to The Peruvian plantcutter, locally Phytotomidae (Lanyon and Lanyon continued reduction of available habitat known as ‘‘cortarrama Peruana,’’ is a 1989, p. 422), while others placed the (Factors A and E). The Junı´n rail small finch-like bird endemic to the dry genus within the Tyrannidae family population is small, increasing the forests of coastal northwest Peru (Collar (Sibley and Monroe 1990, p. 371). species’ vulnerability to the threat of et al. 1992, p. 805; Goodall 1965, p. 636; Molecular research using DNA adverse natural events (e.g., genetic, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 733; Sibley sequencing supports the inclusion of demographic, or environmental) and and Monroe 1990, p. 371; Schulenberg Phytotoma in the Cotingidae family human activities (e.g., water et al. 2007, p. 488; Walther 2004, p. 73). (Irestedt et al. 2001, p. 23; Johansson et contamination, water level The Peruvian plantcutter is an herbivore al. 2002, p. 993; Ohlson et al. 2006, p. manipulation, cattail harvest, and with a predominantly leaf-eating diet 10). The Cotingidae family includes a

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wide diversity of species that are found Three of the most common tree (Galan de Mera et al. 1997, p. 351). The in Central America and tropical South species associated with P. pallida dry climate is warm and dry with the America (Snow 2004, p. 32). Therefore, forest habitat used by the Peruvian annual temperature range of 74° to 77° based on the information currently plantcutter are Capparis scabrida (no F (23° to 25° C) at elevations below available to us, we accept that the common name, but locally known as 1,968 ft (600 m) (Linares-Palomino Peruvian plantcutter belongs to the ‘‘sapote’’), in the Capparaceae (caper) 2006, p. 260). Northwest Peru is Cotingidae family, which also follows family, and Acacia macracantha (long- strongly influenced by the El Nin˜ o the Integrated Taxonomic Information spine acacia, locally known as ‘‘faique’’) Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle System (ITIS 2009, p. 1). and Parkinsonia aculeata (Jerusalem (Rodriguez et al 2005, p. 1), which can thorn, locally known as ‘‘palo verde’’), have particularly profound and long- Habitat and Life History both in the Fabaceae (legume) family lasting effects on arid terrestrial The Peruvian plantcutter is reportedly (More 2002, pp. 17-23). Associated ecosystems (Holmgren et al. 2006a, p. selective in its habitat preference and flowering shrubs in dry forest habitat 87; Mooers et al. 2007, p. 2) (see Factor requires a variety of arid tree and shrub include Capparis avicennifolia (no A). species with dense low-hanging common name, but locally known as Knowledge of the breeding of most branches to the ground (Collar et al. ‘‘bichayo’’) and C. crotonoides (no species within the Cotingidae family, 1992, p. 805; Flanagan and More 2003, common name, but locally known as including the Peruvian plantcutter, is p. 5; Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 7; ‘‘guayabito de gentil’’), both in the not well known (Walther 2004, p. 73). Williams 2005, p. 2). The primary Capparaceae (caper) family; Cordia lutea The Peruvian plantcutter is considered habitat for the Peruvian plantcutter is (no common name, but locally known as a resident species in Peru, which seasonally dry tropical forest, which is ‘‘overall’’) in the Boraginaceae (borage) indicates that it breeds there (Snow also referred to equatorial dry tropical family; and Maytenus octogona (no 2004, p. 61; Walther 2004, p. 73). forest, and which occurs in the semiarid common name, but locally known as Nesting activity of plantcutters appears lowlands of northwest Peru (Linares- ‘‘realengo’’) in the Celastraceae to occur from March to April (Collar et Palomino 2006, pp. 260, 263-266; (bittersweet) family. Other commonly al. 1992, p. 805; Walther 2004, p. 73). Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 21; Walther occurring dry forest vegetation includes Plantcutters build shallow, cup-shaped 2004, p. 73). The Peruvian plantcutter vines (e.g., Convolvulaceae (morning- nests that are made of thin dry twigs also uses arid lowland scrub (dense and glory) and Cucurbitaceae (gourd) and lined with root fibers and other open) and dense riparian shrub families), Psittacanthus chanduyensis softer material (Snow 2004, p. 55). Nests communities (BLI 2009a. p. 2; Collar et (tropical mistletoe; locally known as range from 2.4 to 3.5 in (6 to 9 cm) in al. 1992, p. 805; Schulenberg et al. 2007, ‘‘suelda con suelda’’) in the height and 3.9 to 7.0 in (10 to 18 cm) pp. 21, 488; Stotz et al. 1996, p. 19; Loranthaceae (mistletoe) family, in diameter, and can be placed 3.3 to 9.8 Walther 2004, p. 73). Stotz et al. (1996, scattered herbaceous species (e.g., ft (1 to 3 m) above the ground inside a pp. 19, 428) identified the Peruvian Asteraceae (sunflower), thick thorny shrub or higher in the fork plantcutter as a key indicator species for Scrophulariaceae (figwort), and of a tree (Elton 2004, p. 2; Flanagan and Equatorial Pacific Coast arid lowland Solanaceae (nightshade) families), and More 2003, p. 3; Snow 2004, p. 55). scrub. The lowland dry tropical forest grasses (e.g., Poaceae (grass) family) Each female lays two to four eggs, and and scrub are characterized as small and (Elton 2004, p. 2; Ferreyera 1983, pp. the incubation period lasts about 2 heavily fragmented patches of plant 248-250; More 2002, pp. 14-17; Walther weeks (Snow 2004, p. 56; Goodall 1965, species adapted to the arid conditions of 2004, p. 73). Riparian vegetation p. 636; Walther 2004, p. 73). The eggs the prolonged dry season of northwest includes dense shrub and small trees of have been described as short oval to Peru (Best and Kessler 1995, p. 40; P. pallida, A. macracantha, Capparis sub-elliptical in shape and grayish olive Bridgewater et al. 2003, pp. 132, 140; spp., and Salix spp. (willow spp.) in color with dark brownish olive spots Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 734). (Lanyon 1975, p. 443). at the larger end (Flanagan and Millen The lowland dry forest or woodlands The arid climate of northwest Peru is 2008, p. 1). Males assist rearing the in northwest Peru are open canopied, due to the influence of the cold chicks, which fledge after 17 days or so with trees occurring in scattered clumps Humboldt Current that flows north, (Snow 2004, p. 56). or individually (Flanagan and More parallel to the Peruvian Coast (UNEP Plantcutters are herbivores with a 2003, p. 4). The dominant tree species 2006, p. 16; Linares-Palomino 2006, p. predominantly leaf-eating diet (Bucher of the lowland dry forest is Prosopis 260; Rodriguez et al 2005, p. 2). The et al. 2003, p. 211; Snow 2004, p. 46). pallida (common name ‘‘kiawe;’’ also Humboldt Current has a cooling As an herbivore, the Peruvian locally referred to as ‘‘algarrobo’’) in the influence on the climate of coastal Peru, plantcutter is dependent on year-round Fabaceae family (legume family) (Lopez as the marine air is cooled by the cold availability of high-quality food, et al. 2005, p. 542; More 2002, p. 39). current and, thus, is not conducive to particularly during the dry season when Prosopis pallida is a wide-spreading generating rain. To the east, the Andean plant growth is very limited (Bucher et tree or large shrub, 26–65 ft (8–20 m) Mountains prevent humid air from the al. 2003, p. 216). Peruvian plantcutters tall, with dense branches; spines can be Amazon from reaching the western eat buds, leaves, and shoots of P. pallida present or absent (Pasiecznik et al. 2001, lowlands (Lanyon 1975, p. 443; Linares- and various other trees and shrubs, as p. 36). This deep-rooted drought- Palomino 2006, p. 260). well as some fruits (e.g., mistletoe) tolerant species, related to mesquite Coastal northwest Peru experiences a (Goodall 1965, p. 635; Schulenberg et al. species of southwest United States and short rainy season during the summer 2007, p. 488; Walther 2004, p. 73). The Mexico, provides an important months (January–April) (Linares- seeds, green seed pods, leaves, and ecological function by improving and Palomino 2006, p. 260), which can also flowers of P. pallida provide a protein- stabilizing soil conditions (Brewbaker include precipitation in the form of mist rich food source for animals (Lewis et 1987, p. 1; Pasiecznik et al. 2001, pp. or fine drizzle along the coast (Lanyon al. 2006, p. 282). Research studies on 101-102). Typical of legumes, P. pallida 1975, p. 443). The mean annual the two related plantcutter species, the is able to ‘‘fix’’ atmospheric nitrogen for precipitation across the range of the rufous-tailed plantcutter (P. rara) and plant utilization and growth (Brewbaker Peruvian plantcutter is 0.196 to 3.80 in the white-tipped plantcutter (P. rutila), 1987, p. 1; Pasiecznik et al. 2001, p. 3). (5.0 to 99 mm) (hyper-arid to arid) showed that the herbivore diet of these

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two species did not affect the energy timber and firewood extraction, Piura Region are extant. In this region, levels of observed birds (Lopez-Calleja charcoal production, and overgrazing. Talara Province contains the largest and Bozinovic 1999, p. 709; Meynard et These activities have led to the concentration of intact P. pallida dry al. 1999, p. 906; Rezende et al. 2001, p. reduction and severe fragmentation of forest habitat in northwest Peru and the 783). The Peruvian plantcutter appears dry forest habitat today (BLI 2009a, pp. largest subpopulation of the Peruvian to prefer to feed while perched in 2-3; Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. 132; plantcutter (BLI 2009a, p. 2; Flanagan et shrubs and trees, although individuals Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 1-9; al. in litt. 2009, p. 3; Flanagan and More also have been observed foraging on the Lanyon 1975, p. 443; Lopez et al. 2006, 2003, p. 5; Walther 2004, p. 73). ground (Snow 2004, p. 50). Birds have p. 898; Pasiecznik et al. 2001, pp. 10, 75, Additionally, there are several other been observed in pairs and small groups 78, 95; Ridgely and Tudor 1994. p. 734; documented sites of the Peruvian (Collar et al. 1992, p. 804; Flanagan and Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; Stotz et plantcutter in the Piura Region (e.g., More 2003, p. 3; Schulenberg et al. al. 1998, p. 52) (see Factor A). Manglares de San Pedro, Illescas 2007, p. 488; Walther 2004, p. 73). Peninsula, and Cerro Illescas) (BLI Current Range and Distribution 2009c, p. 1; Flanagan et. al. in litt. 2009, Historical Range and Distribution The current range of the Peruvian pp. 4, 14). The Peruvian plantcutter is a plantcutter is approximately 1,892 mi2 Flanagan et al. (in litt. 2009, pp. 4-5, restricted-range species that is confined (4,900 km2) (BLI 2009a, p. 1), which is 14) reported a total of 13 locations of the to the mostly flat, narrow desert zone, between 33 and 1, 804 ft (10 and 550 m) Peruvian plantcutter in the Lambayeque which is less than 31 mi (50 km) in above sea level and within the Peruvian Region, of which 5 are considered width (Lanyon 1975, p. 443) and runs Regions of Piura, Lambayeque, extant. Within the Region, there are four along the coast of northwest Peru Cajamarca, La Libertad, and Ancash important areas for the Peruvian (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 734; (from north to south) (Flanagan et al. in plantcutter: Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 213; Walther litt. 2009, pp. 14-15). The species’ (1) The Po´mac Forest Historical 2004, p. 73). The historical range of the reported range is an overestimate Sanctuary (Santuario Histo´rico de Peruvian plantcutter reportedly because BirdLife International defines a Bosque de Po´mac), designated as a extended from the town of Tumbes, species’ range as the total area within its protected archeological site in 2001, is located in extreme northwest corner of extent of occurrence (see Current Range comprised of 14,547 ac (5,887 ha) of P. Peru and approximately south to north and Distribution of the ash-breasted tit- pallida dry forest (BLI 2009e, p. 1; of Lima within the Regions of Tumbes, tyrant) (BLI 2000, pp. 22, 27). The Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 4). The Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad, Peruvian plantcutter’s current Sanctuary includes the archeological Ancash, and Lima (from north to south) distribution is severely fragmented and site Batan Grande, an area comprised of (Collar et al. 1992, pp. 804-805). distributed amongst small, widely 1,235 ac (500 ha) of P. pallida dry forest The historical distribution of the separated remnant patches of P. pallida (BLI 2009e, p. 1; Flanagan et al. in litt. Peruvian plantcutter was most likely dry forest (BLI 2009a, pp. 2-3; Flanagan 2009, p. 4). throughout the contiguous lowland P. et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 1-9; Ridgely and (2) Near the small town of Rafan are pallida dry forest and riparian Tudor 1994. p. 18), which are usually remnant patches of P. pallida dry forest, vegetation, below 1,804 ft (550 m) heavily disturbed fragments of forest encompassing approximately 3,706 ac (Collar et al. 1992; Williams 2005, p. 1). (Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. 132). (1,500 ha) (BLI 2009f, p. 1). The Rafan According to Collar et al. (1992, pp. Therefore, the species’ actual range is area has become a popular birding site 804-805), the Peruvian plantcutter is smaller than this figure. for the Peruvian plantcutter (BLI 2009f, known from 14 historical sites. The Peruvian plantcutter is extirpated p. 1; Engblom 1998, p. 1). The type-specimen of the Peruvian from 11 of its 14 historical sites due to (3) Murales Forest (Bosque de plantcutter, which was collected and loss of habitat or degradation of habitat Murales), comprised of P. pallida dry labeled by Konstanty Jelski as being (Elton 2004, p. 1; Flanagan and More forest, is a designated Archeological found in Tumbes in the late 1870s, was 2003, p. 5; Hinze 2004, p. 1). Depending Reserved Zone (BLI 2009a, p. 3; most likely collected south of the town on habitat quality, it is estimated that Stattersfield et al. 2000, p. 402). of Tumbes (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, the Peruvian plantcutter requires (4) Chaparri Ecological Reserve, pp. 2, 15). It is unknown whether the approximately 2.5 ac (1 ha) of habitat for comprised of 85,033 ac (34,412 ha) with type specimen was lost or destroyed, or suitable food and nesting sites (Flanagan P. pallida dry forest, is a community- if it was ever returned to Peru (Flanagan and More 2003, p. 3; Flanagan et al. in owned and managed protected area et al. in litt. 2009, p. 2). Today, there is litt. 2009, p. 7). Although the Peruvian (Walther 2004, p. 73). The remaining good indication that the type-specimen plantcutter has been found in patches of sites in the Lambayeque Region are was mislabeled as being collected in P. pallida dry forest habitat that are in small remnant patches of P. pallida dry Tumbes (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. close proximity to agricultural lands, forest and comprised of a few acres 2). Although the Tumbes Region has tracks or roads, and human settlement (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 4-5; been extensively surveyed for the (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 2-7), Walther 2004, p. 73). The protected Peruvian plantcutter, including the much of the available P. pallida dry areas are further discussed under North-West Biosphere Reserve, there forest habitat is unoccupied (BLI 2000, Factors A and D. have never been other collections in or p. 401; Schulenberg et al. 2007, p. 488; Flanagan et al. (in litt. 2009, pp. 5, 14) near the vicinity of Tumbes or other Snow 2004, p. 69; Walther 2004, p. 73). reported one occupied site of the evidence to suggest that the Peruvian Flanagan et al. (in litt. 2009, pp. 1-15) Peruvian plantcutter in the Cajamarca plantcutter ever occurred in the area recently completed a comprehensive Region, consisting of approximately (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 2). Thus, review of 53 locations where there have 14.8 ac (6 ha) of remnant P. pallida dry it appears that the Peruvian plantcutter been documented sightings of the forest in the Rı´o Chicama Valley. Six of never occurred in the Tumbes Region. Peruvian plantcutter, of which the the 12 known sites of the Peruvian Researchers consider the reduction in authors determined 29 sites were extant. plantcutter in the La Libertad Region are dry forest habitat to be the result of Flanagan et al. (in litt. 2009, pp. 2-4, 14) considered extant (Flanagan et al. in litt. historical human activities, including reported that 17 of the 22 documented 2009, pp. 5-6, 14). Each of these sites extensive land clearing for agriculture, sites of the Peruvian plantcutter in the consists of small patches of remnant P.

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pallida dry forest habitat (Walther 2004, 2009a, pp. 2-3; Flanagan et al. in litt. Peru (Ferreyera 1983, p. 248). There p. 73; Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 2009, pp. 1-9; Ridgely and Tudor 1994. were also extensive wooded stands of 5-6). Of the three known sites of the p. 18), there is insufficient information small to medium trees of P. pallida, Peruvian plantcutter in the Ancash to determine whether these occurrences Acacia spp., Capparis spp., and willows Region, only one is reported to be extant function as genetically isolated (Salix spp.) along permanent lowland (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 6, 14). subpopulations. rivers, which have since been cleared Additionally, the authors reported that The Peruvian plantcutter has for agricultural purposes (Lanyon 1975, the two historical sites in the Lima experienced a population decline of p. 443). Region were also unoccupied in the between 1 and 9 percent in the past 10 Today, with the exception of three most recent survey (Flanagan et al. in years, and this rate of decline is relatively large intact dry forests (i.e., litt. 2009, pp. 7, 15). predicted to continue (BLI 2009g, p. 1). Talara Province, Murales Forest, and In summary, the extant population of The population is considered to be Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary), the the Peruvian plantcutter is comprised of declining in close association with vast majority of P. pallida dry forest, two disjunct subpopulations (BLI 2009g, continued habitat loss and degradation arid lowland scrub, and riparian pp. 1-2; Walther 2004, p. 73), with of habitat (see Factors A and E) (BLI vegetation has been reduced due to several smaller sites (Flanagan and More 2009a, pp. 1-3; BLI 2009g, pp. 1-3; human activities. Seasonally dry 2003, pp. 5-9; Flanagan et al. in litt. Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 18; Snow tropical forests are considered the most 2009, pp. 2-7; Walther 2004, p. 73; 2004, p. 69). threatened of all major tropical forest Williams 2005, p. 1). Additional surveys types (Janzen 1988, p. 130), with higher are needed to determine if available P. Conservation Status threat levels than any other Neotropical pallida dry forest habitat is occupied by The Peruvian plantcutter is habitat (Stotz et al. 1996, p. 51). The the Peruvian plantcutter (Flanagan et al. considered ‘‘endangered’’ by the Peruvian plantcutter has been extirpated in litt. 2009, p. 7). Peruvian Government under Supreme from most of its historical sites due to loss or degradation of habitat (Elton Population Estimates Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276855). The IUCN considers the 2004, p. 1; Flanagan et. al. in litt. 2009, There have been no rigorous Peruvian plantcutter to be pp. 1-15; Flanagan and More 2003, pp. quantitative assessments of the Peruvian ‘‘Endangered’’ because of ongoing 5-9; Snow 2004, p. 69). Current plantcutter’s population size (Williams habitat destruction and degradation of information indicates that the vast 2005, p. 1). The estimated extant its small and severely fragmented range majority of occupied sites of the population size is between 500 and (BLI 2000, p. 402; BLI 2009a, pp. 2-3; Peruvian plantcutter are small, remnant, 1,000 individuals, and is comprised of BLI 2009g 2009, pp. 1-2). From 1996 to disjunct patches of P. pallida dry forest 2 disjunct subpopulations (BLI 2009g, 2000, the IUCN considered the Peruvian with each a few acres in size (BLI 2000, pp. 1-2; Walther 2004, p. 73) and several plantcutter to be ‘‘Critically p. 402; Flanagan et. al. in litt. 2009, pp. smaller sites (Flanagan and More 2003, Endangered’’ (BLI 2009g, p. 1), 2-7; Snow 2004, p. 69; Walther 2004, p. pp. 5-9; Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. following changes to the IUCN listing 73). 2-7; Walther 2004, p. 73; Williams 2005, criteria in 2001. Experts have suggested Habitat loss, conversion, and p. 1). degradation throughout the Peruvian The northern subpopulation, located returning the the species to its previous classification of ‘‘Critically plantcutter’s range have been and in the Talara Province in Piura Region, continue to occur as a result of human reportedly has between 400 and 600 Endangered,’’ due to the numerous and immediate threats to the species (Jeremy activities (BLI 2000, p. 402; BLI 2009a, individuals, or approximately 60 to 80 p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009e, p. 1; percent of the total population of the N. M. Flanagan, Conservation Biologist, Sullana, Peru, in litt. 2009 e-mail to BLI 2009f, p. 1; Bridgewater et al. 2003, Peruvian plantcutter (BLI 2009a, p. 2; p. 132; Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. DSA, p. 1; Snow 2004, p. 69; Walther Snow 2004, p. 69; Walther 2004, p. 73; 15; Lanyon 1975, p. 443; Schulenberg et 2004, p. 74). Williams 2005, p. 1). The second al. 2007, p. 488; Snow 2004, p. 69; The Peruvian plantcutter occurs subpopulation, located at Po´mac Forest Walther 2004, p. 73), including: within two protected areas in Peru. It Historical Sanctuary (Lambayeque (1) Clearcutting and burning of dry has been documented in the P. pallida Region), reportedly has 20 to 60 forest for agriculture and other purposes dry forest within the protected individuals (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009e (BLI 2000, p. 402; BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI archeological sites of the Po´mac Forest 2009, p. 1; Walther 2004, p. 73). The 2009d, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI Historical Sanctuary (BLI 2009e, p. 1) smaller sites are estimated to consist of 2009g, p. 2; Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. and Murales Forest (Walther 2004, p. a few individuals, up to 40 individuals 132; Collar et al. 1992, p. 806; Engblom 73). (Flanagan and More 2003, pp. 5-9; 1998, p. 1; Flanagan et al. 2005, p. 244; Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 2-7; Summary of Factors Affecting the Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 734; Snow Walther 2004, p. 73; Williams 2005, p. Peruvian plantcutter 2004, p. 69; Walther 2004, p. 73; 1). A. The Present or Threatened Williams 2005, p. 2); The population estimate for the (2) Extraction activities, including Destruction, Modification, or Peruvian plantcutter—that is, the total cutting for timber, firewood, and Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or number of mature individuals—is not charcoal production (Best and Kessler Range the same as the effective population size 1995, p. 196; BLI 2000, p. 402; BLI (i.e., the number of individuals that The Peruvian plantcutter is 2009d, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009g, p. 2; Ridgely actually contribute to the next dependent upon undisturbed Prosopis and Tudor 1994, p. 734; Rodriguez et al. generation). Further, the subpopulation pallida dry forest with good floristic 2007, p. 269; Snow 2004, p. 69; structure and the extent of interbreeding diversity (Collar et al. 1992, p. 805; Williams 2005, p. 1); among the occurrences of the Peruvian Engblom 1998, p. 1; Flanagan and More (3) Grazing by goats of P. pallida dry plantcutter are unknown. Although the 2003, p. 4). In northwest Peru, P. pallida forests, and arid scrub and riparian two large subpopulations and many of dry forest was historically contiguous, vegetation (Capra species) (BLI 2000, p. the smaller occurrences of the Peruvian covering approximately 2,703 m2 (7,000 402; BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. 1; plantcutter are widely separated (BLI km2) of the coastal lowland of northwest BLI 2009d, pp. 1-2; Best and Kessler

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1995, p. 196; More 2002, p. 37; Snow management of PetroPeru, the P. pallida Habitat alteration is also caused by 2004, p. 69); dry forest was not subject to the same grazing goats, which remove or heavily (4) Human encroachment (Fernandez- habitat destruction and degradation degrade the shrubs and trees (BLI 2000, Baca et al. 2007, p. 45); and activities (e.g., clearing of trees, p. 402; BLI 2009a, p. 2; Elton 2004, pp. (5) Unpredictable climate fluctuations firewood cutting and charcoal 3-4; Snow 2004, p. 69; Williams 2005, that exacerbate human activities and production) as other dry forest habitat p 2). The seed pods and leaves of P. encourage further habitat destruction areas (Elton 2004, pp. 3-4; Hinze 2004, pallida provide highly nutritious fodder (Block and Richter 2007, p. 1; Jetz et al. p. 1). Recently, the land was reverted to for goats (Brewbaker 1987, pp. 1-2; 2007, p. 1211; Richter 2005, p. 26). the Peruvian Government, and it is Pasiecznik et al. 2001, p. 95). Goats The vast majority of P. pallida dry unclear whether the government plans roam freely and graze on trees and forest habitat has been converted to to issue private concessions as in other shrubs, particularly lower branches commercial agricultural production, areas of the Province (Elton 2004, p. 4). close to ground which are preferred by which is the primary factor in the Consequently there have been recent the Peruvian plantcutter for foraging historical decline of the Peruvian efforts, including a formal petition to and nesting (Elton 2004, pp. 3-4; Snow plantcutter (BLI 2000, p. 402; BLI 2009a, the Peruvian Government, to create a 2004, p. 50; Williams 2005, p 2). p. 2; BLI 2009d, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009f, p. 12,000 to 24,710-ac (4,856- to 10,000-ha) Human encroachment and 1; Collar et al. 1992, p. 806; Engblom protected reserve for the northern concomitant increasing human 1998, p. 1; Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. subpopulation of the Peruvian population pressures exacerbate the 734; Snow 2004, p. 69; Walther 2004, p. plantcutter (Elton 2004, p. 4; Walther destructive effects of ongoing human 73; Williams 2005, p. 2). Agriculture in 2004, p. 73). However, the government activities (e.g., clearing of P. pallida dry the coastal lowlands of northwest Peru has not designated such a reserve for the forest, firewood cutting, and charcoal consists of modern large, privately species (Elton 2004, p. 4; Williams 2005, production) throughout the Peruvian owned farms and large cooperatives that p. 3). plantcutter’s range. Although the coastal primarily produce crops (e.g., lowlands represent only about 10 Habitat destruction and degradation sugarcane, cotton, rice) for export percent of country’s total territory, more of P. pallida dry forest, including (Lanyon 1975, p. 443; Roethke 2003, pp. urban centers are located on the coast, firewood cutting and charcoal 58-59). which represent approximately 52 production, is ongoing in the Talara Continual habitat destruction and percent of the total population of Peru Province, including on the land degradation of the dry forest is mostly (Fernandez-Baca et al. 2007, p. 45). due to firewood cutting and charcoal previously owned by PetroPeru and an Larger concentrations of people put production. Prosopis pallida is the area identified as the Talara Important greater demand on the natural resources dominant tree of the dry forest habitat, Birding Area by BirdLife International in the area, which spurs additional and is highly sought after because the (Flanagan in litt. 2009, p. 1). Since 2005, habitat destruction and increases wood provides an important source of there has been extensive cutting and infrastructure development that further high-quality cooking fuel (Brewbaker clearing of P. pallida trees for fuel to facilitates encroachment. 1987, p. 1; Pasiecznik et al. 2001, p. 75). cook and dry Humboldt giant squid Peruvian plantcutters are also Throughout the Peruvian plantcutter’s (Dosidicus gigas) carcasses (Flanagan et impacted by unpredictable climate range, whole trees, branches, and roots al. in litt. 2009, p. 8). The most fluctuations that exacerbate the effects of P. pallida are cut for firewood and important commercial fishery of the of habitat fragmentation. Unpredictable production of charcoal, which is used Humboldt giant squid occurs along the climate fluctuations are more fully for cooking fuel in homes, restaurants, coast of Peru (UNEP 2006, p. 33; described under the Factor A analysis of and businesses that use brick kilns, both Zeidberg and Robison, 2007, p. 12, 948). the ash-breasted tit-tyrant and are locally and in urban centers (Flanagan Harvested carcasses are transported by summarized here. Changes in weather et al. in litt. 2009, p. 7). Wood of P. truck from the Talara port to recently patterns, such as ENSO cycles (El Nin˜ o pallida is also used for construction and cleared areas in the dry forest, where and La Nin˜ a events), tend to increase fence posts (Pasiecznik et al. 2001, p. they are boiled and dried (Flanagan et precipitation in normally dry areas, and 78). Additionally, roots of older P. al. in litt. 2009, p. 8). Therefore, this decrease precipitation in normally wet pallida trees are used in wooden art fishery not only adds to the collection areas (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; TAO crafts (BLI 2009a, p. 2). pressure on Prosopis species for use as Project n.d., p. 1) while intensifying the Talara Province (in Piura Region) fuel, but also adds to forest clearing in effects of habitat fragmentation on the contains the largest remaining intact P. the area. Another relatively new decline of a species (England 2000, p. pallida dry forest in northwest Peru, demand for P. pallida firewood is 86; Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; Jetz et encompassing approximately 123,553 ac associated with the illegal extraction of al. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; Mora et al. (50,000 ha) (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, crude oil from above-ground pipes in 2007, p. 1027; Parmesan and Mathews pp. 2-3; Flanagan and More 2003, p. 5; the Talara Province. The stolen oil is 2005, p. 334; Plumart 2007, pp. 1-2; Walther 2004, p. 73). The Province also distilled by heating it with firewood Timmermann 1999, p. 694), especially has the largest subpopulation of the (Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, p. 8). for narrow endemics (Jetz et al. 2007, p. Peruvian plantcutter, reportedly Capparis scabrida (no common name, 1213) such as the Peruvian plantcutter. between 400 and 600 individuals or but locally known as ‘‘sapote’’) is a tree The arid terrestrial ecosystem of approximately 60 to 80 percent of the that occurs with P. pallida and is also Northwest Peru, where the Peruvian total population (BLI 2009a, p. 2; Elton a food source for the Peruvian plantcutter occurs, is strongly 2004, pp. 3-4; Snow 2004, p. 69; plantcutter. Although the tree is listed influenced by the ENSO cycle Walther 2004, p. 73; Williams 2005, p. as ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ by the (Rodriguez et al 2005, p. 1), which can 1). Until recently, a large portion of the Peruvian Government, the highly sought have profound and long-lasting effects Province, including P. pallida dry forest after wood is cut to produce handicrafts (Holmgren et al. 2006a, p. 87; Mooers et habitat, was owned by the State-owned for the local, national, and international al. 2007, p. 2). The amount of rainfall petroleum company PetroPeru, which market, as well as for firewood and during an El Nin˜ o year can be more than prohibited access to approximately charcoal production (Rodriguez et al. 25 times greater than during normal 90,000 ac (36,422 ha). Under the 2007, p. 269). years in northern Peru (Holmgren et al.

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2006a, p. 90; Rodriguez et al 2005, p. 2). promote habitat degradation. In near developed lands, many of these El Nin˜ o events are important triggers for Lambayeque Region, a 3,706-ac (1,500- sites are approaching the lower regeneration of plants in semiarid ha) section of remnant P. pallida dry threshold of the species’ ecological ecosystems, particularly the dry forest of forest is under continual threat from requirements. This species has been northwest Peru (Holmgren et al. 2006a, human activities, including conversion extirpated from most of its historical p. 88; Lopez et al. 2006, p. 903; to agriculture, firewood cutting and sites due to loss or degradation of Rodrı´guez et al. 2005, pp. 2-3). During charcoal production, and grazing by habitat. Additionally, many of the El Nin˜ o events, plant communities and goats. This area may support between 20 extant occupied sites are separated by barren lands are transformed into lush and 40 Peruvian plantcutters (BLI 2009f, great distances, which may lead to vegetation, as seeds germinate and grow p. 1; Walther 2004, p. 73). In the 1990s, genetic isolation of the species (See more quickly in response to increased a significant portion of this dry forest Factor E). The same activities that rainfall (Holmgren et al. 2006a, p. 88; was converted to sugarcane fields caused the historical decline in this Holmgren et al. 2006b, pp. 2-8; (Engblom in litt. 1998, p. 1; Snow 2004, species are ongoing today. These Rodrı´guez et al. 2005, pp. 1-6). Over the p. 69; Walther 2004, p. 73; Williams habitat-altering activities are last 20 years, recruitment of P. pallida 2005, p. 2). Within Piura and compounded by unexpected climate in northwest Peru doubled during El Lambayeque Regions, threats to the dry fluctuations, especially for narrow Nin˜ o years, when compared to non-El forest habitat include conversion to endemics, such as the Peruvian Nin˜ o years (Holmgren et al. 2006b, p. 7). agriculture, firewood and timber plantcutter. Excessive rains that are However, the abundant supply of cutting, and grazing by goats (BLI accompanied by El Nin˜ o events induce vegetation encourages locals to expand 2009d, pp. 1-2). Habitat destruction and further habitat destruction, as people goat breeding operations, which results alteration also occurs within two take advantage of better grazing and in overgrazing by goats and further land protected areas where the Peruvian growing climate conditions. Climate degradation (Richter 2005, p. 26). plantcutter occurs (in Lambayeque models predict that this species’ habitat ENSO cycles increase the risk of fire Region), Po´mac Forest Historical will continue to decline. Destruction of because El Nin˜ o events are often Sanctuary (Andean Air Mail and the remaining P. pallida dry forest followed by years of extremely dry Peruvian Times 2009, p. 1; Flanagan et fragments in Peru continues to reduce weather (Block and Richter 2007, p. 1), al. in litt. 2009, pp. 7-8; Williams 2005, the quantity, quality, distribution, and and accumulated biomass dries and p. 1), and the Murales Forest (BLI 2000, regeneration of remaining patches of dry adds to the fuel load in the dry season p. 402; BLI 2009a, p. 3; Stattersfield et forest. Human activities that degrade, (Block and Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. 2000, p. 402; Walther 2004, p. 73). alter, and destroy habitat are ongoing al. 2007, p. 898). Evidence suggests that Habitat destruction and alteration throughout the species’ range, including the fire cycle in Peru has shortened, activities within these protected areas within the one protected area (Factor D). particularly coastal Peru and west of the are discussed under Factor D. Therefore, we find that destruction and Andes (Power et al. 2007, pp. 897-898), Experts consider the population of modification of habitat are threats to the which can have broad ecological this range-restricted endemic species to continued existence of Peruvian consequences (Block and Richter 2007, be declining in close association with plantcutter throughout its range. p. 1; Power et al. 2007, p. 898). the continued habitat loss and According to Block and Richter (2007, degradation (BLI 2000, p. 401; BLI B. Overutilization for Commercial, p. 1), P. pallida dry forest and Capparis 2009a, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009g, pp. 1-3), and Recreational, Scientific, or Educational spp. scrublands in northwest Peru that the effects are higher in dry forest Purposes would likely experience a long-term habitat than in any other Neotropical We are not aware of any information change in plant species composition habitat (Stotz et al. 1998, p. 51). currently available that indicates that that favor aggressive, annual, non-native Summary of Factor A overutilization of Peruvian plantcutter weedy plant species (Richter 2005, p. for commercial, recreation, scientific, or 26). An accelerated fire cycle would The Peruvian plantcutter is education purposes has occurred or is further exacerbate changes in species dependent upon intact P. pallida dry occurring at this time. As a result, we composition that hinder long-lived forest with low-hanging branches and are not considering overutilization to be perennial, native plant species, such as high floristic diversity, and associated a threat to the continued existence of Prosopis species, upon which the arid lowland scrub and riparian the Peruvian plantcutter. Peruvian plantcutter relies. vegetation. Prosopis pallida dry forest ENSO cycles are ongoing, having habitat, as well as arid lowland scrub C. Disease or Predation occurred several times within the last and riparian shrub habitats, throughout We are not aware of any scientific or decade (NWS 2009, p. 2), and evidence Peruvian plantcutter’s range have been commercial information that indicates suggests that ENSO cycles have already and continue to be altered and disease or predation poses a threat to increased in periodicity and severity destroyed as a result of human the Peruvian plantcutter. As a result, we (Richter 2005, pp. 24-25; Timmermann activities, including conversion to do not consider disease or predation to 1999, p. 694), which will exacerbate the agriculture; timber and firewood cutting be a threat to the continued existence of negative impacts of habitat destruction and charcoal production; grazing of the Peruvian plantcutter. on a species. It is predicted that, by goats; and human encroachment. Extant 2050, approximately 11 to 16 percent of P. pallida dry forest today consists of D. The Inadequacy of Existing existing land is likely to be unsuitable remnant, disjunct patches of woodlands, Regulatory Mechanisms for this species due to climate change; which are heavily disturbed and under The Peruvian plantcutter is and, by 2100, it is predicted that about continued threat of degradation by considered ‘‘endangered’’ by the 24 to 35 percent of the species’ range is human activities. Although observations Peruvian Government under Supreme likely to be lost as a direct result of suggest that this dry forest–dependent Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. global climate change (Jetz et al. 2007, species is able to occupy very small 276854). This Decree prohibits hunting, p. 81). remnant patches of dry forest with low- take, transport, and trade of protected Habitat destruction is often caused by hanging branches and floristic diversity, species, except as permitted by a combination of human activities that and is able to persist to some degree regulation. As hunting, taking, or trade

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do not currently threaten the Peruvian Although strict monitoring has or inadequately enforced to protect the plantcutter (Factor B), this regulation protected some habitat (BLI 2009a, p. 3), species or to mitigate ongoing habitat does not mitigate any current threats to the actual dry forest is not protected. In loss (Factor A) and population declines the species. 1999, land rights to sections of the forest (Factor E). Therefore, we find that the Peru has several categories of national were sold for agricultural conversion, existing regulatory mechanisms are habitat protection, which were and government intervention has been inadequate to mitigate the current described above as part of Factor D for necessary to prevent further sales of threats to the continued existence of the the ash-breasted tit-tyrant (BLI 2008, p. land for conversion to agriculture (BLI Peruvian plantcutter throughout its 1; IUCN 1994, p. 2; Rodrı´guez and 2009a, p. 3). In 1999, Murales Forest range. Young 2000, p. 330). The Peruvian and adjacent areas contained E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors plantcutter is known to occur within approximately 1,221 ac (494 ha) of Affecting the Continued Existence of the two Peruvian nationally protected areas, habitat, and reportedly supported 140 Species the Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary Peruvian plantcutters (BLI 2000, p. 402). and the Murales Forest (both In 2004, the population was estimated An additional factor that affects the Lambayeque Region). The Po´mac Forest to be 20 to 40 individuals (Walther continued existence of the Peruvian Historical Sanctuary supports an 2004, p. 73). Therefore, the presence of plantcutter is the species’ small estimated 20 to 60 Peruvian plantcutters the Peruvian plantcutter within this population size. BirdLife International (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009e, p. 1; protected area has not mitigated the has placed the Peruvian plantcutter in Walther 2004, p. 73). Resources within threats to the species from ongoing the population category of between 500 the Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary habitat loss and associated population and 1,000 individuals (BLI 2009g, p. 1). are managed for the preservation of the decline (Factor A). The species’ population size is not archeological site, P. pallida dry forest, Incidences of illegal activity that characterized as ‘‘small’’ in published and wildlife species. However, habitat occur throughout the species’ range also literature and there is insufficient destruction and alteration, including impact the Peruvian plantcutter. information on similar species (i.e., the illegal forest clearing for farming, timber Ongoing firewood cutting and charcoal other South American plantcutters) to and firewood cutting, and grazing, production degrades the small amount understand whether the Peruvian continually threaten the Sanctuary of remaining dry forest habitat plancutter’s population size is small (Williams 2005, p. 1). For 8 years, more throughout the species’ range (BLI relative to other plantcutters. However, than 250 families illegally occupied and 2009d, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009g, p. 2; Ridgely there are several indications that this farmed land in the Sanctuary. During and Tudor 1994, p. 734; Rodriguez et al. number of individuals represents a the illegal occupancy, the inhabitants 2007, p. 269; Snow 2004, p. 69; small population. logged 4,942 ac (2,000 ha) of P. pallida Williams 2005, p. 1). In Talara Province First, the Peruvian plantcutter’s trees for firewood and burned many (Piura Region), a recent increase in the population size—which is defined by other trees for charcoal production illegal extraction of crude oil has BirdLife International as the total (Andean Air Mail and Peruvian Times generated further demand for P. pallida number of mature individuals—is not 2009, p. 1). The logged forest was firewood, which is used as fuel to heat- the same as the effective population subsequently converted to agricultural distill the oil. According to Flanagan et size—the number of individuals that crops, while remaining forest habitat al. (in litt. 2009, p. 8), enforcement to actually contribute to the next was continually degraded by firewood combat this illegal activity is difficult. generation (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; cutting, charcoal production, and Therefore, existing laws are ineffective Soule´ 1980, pp. 160-162). Not all grazing of goats (Flanagan et al. in litt. at mitigating the ongoing threat of individuals in a population will 2009, p. 8.). In January 2009, the habitat destruction (Factor A). contribute to reproduction each year. government forcibly removed the Therefore, the estimated population size Summary of Factor D inhabitants, but it is too soon to for the Peruvian plantcutter is an determine the effect that habitat Peru has enacted various laws and overestimate of the species’ effective destruction has had on the suitability of regulatory mechanisms to protect and population size. Moreover, the the habitat for the Peruvian plantcutter. manage wildlife and their habitats. The subpopulation structure and the extent There is insufficient information to Peruvian plantcutter is ‘‘endangered’’ of interbreeding among the occurrences conclude that recent efforts to stop the under Peruvian law and occurs within of the Peruvian plantcutter are unknown illegal human occupancy of the area two protected areas in Peru. As (see Population Estimates). If further will have a positive impact on the discussed under Factor A, the Peruvian research indicates that species does not species or remaining habitat within the plantcutter prefers P. pallida dry forest. breed as a single population, its protected area. Therefore, any This habitat has been drastically effective population size would be protections afforded by this Sanctuary reduced and remaining habitat is further reduced. has not mitigated the threats to the comprised of small remnant patches of Second, the extant Peruvian species from ongoing habitat loss and dry forest that are separated by great plantcutter population occurs primarily associated population decline (Factor distances. Habitat throughout the in 2 disjunct subpopulations—Talara A). species’ range has been and continues to and Po´mac Forest Historical Sanctuary The Murales Forest is a designated be destroyed and altered as a result of (BLI 2009g, pp. 1-2; Walther 2004, p. Archeological Reserved Zone (BLI 2000, human activities, primarily conversion 73)—and in several smaller sites p. 401; BLI 2009a, p. 3; Stattersfield et to agriculture, and continual (Flanagan and More 2003, pp. 5-9; al. 2000, p. 402), and supports a degradation by timber and firewood Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 2-7; declining population of Peruvian harvest and charcoal production, and Walther 2004, p. 73; Williams 2005, p. plantcutters. According to Peruvian law, grazing by goats. These activities are 1). Talara and Po´mac Forest Historical designation as a Reserved Zone allows ongoing, including within protected Sanctuary are approximately 160 mi for temporary protection while further areas and despite the species’ (257 km) apart (FCC (Federal study is under way to determine the ‘‘endangered’’ status, indicating that the Communications Commission)-Audio area’s importance (BLI 2008, p. 1; laws governing wildlife and habitat Division 2009). The Peruvian Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). protection in Peru are either inadequate plantcutter is dependent upon

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undisturbed Prosopis pallida dry forest certain number of individuals, it tends habitat destruction continues unabated. with good floristic diversity (Collar et al. to rapidly decline towards extinction Therefore, we find that the species’ 1992, p. 805; Engblom 1998, p. 1; (Franklin 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and small population size, in concert with Flanagan and More 2003, p. 4). Its Soule´ 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. its fragmented distribution and its habitat is heavily degraded and 64-65; Soule´ 1987, p. 181). heightened vulnerability to adverse localities are small, severely fragmented, Complications arising from the natural events and manmade activities, and widely separated (BLI 2009a, pp. 2- species’ small population size are are threats to the continued existence of 3; Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. 132; exacerbated by its fragmented the Peruvian plantcutter throughout its Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 1-9; distribution. Because remaining habitat range. Ridgely and Tudor 1994. p. 18) (see patches are small, heavily degraded, and Status Determination for the Peruvian Factor A). It is possible that the distance widely separated, the Peruvian Plantcutter between patches of suitable habitat is plantcutter’s current distribution is too great to support interbreeding highly restricted and severely The Peruvian plantcutter, a small, between localities, so that the extant fragmented (BLI 2009a, pp. 2-3; herbivorous bird, is endemic to semiarid occurrences of this species would Bridgewater et al. 2003, p. 132; lowland dry forests of coastal northwest function as genetically isolated Flanagan et al. in litt. 2009, pp. 1-9; Peru. The species’ primary habitat is subpopulations. Ridgely and Tudor 1994. p. 18). Habitat Prosopis pallida dry forest between 33 For these reasons, we consider the fragmentation can cause genetic and 1, 804 ft (10 and 550 m) above sea Peruvian plantcutter’s current estimated isolation and heighten the risks to the level. The species is dependent on year- population to be small and, as such, this species associated with short-term round availability of high-quality food species is subject to the risks associated genetic viability. A species’ small and is known primarily in two disjunct with small population sizes. Small population size, combined with a subpopulations, with several smaller, population size renders a species restricted and fragmented distribution, widely separated sites in the Regions of vulnerable to any of several risks, exacerbates a species’ vulnerability to Piura, Lambayeque, Cajamarca, La including inbreeding depression, loss of adverse natural events (e.g., genetic, Libertad, and Ancash (from north to genetic variation, and accumulation of demographic, or environmental) and south). The actual range of the Peruvian new mutations. Inbreeding can have manmade activities (e.g., land clearing, plantcutter is smaller than the reported individual or population-level timber and firewood cutting, and range of 1,892 mi2 (4,900 km2), given consequences either by increasing the grazing by goats) (Holsinger 2000, pp. the severely fragmented distribution of phenotypic expression (the outward 64-65; Primack 1998, pp. 279-308; the species. The species’ population size appearance or observable structure, Young and Clarke 2000, pp. 361-366). is estimated to be 500-1,000 individuals. function, or behavior of a living We have carefully assessed the best Summary of Factor E organism) of recessive, deleterious available scientific and commercial alleles or by reducing the overall fitness The Peruvian plantcutter has a small information regarding the past, present, of individuals in the population population size that renders it and potential future threats faced by the (Charlesworth and Charlesworth 1987, vulnerable to genetic risks that Peruvian plantcutter and have p. 231; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Small, negatively impact the species’ viability. concluded that there are three primary isolated wildlife populations are also The species occurs primarily in two factors that threaten the continued more susceptible to environmental disjunct subpopulations, and remaining existence of the Peruvian plantcutter: (1) fluctuations and demographic shifts habitat is highly fragmented and Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and (Pimm et al. 1988, pp. 757, 773-775; continues to be altered by human degradation; (2) limited size and Shaffer 1981, p. 131), such as reduced activities (Factor A). Its small isolation of remaining populations; and reproductive success of individuals and population size, combined with its (3) inadequate regulatory mechanisms. chance disequilibrium of sex ratios. restricted and fragmented range, Human activities that degrade, alter, Species tend to have a higher risk of increases the Peruvian plantcutter’s and destroy habitat are ongoing extinction if they occupy a small vulnerability to extinction, through throughout the Peruvian plantcutter’s geographic range and occur at low demographic or environmental range. Widespread land conversion to density (Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949). fluctuations. Based on its small agriculture has removed the vast The Peruvian plantcutter has population size and fragmented majority of P. pallida dry forest habitat experienced a population decline of distribution, we have determined that throughout the range of the Peruvian between 1 and 9 percent in the past 10 the Peruvian plantcutter is particularly plantcutter. Peruvian plantcutter habitat years due to habitat loss and this vulnerable to the threat of adverse continues to be altered by human decline is expected to continue in close natural events (e.g., genetic, activities, such as timber and firewood association with continued habitat loss demographic, or environmental) and cutting, burning, and grazing, which and degradation (see Factor A) (BLI human activities (e.g., deforestation, result in the continued degradation, 2009a, pp. 1-3; BLI 2009g, pp. 1-3; habitat alteration, and infrastructure conversion, and destruction of habitat Ridgely and Tudor 1994, p. 18; Snow development) that destroy individuals and reduce the quantity, quality, 2004, p. 69). Extinction risk is and their habitat. The genetic and distribution, and regeneration of heightened in small, declining demographic risks associated with small remaining dry forest habitat. Current populations by an increased population sizes are exacerbated by research indicates that narrow vulnerability to the loss of genetic ongoing human activities that continue endemics, such as the Peruvian variation due to inbreeding depression to curtail the species’ habitat throughout plantcutter, are especially susceptible to and genetic drift. This, in turn, its range. The species’ population has climate fluctuations, because of the compromises a species’ ability to adapt declined and is predicted to continue synergistic effect these fluctuations have genetically to changing environments declining commensurate with ongoing on declining populations that are also (Frankham 1996, p. 1507) and reduces habitat loss (Factor A) and we consider experiencing range reductions due to fitness, thus increasing extinction risk that the risks associated with small human activities. Remaining habitat is (Reed and Frankham 2003, pp. 233-234). population size will continue to impact highly fragmented and disjunct, Once a population is reduced below a this species and may accelerate, if separated by large areas of converted

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land (e.g., agriculture, urban areas) and Peruvian plantcutter as an endangered royal cinclodes prefers dense sparse vegetation (e.g., Sechura Desert), species throughout all of its range. woodlands (BLI 2000, p. 345; BLI 2009i, and excessive rains induce further p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, p. 588; del Hoyo V. Royal cinclodes (Cinclodes habitat destruction and prevent et al. 2003, p. 253), with more closed aricomae) regeneration, as people take advantage canopies that provide habitat for more of better grazing and growing climate Species Description lush moss growth (Engblom et al. 2002, conditions. p. 57). The moss-laden vegetation and The royal cinclodes, also known as The Peruvian plantcutter’s population shaded understory harbor a rich ‘‘churrete real’’ and ‘‘remolinera real,’’ is small, rendering the species diversity of insects, making good is a large-billed ovenbird in the particularly vulnerable to the threat of feeding grounds for insectivorous birds Furnaridae family that is native to high- adverse natural events (e.g., genetic, (De la Via 2004, p. 10) such as the royal altitude woodlands of the Bolivian and demographic, or environmental) and cinclodes (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Peruvian Andes (BLI 2009i, pp. 1-2; del human activities (e.g., deforestation and Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57). In Bolivia, Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; InfoNatura firewood extraction) that destroy the royal cinclodes has been observed 2007, p. 1; Supreme Decree No. 034- individuals and their habitat. Ongoing only in P. pepei forests, but it is found human activities that cause habitat loss 2004-AG 2004, p. 27685; Valqui 2000, p. amongst a greater variety of Polylepis throughout the species’ range exacerbate 104). The adult is nearly 8 in (20 cm) species in Peru (Chutas et al. 2008, p. the genetic and demographic risks in length, with dark chocolate-brown 16; I. Go´mez, National Museum of associated with small population sizes plumage on the upperparts, with a National History-Ornithology Section- (Factor E). The population has declined darker crown and a buff-colored area Bolivian Fauna Collection, La Paz, 1–9 percent in the past 10 years (see above the eyes. The throat is buff- Bolivia, e-mail to Division of Scientific Population Estimates), in association colored, and the remaining underparts Authority, in litt. December 4, 2007, p. with continued habitat loss (Factor A). are gray-brown to buff-white. The wings 1). Habitat loss was a factor in this species’ are dark with prominent edging that Information on the ecology and historical decline (see Historical Range forms a distinctive wing-bar in flight. breeding behavior of royal cinclodes is and Distribution)—the Peruvian The large, dark bill is slightly curved at limited. The species’ feeding territory plantcutter has been extirpated from 11 the tip (BLI 2009i, p. 1). ranges from 7 to 10 ac (3 to 4 ha) (del of its 14 historical sites (see Current Taxonomy Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. Range and Distribution)—and the 2002, p. 57). Breeding pairs may occupy species is considered to be declining When the species was first smaller, 2.5-ac (2-ha) territories (Chutas today in association with the continued taxonomically described, the royal 2007, p. 7). The royal cinclodes is reduction in habitat (Factors A and E). cinclodes was placed in the genus described as ‘‘nervous’’ and is easily Moreover, current research indicates Upucerthia (Carriker 1932, pp. 1-2) and disturbed by humans (Engblom et al. that narrow endemics, such as the was then transferred to Geositta as a 2002, p. 57). The breeding season Peruvian plantcutter, are especially subspecies (Geositta excelsior aricomae) probably begins in December, but susceptible to climate fluctuations (Vaurie 1980, p. 14). Later, it was territorialism among pairs can be seen because of the synergistic effect these transferred to the genus Cinclodes, in austral winter (June-August) (BLI fluctuations have on declining where it was considered a race or 2000, p. 345; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. populations that are also experiencing subspecies of the stout-billed cinclodes 253). Cinclodes species construct range reductions due to human (Cinclodes excelsior) until recently (BLI burrows or use natural cavities, activities (Factor A). 2009i, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, crevices, or rodent burrows for nesting Despite the species’ endangered status pp. 337-338; Vaurie 1980, p. 15). The (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 337; Vaurie in Peru and its occurrence within two royal cinclodes is now considered a 1980, pp. 30, 34). The royal cinclodes’ protected areas (Factor D), habitat loss distinct species (C. aricomae) based on clutch size may be similar to that of the and degradation continue throughout differences in its habitat, morphology, closely-related stout-billed cinclodes (C. the Peruvian plantcutter’s habitat and genetic distance (Chesser 2004, p. excelsior), which, according to Graves (Factor A). Therefore, regulatory 763; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). and Arango (1988, p. 252), is two eggs mechanisms are either inadequate or Therefore, we accept the species as per clutch. ineffective at mitigating the existing Cinclodes aricomae, which also follows Its diet consists primarily of threats to the Peruvian plantcutter and ITIS (2009, p. 1). invertebrates, sometimes seeds, and its habitat (Factor D). Habitat and Life History occasionally small vertebrates (small Section 3 of the Act defines an frogs) (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). The ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species The royal cinclodes is restricted to royal cinclodes forages, solitary or in which is in danger of extinction moist and mossy habitat amidst the pairs, by probing through moss and throughout all or a significant portion of steep, rocky slopes of semihumid debris on the forest floor (BLI 2000, p. its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as Polylepis or Polylepis - Gynoxys 345; Collar et al. 1992, p. 589; del Hoyo ‘‘any species which is likely to become woodlands, where the species is found et al. 2003, p. 253; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 9). an endangered species within the at elevations between 11,483 and 12,092 This ground-feeding strategy generally foreseeable future throughout all or a ft (3,500 and 4,600 m) (BLI 2000, p. 345; requires a relatively large territory and significant portion of its range.’’ Based BLI 2009i, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, p. may also facilitate interbreeding on the immediate and ongoing 588; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). The amongst groups located on adjoining significant threats to the Peruvian characteristics of Polylepis habitat were mountain peaks when the species likely plantcutter throughout its entire range, described above as part of the Habitat descends the mountains during periods as described above, we determine that and Life History of the ash-breasted tit- of snow cover (Engblom et al. 2002, p. the Peruvian plantcutter is in danger of tyrant (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. 1; 57). extinction throughout all of its range. Chutas et al. 2008, p. 3; De la Via 2004, Therefore, on the basis of the best p. 10; IPNI 2009, p. 1; Kessler 1998, p. Historical Range and Distribution available scientific and commercial 1; Kessler and Schmidt-Lebuhn 2006, The royal cinclodes may once have information, we are proposing to list the pp. 1-2; Purcell et al. 2004, p. 455). The been locally common and distributed

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across most of central to southern Peru The royal cinclodes was only 2; del Hoyo 2003, p. 283; Engblom et al. and into the Bolivian highlands, in rediscovered in Bolivia within the last 2002, p. 57). The species is believed to once-contiguous expanses of Polylepis decade, after more than 100 years of not be extirpated from its type locality forests above 9,843 ft (3,000 m) (BLI being observed there (BLI 2009i, p. 2; (Collar et al. 1992, p. 589; Engblom et 2000, p. 345; BLI 2009i, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ Hirshfeld 2007, p. 198). Within the last al. 2002, p. 57). 2002a, pp. 111-112, 115; Herzog et al. 15 years, royal cinclodes has been Local population estimate, Bolivia: 2002, p. 94; Kessler 2002, pp. 97-101). observed in Peru’s Runtacocha The species’ current range is more Polylepis woodlands are now restricted highlands (Apurı´mac), Pariahuanca widespread in Bolivia than previously to elevations of 11,483 to 16,404 ft Valley (Junı´n), and Cordillera Vilcanota understood. The royal cinclodes had not (3,500 to 5,000 m) (Fjeldsa˚ 1992, p. 10). (Cusco), and in Bolivia’s Cordillera been observed in Bolivia for more than As discussed above for the Historical Apolobamba and the Cordillera Real one century, when it was rediscovered Range and Distribution of the ash- (including Ilampu Valley, Sanja Pampa, there in 1997 (BLI 2009i, p. 2; Hirshfeld breasted tit-tyrant, researchers consider and Cordillera de La Paz), all in the 2007, p. 198). Recent surveys in La Paz human activity to be the primary cause Bolivian Department of La Paz (BLI Department found at least 13 localities for historical habitat decline and 2007, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009i, pp. 1-2; del (8 in Cordillera Apolobamba and 5 in resultant decrease in species richness Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. Cordillera La Paz) (BLI 2009i, p. 1). (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, Kessler 2002, p. 57; Hirshfeld 2007, p. 198; Although BirdLife International 1995a, b, and L#gaard 1992, as cited in InfoNatura 2007, p. 1; Valqui 2000, p. reports an estimated population size of Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 104). 50-70 royal cinclodes in Bolivia (Go´mez, 116; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Kessler in litt. 2003, 2008, as cited in BLI 2009i, Population Estimates 2002, pp. 97-101; Kessler and Herzog p. 2), recent surveys indicate that the 1998, pp. 50-51). The royal cinclodes Population information is presented estimate may be smaller. As discussed may have been extirpated from its type first on the range-country level and then above for the local population estimate locality (Aricoma Pass, Puno), and in terms of a global population estimate. of the ash-breasted tit-tyrant in Bolivia, possibly throughout the entire Puno The range country estimates begin with Go´mez (in litt. 2007, p. 1) conducted Region, where Polylepis forest no longer Peru, where the majority of the intensive studies in Bolivia. From this occurs exists (Collar et al. 1992, p. 589; population resides. research, the presence of 1-8 royal Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57) (see Local population estimate, Peru: In cinclodes in each of 30 forest patches Population Estimates). It is estimated 1990, the global population was was inferred or observed. Thus, they that between 2-3 percent and 10 percent estimated to be 100-150 individuals estimated that the royal cinclodes of the original forest cover still remains (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 338). This population in Bolivia totals in Peru and Bolivia, respectively (BLI number represents the estimated approximately 30 birds. Researchers add 2009i, p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as Peruvian population because the royal that, because the royal cinclodes does cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113) (see cinclodes was only thought to be extant not always respond to tape-playbacks, Factor A). Of this amount, less than 1 in Peru at the time of this estimate (BLI these numbers may underestimate the percent of the remaining woodlands 2009i, p. 2; Hirshfeld 2007, p. 198). actual population size (Go´mez in litt. occur in humid areas, where Polylepis Chutas (2007, p. 8) reported an 2007, p. 1). denser stands occur (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler estimated 189 birds located within four Global population estimate: In 1990, 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113) disjunct Polylepis forest patches in Peru, the global population of the royal and which are preferred by the royal with a combined area of 1,554 ac (629 cinclodes was estimated to be 100-150 cinclodes (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; ha). This estimate included 116 birds individuals (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57). The royal and 30 birds in Cordilleras Vilcanota 338). Since at least 2000, BirdLife cinclodes was initially discovered in and Vilcabamba, respectively (Cusco); 2 International has placed this species in Bolivia in 1876, but was not observed birds in Cordillera de Carabaya (Puno); the population category of between 50 there again until recently (BLI 2009i, p. and 41 birds in ‘‘Cordillera del and 249 individuals (BLI 2000, p. 345). 2; Hirshfeld 2007, p. 198) (see Current Apurı´mac’’ (Runtacocha highlands in In 2002, Engblom et al. (2002, p. 57) Range and Distribution). Apurı´mac) (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8). estimated a total population size of up Subpopulations at four locations in the to 250 pairs of birds. This amount far Current Range and Distribution Cordillera Vilcanota contain as few as 1- exceeds any previous estimates and has The royal cinclodes is restricted to 4 individuals (BLI 2008, p. 2). not been confirmed by BirdLife moist and mossy habitat amidst the In the Puno Region of Peru, it is International (BLI 2009i, p. 1). In 2003, steep rocky slopes of semihumid unclear whether a viable population of the global population was once again Polylepis or Polylepis - Gynoxys royal cinclodes remains. The royal reported to include only ‘‘a few hundred woodlands, where the species is found cinclodes was first observed in Puno in individuals’’ (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. at elevations between 11,483 and 12,092 1930 (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 338) 253). Based on recent observations in ft (3,500 and 4,600 m) (BLI 2000, p. 345; and has continued to be reported there both countries, there are approximately BLI 2009i, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, p. in general terms (BLI 2007, pp. 1-2; BLI 189 birds in Peru and 50-70 in Bolivia, 588; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). The 2009i, pp. 1-2; Collar et al. 1992, p. 588; totaling 239-259 individuals. current range of the species is del Hoyo 2003, p. 253). However, based Recognizing that the royal cinclodes approximately 1,042 mi2 (2,700 km2) on habitat availability, InfoNatura (2007, does not always respond to tape- (BLI 2009i, p. 1), which is an p. 1) predicted that the royal cinclodes playbacks, this could be an overestimate of the actual range (as does not occur in Puno because the underestimate of the population size discussed under the Current Range and habitat no longer exists there. Indeed, (Go´mez in litt. 2007, p. 1). While the Distribution of the ash-breasted tit- only two royal cinclodes individuals species continues to be categorized by tyrant) (BLI 2000, pp. 22, 27), given the have been reported in the Puno Region BirdLife International as having an fragmented nature of the species’ (Cordillera de Carabaya) in recent estimated population between 50-249 remaining habitat (BLI 20091, p. 1; decades (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8). There individuals (BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI 2009i, Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited in are no other recent observations of the p. 1; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 9; Hirshfeld 2007, Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). royal cinclodes in Puno (BLI 2009i, p. p. 198), it is possible that the recent

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observations in Bolivia will lead to a 16). In La Paz Department, Bolivia, the (1) Clearcutting and uncontrolled revision of the species’ population species is found in Parque Nacional y burning for agriculture and pastureland estimate (BLI 2009i, p. 1). a´rea Natural de Manejo Integrado for domesticated animals, all of which It should be noted that the total Madidi, Parque Nacional y a´rea Natural contributes to loss of understory moss population size, which includes de Manejo Integrado Cotapata, and the cover, soil erosion, and degradation, immature individuals, is not an accurate co-located protected areas of Reserva which prevent woodland regeneration reflection of the species’ effective Nacional de Fauna de Apolobamba, a´rea (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI population size (the number of breeding Natural de Manejo Integrado de 2009c, p. 2; BLI 2009d, p. 2; BLI 2009e, individuals that contribute to the next Apolobamba, and Reserva de la Biosfera p. 3; BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI 2009g, p. 1; BLI generation) (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; de Apolobamba (BLI 2009a, p. 1; BLI 2009h, p. 4; BLI 2009i, pp. 2, 6; Soule´ 1980, pp. 160-162). The IUCN 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009c, p. 1; BLI 2009d, Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56; Fjeldsa˚ estimated that the entire royal cinclodes p. 1; BLI 2009i, p. 6; Chutas et al. 2008, 2002a, pp. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8; population contains fewer than 250 p. 16). Jameson and Ramsay 2007, p. 42; mature individuals and no more than 50 Purcell et al. 2004, p. 458; WCMC mature individuals in any Summary of Factors Affecting the Royal 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1); subpopulation (BLI 2008, p. 1; IUCN Cinclodes (2) Extractive activities, such as wood 2001, pp. 8-12). However, population A. The Present or Threatened and timber, for local and commercial- estimates are incomplete for several of Destruction, Modification, or scale uses, including firewood and the known localities, and the Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or construction (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, subpopulation structure and the extent Range p. 287; BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. of interbreeding amongst the various 2; BLI 2009c, p. 2; BLI 2009d, p. 2; BLI The royal cinclodes is restricted to localities are unknown. The species’ 2009e, p. 3; BLI 2009g, p. 1; BLI 2009i, high-elevation (11,483-12,092 ft (3,500- territory ranges from 7 to 10 ac (3 to 4 p. 2; Engblom 2000, p. 1; p. 2; Engblom 4,600 m)), moist, moss-laden areas of ha), and its habitat is fragmented, et al. 2002, p. 56; Purcell et al. 2004, p. dispersed and sparse (del Hoyo et al. semihumid Polylepis or Polylepis - 458; WCMC 1998a, p. 1); 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57). Gynoxys woodlands (BLI 2000, p. 345; (3) Human encroachment, including However, there is no information to BLI 2009i, p. 2; Collar et al. 1992, p. tourism and industrialization projects, indicate the distance that this species is 588; del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). As which puts greater demand on natural capable of or likely to travel between described more fully for the ash- resources, spurs additional habitat localities. Engblom et al. (2002, p. 57) breasted tit-tyrant (Factor A), Polylepis destruction as arable land becomes noted that gene flow between localities habitat is characterized as a threatened scarce, and increases infrastructure likely occurs when the species descends woodland ecosystem on national, development that further facilitates the mountains to forage in the valleys regional, and global levels (BLI 2009a, p. encroachment (BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI during periods of snow cover at the 2; Purcell et al. 2004, p. 457; Renison et 2009d, p. 2; Hensen 2002, p. 199; higher altitudes such that interbreeding al. 2005, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 10), Purcell and Brelsford, 2004, pp. 156- may occur at least among localities with with several Polylepis species within 157; Purcell et al. 2004, pp. 458-459); shared valleys. This suggests that the the royal cinclodes’ range considered to and species does not breed as a single be ‘‘Vulnerable,’’ according to the IUCN (4) Unpredictable climate fluctuations population. However, there is (WCMC 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). that exacerbate the effects of habitat insufficient information to determine Polylepis woodlands are dispersed and fragmentation (Jetz et al. 2007, pp. 1211, the extent to which this species sparse, with an estimated remaining 1213; Mora et al. 2007, p. 1027). functions as genetically isolated area of 386 mi2 (1,000 km2) in Peru and These habitat-altering activities are subpopulations. 1,931 mi2 (5,000 km2) in Bolivia (Fjeldsa˚ ongoing throughout the royal cinclodes’ The species has experienced a and Kessler 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ range, including the Apurı´mac (BLI population decline of between 30 and 2002a, p. 113). Within the remaining 2009g, p. 1) and Cusco Regions (BLI 49 percent in the past 10 years, and this Polylepis woodlands, the royal 2009e, p. 1; BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI 2009h, rate of decline is predicted to continue cinclodes’ range is approximately 1,042 p. 1) in Peru and also in the Bolivian (BLI 2009i, pp. 1, 5). The population is mi2 (2,700 km2) (BLI 2009i, p. 1). Less Department of La Paz (BLI 2009a, p. 1; considered to be declining in close than 1 percent of the remaining BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009c, pp. 1; BLI association with continued habitat loss woodlands occur in humid areas, where 2009d, p. 1; Hensen 2002, p. 199; and degradation (BLI 2009i, p. 6) (see denser stands occur (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler Purcell and Brelsford 2004, p. 157; Factors A and E). 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). Purcell et al. 2004, pp. 458-459). A The optimal habitat for the royal combination of urbanization, road Conservation Status cinclodes is dense woodlands, with a building, and industrialization projects The royal cinclodes is considered closed canopy that supports the best (such as construction of hydroelectric ‘‘critically endangered’’ by the Peruvian foraging habitat (shady, moss-laden power stations) in the Bolivian Government under Supreme Decree No. vegetation) for this and other Department of La Paz have resulted in 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276854). The insectivorous birds (see Habitat and Life a nearly 40 percent loss of the forest IUCN considers the royal cinclodes to History) (De la Via 2004, p. 10; del Hoyo cover between 1991 and 2003 alone; at be ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ due to its et al. 2003, p. 253; Engblom et al. 2002, this rate it is predicted that the extremely small population, which p. 57). remaining Polylepis forest in La Paz will consists of ‘‘tiny’’ subpopulations that Habitat loss, conversion, and be extirpated within the next 30 years are severely fragmented and dependent degradation occur throughout the royal (Purcell and Brelsford 2004, pp. 156- upon a rapidly declining habitat (BLI cinclodes’ range and have been 157). 2007, p. 1; BLI 2009i, p. 1). The royal attributed to human activities (a full Community-based Polylepis cinclodes occurs within the Peruvian description of which is provided above conservation programs have been under protected area of Santuario Histo´rico as part of the Factor A analysis for the way in Peru and Bolivia since 2004 Machu Picchu, in Cusco (BLI 2009h, p. ash-breasted tit-tyrant). These activities (Go´mez in litt. 2003, 2008, as cited in 1; BLI 2009i, p. 6; Chutas et al. 2008, p. include: BLI 2009i, p. 2; MacLennan 2009, p. 2),

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and have focused on known sites for the obtain food, given that the ground- habitat no longer exists there royal cinclodes (BLI 2009i, p. 2), feeding strategy used by the royal (InfoNatura 2007, p. 1), and only two including Cordilleras Vilcanota and cinclodes generally requires a relatively birds have been observed there in recent Vilcabamba, and highlands of the large territory, from 7 to 10 ac (3 to 4 years (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8). Therefore, Apurı´mac Region (Aucca and Ramsey ha) (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253; further habitat loss will continue to 2005, p. 287; ECOAN n.d., p. 1; Lloyd Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57). Because the impact the species’ already small 2009, p. 10). These programs confront moist, moss-covered woodlands that population size (see Factor E). the main causes of Polylepis woodland provide optimal foraging habitat for Royal cinclodes are also impacted by loss—burning, grazing, and wood- insectivorous birds (De la Via 2004, p. unpredictable climate fluctuations, cutting (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, pp. 10), and which this ground-feeding which are more fully described under 187-288; BLI 2009i, p. 2; ECOAN n.d., species prefers (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. the Factor A analysis of the ash-breasted p. 1; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56; Go´mez 253; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57), require tit-tyrant and are summarized here. Peru in litt. 2003, 2008, as cited in BLI 2009i, a closed canopy, degradation of the is subject to unpredictable climate p. 2; Lloyd 2009, p. 10; MacLennan royal cinclodes habitat has serious fluctuations that exacerbate the effects 2009, p. 2) —and are more fully consequences for this species. of habitat fragmentation, such as those described above as part of the Factor A Reduction of forest density (or, that are related to the El Nin˜ o Southern analysis for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant decreased canopy cover) increases Oscillation (ENSO). Changes in weather (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. 287; desiccation of the moist and mossy patterns, such as ENSO cycles (El Nin˜ o Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56; MacLennan ground cover, which, in turn, reduces and La Nin˜ a events), tend to increase 2009, p. 2). While the Polylepis foraging microhabitats for the species precipitation in normally dry areas, and conservation programs foster local, (Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57). decrease precipitation in normally wet sustainable use of resources (Aucca and Lack of Polylepis forest regeneration areas (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; TAO Ramsay 2005, p. 287; ECOAN n.d., p. 1; during nearly 50 years underscores the Project n.d., p. 1), exacerbating the Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56), commercial- ramifications of continued burning and effects of habitat fragmentation on the scale activities, such as clearcutting, clearing to maintain pastures and decline of a species (England 2000, p. logging, tourism, and infrastructure farmland, which are prevalent activities 86; Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; Jetz et development, that are ongoing throughout the royal cinclodes’ range al. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; Mora et al. throughout this species’ range, alter (BLI 2009a, p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2007, p. 1027; Parmesan and Mathews otherwise sustainable resource use 2009c, p. 2; BLI 2009d, p. 2; BLI 2009e, 2005, p. 334; Plumart 2007, pp. 1-2; practices (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. p. 3; BLI 2009f, p. 1; BLI 2009g, p. 1; BLI Timmermann 1999, p. 694), especially 287; Engblom 2000, p. 2; Engblom et al. 2009h, p. 4; BLI 2009i, p. 2; Engblom et for narrow endemics (Jetz et al. 2007, p. 2002, p. 56; MacLennan 2009, p. 2; al. 2002, p. 56; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 112, 1213) such as the royal cinclodes (see Purcell and Brelsford 2004, pp. 156-157; 120; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8; Purcell et al. also Factor E). ENSO cycles strongly Purcell et al. 2004, pp. 458-459; WCMC 2004, p. 458; WCMC 1998a, p. 1; WCMC influence the growth of Polylepis 1998a, p. 1). Tourism and human 1998b, p. 1). These habitat-altering species (Christie et al. 2008, p. 1) by encroachment are particularly activities are considered to be key altering the Polylepis species’ age problematic for the royal cinclodes, factors preventing regeneration of structure and mortality, especially which is described as a ‘‘nervous’’ Polylepis woodlands (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. where woodlands have undergone species that is easily disturbed by 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8) and are disturbance, such as fire and grazing humans (Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57). factors in the historical decline of (Villalba and Veblen 1997, pp. 121-123; In the Cordillera de Vilcanota (Cusco, Polylepis -dependent bird species, Villalba and Veblen 1998, pp. 2624, Peru), where a large portion of the including the royal cinclodes (BLI 2637). known royal cinclodes population 2009i, p. 6; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, ENSO cycles may have already occurs (116 birds were observed there, Kessler 1995a, b, and L#gaard 1992, as accelerated the fire cycle (Block and out of 189 total birds observed in 4 cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112; Fjeldsa˚ Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. 2007, pp. study sites in Peru) (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 2002a, p. 116; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; 897-898), which is a key factor 8), Polylepis woodland habitat is highly Kessler 2002, pp. 97-101; Kessler and preventing Polylepis regeneration fragmented and degraded. As described Herzog 1998, pp. 50-51). (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ more fully for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant The royal cinclodes may once have 2002b, p. 8) because Polylepis species (Factor A), recent research indicated: been locally common and distributed recover poorly following a fire (1) That four forest patches in the across most of central to southern Peru (Cierjacks et al. 2007, p. 176). ENSO Cordillera de Vilcanota disappeared and into the Bolivian highlands, in once cycles are ongoing, having occurred completely in the last half a century, contiguous expanses of Polylepis forests several times within the last decade that the size of remaining Polylepis (BLI 2000, p. 345; BLI 2009i, p. 1; (NWS 2009, p. 2), and evidence suggests remnants is small (with a mean patch Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111-112, 115). The that ENSO cycles have already size of 7.4 ac (3 ha)) (Jameson and royal cinclodes’ population size is increased in periodicity and severity Ramsay 2007, p. 42), and that many considered to be declining in close (Richter 2005, pp. 24-25; Timmermann patches are less than 2.5 ac (1 ha) (Lloyd association with continued habitat loss 1999, p. 694), which will exacerbate the and Marsden in press, as cited in Lloyd and degradation (BLI 2007, p. 1; BLI negative impacts of habitat destruction 2008, p. 532); 2008, p. 1; BLI 2009i, p. 6). The species on a species. It is predicted that, by (2) Ten percent of the remaining forest may have been extirpated from its type 2050, approximately 3 to 15 percent of patches showed a decline in forest locality (Aricoma Pass, Puno), where the royal cinclodes’ current remaining density (Jameson and Ramsay 2007, p. Polylepis forest no longer occurs, and a range is likely to be unsuitable for this 42); and search for the species in 1987 resulted species due to climate change and, by (3) There were no indications of forest in no observations of the royal cinclodes 2100, it is predicted that about 8 to 18 regeneration within the study area. (Collar et al. 1992, p. 589; Engblom percent of the species’ range is likely to Thus, forest patches in Cordillera 2002, p. 57). Based on habitat be lost as a direct result of global Vilcanota are at or below the minimum availability, the royal cinclodes is not climate change (Jetz et al. 2007, area required for the royal cinclodes to predicted to occur in Puno because the Supplementary Table 2, p. 89).

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Human activities that alter the human activities. Historical decline in Protected areas have been established species’ habitat are also ongoing within habitat availability is attributed to the through regulation at one site occupied protected areas, including Santuario same human activities that are causing by the royal cinclodes in Peru: Histo´rico Machu Picchu (in Peru) (BLI habitat loss today, and climate models Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu 2009h, p. 4), and Parque Nacional y a´rea predict that this species’ habitat will (Cusco, Peru) (BLI 2009h, p. 4). Within Natural de Manejo Integrado Madidi, continue to decline. In addition, the the sanctuary, resources are supposed to Parque Nacional y a´rea Natural de royal cinclodes is ‘‘nervous’’ around be managed for conservation (Rodrı´guez Manejo Integrado Cotapata, and the co- humans, such that human and Young 2000, p. 330). However, located protected areas of Reserva encroachment is a particular problem. habitat destruction and alteration, Nacional de Fauna de Apolobamba, a´rea Human activities that degrade, alter, and including burning to maintain pastures Natural de Manejo Integrado de destroy habitat are ongoing throughout for grazing, are ongoing within Apolobamba, and Reserva de la Biosfera the species’ range, including within Santuario Histo´rico Machu Picchu, de Apolobamba (in Bolivia) (BLI 2009a, protected areas (see also Factor D). preventing the regeneration of the p. 2; BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2009c, p. 2; Experts consider the species’ population woodlands (BLI 2009h, p. 4; Engblom et BLI 2009d, p. 5). Ongoing habitat decline to be commensurate with the al. 2002, p. 58). Therefore, the destruction and alteration within declining habitat (Factor E). Therefore, occurrence of the royal cinclodes within protected areas, including clearing and we find that destruction and protected areas in Peru does not protect human encroachment, is further modification of habitat are threats to the the species, nor does it mitigate the discussed under Factor D. continued existence of the royal threats to the species from ongoing habitat loss (Factor A) and concomitant Summary of Factor A cinclodes throughout its range. population decline (Factor E). Polylepis habitat throughout the royal B. Overutilization for Commercial, Bolivia: The 1975 Law on Wildlife, cinclodes’ range has been and continues Recreational, Scientific, or Educational National Parks, Hunting, and Fishing to be altered and destroyed as a result Purposes (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1-34; of human activities, including We are not aware of any information eLAW 2003, p. 2), was described above clearcutting and burning for agriculture, currently available that indicates that as part of the Factor D analysis for the grazing lands, and industrialization; overutilization of the royal cinclodes for ash-breasted tit-tyrant. This law extractive activities, including firewood commercial, recreational, scientific, or designates national protection for all and timber extraction; and human educational purposes has occurred or is wildlife. However, there is no encroachment and concomitant occurring at this time. As a result, we information as to the actual protections increased pressure on natural resources. are not considering overutilization to be this confers to the species itself or its An estimated 1 percent of the once- a threat to the continued existence of habitat, and ongoing habitat destruction extensive dense Polylepis woodlands the royal cinclodes. throughout the species’ range indicates remains, and other remaining Polylepis that this law does not protect the woodlands are fragmented and C. Disease or Predation species nor does it mitigate the threat to degraded. The royal cinclodes occupies We are not aware of any scientific or the species from ongoing habitat loss an area of approximately 1,042 mi2 commercial information that indicate (Factor A) and concomitant population (2,700 km2), and is particularly disease or predation poses a threat to decline within Bolivia (Factor E). vulnerable to reduction in forest cover, this species. As a result, we are not Environmental Law No. 1333 (eLAW because the moist habitats that serve as considering disease or predation to be a 2003, p. 1; Law No. 1,333 1992, pp. 1- their feeding grounds quickly dry out as threat to the continued existence of the 26), was signed in 1992 to protect and the forest canopy diminishes. royal cinclodes. conserve the environment. However, we Researchers estimate that the royal are not aware that any specific cinclodes territories are 7-10 ac (3-4 ha). D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory legislation needed to implement these In Cordillera Vilcanota (Cusco, Peru), Mechanisms laws has been passed (eLAW 2003, p. 1). where a large concentration of the royal Existing regulatory mechanisms Therefore, this law does not protect the cinclodes individuals were observed in within Peru and Bolivia that have the species, nor does it mitigate the threats 2007, the average size of forest potential to confer protection to the to the species from ongoing habitat loss fragments just meets the lower threshold royal cinclodes or its habitat are (Factor A) and concomitant population of the species’ ecological requirements. analyzed on a country-by-country basis, decline (Factor E). While the species’ range is more beginning with Peru. Various levels of habitat protection in widespread in Bolivia than previously Peru: The royal cinclodes is Bolivia were described above as part of understood, ongoing and accelerated considered ‘‘critically endangered’’ by the Factor D analysis for the ash- habitat destruction of the remaining the Peruvian Government under breasted tit-tyrant (eLAW 2003, p. 3; Polylepis forest fragments in Peru and Supreme Decree No. 034-2004-AG Supreme Decree No. 24,781 1997, p. 3). Bolivia continues to reduce the (2004, p. 276855). This Decree prohibits The royal cinclodes occurs within quantity, quality, distribution, and hunting, take, transport, and trade of several protected areas in the regeneration of remaining patches. In protected species, except as permitted Department of La Paz, Bolivia: Parque the Administrative Region of Puno, by regulation. As hunting, take, Nacional y a´rea Natural de Manejo Peru, habitat loss may have led to transport, and trade do not currently Integrado Madidi, Parque Nacional y extirpation of the species from its type threaten the royal cinclodes, this a´rea Natural de Manejo Integrado locality and the species may no longer regulation does not mitigate any current Cotapata, and the co-located protected be viable in that Region due to habitat threats to this species. areas of Reserva Nacional de Fauna de loss. Current research indicates that Peru has several categories of national Apolobamba, a´rea Natural de Manejo climate fluctuations exacerbate the habitat protection, which were Integrado de Apolobamba, and Reserva effects of habitat loss on species, described above as part of the Factor D de la Biosfera de Apolobamba (Auza especially for narrow endemics such as analysis for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant and Hennessey 2005, p. 81; BLI 2009a, the royal cinclodes that are already (BLI 2008, p. 1; IUCN 1994, p. 2; p. 1; BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009c, p. 1; undergoing range reduction due to Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). BLI 2009d, p. 1). Within Parque

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Nacional y a´rea Natural de Manejo E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors associated with short-term genetic Integrado Madidi, habitat destruction is Affecting the Continued Existence of the viability. caused by timber harvest used for Species Complications arising from the construction, wood collection for species’ small population size are An additional factor that affects the firewood, and burning that often goes exacerbated by the species’ fragmented continued existence of the royal out of control to maintain pastures (BLI distribution. The royal cinclodes is cinclodes is the species’ small currently restricted to high-elevation, 2009a, p. 2; WCMC 1998a, p. 1). In population size. Based on recent addition, one of the most transited moist, moss-laden patches of observations in Peru and Bolivia, the semihumid woodlands in Peru and highways in the country is located a total population is between 239 and 259 Bolivia (BLI 2009i, p. 6) (Factor A). short distance from the Parque Nacional individuals (Chutas 2007, pp. 4, 8; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler (1996, as cited in ´ y area Natural de Manejo Integrado Go´mez in litt. 2007, p. 1) (see Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). Remaining Cotapata; firewood collection and Population Estimates), and BirdLife Polylepis woodlands are highly grazing also occur within the protected International characterizes the species fragmented and degraded, and it is area (BLI 2009b, p. 2; BLI 2009c, p. 2). as having an ‘‘extremely small estimated that only 1 percent of the Within the Apolobamba protected areas, population’’ size (BLI 2000, p. 345; BLI dense woodlands preferred by the uncontrolled clearing, extensive 2009i, p. 1). Although there is species remain (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. agriculture, grazing, and tourism are insufficient information to fully 253; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 57) (see ongoing (Auza and Hennessey 2005, p. understand gene flow within this Habitat and Life History and Historical 81; BLI 2009d, p. 5). Therefore, the species (see Population Estimates), Distribution). Therefore, the species’ occurrence of the royal cinclodes within Engblom et al. (2002, p. 57) noted that current range is restricted and severely protected areas in Bolivia does not the royal cinclodes may descend the fragmented (BLI 2000, p. 345; BLI 2009i, protect the species, nor does it mitigate mountains to forage in the valleys pp. 1-2; Collar et al. 1992, p. 588; del the threats to the species from ongoing during periods of snow cover at the Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 253). Habitat habitat loss (Factor A) and concomitant higher altitudes. Thus, interbreeding fragmentation can cause genetic population decline (Factor E). may occur at least among localities with isolation and heighten the risks to the shared valleys, but there is insufficient species associated with short-term Summary of Factor D information to determine that the genetic viability. The royal cinclodes species breeds as a single population. has undergone a population decline Peru and Bolivia have enacted various Moreover, the total population size, between 30 and 49 percent in the past laws and regulatory mechanisms to which includes immature individuals, 10 years, in close association with the protect and manage wildlife and their is not an accurate reflection of the continued loss and degradation of the habitats. The royal cinclodes is species’ effective population size (the Polylepis forest (BLI 2009i, p. 6) (Factor ‘‘critically endangered’’ under Peruvian number of breeding individuals that A). The species’ small population size, law and occurs within several protected contribute to the next generation) combined with its restricted and areas in Peru and Bolivia. As discussed (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; Soule´ 1980, severely fragmented range, increases the under Factor A, the royal cinclodes pp. 160-162). Therefore, 239–259 is an species’ vulnerability to adverse natural requires dense woodlands, which has overestimate of the species’ effective events and manmade activities that been reduced by an estimated 99 population size. destroy individuals and their habitat percent in Peru and Bolivia. The Small population size renders species (Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; Primack remaining habitat for the royal cinclodes vulnerable to genetic risks that can have 1998, pp. 279-308; Young and Clarke is fragmented and degraded. Habitat individual or population-level genetic 2000, pp. 361-366). throughout the species’ range has been consequences, such as inbreeding Summary of Factor E and continues to be altered as a result depression, loss of genetic variation, The royal cinclodes has a small of human activities, including and accumulation of new mutations. population size that renders it clearcutting and burning for agriculture, These genetic problems may affect the vulnerable to genetic risks that grazing lands, and industrialization; species’ viability by increasing its negatively impact the species’ long-term extractive activities, including, susceptibility to demographic shifts or viability, and possibly its short-term firewood, timber, and mineral environmental fluctuations, as viability. The species has a restricted extraction; and human encroachment described above in the Factor E analysis range and occurs in highly fragmented and concomitant increased pressure on for the ash-breasted tit-tyrant habitat that continues to undergo natural resources. These activities are (Charlesworth and Charlesworth 1987, degradation and curtailment due to ongoing within protected areas and p. 238; Pimm et al. 1988, pp. 757, 773- human activities (Factor A). The despite the species’ critically 775; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). restricted and fragmented range, as well endangered status in Peru, indicating Small population size leads to a as the small population size, increases that the laws governing wildlife and higher risk of extinction and, once a the species’ vulnerability to extinction habitat protection in both countries are population is reduced below a certain through demographic or environmental either inadequate or inadequately number of individuals, it tends to fluctuations. Based on its small enforced to protect the species or to rapidly decline towards extinction population size and fragmented mitigate ongoing habitat loss (Factor A) (Frankham 1996, p. 1507; Franklin distribution, we have determined that and population declines (Factor E). 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and Soule´ the royal cinclodes is particularly Therefore, we find that the existing 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; vulnerable to the threat of adverse regulatory mechanisms are inadequate Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949; Reed and natural events (e.g., genetic, ´ to mitigate the current threats to the Frankham 2003, pp. 233-234; Soule demographic, or environmental) and 1987, p. 181). If further research human activities (e.g., deforestation, continued existence of the royal indicates that interbreeding does not habitat alteration, and infrastructure cinclodes throughout its range. between subpopulations, this would development) that destroy individuals heighten the risks to the species and their habitat. The genetic and

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demographic risks associated with small accompanied by diminished forest extinction throughout all of its range. population sizes are exacerbated by cover. Therefore, on the basis of the best ongoing human activities that continue Royal cinclodes habitat continues to available scientific and commercial to curtail the species’ habitat throughout be altered by human activities, which information, we are proposing to list the its range. The species’ population has result in the continued degradation, royal cinclodes as an endangered declined and is predicted to continue conversion, and destruction of habitat species throughout all of its range. declining commensurate with ongoing and reduction of the quantity, quality, distribution, and regeneration of VI. White-browed tit-spinetail habitat loss (Factor A). Therefore, we (Leptasthenura xenothorax) find that the species’ small population remaining patches. Habitat loss was a size, in concert with its fragmented factor in this species’ historical decline, Species Description distribution and its heightened resulting in extirpation of the species The white-browed tit-spinetail, or vulnerability to adverse natural events from its type locality and, possibly, the ‘‘tijeral cejiblanco,’’ is a small dark and manmade activities, are threats to loss of a viable population in the entire ovenbird in the Furnaridaii family that the continued existence of the royal Region of Puno, Peru (see Historical is native to high-altitude woodlands of cinclodes throughout its range. Range and Distribution). Thespecies’ the Peruvian Andes (BLI 2000, p. 347; population is considered to be declining Status Determination for the Royal Chapman 1921, pp. 8-9; del Hoyo et al. in association with the reduction in ˚ Cinclodes 2003, pp. 266-267; Fjeldsa and Krabbe habitat (Factors A and E). 1990, p. 348; Parker and O’Neill 1980, The royal cinclodes, a large-billed The royal cinclodes population is p. 169). The sexes are similar, with ovenbird, is native to the high-altitude, small, rendering the species particularly individuals approximately 7 in (18 cm) semihumid Polylepis or Polylepis - vulnerable to the threat of adverse in length. The species is characterized Gynoxys woodlands of the Bolivian and natural events (e.g., genetic, by its bright rufous crown and Peruvian Andes, where it occupies a demographic, or environmental) and prominent white supercilium (eyebrow) narrow range of distribution at human activities (e.g., deforestation and (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267; Lloyd elevations between 11,483 and 12,092 ft habitat alteration) that destroy 2009, p. 2), which gives the species its (3,500 and 4,600 m). Preferring dense individuals and their habitat. Human name. The species is highly vocal, woodlands with more closed canopies, activities that continue to curtail the ‘‘often singing while acrobatically the royal cinclodes is a ground-feeding species’ habitat throughout its range foraging from the outermost branches of insectivore that probes the mossy forest exacerbate the genetic and demographic Polylepis trees’’ (Lloyd 2009, p. 2). risks associated with small population undergrowth for food. The species has Taxonomy a highly restricted and severely sizes (Factor E). The population has declined 30-49 percent in the past 10 fragmented range (approximately 1,042 The white-browed tit-spinetail was years (see Population Estimates), and is mi2 (2,700 km2)), and is found only in first described by Chapman in 1921 (del predicted to continue declining the Peruvian Administrative Regions of Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267). The species commensurate with ongoing habitat loss Apurı´mac, Cusco, Ju´ nin, and Puno, and has been synonymized with the (Factor A). Current research indicates in the Bolivian Department of La Paz. nominate subspecies of the rusty- that narrow endemics, such as the royal The known population of the royal crowned tit-spinetail (Leptasthenura cinclodes, are especially susceptible to cinclodes is estimated to be 239–259 pileata pileata) by Vaurie (1980, p. 66), climate fluctuations because of the individuals. but examination of additional synergistic effect these fluctuations have We have carefully assessed the best specimens in combination with field on declining populations that are also observations strongly suggests that L. available scientific and commercial experiencing range reductions due to xenothorax is a valid species (Collar et information regarding the past, present, human activities (Factor A). al. 1992, p. 596; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe and potential future threats faced by the Despite the species’ ‘‘critically 1990, p. 348; Parker and O’Neill 1980, royal cinclodes and have concluded that endangered’’ status in Peru and its p. 169). Therefore, we accept the species there are three primary factors occurrence within several protected as Leptasthenura xenothorax, which impacting the continued existence of areas in Peru and Bolivia (Factor D), the also follows the Integrated Taxonomic the royal cinclodes: (1) Habitat species’ habitat continues to be Information System (ITIS 2009, p. 1). destruction, fragmentation, and destroyed and degraded as a result of degradation; (2) limited size and human activities (Factor A), which Habitat and Life History isolation of remaining populations; and corresponds with population declines The white-browed tit-spinetail is (3) inadequate regulatory mechanisms. (Factor E). Therefore, regulatory restricted to high-elevation, semihumid Human activities that degrade, alter, mechanisms are either inadequate or Polylepis and Polylepis-Gynoxys and destroy habitat are ongoing ineffective at mitigating the existing woodlands, where the species is found throughout the royal cinclodes’ range. threats to the royal cinclodes and its between 12,139 and 14,928 ft (3,700 and Widespread deforestation and the habitat (Factor D). 4,550 m) above sea level (BLI 2000, p. conversion of forests for grazing, Section 3 of the Act defines an 347; Collar et al. 1992, p. 595; del Hoyo agriculture, and human settlement have ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species et al. 2003, p. 267; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe led to the fragmentation of habitat which is in danger of extinction 1990, p. 348; Lloyd 2009, pp. 5-6). The throughout the range of the royal throughout all or a significant portion of characteristics of Polylepis habitat were cinclodes (Factor A). Researchers its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as described above as part of the Habitat estimate that only 1 percent of the dense ‘‘any species which is likely to become and Life History of the ash-breasted tit- Polylepis woodlands preferred by the an endangered species within the tyrant (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. 1; species remain extant. Limited by the foreseeable future throughout all or a Chutas et al. 2008, p. 3; De la Via 2004, availability of suitable habitat, the significant portion of its range.’’ Based p. 10; IPNI 2009, p. 1; Kessler 1998, p. species occurs today only in some of on the immediate and ongoing threats to 1; Purcell et al. 2004, p. 455). The white- these fragmented and disjunct locations. the royal cinclodes throughout its entire browed tit-spinetail prefers areas of Royal cinclodes habitat is particularly range, as described above, we determine primary forest that have a high density vulnerable to the drying effects that the royal cinclodes is in danger of of tall, large trees and dense Polylepis

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stands and vegetation cover (Lloyd Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267; Lloyd 2008b, Krabbe 1990, p. 348; InfoNatura 2007, p. 2008a, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 6). as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 7). 1; Lloyd 2009, pp. 1, 5-6). The species has a highly restricted and severely Dense stands of Polylepis woodlands Historical Range and Distribution are characterized by moss-laden fragmented range, and is currently vegetation and a shaded understory, and In our 2008 Annual Notice of known from only a small number of provide for a rich diversity of insects, Findings on Resubmitted Petitions for sites: The Runtacocha highlands (in making these areas good feeding Foreign Species (73 FR 44062; July 29, Apurı´mac Region) and the Nevado grounds for insectivorous birds (De la 2008), we stated that historically, the Sacsarayoc massif, Cordillera Via 2004, p. 10), such as the white- white-browed tit-spinetail may have Vilcabamba (Chapman 1921, p. 8), and browed tit-spinetail (BLI 2009d, p. 2). occupied the Polylepis forests of the Cordillera Vilcanota (in the Cusco According to Engblom et al. (2002, pp. high-Andes of Peru and Bolivia. We Region) (BLI 2000, p. 347; BLI 2009d, p. 57-58), the species has been recorded in included both countries in the historical 2; Lloyd 2009, p. 5). The estimated patches of woodland as small as 0.6 ac range of the species because the species’ range of the species is approximately (0.25 ha) in Cordillera Vilcabamba. primary habitat, the Polylepis forest, 965 mi2 (2,500 km2) (BLI 2000, p. 347; Based on these observations, Engblom et was historically large and contiguous BLI 2009d, pp. 1, 5). al. (2002, p. 58) suggest that the species throughout the high-Andes of both Peru ˚ Population Estimates is able to persist in very small forest and Bolivia (Fjeldsa 2002a, p. 115). fragments, especially if a number of However, based on further research, we Population information is presented these patches are in close proximity. have determined that historically, the first on the local level and then in terms The lower elevation of this species’ species was only known from two of a global population estimate. Local population estimates: Between range changes to a mixed Polylepis- Regions in south-central Peru, Cusco and Apurı´mac (Collar et al. 1992, p. 594; 1987 and 1989, populations of 35-70 Escallonia (no common name) del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267), and not individuals were estimated to occur at woodland, and the white-browed tit- in Bolivia. 3 sites in Cusco; since then, declines in spinetail has been observed there on The white-browed tit-spinetail may the populations at some of these sites occasion, such as during a snowstorm once have been distributed throughout have been observed (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler (Collar et al. 1992, p. 595; del Hoyo et south-central Peru, in previously 1996, as cited in BLI 2000, p. 347). At ˚ al. 2003, p. 267; Fjeldsa and Krabbe contiguous Polylepis forests above 9,843 Abra Ma´laga (Cusco Region), it is 1990, p. 348). ft (3,000 m) (BLI 2000, p. 347; BLI estimated that there are approximately There is limited information the 2009d, pp. 1-2; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111- 30-50 birds (del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267; ecology and breeding behavior of the 112, 115; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 58). In the white-browed tit-spinetail. Lloyd (2006, Kessler 2002, pp. 97-101). However, Runtacocha highlands (Apurı´mac as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 8) reports that Polylepis woodlands are now restricted Region), the population density of the the species breeds in October in to elevations of 11,483 to 16,404 ft white-browed tit-spinetail is very low Cordillera Vilcanota in southern Peru. (3,500 to 5,000 m) (Fjeldsa˚ 1992, p. 10). (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited in In the same area, one adult was seen As discussed above for the Historical BLI 2000, p. 347). Chutas (2007, p. 8) attending a nesting hole in a Polylepis Range and Distribution of the ash- reported an estimated 305 birds located tree in November 1997 (del Hoyo et al. breasted tit-tyrant, researchers consider within 3 disjunct Polylepis forest 2003, p. 267; C. Bushell in litt. (1999), human activity to be the primary cause patches in Peru. This included 205 birds as cited in BLI 2009d, p. 2). Only one for historical habitat decline and and 36 birds in Cordilleras Vilcanota nest of the white-browed tit-spinetail resultant decrease in species richness and Vilcabamba, respectively (Cusco), has ever been described. According to (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, Kessler and 64 birds in ‘‘Cordillera del Lloyd (2006, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 1995a, b, and L#gaard 1992, as cited in Apurı´mac’’ (Runtacocha highlands of 8), the nest was located within a natural Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. Apurı´mac) (Chutas 2007, p. 8). cavity of a Polylepis racemosa tree’s 116; Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Kessler Density estimates derived from main trunk, approximately 7 ft (2 m) 2002, pp. 97-101; Kessler and Herzog surveys conducted at 3 sites in above the ground. To construct their 1998, pp. 50-51). It is estimated that Cordillera Vilcanota range from 25.3 (± nest, the white-browed tit-spinetail pair only 2-3 percent of the original forest 15.1) individuals per km2, to 9.6 (± 21.7) uses moss, lichen, and bark fibers they cover still remains in Peru (Fjeldsa˚ individuals per km2, and the species stripped from Polylepis tree trunks, 2002a, pp. 111, 113). Less than 1 may occur at even higher densities in large branches and large boulders while percent of the remaining woodlands other areas of Polylepis forests (Lloyd foraging. The nest was cup-shaped and occur in humid areas, where denser 2008c, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 9). contained two pale-colored eggs (Lloyd stands are found (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler According to Lloyd (2008c, as cited in 2006, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 8). 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113), Lloyd 2009, p. 9), this quantitative data The white-browed tit-spinetail is and which are preferred by the white- from Cordillera Vilcanota shows that the insectivorous, with a diet consisting browed tit-spinetail (BLI 2009d, p. 2; white-browed tit-spinetail is ‘‘one of the primarily of arthropods (del Hoyo et al. Lloyd 2008a, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. most abundant Polylepis specialists in 2003, p. 267; Lloyd 2009, p. 7). The 6). southern Peru.’’ species forages in pairs or small family Global population estimate: BirdLife groups of three to five, and often in Current Range and Distribution International categorizes the white- mixed-species flocks, gleaning insects Today, the white-browed tit-spinetail browed tit-spinetail as having a from bark crevices, moss, and lichens on is restricted to high-elevation, population size between 500 and 1,500 twigs, branches, and trunks (BLI 2009d, semihumid patches of Polylepis and individuals (BLI 2009d, pp. 1, 5). The pp. 2-3; Engblom et al. 2002, pp. 57-58; Polylepis-Gynoxys woodlands in the category was determined from the Parker and O’Neill 1980, p. 169). The Andes mountains of south-central Peru, population estimates reported by white-browed tit-spinetail is highly where the species occurs between Engblom et al. 2002 (p. 58), who arboreal, typically foraging acrobatically 12,139-14,928 ft (3,700-4,550 m) (BLI estimated ‘‘the known population to be from the outer branches of Polylepis 2000, p. 347; Collar et al. 1992, p. 595; around 500 individuals with a possible trees while hanging upside-down (del del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267; Fjeldsa˚ and total population of 1,500 individuals.’’

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In 2002, Fjeldsa˚ (2002b, p. 9) estimated percent is located in the humid parts of browed tit-spinetail’s range are a total population size of between 250 the highlands, where denser stands attributed to human activities (a full and 1,000 pairs of birds, which occur (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as cited description of which is provided above coincides with the BirdLife in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). The white- as part of the Factor A analysis for the International category of 500–1,500 browed tit-spinetail prefers areas of ash-breasted tit-tyrant). Ongoing individuals. dense Polylepis primary forest with activities include: The species has experienced a understory vegetation that provides (1) Clearcutting and uncontrolled population decline of between 10 and optimal foraging habitat (BLI 2009d, p. burning for agriculture and pastureland 19 percent in the past 10 years, and this 2; De la Via 2004, p. 10; Lloyd 2008a, for domesticated animals, all of which rate of decline is predicted to continue as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 6) (see Habitat contributes to soil erosion, and habitat (BLI 2009d, p. 5). The population is and Life History). degradation, which prevent forest considered to be declining in close In the Cordillera de Vilcanota (Cusco, regeneration and restrict Polylepis association with continued habitat loss Peru), where a large portion of the woodlands to localized and highly and degradation (see Factors A and E) known white-browed tit-spinetail fragmented landscapes (BLI 2009a, p. 2; (BLI 2009d, p. 6). population occurs (205 birds were BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009c, p. 3; BLI observed there, out of 305 total birds 2009d, p. 3; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56; Conservation Status observed in 3 study sites in Peru) Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ The white-browed tit-spinetail is (Chutas 2007, p. 8), Polylepis woodland 2002b, p. 8; Jameson and Ramsay 2007, considered ‘‘endangered’’ by the habitat is highly fragmented and p. 42; Purcell et al. 2004, p. 458; Peruvian Government under Supreme degraded. As described more fully for Renison et al. 2006, as cited in Lloyd Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. the ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Factor A), 2009, p. 11; WCMC 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 276854). The IUCN considers the white- recent research indicated that: 1998b, p. 1); browed tit-spinetail to be ‘‘Endangered’’ (1) Four forest patches in the (2) Extractive activities, such as due to its very small and severely Cordillera de Vilcanota disappeared harvest for timber, firewood, and fragmented range and population, completely in the last half a century, charcoal, for use on local- and which continue to decline with ongoing and the remaining Polylepis remnants commercial-scales as fuel, construction, habitat loss and a lack of habitat are small (with a mean patch size of 7.4 fencing and tool-making (Aucca and regeneration (BLI 2009d, p. 1). The ac (3 ha) (Jameson and Ramsay 2007, p. Ramsay 2005, p. 287; BLI 2009a, p. 2; white-browed tit-spinetail occurs within 42) and commonly separated from the BLI 2009b, p. 1; BLI 2009d, p. 3; the Peruvian protected area of Santuario larger patches by distances of 98–4,921 Engblom 2000, pp. 1-2; Engblom et al. Histo´rico Machu Picchu in Cusco (BLI ft (30–1,500 m) (Lloyd and Marsden in 2002, p. 56; Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler 1996, as 2009c, pp. 1, 3; BLI 2009d, p. 6; del press, as cited in Lloyd 2008, p. 532); cited in BLI 2009d, p. 3; Purcell et al. Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267). (2) Ten percent of the remaining forest 2004, pp. 458-459; WCMC 1998a, p. 1); patches showed a decline in forest and Summary of Factors Affecting the density (Jameson and Ramsay 2007, p. (3) Unpredictable climate fluctuations White-browed Tit-Spinetail 42); and that exacerbate the effects of habitat A. The Present or Threatened (3) There were no indications of forest fragmentation (Jetz et al. 2007, pp. 1211, Destruction, Modification, or regeneration within the study area. 1213; Mora et al. 2007, p. 1027). These These findings have consequences for Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or habitat-altering activities are ongoing the white-browed tit-spinetail given the Range throughout the range of the white- species’ ecological requirements. As browed tit-spinetail, including in The white-browed tit-spinetail is Polylepis woodlands decline in number, Apurı´mac (BLI 2009b, p. 1) and Cusco restricted to high-elevation, semihumid the distances between patches increase. (BLI 2009a, pp. 1-2; BLI 2009c, pp. 1-3) Polylepis and Polylepis-Gynoxys According to Engblom et al. (2002, pp. of south-central Peru and within the one woodlands, where it is found between 57-58), the species has been recorded in protected area in which the species 12,139 and 14,928 ft (3,700 and 4,550 patches of woodland as small as 0.6 ac occurs, Santuario Histo´rico Machu m) above sea level (BLI 2000, p. 347; (0.25 ha) in Cordillera Vilcabamba, but Picchu (BLI 2009c, p. 3). Collar et al. 1992, p. 595; del Hoyo et the species’ persistence in small patches Polylepis conservation programs have al. 2003, p. 267; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe appears to be dependent on the patches been under way in Peru since 2004, 1990, p. 348; Lloyd 2009, pp. 1, 5-6). being in close proximity to each other. including in Cordilleras Vilcanota and High-Andean Polylepis habitat is Habitat degradation impacts the white- Vilcabamba and highlands of the characterized as a threatened woodland browed tit-spinetail, given its preference Apurı´mac Region, where white-browed ecosystem on national, regional, and for dense Polylepis woodlands, where tit-spinetail also occurs (Aucca and global levels (Purcell et al. 2004, p. 457; optimal foraging habitat is found (BLI Ramsey 2005, p. 287; Chutas 2007, p. 8; Renison et al. 2005, as cited in Lloyd 2009d, p. 2; De la Via 2004, p. 10; Lloyd ECOAN n.d., p. 1; Lloyd 2009, p. 10). 2009, p. 10), with several Polylepis 2008a, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 6). The These community-based programs, species within the white-browed tit- lack of Polylepis forest regeneration in which are more fully described above as spinetail’s range considered to be the area over nearly 50 years part of the Factor A analysis for the ash- ‘‘Vulnerable,’’ according to the IUCN underscores the ramifications of breasted tit-tyrant, confront the primary (WCMC 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). continued burning and clearing to causes of Polylepis deforestation: As described more fully for the ash- maintain pastures and farmland that are Burning, grazing, and wood-cutting. breasted tit-tyrant (Factor A), Polylepis prevalent throughout the white-browed One such program, called the woodlands have been much reduced tit-spinetail’s range (BLI 2009a, p. 1; ‘‘Vilcanota Project,’’ is under way at from historical estimates, with an Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56; Fjeldsa˚ three locations in the Cordillera de estimated remaining area of 386 mi2 2002a, pp. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b, p. 8; Vilcanota (Abra Ma´laga, Hulloc, and (1,000 km2) in Peru (Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler Purcell et al. 2004, p. 458; WCMC Cancha-Cancha) (Aucca and Ramsay 1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 113). 1998a, p. 1; WCMC 1998b, p. 1). 2005, p. 287; ECOAN n.d., p. 1; Lloyd The majority of these remaining forests Habitat loss, conversion, and 2009, p. 10). Since local populations are much dispersed, and less than 1 degradation throughout the white- rely on Polylepis wood for firewood and

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charcoal production (Aucca and Ramsay al. 2007, pp. 1211, 1213; Mora et al. the species is known from only a small 2005, p. 287; Engblom et al. 2002, p. 56), 2007, p. 1027; Parmesan and Mathews number of sites at four locations: The the Vilcanota Project works to deliver 2005, p. 334; Plumart 2007, pp. 1-2; Runtacocha highlands (in Apurı´mac non- Polylepis firewood to families for Timmermann 1999, p. 694), especially Region), and the Nevado Sacsarayoc cooking, as well as supply them with for narrow endemics (Jetz et al. 2007, p. massif, Cordillera Vilcabamba, and fuel-efficient cooking stoves (ECOAN 1213) such as the white-browed tit- Cordillera Vilcanota (in Cusco Region). n.d., p. 1). A short-term aim of these spinetail (see also Factor E). ENSO Historical decline in habitat availability projects is to restore balance to local cycles strongly influence the growth of is attributed to the same human sustainable resource use (Aucca and Polylepis species (Christie et al. 2008, p. activities that are causing habitat loss Ramsay 2005, p. 288; ECOAN n.d., p. 1). 1) by altering Polylepis species’ age today. Ongoing and accelerated habitat However, at Abra Ma´laga (one of the structure and mortality, especially destruction of the remaining Polylepis Vilcanota Project’s sites), Polylepis where woodlands have undergone woodlands in Peru continues to reduce woodlands continue to be impacted by disturbance, such as fire and grazing the quantity, quality, distribution, and extraction for firewood and burning for (Villalba and Veblen 1997, pp. 121-123; potential regeneration of Polylepis agriculture and pastureland (BLI 2009a, Villalba and Veblen 1998, pp. 2624, forests. Human activities that degrade, pp. 1-2). In addition, commercial-scale 2637). These cycles may have already alter, and destroy habitat are ongoing activities, such as logging and fuel wood accelerated the fire cycle (Block and throughout the species’ range, including collection, which are ongoing Richter 2007, p. 1; Power et al. 2007, pp. within protected areas (see also Factor throughout this species’ range, alter 897-898), which is a key factor D). Experts consider the species’ otherwise sustainable resource use preventing Polylepis regeneration population decline to be commensurate practices (Aucca and Ramsay 2005, p. (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, p. 112, 120; Fjeldsa˚ with the declining habitat (Factor E). 287; Engblom 2000, p. 2; Engblom et al. 2002b, p. 8) because Polylepis species Current research indicates that climate 2002, p. 56; MacLennan 2009, p. 2; recover poorly following a fire fluctuations exacerbate the effects of Purcell et al. 2004, pp. 458-459; WCMC (Cierjacks et al. 2007, p. 176). ENSO habitat loss to species, especially for 1998a, p. 1). cycles are ongoing, having occurred narrow endemics such as the white- Habitat destruction caused by burning several times within the last decade browed tit-spinetail that are already and grazing, which have prevented (NWS 2009, p. 2), and evidence suggests undergoing range reduction due to regeneration of habitat, is a factor in the that ENSO cycles have already human activities. Climate models historical decline of Polylepis increased in periodicity and severity predict that this species’ habitat will -dependent bird species (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, (Richter 2005, pp. 24-25; Timmermann continue to decline. Therefore, we find p. 116). The white-browed tit-spinetail’s 1999, p. 694), which will exacerbate the that destruction and modification of population size is considered to be negative impacts of habitat destruction habitat are threats to the continued declining in close association with the on a species. It is predicted that, by existence of the white-browed tit- continued habitat loss and degradation 2050, another 1 percent of the white- spinetail throughout its range. of Polylepis woodlands (BLI 2009d, p. browed tit-spinetail’s current remaining 6). The species may once have been range is likely to be unsuitable for this B. Overutilization for Commercial, distributed throughout south-central species due to climate change; and, by Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Peru, in once contiguous Polylepis 2100, it is predicted that about 43 Purposes forests (BLI 2000, p. 347; BLI 2009d, pp. percent of the species’ range is likely to We are not aware of any information 1-2; Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, pp. 111-112, 115; be lost as a direct result of global currently available that indicates that Herzog et al. 2002, p. 94; Kessler 2002, climate change (Jetz et al. 2007, overutilization of the species for pp. 97-101). Today, the species has a Supplementary Table 2, p. 89). commercial, recreational, scientific, or highly restricted and severely educational purposes has occurred or is Summary of Factor A fragmented range, and is currently occurring at this time. As a result, we known from only a small number of Polylepis habitat throughout the range are not considering overutilization to be sites in the Regions of Apurı´mac and of the white-browed tit-spinetail has a threat to the continued existence of Cusco in south-central Peru (BLI 2000, been and continues to be altered and the white-browed tit-spinetail. p. 347; BLI 2009d, pp. 1-2; Lloyd 2009, destroyed as a result of human p. 5). activities, including clearcutting and C. Disease or Predation White-browed tit-spinetails are also burning for agriculture and grazing We are not aware of any scientific or impacted by unpredictable climate lands and extractive activities, commercial information that indicates fluctuations, which are more fully including harvest for timber, firewood, that disease or predation poses a threat described under the Factor A analysis of and charcoal. It is estimated that only 1 to the species. As a result, we are not the ash-breasted tit-tyrant and are percent of the dense Polylepis considering disease or predation to be a summarized here. Peru is subject to woodlands preferred by the species threat to the continued existence of the unpredictable climate fluctuations that remain, and the remaining woodlands white-browed tit-spinetail. exacerbate the effects of habitat are highly fragmented and degraded. fragmentation, such as those that are Observations suggest that the white- D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory related to the El Nin˜ o Southern browed tit-spinetail is able to persist in Mechanisms Oscillation (ENSO). Changes in weather very small forest fragments (e.g., areas as The white-browed tit-spinetail is patterns, such as ENSO cycles (El Nin˜ o small as 0.6 ac (0.25 ha) in Cordillera considered ‘‘endangered’’ by the and La Nin˜ a events), tend to increase Vilcabamba); however, this depends on Peruvian Government under Supreme precipitation in normally dry areas, and whether or not a number of patches are Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. decrease precipitation in normally wet in close proximity to one another. Since 276854). This Decree prohibits hunting, areas (Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; TAO the remaining Polylepis woodlands are take, transport, and trade of protected Project n.d., p. 1), exacerbating the and continue to be severely fragmented, species, except as permitted by effects of habitat fragmentation on the the distance between some of the small regulation. As hunting, taking, or trade decline of a species (England 2000, p. woodland patches may be too large for do not currently threaten the white- 86; Holmgren et al. 2001, p. 89; Jetz et the species to be able to persist. Today, browed tit-spinetail, this regulation does

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not mitigate any current threats to the E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors population size, combined with its species. Affecting the Continued Existence of the highly restricted and severely Peru has several categories of national Species fragmented range, increases the species’ habitat protection, which were An additional factor that affects the vulnerability to adverse natural events and manmade activities that destroy described above as part of Factor D for continued existence of the white- individuals and their habitat (Holsinger the ash-breasted tit-tyrant (IUCN 1994, browed tit-spinetail is the species’ small 2000, pp. 64-65; Primack 1998, pp. 279- p. 2; Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. population size. As discussed above (see Population Estimates), BirdLife 308; Young and Clarke 2000, pp. 361- 330). Protected areas have been 366). established through regulation at one International has placed the white- site occupied by the white-browed tit- browed tit-spinetail in the population Summary of Factor E spinetail in Peru: the Santuario category of between 500 and 1,500 The white-browed tit-spinetail has a Histo´rico Machu Picchu (Cusco, Peru); individuals (BLI 2009d, pp. 1, 5), and small population size that renders it (BLI 2009c, pp. 1, 3; BLI 2009d, p. 6). characterizes the species as having a vulnerable to genetic risks that Resources within Santuario Histo´rico ‘‘very small population’’ size (BLI 2000, negatively impact the species’ viability. Machu Picchu are supposed to be p. 347; BLI 2009d, p. 1). The species has a severely restricted Small population size renders species managed for conservation (Rodrı´guez range and occurs in highly fragmented vulnerable to genetic risks that can have and Young 2000, p. 330). However, habitat that continues to undergo individual or population-level genetic habitat destruction and alteration, degradation and curtailment due to consequences, such as inbreeding including burning, cutting, and grazing human activities (Factor A). The depression, loss of genetic variation, restricted and fragmented range, as well are ongoing within the sanctuary, and accumulation of new mutations, preventing regeneration of the as the small population size, increases and may affect the species’ viability by the species’ vulnerability to extinction woodlands (BLI 2009c, p. 3; Engblom et increasing its susceptibility to al. 2002, p. 58). Therefore, the through demographic or environmental demographic shifts or environmental fluctuations. Based on its small occurrence of the white-browed tit- fluctuations, as explained in more detail spinetail within protected areas in Peru population size and fragmented above in the Factor E analysis for the distribution, we have determined that does not protect the species, nor does it ash-breasted tit-tyrant (Charlesworth the white-browed tit-spinetail is mitigate the threats to the species from and Charlesworth 1987, p. 238; Pimm et particularly vulnerable to the threat of ongoing habitat loss (Factor A) and al. 1988, pp. 757, 773-775; Shaffer 1981, adverse natural events (e.g., genetic, concomitant population decline (Factor p. 131). Small population size leads to demographic, or environmental) and E). a higher risk of extinction and, once a human activities (e.g., deforestation and population is reduced below a certain Summary of Factor D habitat alteration) that destroy number of individuals, it tends to individuals and their habitat. The Peru has enacted various laws and rapidly decline towards extinction genetic and demographic risks regulatory mechanisms to protect and (Frankham 1996, p. 1507; Franklin associated with small population sizes manage wildlife and their habitats. The 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and Soule´ are exacerbated by ongoing human white-browed tit-spinetail is 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; activities that continue to curtail the ‘‘endangered’’ under Peruvian law and Purvis et al. 2000, p. 1949; Reed and species’ habitat throughout its range. occurs within one protected area in Frankham 2003, pp. 233-234; Soule´ The species’ population has declined Peru. As discussed under Factor A, the 1987, p. 181). and is predicted to continue declining Complications arising from the white-browed tit-spinetail prefers dense commensurate with ongoing habitat loss species’ small population size are Polylepis woodlands, which have been (Factor A). Therefore, we find that the exacerbated by the species’ fragmented reduced by an estimated 98 percent in species’ small population size, in distribution. The white-browed tit- Peru. The Polylepis habitat that does concert with its fragmented distribution spinetail is currently confined to high- and its heightened vulnerability to remain is highly fragmented and elevation, semihumid patches of forest degraded. Habitat throughout the adverse natural events and manmade in the Andes of Peru, and its population activities, are threats to the continued species’ range has been and continues to has declined at a rate between 10 and be altered as a result of human existence of the white-browed tit- 19 percent in the past 10 years, in close spinetail throughout its range. activities, including clearcutting and association with the continued loss and burning for agriculture and grazing degradation of the Polylepis forest (BLI Status Determination for the White- lands; and extractive activities such as 2009d, pp. 5-6) (Factor A). Fjeldsa˚ and Browed Tit-Spinetail timber harvest, firewood collection, and Kessler (1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a, The white-browed tit-spinetail, a charcoal production. These activities are p. 113) describe the remaining Polylepis small dark ovenbird, is restricted to ongoing within protected areas despite woodlands as highly fragmented and high-altitude woodlands of the Peruvian the species’ endangered status, degraded, and estimate that only 1 Andes. Preferring dense, semihumid indicating that the laws governing percent of the dense woodlands Polylepis and Polylepis-Gynoxys wildlife and habitat protection in Peru preferred by the species remain (BLI woodlands, the ash-breasted tit-tyrant are either inadequate or inadequately 2009d, p. 2; De la Via 2004, p. 10; Lloyd occupies a narrow range of distribution enforced to protect the species or to 2008a, as cited in Lloyd 2009, p. 6) (see at elevations between 12,139 and 14,928 mitigate ongoing habitat loss (Factor A) Habitat and Life History). As a result, ft (3,700 and 4,550 m) above sea level. and population declines (Factor E). experts say that the species’ current The species has a highly restricted and Therefore, we find that the existing range is highly restricted and severely severely fragmented range regulatory mechanisms are inadequate fragmented (BLI 2000, p. 347; BLI (approximately 965 mi2 (2,500 km2)), to mitigate the current threats to the 2009d, p. 1; Collar et al. 1992, p. 595; and is currently known from only a continued existence of the white- del Hoyo et al. 2003, p. 267; Fjeldsa˚ and small number of sites in the Apurı´mac browed tit-spinetail throughout its Krabbe 1990, p. 348; InfoNatura 2007, p. and Cusco Regions, in south-central range. 1; Lloyd 2009, p. 5). The species’ small Peru. The known population of the

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white-browed tit-spinetail is estimated experiencing range reductions due to useful for the conservation of to be approximately 500 to 1,500 human activities (Factor A). endangered and threatened species in individuals. Despite the species’ endangered status foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) We have carefully assessed the best in Peru and its occurrence within one of the Act authorize the Secretary to available scientific and commercial protected area, human activities that encourage conservation programs for information regarding the past, present, degrade, alter, and destroy habitat are foreign endangered and threatened and potential future threats faced by the ongoing throughout the white-browed species and to provide assistance for white-browed tit-spinetail. There are tit-spinetail’s range, including within such programs in the form of personnel three primary factors impacting the protected areas. Therefore, regulatory and the training of personnel. continued existence of the white- mechanisms are either inadequate or The Act and its implementing browed tit-spinetail: (1) Habitat ineffective at curbing the threats to the regulations set forth a series of general destruction, fragmentation, and white-browed tit-spinetail of habitat loss prohibitions and exceptions that apply degradation; (2) limited size and (Factor A) and corresponding to all endangered and threatened isolation of remaining populations; and population decline (Factor E). wildlife. As such, these prohibitions (3) inadequate regulatory mechanisms. Section 3 of the Act defines an would be applicable to the ash-breasted Human activities that degrade, alter, ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species tit-tyrant, Junı´n grebe, Junı´n rail, and destroy habitat are ongoing which is in danger of extinction Peruvian plantcutter, the royal throughout all or a significant portion of throughout the white-browed tit- cinclodes, and the white-browed tit- its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as spinetail. Widespread deforestation and spinetail. These prohibitions, under 50 ‘‘any species which is likely to become the conversion of forests for grazing and CFR 17.21, make it illegal for any person an endangered species within the agriculture have led to the subject to the jurisdiction of the United foreseeable future throughout all or a fragmentation of habitat throughout the States to ‘‘take’’ (take includes to harass, significant portion of its range.’’ Based range of the white-browed tit-spinetail harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, on the immediate and ongoing threats to (Factor A). Researchers estimate that trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt to the white-browed tit-spinetail engage in any such conduct) any only 1 percent of the dense Polylepis throughout its entire range, as described endangered wildlife species within the woodlands preferred by the species above, we determine that the white- United States or upon the high seas; or remain. Limited by the availability of browed tit-spinetail is in danger of to import or export; deliver, receive, suitable habitat, the species occurs extinction throughout all of its range. carry, transport, or ship in interstate or today only in a few fragmented and Therefore, on the basis of the best foreign commerce in the course of disjunct locations. available scientific and commercial commercial activity; or to sell or offer White-browed tit-spinetail habitat information, we are proposing to list the for sale in interstate or foreign continues to be altered by human white-browed tit-spinetail as an commerce any endangered wildlife activities, which result in the continued endangered species throughout all of its species. It is also illegal to possess, sell, degradation, conversion, and range. deliver, carry, transport, or ship any destruction of habitat and reduction of such wildlife that has been taken in Available Conservation Measures the quantity, quality, distribution, and violation of the Act. Certain exceptions regeneration of remaining forest Conservation measures provided to apply to agents of the Service and State patches. Habitat loss was a factor in this species listed as endangered or conservation agencies. species’ historical decline (see threatened under the Act include Permits may be issued to carry out Historical Range and Distribution), and recognition, requirements for Federal otherwise prohibited activities the species is considered to be declining protection, and prohibitions against involving endangered and threatened today in association with the continued certain practices. Recognition through wildlife species under certain reduction in habitat (Factors A and E). listing results in public awareness, and circumstances. Regulations governing The species’ severely restricted range, encourages and results in conservation permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for combined with its small population actions by Federal and State endangered species. With regard to size, renders it particularly vulnerable governments, private agencies and endangered wildlife, a permit may be to the threat of adverse natural (e.g., interest groups, and individuals. issued for the following purposes: for genetic, demographic, or environmental) Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, scientific purposes, to enhance the and manmade (e.g., deforestation, and as implemented by regulations at 50 propagation or survival of the species, habitat alteration, wildfire) events that CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies and for incidental take in connection destroy individuals and their habitat. to evaluate their actions within the with otherwise lawful activities. Human activities that continue to curtail United States or on the high seas with the species’ habitat throughout its range respect to any species that is proposed Peer Review exacerbate the genetic and demographic or listed as endangered or threatened, In accordance with our joint policy risks associated with small population and with respect to its critical habitat, with National Marine Fisheries Service, sizes (Factor E). The species has if any has been proposed or designated. ‘‘Notice of Interagency Cooperative experienced a population decline of However, given that the ash-breasted tit- Policy for Peer Review in Endangered between 10 and 19 percent in the past tyrant, Junı´n grebe, Junı´n rail, Peruvian Species Act Activities,’’ published in 10 years (see Population Estimates), and plantcutter, the royal cinclodes, and the the Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 is predicted to continue declining white-browed tit-spinetail are not native FR 34270), we will seek the expert commensurate with ongoing habitat loss to the United States, we are not opinions of at least three appropriate and degradation. Current research proposing critical habitat for these independent specialists regarding this indicates that narrow endemics, such as species under section 4 of the Act. proposed rule. The purpose of peer the white-browed tit-spinetail, are Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the review is to ensure that our final especially susceptible to climate provision of limited financial assistance determination is based on scientifically fluctuations because of the synergistic for the development and management of sound data, assumptions, and analyses. effect these fluctuations have on programs that the Secretary of the We will send copies of this proposed declining populations that are also Interior determines to be necessary or rule to the peer reviewers immediately

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following publication in the Federal 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not Author(s) Register. We will invite these peer be prepared in connection with reviewers to comment during the public regulations adopted under section 4(a) The primary authors of this proposed comment period on our specific of the Act. We published a notice rule are Jesse D’Elia (of the Pacific assumptions and conclusions regarding outlining our reasons for this Regional Office) and Patricia De the proposal to list the ash-breasted tit- determination in the Federal Register Angelis, Patricia Ford, Monica Horton, tyrant, Junı´n grebe, Junı´n rail, Peruvian on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). and Marie Maltese (all of the Division of plantcutter, royal cinclodes, and white- Scientific Authority), U.S. Fish and browed tit-spinetail. Clarity of the Rule Wildlife Service. We will consider all comments and We are required by Executive Orders List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 information we receive during the 12866 and 12988, and by the comment period on this proposed rule Presidential Memorandum of June 1, Endangered and threatened species, during our preparation of a final 1998, to write all rules in plain Exports, Imports, Reporting and determination. Accordingly, our final language. This means that each rule we recordkeeping requirements, decision may differ from this proposal. publish must: Transportation. Public Hearings (a) Be logically organized; (b) Use the active voice to address Proposed Regulation Promulgation The Act provides for one or more readers directly; public hearings on this proposal, if we (c) Use clear language rather than Accordingly, we propose to amend receive any requests for hearings. We jargon; part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title must receive your request for a public (d) Be divided into short sections and 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, hearing within 45 days after the date of sentences; and as set forth below: this Federal Register publication (see (e) Use lists and tables wherever DATES). Such requests must be made in possible. PART 17—[AMENDED] writing and be addressed to the Chief of If you feel that we have not met these the Branch of Listing at the address requirements, send us comments by one 1. The authority citation for part 17 shown in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES continues to read as follows: CONTACT section. We will schedule section. To better help us revise the Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. public hearings on this proposal, if any rule, your comments should be as 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201-4245; Pub. L. 99- are requested, and announce the dates, specific as possible. For example, you 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. times, and places of those hearings, as should tell us the numbers of the well as how to obtain reasonable sections or paragraphs that are unclearly 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding new accommodations, in the Federal written, which sections or sentences are entries for ‘‘Cinclodes, royal,’’ ‘‘Grebe, Register at least 15 days before the first too long, the sections where you feel Junı´n,’’ ‘‘Plantcutter, Peruvian,’’ ‘‘Rail, hearing. lists or tables would be useful, etc. Junı´n,’’ ‘‘Tit-spinetail, white-browed,’’ Required Determinations and ‘‘Tit-tyrant, ash-breasted’’ in References Cited alphabetical order under BIRDS to the National Environmental Policy Act A complete list of all references cited List of Endangered and Threatened (NEPA) in this proposed rule is available on the Wildlife, as follows: We have determined that Internet at http://www.regulations.gov §17.11 Endangered and threatened environmental assessments and or upon request from the Branch of wildlife. environmental impact statements, as Listing, Endangered Species Program, defined under the authority of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (see FOR * * * * * National Environmental Policy Act of FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate population Historic where range endangered Status When listed Critical habitat Special rules Common name Scientific name or threatened

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BIRDS

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Cinclodes, royal Cinclodes aricomae Bolivia, Peru Entire E NA NA

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Grebe, Junı´n Podiceps taczanowskii Peru Entire E NA NA

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Plantcutter, Phytotoma raimondii Peru Entire E NA NA Peruvian

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Species Vertebrate population Historic where range endangered Status When listed Critical habitat Special rules Common name Scientific name or threatened

Rail, Junı´n Laterallus tuerosi Peru Entire E NA NA

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Tit-spinetail, Leptasthenura xenothorax Peru Entire E NA NA white-browed

Tit-tyrant, ash- Anairetes alpinus Bolivia, Peru Entire E NA NA breasted

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* * * * * Dated: December 16, 2009 Sam D. Hamilton, Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [FR Doc. E9–31102 Filed 1–4–10; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–S

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