BIBLICAL WORLD A Journal of the Awakening Church

Volume L JULY 1917 Number 1

Editorial: Christianizing Patriotism

How Old Were Christ's Disciples? Otis and Frank Cary

Is Fear Essential to Well-Being? Frederica Beard

Rival Interpretations of Christianity. V. Evangelicism or Modernized Protestant Christianity George Cross

Modem Creed-Building W. Harvey-Jellie

St Paul's View of the Resurrection "Body. {Concluded) ^ A. E. Whatham The American Institute of Sacred Literature The Psychology of Religion Edward S. Ames The Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament J. M. Powis Smith

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. UJS.A.

Agmntt: THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSTTY PRESS. London and Edinborgh ' THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKl-KAISHA. Tokyo. Oomkm, Kyoto. Fukuoka. Stndai THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY. Shanghai The Biblical World FOUNDED BY WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER

The Hebrew Studbmt, Vol*. 1,11. 1882-1883 The Old and New Testament Student, VoIs. IX-XV, i88q-i8«s The Old Testament Student, VoIs. III-VIII, 1883-1888 The Biblical World, New Series, Vols. I-XLIX, 1893-1917

SHAILER MATHEWS, Editor With the Co-operation of the Meinliers of the Divinit)’ Conference of the University of Chicago

Vol. L CONTENl'S FOR JUI.Y 1917 No. 1

EDITORIAL; CHRISTIANIZING PAfRIOTISM.- i

HOW OLD WERE CHRIST’S DISCIPLES? - - - . Ons and Frank Cary 3 IS FEAR ESSENTIAL TO WELL-BEING? ------Frederica Beard 13

RIVAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY. V. EVANGELICISM OR MODERNIZED PROTESTANT CHRISTIANITY George Cross, Ph.D. 18

MODERN CREED-BUILDING . - - - * - W. Harvey-Jellie, Dp. £s Let. 26

ST. PAUL’S VIEW OF THE RESURRECTION BGDY {Concluded) Rev. A. E. Whathau 29 CtRRENT OPINION - ..- .... 35

THE CHURCH AND THE WORLD : Missions ------.- . - 40 Religious Education ..41 Church Efficiency 43

BOOK NOTICES.48

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE : The Psychology of Religion. V ------Edward S. Ames 52 The Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament. IV {Concluded) J. M. Powis Smith 58

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Eatated as aacond-class matter, January 38, iS93,at the post-oflibe at Chicago, Illinois,under the Act of March 3, 1879 Oipyrigui, 1917, by the University of Chicago TABLE OF CONTENTS Roman numerals preceding the page reference indicate the number of each instalment in the series.

How Old Were Christ’s Disciples ? 3.. Otis and Frank Cary Is Fear Essential to Well-Being ? 13. Frederica Beard Rival Interpretations of Christianity. V, 18, loi; VI, 334 . . George Cross Modem Creed-Building. 26. W. Harvey-Jellie St. Paul’s View of the Resurrection Body. 29. A. E. Whaiham The Psychology of Religion. V, 52. Edward S. Ames The Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament. IV, 58 . . . J. M. Powis Smith GentilCj^rms of Millennial Hope. 67. Shirley Jackson Case in Religion. 86. U.M. McGuire ^The War’s Challenge to the Church. 94. Robert W. Shaw The Family Altar. 108. H.G.W. Smith The Gospel of the Kingdom. 129.Frederick Clifton Grant The Book of Revelation. I, 192; II, 257; III, 321; IV, 382 Shirley Jackson Case Back to Pentecost. 203. Washington Gladden The Present Status in Religion. '212. Henry Berkowiiz Mr. H. G. Wells’s “Modem Religion.’’ 220. • Walter F. Adeney Luther and Paul. 226. Charles J. Ritchey The Bible in Our Religious Life. 232. Henry B. Robins Good Thoughts in Bad Times. 267.Henry Churchill King The Revolutionary Attitude of Jesus. 276. Samuel Dickey The Prophets and the Social Question. 282. Alexander R. Gordon “The Sacrament of Misery.’’ 290. Francis A. Christie The Religion of Childhood. I, 292; II, 353. Henry B. Robins In Memoriam. 300 Church and Community. I, 318; H, 376. Allan Hoben A Service for Use in Time of War. 331 The Offense of the Cross. 342. Richard Roberts The Missionary Enterprise as the Moral Elquivalent of War. 348 Samuel McCrea Cavert

V

322674

THE BIBLICAL WORLD

Volume L JULY 1917 Numbee 1

CHRISTIANIZING PATRIOTISM Patriotism has generally been regarded as a belligerent virtue. Men have been ready to fight for their country when they dodged taxes for its support. It has been easier to go to war than to go to meetings of reformers. Men have decorated the graves of dead soldiers while they were growing rich by underpaying soldiers’ children. But patriotism is outgrowing its past. Nations are less important than humanity, but only super- ideaUsts can believe that patriotism is necessarily hostile to universal brotherhood. A man loves ultimate ideals unwisely when he refuses to take a first step in their direction. We shall not reach Utopia by a miraculous leap. We shall walk to it. Pictures of terminal stations are of small value to people who refuse to travel. Whatever may be the world of a thousand years hence, the road to universal brotherhood lies through the establishment of an international morality. In the present crisis we are patriots at war. But patriotism can be made co-operative as well as belligerent.

Christian patriots can render many services to their country these days, but none is more important than the evangelization of patriotism. As we are learning to make denominations a basis for interdenominationalism, can we hold nations to be elements of internationalism. We must make patriotism a consecration of our country to service in the world. We must prevent war from deadening the sense of high mission with which we enter upon war. We must make patriotism a devotion of our country to God, not a demand that God shall always do our country’s bidding. 2 THE BIBLICAL WORLD

In time of war we must prepare for peace by instilling into loyalty to our nation a sense of the nation’s responsibility for morality in foreign commerce. Christians must help patriots to see that their nation has a right to exist only as it ministers to universal human weal.

Morality grows by injecting higher ideals into existing con¬ ditions, customs, and institutions. Sometimes these new ideals are destructive antitoxins. So it was when ideals of human brotherhood entered a world of slave¬ holders. Such we hope will be the case when they fully enter nations that wage war. Sometimes they are transforming. So it was in the days when nationalities replaced feudal hefs. So will it be as a truly Christian public opinion fixes the relation of nations with each other. Patriotism will then consist in loyalty to one’s country as an agent in establishing international friendship within which human brotherhood can be safe. Democracy is one step toward this brotherhood. Defense of democracy is another. National co-operation in the defense of international law will be another. For a world unsafe for democracy is a world unsafe for fraternity. HOW OLD WERE CHRIST’S DISCIPLES?

OTIS AND FRANK CARY Kyoto, Japan

This article is interesting if for no other reason than that it is the work of father and son. But it is more interesting in the fact that it shapes up and answers questions which must have occurred to every thoughtful student of the Scriptures. It is hard indeed to realize how much biblical thought has been misled by the painters of unhistorical pictures. It is hardly likely that all of our readers will agree with the conclusions which this article reaches, but that the disciples of Jesus were young seems well established.

Our mental pictures of the scenes deal are of early date and show what described in the Gospels are greatly was believed by those who, either by influenced by impressions that were personal acquaintance with the dis¬ received from the illustrated books of ciples or through what was still remem¬ our childhood and by the way those bered about them, were likely to have scenes have been depicted by the great right opinions on a matter of this kind. artists. Painters have been inclined to represent most of the Twelve Dis¬ I ciples as heavily bearded men, appar¬ It might help our study of this ently in middle life if not beyond it, subject if we could be sure what was Peter and some of the others being the fundamental nature of that group bald-headed—a condition, it may be of persons about Christ, what object incidentally remarked, that would be they had in view when they joined it, strange in a fisherman accustomed to and what was the relation that he and an outdoor life unless he was far ad¬ they considered to be existing between vanced in years. John, indeed, is them. Did these men at first think represented as being yoimger than that they were joining a revolutionary the others; but even he, as usually party whose aim was the restoration portrayed, app)ears to be well over of national independence? Was it the twenty. thought that Jesus was possibly the Are such pictures true to the facts? Messiah that first attracted them to How old were these men? In examin¬ him—a supp)osition which, with the ing the Gospels for answers to such current ideas, would mean very much inquiries we need not trouble ourselves the same as the preceding one ? Rather much over questions of criticism. Even shall we not assent to what Hamack if a book was not written by the one says: “The relation of Jesus to his whose name it bears, and even though disciples during his lifetime was deter¬ a particular passage may be an inter¬ mined, not by the conception of Mes¬ polation, all with which we have to siah, but by that of teacher”' ?

Expansion of Christianity, Mo&att’s tians., II, i. 4 THE BIBLICAL WORLD

Teacher! Did the disciples think lation that used such terms as are of themselves as entering what was usual in speaking of educational mat¬ literally a school—a school that, what¬ ters, many passages would have made ever were its peculiarities, was some¬ a different and perhaps a clearer im¬ what like others of its time ? Certainly pression on our minds. Read some the words used to express the relations familiar verses in this way: “A pupil is between Jesus and the Twelve are not above his teacher” (Matt. 10:24); almost without exception the same as “His pupils asked him . . . (Matt. those that were commonly used in 17:10 /.); “Privately to his own pupils coimection with education. This is he expounded all things” (Mark 4:34); somewhat obscured in our translations, “He taught his pupils and said unto and even persons acquainted with the them” (Mark 9:31); “His students Greek Language are likely to have their said unto him, ‘Professor, teach us to thoughts largely governed by the im¬ pray, even as John also taught his pressions they received in childhood students’ ” (Luke “These things from the English version. Probably his pupils did not understand” (John few children when they read in the 12:16); “The Pharisees sent their stu¬ Authorized Version the word “Master” dents, with the Herodians, saying, as a name for Jesus think of “School¬ ‘Teacher, we know that thou art true master,” a rendering that would show and teachest the way of God in truth’ ” more clearly the meaning of the Greek (Matt. 22:16); “Doctor, we know that though evidently less desir¬ thou art a teacher come from God” able than “Teacher,” which has been (John 3:2); “The Pharisees said, adopted in the American Revision. ‘Teacher, rebuke your pupib’ ” (Luke The word “disciple” early came to 19’SQ)* The Old Syriac text in the have a special meaning, so that we are Sinai Palimpsest adds to this last verse almost unmindful that in the Gospels it the clause “that they shout r;ot.” signifies”learner”or“pupil.” “ Rabbi,” How much this resembles a complaint according to Thayer’s Lexicon, means to the head of a modem school when “my great one” or “my honorable his pupils have been noisy on the street! sir,” and is there explained as “a Edersheim, in speaking of the call title with which the Jews were wont of the early disciples, says: “The ex¬ to address their teachers and also to pression ‘follow me’ would be readily honor them when not addressing them.” understood as implying a call to become Out English words “professor” and the permanent disciple of a teacher. “doctor” do not start from the same Similarly, it was not only the practice thought, but in some connections they of the rabbis, but regarded as one of the have a similar use. According to Schiirer, most sacred duties for a master to gather the addresses Kvpu, St&!o-«caAc, and iirurriTa around him a circle of disciples.”* represent the Hebrew title “Rabbi.”* If Many are the passages that de¬ from childhood we had read a trans¬ scribe Christ as teaching. In some of > Tke Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, 11, { 25. •Life of Christ, I, 474. HOW OLD WERE CHRIST’S DISCIPLES? 5 them we are told of his “preaching and tion to do so. We are told, indeed, that teaching” as though there were a Peter was married. Perhaps the mar¬ distinction between the two acts. He riage of some of the other disciples may taught in the synagogues, buildings be inferred from Christ’s words about that were commonly used on week those that • had left children for his days as schoolrooms. It may be that sake (Matt. 19:29; Mark 10:29; Luke in his long sojourn at Capernaum he 18:29); and in speaking to the multi¬ had a class similar to those that were tude he mentions wives and children, common among his people. as well as parents, brothers, and sisters, We thiis see that the language used among those that must be hated by concerning Christ’s relations with the persons who would be his disciples Twelve and the larger number of p>ersons (Luke 14:26). Also in speaking to the who for a longer or shorter time came disciples he says, “Of which of you that to him for instruction is almost uni¬ is a father shall his son ask a loaf. . . formly such as is common in speaking (Luke ii:ii). It might, however, be of education. The bearing of this on argued, on the other hand, that this our subject is evident. Schools are last verse implies that some of the primarily for the young. Many of our disciples were not fathers, which would encyclopedias quote the words of a be somewhat unusual among adult Jewish writer who a little later than Jews. The fact of marriage does not the time of Christ described the duties prove very advanced age, for, as shown of different ages as follows: “At five, in a quotation already given, eighteen reading the Bible; at ten, learning the was considered the proper time for Mishna; at thirteen, bound to the this. McClintock and Strong’s Cyclo¬ Commandments; at fifteen, the study pedia (j.e. “Marriage”) says of the of the Talmud; at eighteen, marriage; at period after the Exile: “Though, for twenty, the pursuit of business.” the sake of preserving morality, puberty The Jewish Encyclopedia {s.v. “Edu¬ was regarded as the desirable age, yet cation”), in speaking of “the last men generally married when they were century of the Jewish state,” says that seventeen. The Talmudists forbade schools for boys six or seven years old marriage in the case of a man under were held in all cities, and then de¬ thirteen years and a day.” Through¬ scribes what it calls “district schools.” out our study it is to be remembered These were “intended only for youths that the Jews matured early. sixteen or seventeen years of age who Matthew held some position in a could provide for themselves away from tax-office, but without further particu¬ home.” lars this tells little about his age, for Not only are childhood and youth we do not know how old a person would the natural times for seeking an educa¬ need to be for such duties. Matthew’s tion, but family cares and the claims making a feast in his house (if it was of business make it more difficult for his and not that occupied by Christ) older persons to give themselves to seems to indicate a person having a study, even when there is the inclina¬ home of his own, though possibly the 6 THE BIBLICAL WORLD phrase might be used if the house modem educational institutions—a di¬ was that of his father or widowed vision of sentiment among students, mother. helped on by outsiders who have come If Simon the 2^ot was connected to hear and criticize the instmction that with the earlier activity of the party is being given; growing opposition on from which his title seems to have been the part of the educational authorities, derived, he was a man in middle life; who are troubled by the loss of students but the party was not wholly quiescent and by the reputation the school is at the time of Christ’s ministry. The getting as a hotbed of dangerous doc¬ designation may have been a sort of trines; the dismissal or the voluntary nickname suggested by his character.* withdrawal of the teacher and the clinging to him of some of the students. II In the verse immediately following the Leaving for later consideration some narrative we read, “And after these possibly direct indications of the ages things Jesus walked in Galilee.” Does of other individuals, let us turn back this mark the time when Christ no to think again of the school, if such it longer had a fixed place for giving was. Evidently it must have been very instmction ? The Greek word ireptwaTcw, different from our modem educational though used before, seems very appro¬ institutions and unlike any Jewish priate here, as the school now became schools of which we have clear infor¬ peripaktic to a greater extent than mation. One peculiarity was that for that of Aristotle, the students receiving the most part it had no fixed abode. instmction as with their Teacher they It may for a time have had its regular walked beside the lake, traversed the sessions in the syn^ogue at Capernaum. plains, climbed the mountains, or We might translate John 6:59, “These entered the courts of the temple. things he said in a s)magogue when he Sometimes the students were sent off was teaching in Capernaum,” and so without their Teacher that they might make it suggestive of a time when he imjjart to others what they had learned. was acting as a recognized teacher in This combination of instruction and that city. The incident of which the practical work was not wholly unlike evangelist writes might easily be de¬ what is now common in theological scribed in terms such as are used in schools, especially in those of mission telling of what sometimes occurs in fields.

' Is it too fandful to suggest that something student-like may be seen in the extra names borne by several of the disciples? In American colleges some men are better known to their mates by nicknames than they are by their proper designations. The present fashion is to give appellations supposed to be humorous; but a hundred years ago, when French skepticism was popular in Yale College, the students called each other by such names as Voltaire, Rousseau, etc. In the universities of the Middle Ages and among the Greeks we find a similar custom, the new name being sometimes given by the teacher. In the little company of the disciples we find Cephas, Didymus, Zealot, Boanerges, Thaddaeus, and'perhaps other “surnames.” Some of these are known to us by only sinf^e incidental references; it is therefore not unlikely that some names were used that are not mentioned. • HOW OLD WERE CHRIST’S DISCIPLES? 7

So much absence from home would given in recognized schoob of high have been difficult for those having grade. families to support, unless they were ' Is it thought unlikely that persons in fairly easy circumstances. We know under twenty years of age would be that some of the disciples belonged to given the responsibility of going out families having boats, nets, and hired to instruct others? Those who have servants, so that, if parents were ready knowledge of the opening of missionary to do without their help and to make work in non-Christian lands are not other necessary sacrifices in order that likely to be troubled by such doubts, their sons might be educated, it would for the first converts and the first be p>ossible for the latter to leave preachers to their own countrymen home. If all of the Twelve or if are likely to be very young persons. all of the Seventy were adults having Such are more ready than the older wives and children, the probability ones to listen to new doctrines and are that so many persons could take up the likely to be the most enthusiastic in wandering life is lessened. Even where canying the message to others. Among life is comparatively simple, men cannot the earliest converts in Japan were some fulfil their duties to those dependent students who had been led by an Ameri¬ on them unless they are diligent in can teacher to study the Bible and had business. Though circumstances might thus become the objects of severe justify a few individuals in absence persecution. In 1876 thirty-five of them from home, is it likely that Christ drew up a paper in which they pledged would call so many adults away from themselves “to enlighten the darkness their families? Youths in their teens of the empire of Japan by preaching would find it easier to leave home, as the gospel, even at the sacrifice of life.” did those that came from distant villages Some of them were cast out from to the “district schools” of which the their homes and formed the first class Jewish Encyclopedia speaks. of the first school that was organized Acts 4:13, in which rulers, elders, to train men for the Christian mims- scribes, and priests are said to have try. While still in that school they perceived that Peter and John were engaged in evangeUstic work and laid “unlearned and ignorant men,” must the foimdations of what are now strong be allowed to have some weight as an Kiuniai (Congregational) churches. argument against the supposition that Three of these men are today among these disciples had such an education the most prominent Christian workers as we have described; but, just as the in Japan. The^ names of these three graduates of old and famous universities and of five others of the band are are inclined to sneer at those who have given in Who's Who in Japan. The been educated in less noted institu¬ dates of birth for seven of these are tions, the wise men of the capital given, showing that at the time of would be likely to regard with • con¬ signing the pledge one of them was nine¬ tempt the learning of those whose teen years old, two were eighteen, and education was so different from that the others were, respectively, seventeen. 8 THE BIBUCAL WORLD sixteen, fifteen, and thirteen years old. authorship of the writings bearing his All who signed were under twenty years name will at once think of him as such of age and some were not over twelve. a religious genius who might well for Even if it is thought unlikely that that reason be attracted to Jesus. the disciples regarded Christ somewhat Let us now examine a few biblical in the light of a school teacher, the pass£^es that possibly indicate youth instances that have just been cited on the part of some of the disciples. and others to be found in the history In the chapter where Matthew tells of religion show how probable it is of the appointment of the Twelve he that comparatively young people would also gives Christ’s words: “Whosoever be the ones most readily attracted to shall give to drink unto one of these him as a religious reformer or as a little ones a cup of cold water only in proclaimer of new doctrines. It is the name of a disciple, verily I say unto hard for such a person to gain the you he shall in no wise lose his reward ” approval or even the respectful atten¬ (Matt. 10:42). Conunentators seem to tion of those older than himself. It is be puzzled by the words “these little almost certain that the first adherents ones.” Some think there is an allusion will be yoimger than he is. As Christ to the future low and despised condition began his public ministry when thirty of the disciples; others, that the allusion years of age, his early followers would is to their littleness in the eyes of the probably be some years younger. world. Alford thinks that some chil¬ dren may have been present. Mark, in however, makes the words refer to the Another consideration may have a disciples, “Whosoever shall give you little weight. As constantly exemplified a cup of water to drink because ye are in the history of the church, a large Christ’s,” and adds the verse beginning, proportion of religious geniuses are “And whosoever shall cause one of these men who as children were precocious little ones that believe on me to stumble” and early manifested a special interest (Mark 9:41, 42). May it be that, as in religion: Melancthon, Calvin, Wesley, often happens in a school, there were two Jonathan Edwards—the list might be or three pupils considerably younger greatly extended with the names of than the others so that Jesus might religious leaders who were intellectually speak of them much as we do of “the and religiously precocious. If any of little bojrs”? If so, our fancy might those just mentioned had been boys p>aint the scene somewhat as follows: living in Capernaum nineteen centuries Jesus, as he is speaking to a group of ago, would they not have been among youths, throws his arms about two of the most eager to receive Christ’s them, lads perhaps thirteen or fourteen instruction, and would he have re¬ years old, as he says in familiar, affec¬ jected them? It is certainly not im¬ tionate, half-playful words what might possible that among the youths actually be paraphrased in our English collo¬ living in Galilee were some like these. quial language as, “If anybody gives Those who hold to the disciple John’s even a drink of water to one of you little HOW OLD WERE CHRISTS DISCIPLES? 9 fellows because you are my pupils, his literally? Then the title “Little James” kindness will be rewarded; but if any- would remind us of the way in which body trips up one of these little chaps, Jesus spoke of some of his disciples as it would be better for that man if “little ones.” somebody had himg a millstone to his Another saying of Christ may be neck and flung him into the sea.” worthy of study in this connection: But who, according to this view, “ I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven would be the little ones of the company ? and earth, that thou didst hide these Tradition has always considered John things from the wise and understand- one of the youngest of the Twelve, ing, and didst reveal them unto babes” Some of the church fathers speak of his (Matt. 11:25; Luke 10:21). The refer- comjMirative youth, and even the word ence seems to be either to the Twelve or, “boy” (^Mcr) is used of him.* His name as favored by the context in Luke, to usually comes after that of James, the Seventy. The expression was prob- implying that he was the younger of ably influenced by remembrance of the brothers. The frequent use of the Ps. 8:2, “Out of the mouths of babes phrase “ sons of Zebedee ” may possibly and sucklings thou hast perfected praise” (though we should not give much — a passage which Jesus quoted directly weight to the suggestion) be much like when the children (certainly beyond the way in which we speak of two literal babyhood) praised him in the brothers as “the Smith boys” or “the temple (Matt. 21:16). There was h3q)er- Brown bo)^”— designations that some- bole then in such use of the words, and times continue to be applied to adults there was here in Jesus’ speaking of by those who had known them in early any of his disciples as babes; but the life, but are more likely to be used only term seems ludicrously inappropriate while the persons are still young. if applied by a man little over thirty There is another disciple to whom is years of age to the bald-headed veterans applied the very same Greek adjective by whom the artists would surround that we have in the passage about him, but not so inappropriate if some of “the little ones.” Many commentators the group were not far along in their think that James the Less (Mark 15:40) teens. was so called as being small of stature. In John 13:33 Jesus addresses the This in itself might be because of disciples as “little children.” The same youth. Others prefer the rendering term is used for those to whom the “James the Yoimger,” supposing the First Epistle of John was addressed, comparison to be with James the son most of whom were probably adults; of Zebedee. This would probably make but, if as generally supposed, the writer him about the same age as John. Since, was an aged man, he might well use however, the Greek adjective is not in it for those who were nearly all much the comparative degree of comparison, younger than himself. It seems less why should we not translate more appropriate for Jesus to use it if speaking * Farrar in The Early Days of Christianity, II, in, gives as references Paulin. Nol. Ep. 51; Ambros. Ofic. ii. vs, $101; Aug. Contra. Faust, xxx. 4; Jer. Adv. Jovin. i. 36. 10 THE BIBLICAL WORLD to persons nearly or quite as old as him¬ if the sisters were adult women. Though self. the same verb is used of Christ’s feelings Another verse to be considered is toward all of the disciples, may we not John 21:5, where Jesus using the word think that where it is used with special «tu8ta called to his disciples in the emphasb concerning the one who leaned boat, asking, “Children, have ye aught on his breast at the Last Supper it has to eat?” If we again use familiar reference to that peculiar kind of language, it is as though Jesus called affection that is more likely to be called out in a cheery way, “Boys, have you out by a young person than by an adult ? caught any fish yet?” Here again we The important point, however, in con¬ find an expression that seems more nection with our present subject is appropriate if addressed to persons that, as Jesus was so attracted toward younger than the speaker. the young, they must have been strongly Jesus loved the young. He took attracted to him, and it would have been the children in his arms. He placed a strange if among those most earnest to child before those who asked who would receive his teaching there were not some be greatest in the coming Kingdom. as young as those who in modern mis¬ He welcomed the praise of children in sion fields are likely to be among the the temple. He loved the rich young earliest to become his followers. man. Do we not find another marked What was just said about Martha’s instance in his friendship for the family complaint being such as was more likely in Bethany? If Lazarus was married, to come from a young girl may lead us it is strange that his wife does not to ask whether in what is recorded about appear in the narrative, and we get the the acts of the Twelve there is anything impression that the sisters had no suggestive of youth. We will not press husbands. It would, however, be un¬ the points that it was very boylike to usual (imless it was because of leprosy forget to take bread when going out on in the family) for so many in one house¬ the lake, and that young people would hold to remain single after reaching the be more likely than older ones to have usual age for marriage, which we have an open quarrel over seats at the table, seen to be seventeen or eighteen years adults, while as eager to have the best in the case of men and therefore younger place, being more likely to seek it in in that of women. Should we not think ways not making such an evident dis¬ of the sisters as girls under fifteen years play of selfishness. Perhaps we should of age? A young girl would be more not make much of their fright when the likely than an adult to make such a squall burst on their boat as they complaint to a visitor as Martha did crossed the Sea of Galilee. Dr. George about her sister. When we read that Matheson, marveling at their abject Jesus loved Mary, Martha, and Lazarus, trepidation, sa)fs: “Fancy a company we see another example of the affection¬ of English sailors overtaken by a sudden ate delight that he took in the young. gale and giving vent to their feelings This could be vrithout the restraint that in a simultaneous shriek of terror— Jewish sentiment would have imposed ‘Save us, we perish!’” and he says that HOW OLD WERE CHRIST’S DISCIPLES? . 11 this fancy “explains the mystery, for mother the blame for presenting such these men are not English.”^ That a request. If so, the attempt to clear explanation may be pleasing to British the disciples was not very successful; pride; but, apart from the fact that not few readers have seen the brothers in a all of the company were sailors, may better light, for they are represented not the youthfulness of even the fisher- as falling in with their mother’s desire bo3rs have made them more timid than and as bringing upon themselves the older persons would have been ? indignation of the other disciples. Even There is one scene that seems more if the clause is interpolated, it is of natural if the sons of Zebedee were early date, and the one who inserted it young. In Mark’s Gospel we read that shows that his thoughts of the two they came to Jesus asking to be given brothers, whether received by tradition places on his right hand and left at the or otherwise, were of persons so young time of his glory (Mark 10:35); that it would not seem uimatural for Matthew writes that their mother came their mother to take the lead in seeking with them and acted as their spokesman official positions for them. (Matt. 20:20). It does not seem likely A painter then could find some rea¬ that adult office-seekers would go with sons to justify a picture of the “Calling their mother to ask appointment and of the Twelve’’ different from those then put her forward to do the talking that we are accustomed to see. As we for them. How much more natural is imagine it, Peter is the eldest of the it to think of the mother as going with group about Christ and is evidently two lads for whoM she has high ambi¬ taking a prominent place in it, as the tions. If it is objected that she could oldest pupil in a school is very likely not expect boys to hold high office, to do. He and Matthew are portrayed it may be replied that we do not know as being nearly of the same age, but just what the desired positions were,* each of them considerably younger than that Salome could hardly suppose that their Teacher — nearer twenty than the Kingdom would be established imtil twenty-five. With them are several some time had elapsed, and that the persons of about the usual age of stu¬ mother of precocious children is likely dents in the “district schools” of that to have exaggerated opinions of their time — that is, not far from sixteen or capability. Some critics think that the seventeen — while still younger (how addition in Matthew’s Gospel to what much younger shall we in defiance of is contained in Mark’s was made from our earlier conceptions venture to por¬ a desire to protect the reputation of tray them ?) are John and Little James. James and John by transferring to the They are a band of students eager to

‘ Representative Men of the New Testament, p. 95. * Is it possible that the places sought were those of cup-bearers or something similar? Such an office would seem appropriate for youths, but it was one that in some courts was held as very honorable. Xenophon in the Cyropaedia (i. 38) tells us that it was sometimes required of a cup¬ bearer that he should taste of the cup before presenting it. “Are ye able to drink the cup that I am about to drink ?” 12 THE BIBUCAL WORLD receive instruction from the wonderful Jews, indeed, they might as rabbis Teacher who has aroused their enthu¬ continue to cany on their former siasm and won their hearts. They are trades. The Jewish Encyclopedia (s.v. rejoicing because out of the many who “Rabbi”) mentions a laundryman, a for a while had been attracted to Jesus shoemaker, a water-carrier, a sandal- they have been chosen as the ones to maker, and other men of similar trades receive further instruction and to be who were noted rabbis. It says that intrusted with the work of carrying the elder Hillel once worked as a wood- his words to others. If such a portrayal chopper. In such a school as we have of this scene could be proved correct, pictiured, the intellectual powers of those our mental pictures of other incidents Galilean youths would be quickened, and our thoughts concerning their signifi¬ their thoughts refined, and their desire cance would be affected. for self-improvement so stimulated that In connection with this subject we the fact of their having been fisher- may be led to ask whether there has boys need not make it incredible that not sometimes been expressed too much they should become intellectually fitted wonder that the responsibility for laying to move men’s hearts by their eloquence, the foundations of the Christian church to convince men by their arguments, was committed to a band of obscure and to have a part in the production of men whose most prominent members the world’s greatest literature either by were “rude and unlettered fishermen.” direct authorship or by transmbsion It may be a mistake to suppose that to others of what they had received the occupation of the families from from their Teacher. which they came necessarily implied Many Christian minbters believe low standards of life and thought. that work for the young b that which However that may be, we know that b most likely to give abiding results from humble homes and lowly occupa¬ and those that are far-reaching in tions there have often come youths their influence. In this belief do they eager for an education who in spite of not have the same mind that was shown early disadvantages have attained a by Jesus when he chose, the persons high degree of culture. Among the who were to be hb chief disciples? IS FEAR ESSENTIAL TO WELL-BEING?

FREDERICA BEARD Boston, Massachusetts

In this article Miss Beakd writes upon a subject which is immensely practical, but about which we do not often seriously think. Pear involves fundamental questions in education as well as in the upbringing of children. It is certainly interesting to notice that the more we study rdigjon psychologically the more we see it is grounded in the very nature of man.

A strange contradiction on this ques¬ tional influence on the generation of tion presents itself today in the world young people about him—an influence of thought. On the one hand, the of which none can say, “I leave that most prominent of the modem cults to the pedagogues.” hold as their creed that fear is a destruc¬ Looked at from one point of view, tive tendency, an error from which fear is seen as a disabling force, paralyz¬ human nature must be freed. A fimda- ing body and mind. A person under mental tenet of their faith is the possible its control is found cringing, trembling elimination of fear from the spirit of —a physical wreck for' the time being. man. The Holy Scriptures of the Seen in moral relations, fear calls forth Christian faith are found to verify from others the exclamation, *‘a coward.” this assertion, until Christians of many And there is nothing that a man despises denominations believe that they have more than a coward. From another failed to emphasize and to utilize this point of view, a mental picture rises apparent truth and possibility. When of a man without fear. It is hardly a comparison is made between the possible to imagine such a one—a religious training of a century ago and person in whom there is ru) fear, abso¬ that of today, an observer finds the lutely none. Let the imagination go element of fear now generally buried. as far as it will, and there comes an He finds also a note of satisfaction image of carelessness, recklessness, dare- expressed as to its decease. deviltry, without reverence for man or On the other hand is heard the voice God. of science. Seeing man as he is, observ¬ The question returns: Is fear bene¬ ing him as he has been through the ages, ficial or harmful ? Is it to be banished science puts forward an interrogation or conserved ? Banish it, and what will p>oint. And the seeker after truth must be the result? Conserve it, and what raise the question: Is fear essential will be the outcome ? Answers to or harmful to well-being? He must these considerations depend in part on search for an answer that shall be a the answer to another, namely: What guide to him in his own development, is fear ? Inunediately there come men¬ and that shall be an aid to his educa¬ tal visions of timidity, fright, terror,

13 14 THE BIBLICAL WORLD awe, respect, reverence, but not one of proved a conserving, rather than a de¬ these is unmixed fear, for, while no structive, force, for it developed both one will deny that fear is an element of care and prudence. “Primitive man all, each is very different from the feared greatly because he held to life tena¬ others. ciously; in the firmness of that grip lay Fear is an instinct primary in time hidden the germ of his future mastery.” and universality; its bases form p>art Fear led man to struggle. And by way of the constitution of both animals and of struggle a larger life is always ob¬ men; it is an emotion rooted in the tained. Thus the suggestion of fear very fiber of the race. That fear is becomes a motive power. This is said original in each individual and is not to be a low motive, and undoubtedly simply acquired through reason or it is low in some relations and under through learning from others has been some conditions. But, if fear pushed too well experienced from early child¬ forward primitive man to struggle, it hood to need illustration. This fact was worth while. It is evident that must be reckoned with, for it raises a fear of a power outside of that of the “why?” as to the presence of fear. visible group led to efforts at control. It indicates that sometime, somewhere, At first control was sought over environ¬ fear had its good; for modem science ment. As man gained this control has generally made certain that every more and more, appreciation of unseen persistent trait in every living creature forces increased, and awesomeness, is, or has been, of service to the race rooted in fear of mighty personalities, to which that creature belongs. But followed. Thus it was that fear was the fact that fear has always existed one of the chief origins of worship. cannot prove it a necessity to human A desire to ward off evil, to gain pro¬ good under present conditions. Nature tection and prosperity for the sustaining is not an equivalent of good. The of life, led to the early ceremonials. original characteristics of the savage Later, as the god-idea developed, offer¬ are not all desirable for today; the ings to appease and placate anger acquisitions of the ages are not all to became customary. The fear of the be conserved. Nature, in the God- gods and the fear of man implanted given sense, is a progressive develop¬ the beginnings of a moral sense. Dis¬ ment, and, if once a tendency was tinctions were first made as a human needed, it may not still be needed. being found advantage or disadvantage In deciding, however, whether fear to himself through certain actions; has any value today, it will be worth then he feared the disapproval of the while to note its service in the past. unseen spirit, or the retaliation of his A study of primitive man shows fellow-man, and a right and a wrong the so-called “repelling emotions” to were established in his consciousness be protective. Fear tended to self- by consequences known os imagined. preservation; without it man in his So, also, man was held back from yield¬ ignorance would have been overcome. ing to all his desires for fear of impend¬ It served as a defensive impulse and ing evil from some mighty Being, and IS FEAR ESSENTIAL TO WELL-BEING? 15 it is of no importance in this connection forces, he does not need to fear them. whether the motive was low or high, On the other hand, it is a witless child so long as self-control was bom. Again, who is afraid of nothing. Experience man’s fear was “the cohesive force teaches fear: “A burnt child dreads which bound him to his fellows. If the fire”; an electrician fears “a live our ancestors had been able to paddle wire” more than a child who knows each his own canoe, we should never nothing of the current. “Educated have gotten past the canoe stage—if men fear only what is worthy of fear; indeed so far. Fears have driven him they fear many things that lower to his own kind for aid and comfort. minds do not, and do not fear many Human weakness and human fear bred things they do.”* It would seem that the group life.” Solitude favors timid¬ civilization still requires fear to act ity. In fact, it has been said that the as a balance-wheel for the preservation social natme of children is little more of life. In the words of M. Richet, of than the reverse side of their timidity. the Academy of Medicine, “Fear‘is, Careful investigation shows, there¬ en demiire analyse, a protection against fore, that in the early days fear was death.” A mother of little education of value (i) for the preservation of life; but of much practical sense was heard (2) for a progressive, enlarging life; to say of her three-year-old boy, “I (3) in the development of care and wise was glad he was a bit afraid, because caution; (4) in the development of a he will learn to be careful that way.” God-consciousness through worship; (5) And even the founder of Christian in the development of moral sense and Science has said, “ Children, like adults, control. ought to fear a reality which can harm Is fear needed for the same ends them and which they do not understand; today? The race has not progressed for at any moment they may become so far, nor any individual belonging to its helpless victims.”* it, as for these ends to be no longer To our way of thinking, a contra¬ sought. But should fear, considering diction to this statement appears in its often baneful effects, be set aside the words, “To fear sin is to misunder¬ and these results be otherwise obtained ? stand the power of Love.” For “sin,” Self-preservation does not depend on bearing a name, must be a “reality”; the safeguard of fear as it once did. sumamed “error,” it is still found to Ignorance and superstition, which grows be weakening, consequently it must be from ignorance, were, and are, the harmful. If a “reality which can harm causes of fear—one might say, the ought to be feared,” then it would seem necessity to some extent of its being. that sin, being harmful in its effects, Man’s increase of knowledge tends should be feared. The growth of the toward the preservation of life. With moral sense in a young child, leading a better understanding of things, and him to discriminate between right and with the power to control natural wrong, involves, on the one hand, desire

* H. M. Stanley, Evoluiionary Psychology of Peking, p. 106. * Mary Baker Eddy, Science and Health, p. 398. 16 THE BIBLICAL WORLD for approbation and, on the other, fear differentiation of fear is awe, and the of disapprobation or of any unpleasant highest, most refined development of consequence that may follow an act. awe is in the feeling of the sublime. As this fear holds him back from what . . . . A consdousness which has had no is considered wrong by his social group, common fear stage could never arrive his standard of right grows, and the at awe.”* inner “ought” and “ought not” have James Leuba points out that “the increasing influence over him. It would striking development of religious life be hard to And today an advocate for is the gradual substitution of love for the fear of Deity in the development of feai’ in worship.”* But he says also: a God-consciousness to the extent com¬ “Love has not only cast out fear, but mon to children of a century ago, but also reverence, veneration, and re¬ it is a question whether all omission of spect.”* In the progressive develop¬ fear in the representation of the God- ment of moral life pictured in the Bible, idea has not led to an irreverence of “fear is the beginning of wisdom,” both the divine and the human. “We veneration for the majesty of God as have lost the fear of hell and have not seen in the Old Testament reaches its yet attained the deeper fear that attends climax in the reverence and love of the contemplation of the beauty of the Christ for the Father in the New holiness.” The first conception should Testament. Another and more direct be undoubtedly of a fatherhood of relation between fear and love is sug¬ love, but the highest ideal of a father gested through the interplay of these includes an element that is to be rever¬ two emotions. In the highest emo¬ enced as well as loved, and the greatness tions of love there is an accompanying of his power and the grandeur of his element of fear. The yoimg man who might may well bring an awesomeness is courting is controlled by a mingling at the age when a boy needs most a of both. Fear seems the necessary, recognition of law personified. “Per¬ though painful, stimulus to love, for fect love casteth out fear,” we are told, through its very overcoming love gains but, with an emphasis on “perfect,” in force and energy. an evolutionary process is suggested. In a discussion by men of science a It is only in the attainment of perfection few years since, M. Femande Mazade that fear can be set aside. The more raised the question: “Is there a differ¬ careful the analysis, the more true it ence between fear and fear?” Differ¬ seems that in any and all life fear is a entiation is needed as fear is seen in preliminary essential to a development various manifestations. In itself it is of awe, reverence and admiration, and a “simple” emotion, irreducible by without these there can be no perfect analysis to any other emotion; as such love. To quote ^ain from H. M. it may issue to a higher good, or it Stanley: “The latest and culminating may be the beginning of what is alto- > Op. cit., pp. 119,120. * “Fear and Awe in Religion,” American Journal of Religious Psychology, II, 15. * Psychological Origin and Nature of Religion. IS FEAR ESSENTIAL TO WELL-BEING? 17 gether bad. “The function of many it may be transmuted into something an impulse is to stimulate the next better which without it could never be; higher f>ower that can only thus be pro¬ that fear is modifiable, so that it shall voked to development, in order to direct, prove a strength rather than a weakness repress, or supersede it” (Stanley Hall). in the development of human character. Self-respect necessitates a fear of Speaking of original tendencies of this the unclean; when that is gone, respect type, Edward L. Thorndike says: “The is gone. Without fear valor would be problem of whether to cherish the impossible, but in every act of valor tendency as it is, to inhibit it altogether, fear is overcome. “A coward is he,” or to modify it in part, and in the last said General Ney, “who boasts that case the problem of just what modifica¬ he never was afraid.” Grenfell, noted tion to make, may occasionally be for his heroic Labrador work, has solved easily, but oftener demand elab¬ pointed out that a hero is not one who orate study, rare freedom from super¬ is unafraid, but he who, being afraid, stition, and both care and insight in goes forward. Ribot, the French psy¬ balancing goods.” chologist of note, says: “In many As regards this emotion, the great persons the absence of fear only amounts task of education is to control it, that to the absence of imagination.” it may issue in the right direction. With the foregoing considerations “The pedagogical problem is not to as a basis for action, will the questions eliminate fear, but to gauge it to the follow: Shall fear in a child be encour¬ power of proper reaction ”(Hall).* Science aged and cultivated ? Shall it be and religion both are seeking the bal¬ approved and emphasized in adult life ? ance of Aristotle’s “How to fear aright.” No great observation will be required They have not advanced beyond his for a negative answer. Fear has a mean of the brave between the coward tendency to function to excess. It and the rash. “There are things which needs control and direction. As touching to fear is right and noble and not to childhood, the strong words of Angelo fear is base.He is brave then Moss need to be heeded: “Every who withstands, and fears, and is bold ugly thing told to the child (to excite in respect of right objects, from a right fear), every shock, every fright, will motive, in right manner, and at right remain, like minute splinters in the times.”* flesh, to torture him all his life long.” The climax of the thought comes in A man or woman full of fears is a con¬ the words of a later thinker: “No man stant creator of unhappiness. That can choose not to fear. He can choose this emqtion under some conditions is only between two fears—a fear which a dangerous tendency needs no emphasis. is the way of death, and a fear which is The final worth of such a study as a hero’s gateway through a thousand the present is to emphasize that fear deaths unto life.” has its good; that it is educable; that Non timeo timeie.

* “A Study of Fears,” American Journal of Psychology, VIII, 2. * Ethics, p. 82. RIVAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY

V. EVANGELICISM OR MODERNIZED PROTESTANT CHRISTIANITY

GEORGE CROSS, PH.D. Professor of Systematic Theology in Rochester Theological Scl inary, Rochester, New York

The term “evangelicism” is here used tion of the “wars of religion” and the to designate the character of a develop¬ reaction against intolerance and violence, ment of the Christian religion which is there ensued a period of indifference distinctly modem, but which has roots and general skepticism lasting about a reaching far back into the past. It is century more. Notwithstanding the not meant thereby that a new religious fact that there were fertile oases here denomination has arisen or that even and there amid the general dearth, a new school of thought deserves a name religious faith suffered from widespread for itself. We do not seem to be suf¬ sterility. Then, suddenly and unex¬ fering particularly from a dearth of pectedly, there came a change. The organizations or new theories. But principal factors contributing to it are recent times have witnessed the emer¬ worthy of special mention. gence of a new typ)e of Christian life and First in the order of merit is the thought which seems to be so charged eighteenth-century religious revival in with a message of good to the world America and Britain. There were many that a term which carries with it the faithful men who labored in quiet and idea of loyalty to such a message may obscurity to keep the smoldering fire of be fitly applied to it. The aim of the faith from going out in those trying present article is to trace the influences days when men were shaking themselves formative of it and to indicate its main clear of the external forms of ritual or features. order or doctrine which earlier ages had supposed to be necessary to salvation. I. Some Conetraotive Religion* To them must be traced the revival of Foroee in Modern the consciousness of an indisputable Chrietianity jjersonal participation in the higher Theperiodof the ecclesiastico-political moral and religious life apart from out¬ revolution we call the Protestant Ref¬ ward forms, but it was not until men ormation virtually came to a close like Jonathan Edwards, George White- with the execution of ELing Charles the field, and John Wesley brought to it the First of England and the signing of the needed zeal, intelligence, and skill united Peace of Westphalia about two himdred that it burst into a fiery flame. There and seventy years ago. With the cessa¬ came an outbreak of religious feeling

i RIVAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY 19 that defied the intellectual canons of present life and was not to be postponed rationalism and of orthodoxy alike and to the day of the soul’s separation from swept on through the whole Anglo- the body. This is probably the import Saxon world with irresistible force. As of John Wesley’s doctrine of Christian all great revivals, it gained its first perfection or perfect love in this life. impetus by winning the hearts of the The Christian salvation was to be a working-people, the poor, the neglected, present reality, the conscious possession and the defeated, but, despite scoffing of an enlightened heart. and ridicule, it gradually conquered the The spirit of philanthropy was quick¬ resf)ect of the prosperous and intelligent. ened and broadened. The great public Instead of wasting away in emotional¬ wrongs xmder which men were suffering ism, the revival, under the statesman¬ began to call loudly for remedy. John like leadership of Wesley and his faithful Howard’s crusade on behalf of the coadjutors in various commimions, kept prisoners in the jails of Europe, efforts adding to its initial impulse and became for the improvement of the criminal law a permanent force of great importance in the direction of equity and humanity in modem Protestantism. Since those in penalties, the extinction of the slave earlier days of revivalism there have trade, intervention on behalf of the been considerable intervals of dearth, “factory hands,” the fight against the and sometimes it has degenerated into evils of strong drink, were all in part selfish professionalism or hypocritical fruits of the revival. Notwithstanding sentimentalism, but the yearning for the the emphasis placed on the hope of conversion of men from their sins and heaven, men were evidently learning the effort to better their whole condition the worth of the earthly life as the sphere by the ministries of religion continue for the realization of the heavenly. A unabated. Protestant principle that had been half The revival was characterized by the forgotten in the controversies and per¬ union of deep feeling with moral resolu¬ secutions of earlier days was coming to tion. There was a return of Puritanism vigorous renewal, namely, the unspeak¬ on its moral side. The danger of able worth of the man. fanaticism was balanced by the insist¬ The progress of the revival was ence on inner and outer purity of life. sustained throughout by the conviction For the “judicial righteousness” of that religion has its home in the soul of earlier Calvinism was substituted the the individual. Its value and its truth actual righteousness of positive personal are self-attesting, for God speaks to man goodness. If the preachers in their directly. This was but a renewal of denunciation of sins condemned some¬ the Protestant view expressed in the oft- times the innocent with the guilty, they quoted affirmation of Calvin that the succeeded at least in rousing the con¬ truth of God’s word was certified to men sciences of men to action and doomed by “ the secret testimony of the Spirit.” to death the antinomianism that had Only it was universalized. Every man been eating out the heart of orthodoxy. was competent to enjoy this immediate Personal purity was a demand for the certainty. The center of gravity in 20 THE BIBLICAL WORLD religion was shifted from objective facts, Ekiually significant of the new freedom doctrines, or rites, to the inner life— was the spontaneous outburst of Chris¬ faith. Experience is the ultimate fact tian song. The Christian church has in the life of religion. Men who had reason to be proud of its hynmody in “the witness of the Spirit” that they almost all the periods of its history, were forgiven, renewed, saved, possessed despite much doggerel. There were a basis of certainty that made the noble Protestant hymnists in the days Calvinist doctrines of election and pre¬ preceding the revival. But the ritual destination unnecessary for many people of the Church of England, being stere- and even a stumbling-block to the free ot3rp>ed, was a sedative rather than an personal faith of others. For when the inspiration of religious action, and the common man gains a “heart convic¬ public services of nonconformists and tion” of the favor of God, he becomes Presbyterians both in America and in independent of the artificial supports of Britain were rather barren on the fixed systems of any kind and resents liturgical side. There was even con¬ their interference with his liberty. troversy over the propriety of using The tide of feeling swept over eccle¬ “uninspired” productions in worship. siastical and doctrinal bounds. In the Now all was changed. The new faith long run it mattered little that John was sung into the hearts of the mul¬ Wesley, a faithful priest of the Church of titudes. The era of modem hynmody England, strove to keep his “societies” and religious music was ushered in. within the order established by law. Charles Wesley alone composed over His followers swimg loose and organized six thousand hymns. There were many the various Methodist “churches.” It other sweet singers in those days, mattered little that he and Whitefield, though none so prolific as he. The with their followers, split on issues bulk of these hymns have disappeared, between Calvinists and Arminians. For but many remain as a permanent asset both sides shared alike in the movement of the Christian faith. The religious of grace, and after a time it became plain fruitage remains even after the hymns that the controversies between them perish. Revivals of religion are always were mostly side issues. All existing marked now by the presence of the Protestant bodies shared the blessing, singing evangelist. The new faith is and new denominations of Christians strongly emotional everywhere. The were constantly arising as the movement range of emotions has widened, while spread. Many of these bodies have had the expression is more restrained. The a fairly fabulous growth. Hence, while main point in this connection is that the leaders and their followers professed the emphasis has been shifted from the conservative views, on the whole, in forms of order or of doctrines to the matters of theology, an era of ecclesias¬ feelings, and the theology that would tical and theological freedom was being expwimd the new faith must take cog¬ unconsciously ushered in and a stimulus nizance of the change. given to reconstruction along all lines The reawakening of the spirit of love of life and thought. for all men issued in the birth of the RIVAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY 21 modem Protestant foreign missionary noteworthy. The astounding educa¬ movement. When the far vision of tional advance of modem times is William Carey gave to the churches the directly traceable to religious impulses. inspiration for ambitions and undertak¬ The evangelist is followed by the teacher. ings undreamed of before, the pent-up The missionary becomes an education¬ energies of Protestant religion, hither¬ alist. The great systems of public to confined to narrow bits of territory, schools, high schools, colleges, and comparatively speaking, and barely hold¬ universities, of which modem states are ing its own in the long struggle for so justly proud, have mostly grown up existence, were released from their bonds from the voluntary schools founded by and developed enterprises whose story religious men and maintained by private reads like a fairy tale, so wonderful was funds in pursuance of the purpose to their success. Christianity has truly promote the spiritual good of the yoimg. become a world-religion. Its frontiers Although it may be tme that in many are now in every land. The work was cases the original founders of these urged at first as a means of universally schools were seeking particularly to rescuing men from guilt and condem¬ guard the yoimg believing mind from nation, but it has now become an the assaults of a secularized intellect, attempt to build the Christian faith into nevertheless the evidence remains clear the social, industrial, and civil fabric that to the modem Protestant the of the life of the peoples. The variety religious life cannot be tmly fostered and magnitude of the labors involved, except by the increase of intelligence. the new acquaintance with the multi¬ Moreover, in addition to the schools of tudinous faiths of mankind, the neces¬ Christendom there is the tremendous sity of interpreting the Christian faith educational influence of the press. The in the presence of these faiths, the unlimited circulation of newspapers and inevitable co-operation of Christians periodicals of all kinds and the prodigious who in the homeland belonged to rival output of books, taken in conjunction churches, and the association of the with the free intermingling of millions missionary with the work of the states¬ of men by means of wide travel and the man and the man of commerce have use of the telegraph and telephone, have produced a reaction upon the quality produced a sense of the dignity and of the religious life of the churches at power of the human spirit and a con¬ home and have forced upon them the sciousness of human solidarity scarcely task of reinterpreting their faith to dreamed of before. The religious life themselves. A new consciousness of the of such a people must be vastly dif¬ inherent universality of the Christian ferent in its content and utterance from faith and a new sense of the reality of the any earlier tyj>e. There is a modernized inner communion of all Christians are Protestant Christianity. The modem among the beneficent results. The doc¬ evangel has obtained a wider range of trinal outcome will be referred to later. appeal and an increase of power to The increase of general intelligence impress its convictions on men. It has in Protestant Christendom is equally appropriated the language of modem 22 THE BIBLICAL WORLD culture and has gained a broader out¬ Whitefield. Beginning in the eighteenth look. All the pursuits of intelligence century and continuing through the are now reckoned within the pale of nineteenth, there was an economic the religious life. Christians are con¬ awakening like that which occurred scious of a larger vocation. In order when mediaeval Europ>e was roused from that this vocation may be fulfilled a her intellectual sloth, her moral coarse¬ reinterpretation of Christianity is ness, and her religious passivity. Only demanded. the new change was on a tremendous scale. Mechanical invention has pro¬ 2. Some Secular Foroea Gontribntina duced a revolution in nearly all human to the Formation of a New Type industries. Production, manufacture, of Christianity and transportation proceed on a scale It is not to be supposed for a moment imjwssible to imagine one hundred and that the religious life of our times takes fifty years ago. The factory and not its character wholly from those influ¬ the home is now the seat of industry. ences which are ordinarily acknowledged The town has been robbing the country as religious. For the religious life of of its jjeasantry. New vast centers of any jjeople at any i)eriod of time is population have been created. Cities constituted by the whole complex of number their inhabitants by the hun¬ forces which, in their unity, go to make dreds of thousands and by the millions. up the character of the people in ques¬ New sources of wealth have been sought tion. Everything about them heads up out and forces long concealed from in their religion. This is seen particu¬ human ken have been recruited for larly in Protestant life. For Protestant¬ man’s service. Lands far separated ism, by breaking away from the ideals geographically have realized a close of the cloister and sallying forth to the community of interest. Railroads have task of mastering and sanctifying the made them neighbors. Great ships of natural, exp>osed itself from the very high sp)eed in ever-growing numbers first to the molding influence of industry plow the seas. The production of and trade as well as to the currents of wealth has become fabulous, and its social and political life. exchange is now so complicated that It is surely a significant thing that only the few understand its processes. the intensification and expansion of the Geographical boundaries and national religious life of Protestantism in the distinctions have been mostly overcome last century and a half is fairly paralleled for the purposes of trade. Steam, steel, by a similar growth in the production and electricity have belted far-separated and exchange of material wealth. The communities together as one vast indus¬ spirit of enterprise inherent in Prot¬ trial body. The problems of adjustment estantism, which had suffered a check which, in consequence, confront the through the internal strifes of Europe, economist, the statesman, and the reawoke at the very time when “the moralist are simply appalling. Not less Spirit of the Lord began to move serious are the problems which confront mightily” upon John Wesley and George the religious thinker, as we shall see. RIVAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY 23

Be it noted that the Protestant inward acts, we detect the inner harmony nations have been the leaders in these between Protestant industrialism and enterprises. Where Protestant religion Protestant religion. We shall see, how¬ enters, there too comes material pros¬ ever, that neither is an instance of pure perity and comfort. It is surely a far individualism. cry from the natural poverty of the Far more significant than the mere primitive Christian and his longing for creation and accumulation of wealth the Lord’s return, as well as from the or the new distribution and grouping of voluntary poverty of the mediaeval population, with the accompanying saint and his longing for heaven, to the social changes, is the manner (alluded acquisition of incalculable wealth by to above) in which the activities and modem Protestant Christians and their interests of all the peoples concerned devotion of it to the enterprises of have become interlocked. An economic religious faith. There seems to be a disturbance in one quarter of the world natural association between Protestant is rapidly transmitted to almost every religion and Protestant industry. The part of it. A feeling of economic concurrence of the two revivals in time interdependence pervades the world, and space implies their dep>endence upon overriding hostile tariffs and other a common impulse. Surely some new artificial restrictions. Economic insu¬ sense of freedom, of initiative, of creative larity is becoming a thing of the past. power, had come to men and was mani¬ The industries of the world are more festing its character in the parallel than competitive; they are complemen¬ conquests of things material and things tary. There is an increasing sensitive¬ spiritual. That it was so in the spiritual ness with regard to business happenings realm we have already seen. It was everywhere. The time seems near when the same in the realm of physical indus¬ the many economic kingdoms of the try, we must conclude, if we rely on the world shall become one kingdom. enunciation of its controlling principle Changes in the political realm during by Adam Smith in his famous Wealth the period under review have been of Nations. He says: “The patrimony equally startling, and their bearing on of a poor man lies in the strength and the religious life of men is important. dexterity of his hands, and to hinder him It has been a time of political revolution, from employing this strength and dex¬ partly peaceful and partly violent. In terity in what manner he thinks proper, this the Anglo-Saxon and French peoples without injiuy to his neighbor, is a have been the leaders. The democratic plain violation of this most sacred ^If-affirmation that broke out in the property. It is a manifest encroach¬ American Revolution and culminated in ment upon the just liberty of both the the foimding of the republic of the workman and of those who might be United States was just the revival and disposed to employ him.” If we change reinforcement of the ancient British the reference in these words from man’s contention that the people must be self- outer powers to his inner powers and governing. It reawoke in the mother- the application from external acts to country the conviction of the supreme 24 THE BIBLICAL WORLD

worth of thb principle and the determi¬ century the ancient Manchu dynasty nation to enforce it. The loss of a was overthrown and a republic was p>ortion of the British Empire was fol¬ formed in China. And at the very lowed by a wonderful extension of it in moment of my writing these words there other directions, and with this extension comes the startling news that the of political power went a gradual Romanoff Czar of Russia has been forced extension of democratic self-government by the popular Duma to abdicate, and to more than four hundred millions of that this mysterious country has started people. The revolutionary spirit that on a new career. Other thrones, no wrought successfully in America spread doubt, are soon to crumble. to France and roused that magnificent A profound spiritual significance in though long-suffering people to the these changes is further suggested by consciousness of jjowers and rights that the intimacy of their connection with had smoldered for generations. With the achievements of scientific investiga¬ the watchwords “Liberty, equality, fra¬ tion. Were one to confine his attention ternity” upon their lips the French to the progress of “natural science” people pressed on toward the fondly alone, the effect would be sufiScient. cherished task of bringing all nations The man of science, armed with a to share in their own newly discovered splendid technique, has been recon¬ destiny. The outcome was seen in the quering old realms and conquering turmoils that came to a climax in the realms hitherto unknown. Scientific Najwleonic wars. Though a p>owerful research has been prolific, not only in reaction followed, it was not permanent discovery, but also in the creation of new except in a few quarters. The nineteenth problems for the thinker. Consider a century was pre-eminently revolutionary single pertinent fact in this connection in politics. There were repeated revo¬ —the dependence of modem industrial¬ lutions in France, culminating in the firm ism and modern civil government upon establishment of the republic. Spanish the labors of science. Agriculture, and Portuguese colonies revolted and manufacture, building, and transp>orta- succeeded in forming independent gov¬ tion look for guidance to the scientific ernments, mostly republican. Revolu¬ laboratory where, unseen by the great tion in the Italian (>eninsula issued in a world around him, the explorer of truly national government. A peaceable nature’s secrets makes his discoveries revolution was accomplished in Britain of the dark continents of reality which by the passing of electoral reform bills, others are to exploit for human good. emancipation acts, and the repeal of the In that same quiet chamber also are Com Laws. Minor revolutions occurred being forged implements of government elsewhere. Attempted revolutions in by which the citizens of a nation are Spain, Poland, Prussia, and Russia enabled to live and move together and mostly failed because of the want of the different nations to work out their deep popular conviction or because of fearful problems in alliance or opposi¬ the supremacy of the military power. tion. In the present war the issues are Almost with the turn of the twentieth as much determined by the man who

i RIVAL INTERPRETATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY 25 holds the weapons of scientific experi¬ grooves, he breaks away and pushes on ment as by the soldier who wields the still faster. He cannot perish. There weap>ons which these other weapons have never was such another age of individual¬ made. ism as the present. When the religious thinker contem¬ In the third place, by this very devel¬ plates these recent developments, he is opment of the free individual personality, likely to be impressed with the following: the true universality of man has come In the first place, these different tides to light. The breaking of the old bonds of influence have been synchronous, of union among men has led the way to concurrent, and operative upon the life a higher unity. This is attained by the of about the same peoples. The awak¬ normal unfolding of his ptowers in their ening of the religious consciousness, the unity and not by the method of artificial commitment to new religious and eccle¬ restraint. The consciousness of the siastical enterprise, the uprising of the essential inner unity of all mankind, of Christian intelligence, the growing mas¬ the facts and forces of nature, and of tery of the secrets of nature and the man and nature—even though the control and utilization of her forces for character of this latter unity may be man’s puqwses, the progress of demo¬ indefinable as yet—is gradually forcing cratic revolution in political and civil itself upon the human spirit. Thus by life, the weaving of the web of inter¬ the common progress of men under a national relations from which no civilized guidance, higher, let us believe, than nation can extricate itself—these con¬ the human, a fundamental principle of stitute a great mass movement that seems the Reformation is fimding recognition: to operate in obedience to a new con¬ namely, life is a unit, the separation of sciousness of the meaning of human life the secular activity of man from the and to a new interpretation of its destiny. holy is being annulled, heaven and earth In the second place, there is manifest are coming together, the world in which in all this the power of individual we live is our Father’s house of “many personal initiative. Conventional be¬ mansions.” liefs, social customs, industrial methods, If, therefore, all these various regions political establishments, have all been of human experience belong to one challenged by daring reformers and another and if in their unity they con¬ innovators. The experimenter, the stitute the proper sphere of religion; speculator, the discoverer, the inventor, then, if the Christian faith is to permeate and the creator have done new things, them all with its spirit, if it is destined and the world has been following, some¬ to become the universal faith, this must times “afar off,” and trying to appro¬ be because it reveals the ultimate priate the results. No matter how fast meaning of them aU. A new attempt society seeks to institutionalize and force at an interpretation of its meaning the individual’s activity into regular becomes indispensable to the believer.

[To be concluded] MODERN CREED-BUILDING

W. HARVEY-JELLIE, DR. LET. Montreal, Canada

It has become customary for students merely proposes, and he fails to practice. of church history to speak about the So we arrive at the conclusion that a first four centuries of our era as the age man’s creed, as a matter of fact, con¬ of creed-building. It was the age in tains just what has been made his very which Christian men who had experi¬ own in deep personal conviction— enced the power of divine grace and nothing more, nothing less. Hence no had pondered deeply upon the truths man can really accept a ready-made which had come to them through the creed, no matter how venerable and how early pioneers and preachers of the impressive may be the authorities who evangel brought forth their cherished compiled it. He must build his own conceptions of the Christ and his gospel creed in living experience, line upon into the stormy atmosphere of dialectics. line, until he can say from out of a Their earnest desire was to come sincere heart, *'This is what I believe, to a general agreement regarding the and I believe it because I have found it interpretation of the great Christian true in my own experience and have facts and to find an acceptable verbal discovered that it can si^nd every test expression of the conunon belief. These of heart and intellect.’’/ The debates objects were practically attained at which rent the early church must be Nicaea and at Chalcedon in the greatest fought out again in the heart of the indi¬ of the ecumenical councils. The result vidual believer. Only when the finished was the production of the Creed. As a product of his thought upon the facts general rule, the churches of today hold of the faith harmonizes with the Creed that the Creed then compiled expresses which was produced at Nicaea can a correct interpretation of the faith; he call the Creed his own. Many a and a man is held to be orthodox or time I have been tempted to take the heterodox according to his acceptance words which Tennyson applied to human or rejection of this traditional Christian life and apply them to the intellectual creed. __ content of our belief and say that But (we have all come to recognize creeds are th^ it is quite possible foi{a m^ to be not as idle ore orthodox in head and heterodox in heart. But iron dug from central gloom He^ay profess a complete agreement And heated hot with bummg fears with every article in the Creed and And plimged in baths of hissmg tears And battered with the shocks of doom may at the same time reject every one For shape and use. of them in his practical daily lif^ And in this case what is called the This is what I have found, and I give Creed is not in any sense his own. He my personal experience for what it is MODERN CREED-BUILDING 27 worth, believing that it may prove tion. This early faith is, indeed, a suggestive to many a believer and to simple, beautiful thing. It touches the many a preacher in these days when heart and changes the life and eventually very few of us escape the experience of may fire him who holds it with a hallowed intellectual doubts and difficulties re¬ zeal for the proclamation of the gospel garding the faith. A man’s creed, if it and the quest of souls. It was this simple is to stand the terrible testing to which creed, learned in the home and the class, it will assuredly be subjected in the that appealed to many of us with a twentieth century, must be thrice built. power so resistless that we determined to The present writer has had to build his renounce the prosp>ects of gain and fame creed thrice before he reached his offered by many a secular calling in present crowning conviction of the fact order to devote ourselves to the onerous, that the evangel is in very truth the and sometimes thankless, calling of the power of God, working for salvation. Christian ministry. And we went to Twice has he been compelled to pull our chosen task with something of a down the whole structure and to rebuild, combative assurance in our beliefs stone by stone. But the final product which defied opposition and despised is more of a living, potent reality, more doubt. fraught with ardent thought, more But very soon there came the dis¬ instinct with the vital energy of genuine cipline of a keen intellectual testing. experience, than the beliefs of earlier And this comes to almost every man years. In this he is surely experiencing who becomes acquainted with modem a common experience in the formation thought in modem journalism. But of a creed. it is peculiarly the experience of the We build our creed first of all in the man who plunges into university life or gracious atmosphere of a Christian home who graduates in the classes of a theo¬ or in Sabbath school. With all the logical college. He is compelled to test simplicity of a child’s receptive mind, we his belief in the light of philosophic learn the stories of the Bible and won- thought. He is called upon to examine deringly trace the footsteps of the the arguments of the numerous thinkers Prophet of Nazareth from Bethlehem who have denied the faith and to defend to Calvary. Sometimes strange ques¬ his own position against the champions tionings arise in the mind as to the of unbelief. Every article in his early reason and the justice of these far-off creed has to be tested in the cmcible in acts of God in the dawning days of the laboratory of modem critical revelation. But as a rule we find little thought. The discipline is stem and difficulty in accepting the facts of the often cmel. Very frequently a man gospel and their traditional evangelical finds that, when he has to state the interpretation. What was the belief grounds of his faith in controversial of our mothers and fathers or of some manner, it will not hold, and the whole kindly teacher or revered minister we fabric of his belief comes crashing down accept as a divinely given faith which about him in utter ruin. The despair lies beyond the pale of doubt or rejec¬ of a great disillusioning, the loneliness 28 THE BIBLICAL WORLD

of the heart that has lost its idol, over¬ But the faith which was ours when whelms him, and he can only talk in we quitted the theological hall was not accents of hopeless regret of the “hal¬ to stand without much modification. lowed glory of that faith which once was The next great period of discipline had mine.” This is precisely what many to be faced. It was the stage of the of us have experienced. But it was not practical exp)erience of life. The years the whole experience, or never should brought with them toil and trial beyond we have gone forward to the posi¬ all exp)ectation. Again the preacher tion we hold today in the ministry or has to battle out in p>ersonal exp)eriences in the church. Most probably we the question whether the gosp»el which he found, in course of time, that, though proclaims “works” in everyday life. the superstructure had given way, the He has to meet a baffling providence. foundation held. The Christ of the He is utterly pjerplexed regarding the Gospels was for us the Christ of expe¬ problem of unanswered prayer. He rience. With an unshakable personal discovers that his cherished convictions grasp of Christ as a Savior and cling¬ on many a great truth are untenable in ing tenaciously to the few facts which actual life. If affliction comes to him, we had been able to rescue from the or failure, or pwverty, it may be that general ruin, we set out to rebuild he is plunged into doubts and fears our creed. Little by little it expended which bring him to the verge of infidelity. and grew. Much that we had learned One day he is a Deist, the next an in earlier years had to be discarded; Agnostic, the next a seeker after God; much had to be remodeled; and almost and at best he can utter the prayer every article which was retained from of the man of the Gosp)els who meekly the earlier creed was now supported bore the great Master’s rebuke, crying, by utterly different reasonings and “Lord, I believe .... help thou mine viewed in a vastly more critical light. unbelief.” And as days go on he And so, at the end of this p>eriod of recovers somewhat of his faith. He intellectual testing, we again came forth begins to rebuild his creed on the basis with a creed which we believed was of experience. One by one he adds new cap>able of standing every test of the articles to that creed. Each one repre¬ philosopher and the critic, and which was sents a struggle, an agony in which he calculated to commend itself to modem has p)assed through a veritable Geth- thinking men. It was p>erhap>s a some¬ semane, or a crucifixion which has been what colder, somewhat sterner, creed; his personal Calvary. But in the end but it had gained immeasurably more he jjasses out into the resurrection light, than it had lost, in that it had added and the faith that now is his may be a the clear qualities of thought to the more limited one—stem, clear-cut, and emotional qualities of the heart. definite—but it has the incomparable And we faced our congregations as advantage of bearing in its every article men who, at least, were able to the priceless quality of experience. give a reason for the faith that was This is the creed which will prove a in us. working creed and will win the approval

II I I? jl ST. PAUL’S VIEW OF THE RESURRECTION BODY 29 of men. It will be a happy thing -for fidence, in the critical period of intel¬ the preacher when he grasps the whole lectual inquiry, and in the active period Christian gospel—nay, I had almost of life’s experiences. When he has said the whole Nicaean Creed—with all passed through these stages, there will the united force of heart and intellect be a ring of conviction that wins a and experience. For then assuredly he hearing from the strong and the weak, will become a prince of preachers. But the ambitious and the baffled, the toil¬ the only creed he can ever preach with ing and the tempted, as he utters the lasting and wide results will certainly solemn word credo on vital questions be a creed which he has thrice built— of the soul and its God, of time and in the receptive period of early con¬ eternity.

ST. PAUL’S VIEW OF THE RESUR¬ RECTION BODY (Concluded)

REV. A. E. WHATHAM Trinity Episcopal Church, Louisville, Kentucky

We are now in a position to return to body to which St. Paul is supposed to St. Paul’s idea of the resurrection body, allude in verse i, in his statement touch¬ which includes the body alive at the ing our building of God eternal in the Second Coming, and to say that he heavens. But this building is not a too viewed the resurrection body as separate body, a sort of Ka or “double” the identical former body revived, which the Egyptians believed belonged altered solely in its power to resist to the man equally with his natural, decay, a power which altered merely physical body. It is merely the design the property of the substance of the of a body, similar to the design referred body and not the substance itself. We to in the words, “Thine eyes did see see this in his statement, “Not for that mine unformed substance; and in we would be unclothed, but that we thy book they were all written, even would be clothed upwn, that what is the days that were ordained for me, mortal may be swallowed up of life” when as yet there was none of them” (n Cor. 5:4). (Ps. 139:16). As, therefore, with the Now what is the significance of this present body, which was ever eternal in expression, “clothed upon”? Clothed the mind of God, even so our future upon with what ? Some scholars, push¬ body is similarly eternal in his mind. ing the illustration farther than the That by which we shall therefore be apostle ever meant it to be interpreted, clothed hereafter, according to the have seen here a clothing with a spiritual ap>ostle, is not another body, but a power so THE BIBLICAL WORLD existing by design eternal in the mind of expressed opinion that the change of God, and so said to be in the heavens, the body of humiliation into a body of a power which shall change the property glory takes place at the Second Com¬ of our present material substance that ing (Phil. 3:20, 21), and his equally what is now mortal in it, its property of definitely expressed opinion that he decay, may be swallowed up of life expected to take part in the resurrection (Lias, Cam. Bib., II, 64). of the dead (Phil. 3:11), facts which In view of the explanation, there is cause Dr. Bernard to say of this ap>ostle, no necessity to see with Archbishop “ We therefore conclude that he expects Bernard an expression in II Cor. 5:2, to be with the Lord before the Parousia “our habitation which is from heaven,” in a disembodied state ” {op. cit.). Here “which is not strictly consistent with two imp)ortant p)oints call for considera¬ the resurrection or retention of the tion: (i) what was it that in St. Paul’s former body as in I Cor., chap. 15.” mind constituted the “we” (II Cor. 5:4) Dr. Bernard attempts to modify this crit¬ which he did not wish to be unclothed; icism by asserting that “ the notion of a and (2) where was it that he exp)ected previously prepared body brought to the to be with the Lord in an unclothed soul to be animated by it surely could state ? At the time of our Lord it was not have definitely presented itself to the belief of the majority of both the the apostle’s mind without being at educated and uneducated that at the once discarded.” He fails, however, to death of the body its spirit-replica came explain what he views as an “incon¬ out of the body and went to sheol, the sistency” on the apostle’s part, except place of departed spirits, believed to be “ that it is not more than is allowable in situated under and within the earth. By speaking of a really indescribable event,” some this spirit-replica was regarded as which of course is no explanation practically lifeless and in this state re¬ {op. cit.). When, however, we come to maining in sheol (Isa. 14:10; Ps. 115:17), verse 8 of this chapter, we have an but by others, and evidently the ma¬ undoubted inconsistency in the Apostle’s jority at the time of Christ, it was argument, which Professor Massie de¬ viewed as fully conscious and able to scribes as “a wistful modification rather visit the upper earth (Luke 24:37, 39). than a contradiction of verses 2-4” It was, however, not this spirit-replica {NCB, p. 287). But this “ modification ” to which St. Paul had reference in the amounts to an absolute inconsistency, “we” which he was loath to have un¬ since, whereas in verse 4 St. Paul repre¬ clothed. This “we” can only be the sents that we shall not be unclothed at entire man as we have him constituted the death or dissolution of our present in the term “living soul” (Gen. 2:7) body, in verse 8 he contemplates our where the body constituted part of the existence in an unclothed state when man and so of the “ we.” St. Paul, as “absent from the body and .... at we see (verses i, 4), had no wish to be a home with the Lord.” That we are not dissolved “living soul,” an unsubstan¬ here building merely up>on our imagi¬ tial even if a conscious shadow of this nation we see in St. Paul’s definitely “we.” He therefore assumes that at its ST. PAUL’S VIEW OF THE RESURRECTION BODY 31 dissolution it will, at the same time that to be when leaving the body at death. it is being dissolved, be reconstituted Our Lord intimated that after his death with henceforth a new power by which and before his resurrection he would be it will no longer be subject to dissolution. in paradise (Luke 23:43). St. Paul tells While, however, he is propounding this us that he was caught up into paradise, thought, he mixes it up with another which he defines as “the third heaven” thought which expresses the very idea (II Cor. 12:2, 4), a paradise which evi¬ he did not wish to hold, a thought by dently was not the locality intimated by which he makes the body a detachable Jesus. There were supposed to be two envelope, as it were, of the “we,” which paradises, one in sheol and the other in he says “ may be absent from the body, heaven, but, as may be supposed, we and .... at home with the Lord” have no definite information on the sub¬ (verse 9). We see, therefore, that Pro¬ ject (“Paradise,” HDBs). fessor Findlay is wrong in saying, “St. In view of what we have now said on Paul knows nothing of Hellenic or Ori¬ both the points just discussed, and as this ental dualism. The body is not the de¬ is further added to our whole discussion tachable envelope, but the proper organ of St. Paul’s view of the resurrection of the spirit. Its existing form of flesh body, we are forced to the conclusion and blood perishes, but only to be recon¬ that he knew no more about it than we stituted in fitter fashion” (“Paul the do, in fact not as much, since what Apostle,” HDB, III, 7290). St. Paul thoughts he expresses on the subject are certainly knew of Hellenic and Oriental based on the erroneous views held at dualism, since, while on the one hand he the time with regard especially to the argues against it, on the other hand it is earth’s formation and man’s consti¬ practically this dualism which he accepts tution both here and hereafter. in his contemplation of his being with the The New Testament presents us with Lord in a disembodied state. What it a picture of a physical ascension of Christ was in St. Paul’s mind which could form into an upper heaven which Bishop a disembodied “ we ” he does not tell us, Westcott tells us never took place as but it was evidently the accepted spirit- described, to which he adds that neither replica, for this is what the other apostles will our Lord’s descension ever take supposed they saw when Jesus first place as described, conclusions fully appeared to them after the resurrection. accepted by modem biblical scholars With regard to the place where St. generally {The Revelation of the Risen Paul assumed that “we” would be with Lord, pp. 9, 180; The Historic Faith; the Lord in a disembodied state between cf. Dean Inge, The Guardian, May 13, death and resurrection, he gives us no 1910; December 8, 1911; December 6, certainty. At the time he wrote the 1912; Professor Swete, ibid., December words we are examining it was believed 13, 1912). But these conclusions, in¬ that Jesus had passed into the highest dorsed as they are by acknowledged heaven (Acts 1:9, ii; 7:55; cf. Mark biblical critics, indicate that the writers 16:19), ycf if could not possibly be in of the New Testament did not accurately the highest heaven that St. Paul expected describe the facts they were narrating, S2 THE BIBLICAL WORLD what they describe being in its details is not an accurate exegesis of what this inu^ination and not reality, that is, so apostle states on the subject. These far as Christ’s going and coming are con¬ scholars, as we have seen, claim that St. cerned. It is equally so with St. Paul Paul teaches the Hellenistic view that at with regard to his view of the resur¬ death the spirit-replica, or spiritual body, rection body and the whole subject of that is, the shade of the deceased, passes man’s future. He not only knew no out of the material corpse to which it more about it than we do, but his at¬ 'will never again be united, the corpse tempts to describe what he assumed were going to complete and final dissolution. facts in the case were imaginings entirely In opposition to this we have shown, lacking reality. But not only so, for he however, that the view of this matter is not even consistent in his descriptions, held by Paul is, to quote from Dr. Sal- such as they are, owing to which one of mond, “a real bodily resurrection, a the latest scholars to write on this sub¬ return to the complete man” (“Escha¬ ject says of his eschatology that it “is tology,” HDB, I, 7556), that is, a return not free from obscurities and ambiguities, of the spirit-replica to reconstitute the and in the New Testament generally we original body, soul, and spirit (I Thess. are forced to recognize a mixture of in¬ 5:23). How, indeed, in the face of such herited and original Christian elements ” passages as Rom. 8:11, 23; II Cor. 4: (“Eschatology,” Enc. Brit., nth ed., 14; Phil. 4:21, any scholar could see p. 7636). this matter otherwise than as explained Now it might well be asked, in view by Dr. Salmond we are at a loss to of such a conclusion, “Why, then, study understand, for no new body of another what St. Paul, or, in fact, what any of the substance or element could possibly be writers in the New Testament have to spoken of as a mortal body quickened, a say on the subject of the hereafter?” body redeemed, a body raised from the We answer, “ For the simple reason that dead, a body of humiliation fashioned an accurate knowledge of what the New anew. These words show logically that Testament does say on this matter will the resurrection body is, in St. Paul’s prevent the adoption of inaccurate views view, not a body of another substance, with regard to the teaching of the New for that would be another body, but the Testament on the problem we are dis¬ identical body buried changed, not in cussing.” The New Testament may not substance, but merely, in the property be right in its views on this subject, but of its substance. We do not wonder that is no reason why what it does say that, taking the New Testament as it should be misrepresented, for such a mis¬ stands, the Roman Trentine Catechism representation will prevent us from carefully explains that the resurrection adequately judging of the value of the body is the identical body buried, and particular New Testament teaching. that the divines of the English church For instance we have, we believe, shown at the Reformation maintained the same that the view of such eminent scholars view (Formularies of Henry VIII), a as Professor McGiffert, Canon Streeter, view which the Anglican church con¬ etc., as to what St. Paul says with regard tinues to hold in the Office for the Visita¬ to the character of the resurrection body tion of the Sick, which directs that ST. PAUL’S VIEW OP THE RESURRECTION BODY SS

the patient shall be asked if he believes chaeism, or a still wilder Docetism, in the resurrection of the flesh, for this which deserves neither attention nor is the reading of the Apostles’ Creed as confutation” {op. cit., p. 108). Not¬ it is recited to the sick man. If the withstanding, however, the undoubted teaching of the New Testament on the accuracy of this theological character¬ resurrection body is to be accepted by ization of those who, like Canon Bonney, us today, then these ecclesiastical tell us that actually “the thing upon authorities are right in their insistence which St. Paul insists as essential is a that we believe in the resurrection of the continuity of personal consciousness” flesh that was buried, for, as Professor only {op. cit., p. 112); and of those Findlay says on this problem as it is who like Professor McGiffert and Canon stated in the New Testament, we await Streeter tell us that St. Paul rejects the “ ‘the redemption of the body,’ which idea that our present body will rise again, will be recovered from the grave and in these scholars continue to maintain that its turn ‘conformed to his body of their assertions are fully justified by the glory’” ipp. cit., p. 7250). But science teaching of the New Testament, espe¬ will have nothing to do with a resur¬ cially of St. Paul. In agreement with rection body of the same particles of the demands of science they will have matter as composed the bxiried body, nothing whatever to do with the mate¬ nor with a body coming out of the origi¬ rial body buried, asserting that what is nal tomb, and so, by those scientists raised, or rather passes out of the body who still accept the teaching of the New at death, will be nothing but a spirit- Testament on this subject, the New body, that is, a body “of an entirely Testament is interpreted as holding different nature” (McGiffert), or “ele¬ before us “a body of some very different ment” (Westcott, GR, p. 142). Thus kind from the present .... there is also the Bishop of Exeter and Dr. nothing to lead us to think that we are Plummer maintain that in I Cor., chap. any more concerned with the body that 15, St. Paul teaches that we shall not, was laid in the grave than is the butter¬ at the resurrection, “be raised with a fly with the skin which it cast off in body consisting of material particles” passing from a caterpillar into a chrysa¬ {ICC, p. 369), and they then cite the lis. And what becomes of the body writers of the “Unseen Universe” in when done with .... is not a mat¬ confirmation of their view of the resur¬ ter with which religion is concerned” rection body, or, to speak accurately, {Natural Theology, I, 202; The Unseen the body of oiu* continuity, as a mere Universe, ed. 1894, pp. 49-51). spirit-body. But according to the New Testament All this attempt, however, to force the body, as we have seen, is decidedly an exegesis from Scripture which is a matter with which religion is very foreign to its legitimate significance is not much concerned, for, says Bishop Elli- done without considerable contradiction cott, in referring to our present body, and error in the statements of those “To doubt that the body is an integral making this effort. This is so, not only part of our nature, both here and here¬ in the case of theologians, but also after, is to indulge in either a wild Mani- in that of other scholars. No such 84 THE BIBLICAL WORLD

interpretation can be given to the Egyp¬ that the New Testament knows nothings tian seed-sowing in the tomb of the but, on the contrary, that there was no deceased as the Egyptologists Dr. Budge such second change as Bishop Westcott and Mr. Hall attempt to give; neither assumes, our Lord ascending up to is Mr. Heard warranted in comparing heaven with his physical body with St. Paul’s teaching of the resurrection which he rose from the grave. Now of body with Bonnet’s view of “an exqui¬ course we agree with the Bishop that site spiritual organization, invisibly per¬ there was no going up of any such phys¬ vading it,” that is, the present material ical body, but the New Testament says body, “and constituting its vital power” there was, and, therefore, the foxirth of {op. cit.f p. 333). Equally contradic¬ the Thirty-nine Articles, attached to all tory and erroneous is Westcott when Anglican prayer-books, is fully war¬ he tells us that the formation of our ranted, according to New Testament resurrection body may find its real¬ teaching, in asserting that “Christ did ization “in some other element,” which truly rise again from death, and took he terms “a new creation,” while he yet again his body, with flesh, bones, and describes what “seems to be a disso¬ all things pertaining to the perfection lution” as a “transformation,” since of Man’s nature: wherewith he ascended - there is no “putting-off of the body, but. into Heaven.” Warranted as this the transfiguration of it” {GR, pp. 142, fourth article is, however, by the teach¬ 153,154). On the other hand, Robinson ing of the New Testament, what it and Plummer say, “Nor is it a new says is absolutely rejected by Bishop creation” (p. 369). But perhaps the Westcott and modem biblical scholar¬ most serious error in Bishop Westcott’s ship generally and also by thoughtful argument occurs in his description of the men everywhere. Thus it is that Bishop double change which took place in our Herbert Ryle, preaching recently on this Lord’s body (i) at the the resurrection subject, with special reference to the and (2) at the ascension. He tells us resurrection of our Lord, said, “It that Christ, at his ascension, “was no assured to mankind the nature of the longer subject to the laws of the mate¬ personal life, not of the flesh, but of the rial order.Christ is seen to be spirit, continued beyond the death of changed.” Later he sa)rs, “The change the body” {The Guardian, December which Christ revealed by the Ascension 16, 1915). In view of all the evidence was not a change of place, but a change now produced, what is the logical con¬ of state, not local, but spiritual” {RRL, clusion of the whole matter ? It is this, pp. 7,9,180; HF, pp. 78,80). In West¬ namely, that the New Testament in its cott’s rejection of a physical ascension teaching, Pauline or otherwise, has no for our Lord he is thus obliged, in his message whatever for us on the subject view of our Lord’s resurrection body, we have been discussing, since what it to assume that our Lord’s body passed does say here is in absolute contradiction through two changes, once at the resur¬ to the accepted teaching of science, as rection and again at the ascension. this is fuUy indorsed by modem biblical Now of the last change we see plainly scholarship. CURRENT OPINION

The Lo^e Which Is Not the FoliiU- Christians and non-Christians on each side ing of the Ltew of the trenches. The reader of this distinc¬ The Hibbert Journal for April has an tion may be inclined to feel that the writer article under the foregoing title by Con¬ would be willing to grant the pacifists their stance L. Maynard. The discussion has claims if the problem centered about Chris¬ been provoked by the present war, and tians versus non-Christians. Another im¬ especially by the anemic morality which has portant thing which the writer pushes to the flooded the country in the name of pacifi¬ forefront is the necessity of being assured cism. In particular Mr. Maynard has in that the state has a real definite existence mind a call which has been made for love and such as he can look to with approval. Mr. forgiveness, while at the same time there Maynard is satisfied that the maintenance apparently is no appreciation of the moral of the British Empire is fimdamentally dynamic which moves his countrymen in this important. Nevertheless he makes an conflict. He first discusses the question impressive appeal that the people of his own which is raised by the possibility of being country take seriously to heart the respon¬ killed. This is the question which the com¬ sibility which the war places upon them, batant must face. The view taken in this namely, to become worthy to be champions article is the one which is commonplace of their “spotless cause.” among British people, namely, “It is one of the first principles of the Kingdom of Cardinal Maroier Heaven that, though human life is of value, The Outiook for May 30 contains an there are things of more value.” He finds interesting account of Cardinal Mercier. it more difficult when he comes to the prob¬ The article has this striking sentence by way lem raised by the killing of other men. He of introduction: “Against the lurid and points out that the position of the pacifist awful backgroimd of conquered Belgium one who calls for forgiveness in every case figure stands out in sharp silhouette, a actually amounts to a position which insists personality that has succeeded in dominat¬ that human pain must be spared, that ing the chaos of events.” Mr. Gade, who human life is of supreme value, but that it has been representing the Commission for is quite a secondary matter whether that Relief in Belgium, is the writer of this life is to be spent in the service of God or of article. We are told that life in many Satan. The pacifist neglects the alter¬ phases has fashioned Cardinal Mercier and natives of justice or injustice, liberty or that the war has revealed him to the world. slavery, truth or falsehood. Mr. Maynard Leo Xni chose him to teach the philosophy takes the position that the belief that love of Thomas Aquinas in the University of stands outside all law is the error which Louvain and to create the Institut Sup^rieur accoimts for the fallacies of the pacifists. de Philosophie. One of the Cardinal’s In the course of his discussion the writer statements is this: makes a distinction between religion and It is not the mission of philosophy to predict ethics which is quite noticeable. He main¬ what ought to be, but to explain what is ... . tains that the issue of the war is in the to study facts, and as far as possible all the facts, sphere of ethics and not in that of religion. those that belong to inorganic as well as to This he seeks to demonstrate by inviting organic natiu%, those of history as well as those attention to the fact that there are both of the economic or political order; such must be 36 THE BIBLICAL WORLD the first care of whoever aspires to establish a servient to his Kaiser, made public denial real philosophy. PhUosophy does not go ahead of the true fate of the deported girls of Lille. of the sciences, but follows them to synthesize One of the noteworthy features of the Car¬ their results under the guidance of the first dinal’s services has been his pastoral letters, principles of human knowledge. of which one of the most remarkable has This view of philosophy has found expres¬ been his pastoral on “The Sacred Value of sion in the preparation which the Cardinal Patriotism and Endurance,” in which one has made for his work in philosophy. He of the highly significant sentences addressed has made diligent study of science and to the people of Belgium is: “ Who does not medicine, worked assiduously in chemical gaze with pride upon the reflection of glory laboratories, stood beside Van Gehuchten from the slain fatherland ?” in his famous researches into the nervous Chriatiaa Ethics S3rstem, and attended the clinics of La Salp£tri£re when Charcot was astonishing Christian ethics is the subject of a dis¬ the world by his treatment of mental cussion by G. F. Barbour in the Hibbert diseases. In his latest address to the Journal for April. He is impressed with Belgian soldiers he said to them: the increased emphasis that, owing to the European war, has been placed on the inter¬ St. Thomas Aquinas, the most authoritative pretation of Christian ethics. So far as the teacher of Christian theology, proclaims that teaching of the New Testament is concerned public retribution is commendable. A just war he is of the opinion that the view is fre¬ has austere beauty; it brings out the disinter¬ ested enthusiasm of the whole people, which quently taken that violence ought to be gives, or is prepared to give, its most precious met with weapons other than those of force. possession, even life itself, for the defence and The early Christians, for instance, looked vindication of things which cannot be weighed, for the conquest of the world, including evil, which cannot be calculated, but which can never through other agencies than the force of be extinguished—^justice, honor, peace, libertyl arms. Paul, however, accepts the use of .... Have you not felt in these two years that force by magistrates as part of the divinely the war, the ardent, unflagging devotion which appointed order. From Paul’s point of you give it, purifies you, separates your higher view there is a distinct antithesis between nature from the dross, uplifts you to something the “flesh” and the “spirit” which enables nobler and better than yourselves? him to extend the antithesis to love and Mr. Gade says of Cardinal Mercier: force. But with the abandonment of this “He is nearer the heart of Belgium than antithesis our writer holds that the absolute anyone else, because no one knows so well distinction between love and force falls. what she has suffered and no one else has This is due to what he considers a fact— seen so clearly all her moral grandeur. He namely, that there are an infinite series of has been 'all things to all men’—^the gradations between the use of sheer, un¬ embodiment of patriotism and courage.’’ tempered force on the one hand and the “Patriotism and Endurance” is his slogan, as pure activity of love on the other. This “Virtue and Work” is his motto. We are relation necessitates two questions in the told that never were independence and pas¬ moral consideration of any given case: sion for truth stronger than that shown when First, was it impossible for the more directly Cardinal Mercier denoimced Cardinal von ^iritual energy to come into full and effect¬ Hartmann, Archbishop of Cologne, who, ive play? Secondly, if it was impossible, despite the hundreds of undeniable and did the spiritual impulse maintain the irrefutable proofs to the contrary, sub¬ mastery of its material instnunent, or was CURRENT OPINION S7 it “like the dyer’s hand, subdued to what increased emphasis, but it belongs to a past it worked in”? Mr. Barbour concludes world and does not satisfy. In his con¬ that there must be an appeal to force, either cluding remarks the writer takes special when the moral appeal to conscience is care to emphasize his view that in the great impossible from the outset or when it has venture of overcoming evil the plan of proved ineffective. He reminds his readers, Christianity is essentially positive, and for however, that when the machinery of force this reason the term non-resistance fails to is set going, the higher and harder way of do justice to its nature. the moral appeal is most frequently left behind. He takes pains to emphasize his The Relation between Research view that action from spiritual motives and and Interpretation action involving the use of physical force Lynn Harold Hough discusses the rela¬ are not of necessity mutually exclusive, but tion between research and interpretation in it is not in accord with the spirit of Chris¬ the May-June number of the Methodist tianity to allow the legal conception of Review. He recalls the fact that historically responsibility to form the last word with interpretation of the Bible has been given regard to a great ethical problem. An a new lease of life because of the practical even more subtle question is raised when the necessity of making an author mean some¬ writer asks, “Granted that force may be thing quite different from what he actually necessary to arrest evil, can force ever really meant. The effect of this knowledge upon and permanently overcome evil?” His own Mr. Hough is that he finds a touch of “ some¬ answer to the question is in the negative, and thing sinister” about the whole history of the reason for this negative answer is that interpretation and concludes that only a force cannot get to the roots of moral evil. man of miraculous optimism can be entirely But he is also convinced that the attitude of enthusiastic about it. The author of this non-resistance is entirely inadequate to meet article apparently has an appreciation of the situation of moral evil. But he is then literature which extends beyond the limits confronted with the dfficulty of discovering set by the Bible, but in this treatment he is some principle by which evil can be assur¬ concerned with the methods of interpreta¬ edly overcome. The solution which he tion of Biblical literatttie. He discusses five offers for this difficulty is suggested in his different methods of interpretation. The own words: “There is an absorbing desire, first is “interpretation without research,” not to secure gain, but to bring help; while for which he finds a classical example in the trust in the natural response of the the Alexandrian allegorical method. This human heart to a generous appeal has passed method he imderstands was essentially into a deeper confidence—into faith in the transcendental and based on the view that Divine Power and Will to renew the hearts the Bible contained a mechanically infallible of men.” This he understands to be the literature. The main thing that is to be Christian way. Again the writer finds a said of the allegorical method is that “when¬ difficulty in the proclivity of men to let ever you meet a problem allegory gives you selfishness and materialism so atrophy and wings,” and that what a man brings to a incrust the soul that its fineness of perception passage of Scripture is infinitely more impor¬ is destroyed. This has led many persons to tant than what he finds there. Mr. Hough trust in the Divine Power to overcome evil, is not unmindful of the opportunity which and in New Testament times it took on the the allegorical method afforded interpreters apocalyptic form. Again this apocalyptic to suggest many spiritually helpful things. expectation is coming into vogue with The second method of interpretation, which 38 THE BIBLICAL WORLD is called “research as a check on interpre¬ Eucken, Bergson, and Ritschlians. The tation,” is exemplified by the school at mental sifting caused by all these processes Antioch, and particularly by Theodore has resulted in an increasing consciousness of Mopsuestia. The latter stood for a that research is by its very nature a prepara¬ grammatical and historical interpretation. tion for the ultimate task of interpretation, Unfortunately the Antiochene school did and that the spot where research and a not produce men of gigantic stature to per¬ living experience meet is the spot where petuate its type of activity, and, in addition, the work must be done. Finally, the writer the problem, which became acute centuries mentions some characteristics of the inter¬ later, began to emerge with respect to the preter as he desires him to be. He thinks difficulty of combining evangelical passion the interpreter must be a man with a with intellectual passion. A third step in cosmopolitan intellectual outlook, for the the advance of method is named “research reason that the work of the interpreter is as a substitute for interpretation.” The done at the place where many departments interpretation of the Reformation degener¬ of specialized activity meet. Furthermore, ated into a kind of scholasticism of its own the interpreter must have a synthetic type and this was responsible for a reaction. of mind. Our writer imderstands that This reaction took the form of scientific interpretation is s)mthesis, and therefore study of the Bible. The keynote of this the interpreter must be a man who by method was history rather than interpreta¬ temperament, by training, and by intel¬ tion. In the main the latter part of the lectual sympathy fuses various materials nineteenth century came nearer to achieving into an organism. He strenuously main¬ objectivity in Bible study than had any tains that the interpreter must have candor earlier period, and in many conspicuous constantly on its guard against a host of in¬ instances it attained an entire freedom from vading dishonesties. The interpreter must prejudice in favor of tradition. However, be alive. His task is to give expression in our writer regrets that with the progress of the terms of life and he himself must thrill the scientific study of the Bible there has with its energies. Finally, he thinks we been no successful attempt to synthesize must face the fact that the literature which the results of research. Accordingly a we call the Bible is the creation of a powerful fourth method has come to the forefront and passionate religious experience and can which is known as “ research as a preparation never be interpreted adequately apart from for interpretation.” During the time which such an experience. Mr. Hough points out has been occupied in the scientific study of two dangers: On the one hand there is the the Bible, ministers and others have had tendency to indulge in hasty and unwar¬ to make the best use of the Bible that they ranted generalizations, which is the constant were able to, and the difficulty has been a temptation of the impatient mind; on the real one. Many and varied have been the other hand there is the tendency to treat attempts to meet the difficulty, and the pro- research as an end in itself, and to refuse to foundest spirits have sought sources of raise the question as to the significance of certainty which left criticism free because the material so patiently gathered. it could not touch their position. The view which imderlies this position is that the Peace and the World-Power Christian religion is a fact of inner experience James H. Kirkland has an article in which authenticates its own necessary Religious Education for April which merits materials. Noteworthy among such efforts attention. His discussion centers about are those represented by Schleiermacher, the present world-order, especially as it is CURRENT OPINION 39 accentuated by the war. He analyzes the ing superiority of the militaristic strength situation and indicates the extreme difficulty of Germany. He maintains that his point of determining the exact issue that is at of view is illustrated by the increased stake in the conffict. For instance, he acceleration of larger armaments and the shows how the religious question is not the marshaling of nations under the name of real driving force. The remarkable adjust¬ diplomacy. In this way he thinks the ments that have existed between the social militaristic conceptions came to dominate classes heretofore thought to hold serious the whole life of the state and “poisoned its differences show that the war is not the very dreams.” The conclusion at which resultant of the social grievances which have Mr. Kirkland arrives, therefore, is that the been brewing for the p>ast decade or more. present world-war has resulted from the But, strangely enough, in the midst of the dominance of identical systems. Having confusion of issues the warring nations interpreted the cause of the war in this way, have been most diligent in presenting the the writer of the article proceeds to point righteousness of their claims and in endeav¬ out what he considers to be the matter of oring to put on their antagonists the respon¬ primary importance. It has to do with the sibility of beginning the war. Our writer settlement which is to follow the war. He invites his readers to recognize the fact that says: “The evolution of society must not this whole condition of affairs attests to the be strangled by artificial political lines, but increasing power of public opinion and the must proceed to something that approaches weight now attaching to the moral judg¬ a world-organization.” Education must be ments of mankind. Mr. Kirkland cites the given a large place in the development of a opinion of H. G. Wells as representing the more permanent world-order. But he warns view current among the people of the British us lest education be allowed to become Empire, that this b a war of ideas, a strife subservient to militarism, as it was in between two forms of culture. But he is Germany. Furthermore, he warns us not satisfied to accept this opinion as a just against the danger of reacting favorably on analysis of the facts. He admits that the militarism of Germany. In this con¬ Germany led the way in the direction of nection he quotes the significant words of militarism; but the lead of Germany has Norman Angell: “A coimtry at war is led been followed by other nations. This has by an almost mechanical process to adopt been done in the effort to offset the increas¬ the very morality that it sets out to fight.’* THE CHURCH AND THE WORLD

MISSIONS

The Paeeini of S. G. Wileon and He has spent fifty-five years in Egypt, and Andrew Wataon at the time of his death he was one of the The foreign missionary staff has been oldest foreign residents, and probably he weakened by the passing of two respected was the oldest resident missionary in Africa. and courageous missionaries. S. G. Wilson On his arrival in Egypt there were only six was one of the ablest of the all too small band members of the embryo native Protestant of missionaries devoted to the work of the church. At the present time there is a na¬ Moslems. He died in Tabriz, Persia, on tive Protestant community of 30,000-40,000 Sunday, July 2, 1916. He was bom in In¬ members, containing over 13,000 communi¬ diana, Pennsylvania, in 1858, and spent cants. In 1864 he helped to establish the thirty years in tireless and energetic service Mission Theological Seminary—the oldest to the work of the Christian Missions school of Protestant theology in Egypt. In in Tabriz. His primary work was the 1892 he was made the head of the institu¬ development of work for bo)rs. He began tion. When in America in 1897 Dr. Watson with Armenians, but later was able to get in was chosen the moderator of the General touch with Moslem boys, and, at the time Assembly of the United Presb)rterian of his death, of the three hundred boys in church. the school one-half were Mohanunedans. The school had become the largest mission¬ Revolntion and Religion in Rnaaia ary school in Western Persia, and the most Rev. William Fetler has written in the respected and influential institution in Ta¬ Missionary Review of the World for May an briz. In addition to the educational inter¬ informing article on some interesting aspects ests he was an able evangelist preacher. of the present upheaval in Russia. He was But the last work in which he was engaged pastor of “Dom Evangelia” Church, Petro- was the distribution of relief to the Arme¬ grad, when the war was declared in August, nians and Syrians. At first he made his 1914. The description which he gives of headquarters in Tiflis, in the Caucasus, the multitude which assembled at the time where he purchased and distributed sup¬ the emperor proclaimed the imperial mani¬ plies in behalf of the Red Cross Society. festo is strikingly suggestive of the radical The American Consul viewed his energy change that has come since then. Mr. Fet¬ with surprise and pride, and in one of hb ler writes feelingly of the significance of the despatches he reported that, in his judgment, prohibition of vodka for the people of Rus¬ a more superior man for the task could not sia, and he appears to be hopeful, if not con¬ have been found. fident, that the measure will be retained Dr. Andrew Watson, who has been de¬ even after peace shall be made. Indeed, scribed as “ the Nestor of the American Mis¬ he says that the Holy S)mod, which has sion in Egypt,” died in his home in Cairo, alwa)rs been noted for its reactionary ten¬ December 9, 1916. Notwithstanding the dencies, has asked to have the vodka pro¬ fact that he was eighty-three years of age, hibition made permanent, and like requests he conducted the English service in the Mis¬ have been made by town councils and im¬ sion church on Simday evening, November portant societies. One of the conspicuous 26. Dr. Watson was a Scotchman by birth, things which accompanied the early years but went from America to Egypt in 1861. of the war was the demand made by the sol-

40 THE CHURCH AND THE WORLD 41 diers for the Bible. Mr. Fetler sa)rs: “ While outbreak of the war there was inaugurated Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaivetch was in¬ a camjiaign against all who were not of the specting a part of his army and was inquir¬ Russian Orthodox church. This campaign ing of the conditions and needs of the men, was directed against sectarians, among some one of them asked for a Bible, or New whom were the Baptists and Mr. Fetler Testament. The Duke immediately made himself. Like the others Mr. Fetler was an order for several cartloads of Bibles to be attacked on the charge of being a German, sent to the camps for distribution. Within although he says he is not, and was even¬ two weeks after the beginning of the war tually exiled. But Mr. Fetler thinks the the demand for Bibles was so great that the Revolution has introduced a state of affairs printing offices of the Holy Synod were not which will correct these abuses of religious able to meet the demands.” But at the rights.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The Minister and the Snnday Sehool Character; G. A. Coe, Religion in Education The efficiency of the Sunday school de¬ and Morals; W. S. Atheam, The Church pends upon the leadership of the minister. School. As for the matter of conventions Such, in brief, is the position taken by Frank¬ and institutes, he is of the opinion that no lin McElfresh in an article in the Homiletic educator is alive who does not keep in touch Review for June. But he recognizes that the with the discussions of the great educational work of the Sunday school has been radically leaders. Indeed, nowhere is there such changed during the last few years, and that opportunity for the fellowship of Christian this fact has necessitated a readjustment workers in the study of great and pressing on the part of a great body of American problems, and the minister who misses the ministers. It is precisely for the benefit Sunday-school convention of the right type of ministers who have been forced to make is a loser. The Sunday School Monthly is a this adjustment, without the benefit of remarkable source of information for those guidance that some others have had, that the who are endeavoring to adopt the graded writer has made the following suggestions. system, and, if read a little more earnestly, At the outset he understands that the work would save many ministers the embarrass¬ of the Sunday school is one of the essential ments which sometimes overtake them in things in the work of the modem minister, their efforts to rearrange their schools. The and for himself he is convinced that “the public school has “caught the breeze of the ministers who falter by the way will find aeroplane ” and is moving fast these days. alert travellers who have studied the guide For this very reason it is necessary that the boards outpacing them in the race.” Four minister watch the progress of these schools, books each year should be read and inwardly so that he may be able to keep his own Sun¬ digested. These books should be of the day school abreast of the changing methods kind that deal with the science of religious of education. Mr. McElfresh tells his read¬ education; and he thinks that the minister ers of the splendid progress that is being who does not perform this task is seriously made in religious education by those churches at fault, inasmuch as he is not attending to which are able to command the services of the work of the study as he ought. The books specialists in religious education, but he is which he names for initial study are the fol¬ familiar with the fact that “nine hundred lowing ; H. H. Home, Psychological Principles and ninety-nine churches in the thousand” of Education; John McCunn, The Making of have one minister only, and it is with full 42 THE BIBLICAL WORLD appreciation of their manifold duties that Reli^ioua Rdnoation and the Ameri¬ he urges a larger place for the Sunday can Citizen school. Professor F. G. Peabody has written a timely article in Religious Education, April. Holding (he Tooth to the Chnroh The first item to attract attention is the It is interesting to note that this problem definition which he offers of religious educa¬ of the youth and the church which confronts tion. He spars against the traditional the Protestant churches also commands the connotation that religious education is a attention of the Roman Catholics. A brief prescribed catechism, and defends it as article in the Ecclesiastical Review for May “the education—or, as the word means, treats of this question from the Roman the drawing-out—of the religious nature, Catholic point of view. Apparently the the clarifying and strengthening of religious difficulty of retaining the allegiance of the ideals, the enriching and rationalizing of the youth to the church is a real difficulty. In sense of God.” After telling us what reli¬ any case, many and varied methods have gious education is, he informs us what it been suggested by which to cope with the means to be an American citizen. An situation. Attempts are made to keep the American citizen is “one who with the young people in a class of “ Christian Doc¬ privileges has accepted the obligations of trine” and at the same time to interest them American citizenship .... he does not in parish work through entertainments, view the experimental imperfections of reading circles, evening schools, and other democracy with condescension or con¬ practical methods in which the physical, in¬ tempt; he prefers a civilization in the mak¬ tellectual, and moral needs of the young ing to a civilization which is ready-made.” are looked after. It is emphatically pointed Having so defined his terms, he draws the out that the chief element by which to reach significant conclusion that the institutions of permanent results is to keep the religious American citizenship, just as they are, with responsibility before the consciousness of all their imperfections and blunders, must the youth. An instance which is cited and be the instruments of a religious life, for if approved is that of a parish in which for the Kingdom of God is to come in America some years after the young people have left it must come through the agencies of citizen¬ school they are induced to attend regularly ship. The importance of this conclusion is classes in Christian instruction. At the end readily conceived when it is compared with of the period of “postgraduate” study a di¬ certain widespread views to the contrary. ploma b given to the student. On the re¬ For instance, it is frequently asked: Are verse side of this diploma are printed these not the principles and practices of American words: “Go, son, with God’s blessing. Re¬ life hopelessly removed from the ideal of a member the lesson you have learned. Honor Kingdom of God ? Is not family life your parents, and make your home happy; among us disintegrated and declining ? be on guard in the choice of your compan¬ Are not our business dealings degraded by ions; keep the law of God and the Church; brutality and fraud? Is not our political attend regularly the sacraments; observe life tainted by self-interest and partisan¬ gentle deconim and moderation in all ship? Are not our international negotia¬ 3rour conduct. May you thus retain the tions corrupted by tortuous diplomacy and friendship of your pastor to the end of broken pledges ? The obvious inference jrour life and receive the blessing that that accompanies these questions, and a may lead you to eternal happiness and multitude of others like them, is that this heaven.” world is hopelessly bad, and the crux of the THE CHUBCH AND THE WORLD 43 matter lies in a choice between religious world, but the significant thing is that education and American citizenship. Pro¬ through the thick darkness of the present fessor Peabody revolts from this skepticism time, with its uninterpretable mysteries and and points to the profound challenge to its irremediable losses, one ray of light religious education which American citizen¬ reaches the stricken world and illiuninates ship presents. He admits that the insti¬ the tragic scene. He describes this rift in tution of the family is threatened by the clouds thus: lightmindedness and lust, but the difference Whatever else is hidden in the shadows of an between him and many of those who differ unexplored future, this at least has already with him is that their attention is riveted become plain—^that through the suffering and to the one marriage in twelve in the United sorrow of the time, and its daily summons to States that is shattered by divorce, whereas face the supreme demands of life and death, there his attention is riveted to the eleven out of is occurring in all nations a vast process of reli¬ twelve that survive. He takes the sane gious education; and that the sense of man’s view that an epidemic of social disease dependence and God’s guidance b in a totally should not obscure the more prevalent con¬ unprecedented degree becoming real and effi¬ dition of general social health, and he sa3r3: cient in millions of lives. On thb point the “The Kingdom of God which is the end of testimony both from the men in the trenches and from their trembling friends at home b religious education is nothing else than the beyond dbpute. Much as has been lost God, realization of the social ideal whose germinal in a multitude of instances, has been found. type is the normal family.” In the indus¬ Men who have been, as they themselves be¬ trial and commercial life of the nation he lieved, irretrievably enslaved by levity or self- acknowledges that there are hideous cancers, indulgence are finding themselves sobered, but he maintains that this great area of chastened, emancipated, and redeemed. human conduct provides a field for religious education. The essential nature of busi¬ Professor Peabody points out to us the ness life is disciplinary, educative, and sublime truth that it ought not to be that creative. It is a vast organization of social we find the treasures of God only in the service, existing to provide others with what darkness, and hb hope b that the lessons they want. In the form of finance it is a learned in the months of horror and de¬ still more elaborate organization of credit, struction may be reinforced when the days existing through mutual integrity and good of reconstruction arrive. The formulas faith. He says: “For one man who profits which come from the experience of the by luck or fraud, a thousand owe all they hour—“a complete simplification of reli¬ have gained to integrity and uncorrupti¬ gion,” “an assurance that God comes,” bility.” Nor is Professor Peabody blind to “a Kingdom of God over a world-wide the tragic maladjustment and confusion system of republican states”—are to be which are spread throughout the political verified by consecrated experience.

CHURCH EFFICIENCY

The Federal Coanoil of Amerioan of the Federal Council of the Churches of Chnrohea aa an Achievement Christ in America. The writer regards the in Chriatian Unity jjgg of thg Federal Council as one of those In the Methodist Renew for May there Christian achievements “which are silently appears over the name of Bishop Earl Cran- compelled from obstinate conditions and ston an article which b warmly appredative annoimced without blare of trumpets.” 44 THE BIBLICAL WORLD

What is more remarkable than the develop¬ thirty chiurches and seventeen millions of ment of the organization is the fact that it is people has come by the spiritual gravitation still an achievement in the process. With of these masses toward each other. He the spread of Protestantism to America and looks to this as a good omen, but he fer¬ throughout America the varieties of reli¬ vently admonishes his Christian brethren gious bodies became so numerous, and in not to be content to rest satisfied with what many instances the antagonism was so ran¬ has been attained, for much still remains to corous, that to many the denominational be done. chaos signaled anarchy and disintegration. Indeed, there were seventeen kinds of Meth¬ The Stateemanehip of the Chnrch in odists, fifteen kinds of Baptists, and twelve the Field of Social Service or more kinds of Presbyterians. Such di¬ “The worst breakdown of church states¬ versity of interest and organization within manship has been in the field of social the denominational bodies was disconcert¬ service.” Such is the sentence which intro¬ ing, and the immediate tasks were so press¬ duces an important editorial in the Conti¬ ing that there was left neither time nor nent for May. It is not intended that the energy for the more formidable undertaking readers of the Continent should xmderstand with respect to denominational co-operation that the editor is unsympathetic with the or unity. The need which was thus left to actual social service that the churches have go unattended was met by the great Inter- been attempting to do. Quite the contrary Church Conference of 1905 in the city of is the position of the editor. But he is de¬ New York. At that conference there was cidedly of the opinion that the work which laid the basis upon which the Federal Coim- has been undertaken by the churches has dl was raised two years later, composed of been ‘‘chiefly the spontaneous flowering of representatives of thirty-one American its religious affections—a matter mostly of churches and of seventeen millions of Prot¬ the heart.” But he thinks the social serv¬ estants. From the inception of this move¬ ice of the church at the present time ment, however, it has been xmderstood and demands brains to formulate its directive repeatedly emphasized that it was not a re¬ policy. The rise of the social gospel in this pudiation of denominationalism in its sane country was accompanied by the assump¬ and legitimate relation to the work of evan¬ tion that social salvation displaced the need gelization in America and elsewhere. The for individual regeneration. Accordingly, writer of the article approves of this attitude an antagonism was stirred up such as has on the grounds that denominational life and greatly handicapped the whole effort. This activity have many compensations. Two judgment of the situation has prompted the of these, which he names in particular, are following statement: “American religious the emphasis which is placed upon the Bible life for the last generation would have been and the energy with which the denomina¬ markedly better for everybody concerned tions have followed the rapid extension of the if at the first stirrings of the ‘social move¬ frontier in this country. Nevertheless “the ment’ in this country the church had had the federation of so many denominations on wisdom to enlist immediately with it and the basis of fimdamental agreements marks shape its course.” If the rise of the social the change of emphasis from the divisive non- emphasis in the work of the church had been essentials to the imifying essentials,” says accompanied by wise leadership three defi¬ Bishop Cranston. Furthermore, he is in¬ nite things would have happened, says the clined to think that this co-ordination writer—namely, the church would have laid of the faith and plans and energies of immediate hold of the illuminating vision THE CHURCH AND THE WORLD 45 of the Lord which these then unique teachers hour of great national need?” Great in¬ were bringing into view and would have spirational addresses were heard from a mun- thanked God for the enrichment; the church ber of the most distinguished leaders in the would have devoted intense study to puri¬ Christian churches. But the greater values fying this “social message” from fanatical and the more important features of those and abnormal emphasis and would have days “were the careful survey of measures carefully worked out a sane basis on which already afoot to safeguard the moral quality the idea of “social salvation” might be in¬ of the army and navy, tmder stress, and corporated with spiritual salvation; the then a still more careful study of what else church would have gone to work with all the churches can do in the support of the determination to apply to current condi¬ government, and what they owe to the tions in the world the social principles of religious well-being and ethical health of Jesus as so discovered, verified, and brought American life in present abnormal demands.” into relation with the rest of Christian doc¬ Measures have been taken to secure trine. The position is taken that if the proper chaplains for the increased military leadership of the church in the time of the and naval forces. By agreement with both rising social emphasis had had these things War and Navy departments, neither will in mind, we would not today be witnessing accept any Protestant chaplains until they the lamentable separation between the great are recommended by the Washington com¬ body of social workers and the chiurch. In mittee of the Federal Council, and this com¬ addition there would have been forestalled mittee will consider only those that are the bitter feud which is evident between previously indorsed by their denominational evangelistic and social types in its ministry. authorities. In view of the possible over¬ The purpose in making this criticism of the lapping or clashing of effort and activities, leadership of the church in social service has the council approved a plan for a joint com¬ been to encourage a more spirited attention mittee of conference, representing both the to such leadership in the present and future. Federal Council and the Yoimg Men’s Christian Association, which will meet fre¬ Federated Protestantiam Meaaurea quently and adjust all difficulties as they War Datiea occur. In the Continent of May 17 the editor re¬ The convention further laid hold of many views the work of the recent “war session” matters that are at the very heart of patri¬ of the Federal Council of Churches. He otic service. It insisted on holding stand¬ feels that this organization has emerged on a ards high while war is on. There should be plane of national leadership more solid and no let-down anywhere, but rather an in¬ commanding than it has had at any previous crease in sympathetic helpfulness in every time in its developing history. Our present outreach of social and religious life. It in¬ national situation has provided an oppor¬ sisted on the siq>pression of liquor-making tunity for the council to demonstrate its and -selling, as a measure of national defense. ability for practical leadership in joint It protested against any lowering of labor Christian planning, expression, and action, standards, such as the removal of the limits quite different from its foreseen and pro¬ on the hours of women’s employment, the jected functions. Outstanding men from cancellation of laws for con^>ulsory educa¬ the thirty constituent bodies of the Council tion and child labor, and the breaking down were in this meeting. The governing of labor’s Sunday rest. thought was the question: “What can the The great opportunity of pastors, espe¬ churches do to help the government in this cially those in the country, was emphasized. 46 THE BIBLICAL WORLD and pressing appeal was made to them to b danger that American church life during exhort their people to employ all possible the war may accept for its guidance some¬ methods to grow more food and to prevent thing like the old Roman axiom, that waste of food after it is produced. This as¬ “while war lasts the bw b silent.” It miist pect of the work is to be promoted by the be borne in mind that national life cannot country-life commission of the Council, be fimdamentally Christian imtil Christian which will call upon every coimtry minister nationslive on the basb of Christbn brother¬ to confer concerning these important mat¬ hood. But thb b an ideal and b to be at¬ ters with every farmer within his reach. It tained only by stmggle, stress, and storm, is felt that, if the war is continued very long, and the goal b to be reached only when eventual victory or defeat will be determined Christian churches do their part in the work by American farms. It was recommended of national and social regeneration. Some to the churches that liberal contributions be of the vital steps toward the realization of made to the Red Cross, that sympathetic thb ideal are now at hand, and “no com- care be given to families of soldiers in serv¬ mtinion of Christians can remain apathetic ice, that there be an increase in giving to all or adopt an attitude of passive expectancy forms of war relief in Europe and to the while thb war lasts.” maintenance of Protestant congregations in The editor then expresses his confidence devastated Belgium and Northern France. that hb own communion will not be found Furthermore, since war is sure to unify so¬ b^ing in patriotbm or in the recognition cial classes for the time being, religion should of the great task which lies before all those so create permanent sentiments of frater¬ who belong to the fellowship of Chrbt. nity as to conserve this imity and prevent “The meaning and significance of American the reappearance of class feeling. The civilization b impressed too strongly upon significant product of this great war con¬ the hbtory of our own communion to allow it vocation was, this editor thinks, a nobly now to forget the opportunities of service conceived “message to the churches,” “a open to them.” Attention b then directed document of lofty distinction, breathing a to a summary of the pastoral directions given spirit of sincere Christian feeling toward by the bbhops of Newark to the clergy of the nation’s enemies, along with imqualified their diocese for the guidance of their church devotion to the nation’s present cause.” activities during the war. Among other This he holds is a “sure-to-be-historic” things, after reviewing and indorsing the utterance. President’s utterances, they insbt that thb b not a summer in which to let parishes go The Voice of the Choreh in War Time to sleep, as b often done. It b probably Under this caption there is an editorial their opportunity to show their usefulness in the Churchman, May 5. It calls atten¬ in a troubled time. Every right-minded tion to the fact that the entrance of America minbter will be as never before a minister into the war seems to have overturned all of the state. “In well-considered ways our the conventions of life in the multiform hospitab, our parish houses, must be pbced phases of a modem progressive democracy. at the service of the state, if needed, and America thought it was guaranteed against with proper equipment, and perhaps our warfare by its willing acceptance of the high churches also. Not because battles are to ideals of modem democratic government. be fought near us, but because in the gather¬ It is hard to realize that we are at war, and ing together of young men in training camps, it is harder still to realize just what is our and where so many railroads converge, there obligation. However, it is clear that there will be many cases of sickness and many acci- THE CHURCH AND THE WORLD 47 dents. The clergy ought to call together lists there are 3,063 accredited ministers, the officers of their churches, their men and and of these 304 are temporarily without women to confer about these things, and be pastoral charge, and no are engaged in prepared for what may come.” tutorial or other professional work. The Federal Coimcil Year Book for 1917 contains a most interesting statistical table Rwssia and Religiona Fraedom showing the development of foreign mis¬ The provisional government of Russia sionary work carried on by the United has repealed all laws actually in force limit¬ States and Canada in the last fifteen years. ing the rights of Russian citizens regarding In that time contributions have increased creeds and religions. This action is from six millions of dollars to almost twenty- regarded in New York by authorities on one millions; the number of missionaries has Russian affairs as one of the most important grown from 4,304 to 10,601, native workers developments of the revolution. It has from 19493 to 49,305, total church member¬ been long known everywhere that Jews in ship from 397,340 to 1,170,539. In the Russia have endured untold persecutions. last four years the niunber of hospitals The policy of Russia up to the time of and dispensaries has increased from 363 Alexander HI was to assimilate and Russify to 903. the Jews; but with the coming of Alexander ni, and especially in the time of Nicholas H, Congregationaliam in Great Britain the governmental policy changed radically. In these da)rs when Mr. Shakespeare is They now wanted to exterminate or drive leading the non-Conformists of England in the Jews from the country. Plehve is said a great national movement toward church to have expressed the new policy in these union, information respecting the strength words: “We want to exterminate one- of the various church bodies concerned is third of the Jews by every means possible, to desirable. The British Weekly, February 8, get another third out of the country, and has given its readers some information to convert the last third into Christians.” regarding the strength of the Congrega- Not only were the Jews persecuted, but the tionalists in Great Britain. The total dominant church—namely, the Greek number of churches, including missions Catholic church—discriminated bitterly and branches, is 4,989. The seating ca¬ against the Poles, who are Roman Catholics; pacity of these churches combined accom¬ the Mohammedans, who form a large part modates 1,825,717 people. The church of the population in Kazan, in the Crimea, membership stands at 489,616, and the in the Caucasus, Khiva, and, in fact, in all Sunday-school membership at 633,656. Central Asia; the Stunda, which is a sect The Simday-school statistics show a de¬ somewhat like the Baptists; the Molokans; crease of 19,953'^^olars. The teachers the Doukhobors; and others too numerous in the Sunday school number 70,375, a de¬ to mention. Thus it is apparent that crease of 1403. There are 458 churches at granting of religious freedom will have present without pastors. In the ministerial deep and far-reaching effects in Russia. BOOK NOTICES

The ETolntion of Early Chriatiaiiity. By Shirley Religion, and is a good illustration of the method Jackson Case. Chicago: The University therein set forth. All students of Christianity of Chicago Press, I9r4. Pp. lx+386. who OTsh really to appreciate the grandeur of their faith in its power to conserve the past, The review of this book has been dela)red, as well as to bring new emphasis and new truth but it is so thoroughly a pioneer in its field as to to the world, will do well to give careful atten¬ make a review always in order. Professor Case tion to this volume. has in this volume moved out into a field which is now becoming one of first interest. On the one side the extreme religionsgeschichtiiche The Foundation of Modem Religion. By Her¬ method has overestimated technical precision bert B. Workman. New York: Revell, and ^ yielded to the temptation to mistake 1916. Pp. aso. $i. 25. creative origins for completed development. On the other side unscientific historical study These are the Cole Lectures for 1916 deliv¬ of the New Testament has been content with ered before Vanderbilt University, and the giving what is popularly known as the “back- author b president of Westminster Training groimd” of New Testament history. The College, London. In six lectures he develops present work indicates the true line of investi¬ the idea that the foundations of modem religion gation. It posits Christianity as a historical were laid in that great mesh of movements movement rather than as an academic literary which fascinates us under the name the Middle development of certain teachings of Jesus whic^ Ages. It is a fair question if the lecturer does can be disengaged from the New Testximent not mean “ Christianity” rather than “religion” literature as a whole by the process of minute in hb title and conclusion alike. The lectiues criticism. are concerned with the general task of the The older method of critical study was largely mediaeval church, the dawning of the mis¬ the result of literary interest, and an accoimt of sionary consciousness, the ideab and conflicting the development of Christianity became an forces of the Middle Ages, the dawning of the elaborate analysis of sources. Professor Case’s modem social consciousness, the work of the work is by no means indifferent to the legitimacy monks, and medbeval ideab and methods in of this method, provided only it be genuinely education. These six subjects are well unified hktorical, but he treats Christianity as a reli- by the principal thesb which the lectiuer b mon rather than as a problem of higher criticism. maintaining. The material b abundant, some¬ In this religious movement he sees converging times cluttering the lecture so that clearness b the various forms of thought, feeling, faith, and sacrificed. The reader’s interest b sustained institutions which mark the first century. remarkably by Dr. Workman, and one b carried Jesus, as he has admirably shown in his previ¬ along with a sense of apprehension and joy as ous work on The Historicity of Jesus, is a real the subjects are develop^. Except for occa¬ and epoch-making figure, but no more real than sionally getting lost during a brief period, it b the religion which gathered about him. To a rich and rewarding journey that we take with understand this religion, however, it is not this resourceful and discriminating lecturer. necessary to search minutely for the precise Insight, discrimination, and freedom from words of Jesus as over against the editorial partisan judgment mark the work. There are element of the gospels, for the New Testament little slips here and there: the “Little Flowers” itself is a monument of Christianity. To becomes singular on p. 158; “Treitschke” understand our religion the life of Jesus and on p. 31 becomes “Treitsche” on p. 163 and that of the Christian commimity, as well as its loses “von” altogether. literature, must be studied. The volume is particularly significant in its careful, and on the whole conservative, trwt- The Ministry in the Church in Relation to ment of the influence of the mystery faiths Prophecy and Spiritual Gifts. By H. J. upon the New Testament religion. It moves Wotherspoon. New York: Longmans, over into a rather unexplored field in its dis¬ Green, & Co., 1916. Pp. xvi-faoS. $1.35. cussion of the significance to Christianity of the worship of the Roman emperors. The Thb b a highly specblized and somewhat total value of the book, however, does not lie technical discussion of the idea of the Chmrian in its detailed positions, about which there minbtry. Taking the twofold conception of may very readily occur questions. It lies the minbtry as Hamack defines it—^nrmely a rather in its point of view and in its method. “Charismatic and an Elective; of which the It represents pretty accurately the theological former depended only upon gift, and was oecu¬ and historical point of view which has been set menical in scope and in habit ambulatory, forth in The (^ide to the Study of the Christian while the latter depended upon appointment BOOK NOTICES 49 and was local and subordinate to the charis¬ Gospel b fab; the various views and theb matic ”—the author makes a careful study of the advocates are well and honorably represented. charismata in order to test the validity of this The conclusion b: “In the New Testament distinction. At the end of the long argtunent the greatest battle in the field of literary criti¬ the conclusion is reached that no such “ twofold cism has not been decided against the Johannine ministry” can be justified by the study of authorship of the Fourth Gospel. There are Christian origins. Instead there is imion of the as able defenders of the authenticity of the two. “It is not an antinomy of the charis¬ Fourth Gospel today as at an^ time in the past matic and the institutional; the Apostolate is centi^, and the many victones that have ^n both charismatic and institutional, and the won in the century and the evident weaknesses church as founded upon the Apostolate b both in the present-day assaults give promise that charismatic and institutional” [p. 207]. The the defense will be in complete possession of author’s treatment of the Congregational con¬ the field” (p. 153). The chapter summary ception is fair but summary. He sa3rs that it of the gospel is interesting (pp. 116-19). 'I'he was “intelligible and energetic; it embodied indexes are ample. The bilmography b excel¬ an idea.” He thinks it is “likely always to lent, not being overloaded with technical works appeal to one class of mind.” It is the “ proper in foreign languages. antithesis of the Catholic conception.” But its difficulties are largely historic^. It is with these that the author deals. The language is highly technical, and the argument far from The Unity of the Americas. By Robert E. convincing; but it is pursued with fairness Speer. New York: Missionary Education and without heat or disdain. To those who Movement of United States and Canada, consider the matter highly important this wffi 1916. Pp. v-t-ii6. I0.25. be an interesting and valuable book. It is printed on paper which is too thick, and the At first sight “The Divinity of the Americas ” volume is stiff to handle. would seem to be the more appropriate title, for there are divert heredities, racial con¬ fusion, divergent political ideab, all engender¬ John and His Writings. By D. A. Hayes. ing a Latin-American spirit and character totally unlike the spirit of An^o-Saxon America, New York: Methodist Book Concern, 1916. and a spirit, too, not at all kmdly to the United Pp. 328. Ji.7S- States. This book, a successor to Professor Hayes’s But a deeper view reveab the fact that Paul and His Epistles, contains five parts: a study American unity b after all a reality. Among of the apostle John: a survey of the gospd all elements of union are: the principle of according to John; the first epistle; the minor democracy; community of interests; a com¬ epistles; the Apocalypse. As this arrange¬ mon traditional love of international peace; ment of subject-matter indicates, the author less confusion of languages than in other large holds that John the Apostle was the author areas of population—^Spanish and En^ish of the Fourth Gospel, the three epistles that covering all America. Under four leading divisions—^politics, com¬ bear his name, and the Apocalypse. The con¬ struction of a pen picture of John from the merce, education, religion—Dr. Speer has meager fragments available is a piece of inter¬ brought an amazing amoimt of information that esting work. Every possible hint is seized upon most of us need. The fact that he has quoted so extensively from original sources adds much and used to its utmost advantage. Occasion¬ ally there are items used which would better to the value of the book—and all for twenty- five cental _ have been left out^ for example, the absurd story of the bugs (p. 42). There are passages wffi^ catch the eye and ear at once, for example, Bergson and Religion. By Lucius Hopkins “He had intense convictions and he was ca¬ Miller. New York: Henry Holt & Co., pable of most intense moral indignation. A 1916. Pp. ix-1-286. $1.50. contemplative man, he brooded, and then he blazed; he thought, and then he thundered.” Thb b a stimulating book on a subject vital In fact. Professor Hayes b always interesting. to all who are concerned with the future of reli¬ Hb style is clear and full of human touches that gious thou^t. The philosophy of Bergson are fascinating in their suggestiveness. Never- is finding wide acceptance^ and the bearing of thele^ we felt the accuracy of the criticbm thb fact upon theology is likely to become made by a New Testament scholar after hearing increasingly significant. Until M. Bergson a part of thb first section read, at a meeting, by expresses himself more fully on hb reli^ous the author: “Thb b the rhetoric and romance, opinions, we must draw our own conclusions but not the science, of Bible study.” At the thereupon from hb philosophical writing. same time, we all enjoy thb kind of romance. Thb Mr. Miller, assbtant professor of biblical The discussion of the authorship of the Fourth instruction in Princeton Umversity, has done in 50 THE BIBUCAL WORLD seven chapters, concluding appropriately with faith which are clearer or more credible than the significant theme “Immort^ty.” The Professor Clow’s discourse on thb theme under chapter on “Creative Evolution” closes with the fine title, “Dressed in Beauty Not My this proposition (p. 147): “The Bergsonian Own.” The preacher presents hb divisions, theory of evolution is compatible with religion propositions, and titles of sections so plainly and with a Christian faith.” Bergson’s empha¬ that there can be no least doubt as to how the sis upon intuition and the primacy of the spirit subject was dbposed in the preacher’s mind. b held to be “not only compatible with Chris¬ There are fertile developments of texts in thb tianity, but even favorable towards it,” instead volume, especially Eph. 1:1, “The Threefold of bei^ anti-ethical (p. 184). Bergson encour¬ Environment.” Also “A Song of the Upper ages our belief in person^ immortality. An Room,” using the great hymn of Bernard of extensive quotation b slipped out of place on Clairvaux, b notably fre^ and interesting. p. 78. The type b clear and the volume well But the primary factor in thb volume b the made, as b the general case with Holt books. preacher’s consciousness of the verity of the dbtinctly Chrbtian experbnce.

Christian Certainties: a Catechism of the Chris* tian Faith. By Robert E. Brown and Leslie The Master’s Way: A Study in the Synoptic H. Perdrian. Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1916. Goepele. By Charles Reynolds Brown. Pp. 32. $0.65 net. Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1917. Pp. ix-f-ss3. The custom of conducting classes of young people for training in Chrbtian truth, {^ner- Readers of the CongregcUionalist will recog¬ ally taught by the pastor, b extending widely. nize thb interesting study of the report of the There b increasing need for a clear, compre¬ Synoptic Gospeb concerning the life of Jesus as hensive, accurate textbook to be used in such containing the revised comments on the courses. Thb book b designed to meet the need. Sunday-school lessons which were printed there It contains eleven divisions, starting with “My¬ each week under the caption “Dr. Brown’s self” and covering in questions and answers the Bible Class.” There are ninety-one of these, chief Chrbtian doctrines. The authors have covering the entire gospel story. It b appar¬ worked from “the modem point of view.” We ent at once that Dean Brown’s work contains have tested the work chiefly by the seven ques¬ factors of permanent value. Weekly-lesson tions under the caption, “Sin and Salvation.” comments consbt so often in mere pious and The catalogue of sms b bewildering (there are obvious comment, designed for immedbte sug¬ thirteen of them; an imlucky number!), and the gestion and direction to perplexed teachers, ten virtues are too abstract. The p:^ of that they ma^ generally be classed in the Ibt Christ in the achievement of salvation b not of fugitive writings of the “pot-boiler” class. adequately treated; to say Chrbt “helps But Dr. Brown has sufficient keenness of in¬ us” IS not eiwugh. From the sales standpoint, sight, freshness of statement, and real power of the book b too expensive. interpretation to make hb collection of “lesson helps” worth preservation in thb permanent form. We note as an illustration chap. Ixv, The Bvangel of the Strait Gate. By W. M. treating the prayers of the Pharisee and the Clow. New York: Doran, 1916. Pp. xv-|- Publican, together with the feast at the house of Zacchaeus. Here b a characterbtic bit of 306. $1.35. interpretation and application: In the preface Professor Clow afl&rms that “When some meager soul seeks to justify modem preaching lacks the note of “persuasive hb own failure in not having openly professed urgency.” The ethical and social accent b hb faith in Chrbt and assumed hb rightful heard on every hand; but the passionate con¬ obligation as a member of the Chrbtian Church, viction of other great ages in preaching b not as he will often say, *I feel that I can be just apparent as it should be in the modem pulpit. as good outside of the church as some church The incarnation, the reality of the personal life members are.’ And when you inquire as to the under the guidance of the spirit, and the absolute terms of hb comparison you find that he b not necessity of surrender to Chrbt are the imder- measuring hb spiritual achievements by those lying convictions on which these sermons rest. of the active and normal Chrbtian. He has In the li^t of the preface it b imperative that picked out some poor runt of a church member we should feel the force of thb urgency de¬ who never succeeded in measiuing up to any¬ manded by the preacher in hb own work. And thing like the ordinary standard of Chrbtian we do not hesitate to say that it b there. The life and service. ‘Thank God I am not an twenty-su sermons are full of the profoimd con¬ extortioner or an adulterer’—what a ground victions that have inspired the best Chrbtian for boastful complacency!” preaching; but the expression b fresh and vigor¬ Thus, in quite unconventional terms that ous. There are few sermons of justification by bite at once. Dr. Brown has interpreted the BOOK NOTICES 51 familiar story. Jeaus appears in the midst of brief sketches of the artists mentioned and a the men with whom he lived, the human Com¬ carefully prepared index. As an example of rade and the divine Master. This b the work Mr. Bailees nandling of his material, we note of a teacher. the section on “Christ and the Rich Young Man,’’ pp. 354-63. Three pictures are studied, The Law of Congregational Usage. By William by Hofmann, von GebhaMt, and Watts. These are reproduce, the first in color, and the inter¬ £. Barton. Chicago: Advance Publishing pretation is most admirable. We do not see how Co., igid. Pp. xxvi+495. I2. so. a preacher or a Bible teacher could study these This is the most recent, complete, and prol^ pi^es without deriving practical help of the abty will be for many years the most authori¬ greatest value from them. The publi^era tative, treatment of the Congregational way of have used fine material in the book, but it is church government. It is the product of years somewhat stiff. of careful research, practical counsel, and per¬ sonal correspondence. Real situations rather A Pocket Congregational Manual. By William than imaginary problems are faced throughout E. Barton. Sublette, HI.: Puritan Press, the book. Dr. Barton has grouped his material under twenty-six sections; he introduces each 1914. Pp. 310. $1.50. subject by a concrete question. His answer, This is the seventh edition of Barton’s almost without exception, is clear, concise, and Manual. It is divided into five parts: “The adequate, and u often illustrated by citations Law of Deliberative Assemblies,’’ “Congre¬ from historical material which he has searched gational Theory and Practice,’’ “Compendium with discriminating and painstaking fidelity. of Forms,’’ “Miscellaneous Forms,’’ and “A Thus the reader is able to evaluate the author’s Book of Public Services.’’ Such a table^ of judgment from comparisons with other authori¬ contents is dearly dictated by the practical ties. Two sections are challenging: “The use to which the book is to be put. Almost Association Acting as CouncO” (No. 19) pre¬ everything that the average minister could sents a radical movement toward standing possibly need to know about the usage of centralized authority which even the writer’s churches congregationally governed is here cautious words (p. 330) do not render wholly presented in the concise and clear terms that assuring; “The District Association’’ (No. 17) Dr. Barton knows so well how to use. It is the displays a growth of functions in the Adviso^ best manual to be had and should be on the desk Committee which is fraught with certain of every minister of a church whose polity calls dangers not to be overlooked. Dr. Barton for him to know the fundamental rules and forms evidently reguds these developments as signs of the “Congregational way.’’ of life and not, under available safeguards, as sources of peril. _ Dr. H. F. Cope, the secretary of the Reli- The Gospel in Art. By Albert E. Bailey. Bos¬ mous Education Amodation, has issued a new ton: Pilgrim Press, 1916. Pp. x-l-483. (the sixth) edition of his achnirable book. The $3-00. Modern Sunday School and Its Present-Day Task. (Revell, $1.00). In the ten ye^ which To the minister and Bible teacher this book have passed since the publication of this volume is well-nigh indispensable. The value of pic¬ the progress of Sunday-school reform has been tures in all forms of church work is recogni^; so rapid as to make changes necessary. The but a discriminating guidebook has been hard book in its new form is even more useful than to find. We have it here. The Introduction it was originaliy. contains a brief statement of the spiritual significance of great pictures and a most helpful ducussion of the subject, “How to Study a Picture.’’ We commend this heartily to all The Federal Council Year Book for 1917, Bible teachers. Then follows a catalogue of prepared Iw Dr. H. L. Carroll (Missionary 1,337 pictures on the life of Christ, arnmged ^ucation Movement of the United States and in biographical sequence accordii^ to the Canada), covers the entire field of the religious Stevens and Burton Harmony, and giving infor¬ organizations of the United States, according mation as to available reproductions, with to the statistics and reports for 1916. The prices in many cases. Then comes a study of volume is a perfect treasure house of iifformation great pictures illustrating the life of Christ, with as to organizations, institutions, and church reproductions. The volume concludes with work both at home and abroad. THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION A PROFESSIONAL READING COURSE

Conducted by PROFESSOR EDWARD S. AMES UniTersity of Chicago

STUDY V. MYSTICISM

Required Books Underhill, Practical Mysticism. Buckham, Mysticism and Modern Life. Jastrow, The Subconscious. That there is a new interest in the subject of mysticism may be seen in the large number of recent books devoted to it. These books are of widely differing char¬ acter and value. Nowhere in the field of the psychology of religion is trained discrimination more needed. Many influences contribute to the present popular interest in mysticism. The development of the natural sciences since the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859 has been so impressive and masterful that anything like a mystical interpretation of life has had small chance for consideration by minds controlled by modem thought. A reaction against intellectualistic views has set in, however, and has already given comage to the champions of the more instinctive and volitional phases of experience. This reaction has been greatly strengthened by the writings of William James and other empiricists who are freely critical of scientific and philosophical dogmatism, especially of the narrowly mechanistic types. Aesthetic and emotional aspects of life, so long suppressed by the prevalent scientific habit of mind, are claiming recognition. The success of certain popular religiotis cults, which are strangers to genuine science, however much they claim the name, add their demands for a more comprehensive religious world-view. It is obvious that the traditional creeds were projected from a background now qtiite outgrown. A return to them is no longer possible. Mysticism has ever seized upon such periods of seeming confusion of thought. Just because the prevailing intellectual life is too narrow in respect to the vital things of the impul¬ sive and affective tendencies, and is emancipated from traditional dogmatism, a new opportunity is offered to the mystic to present his doctrine of the inability of knowledge to reach the highest reality. He recommends another path which it is the purpose of Miss Underhill’s book to explain as simply as possible. Mysticism may be defined both as a doctrine and as a practice with reference to the soul’s attainment of union with God. Negatively, it involves overcoming Sa AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE 6S the ordinary reliance upon the senses and the understanding in scaling the heights of the spirit. Practical Mysticism is the title Miss Underhill gives her book because it is designed to be a sort of manual to guide practical people to a successful cultivation of mystical exi>eriences. The theory is accompanied throughout by directions for its application. In the preface she says: “I have merely attempted to put the view of the universe and man’s place in it which is common to all mystics in plain and imtechnical language, and to suggest the practical conditions under which ordinary persons may participate in their experience.” She is probably as well qualified as any mystic of the present time to do this, as she has made an extended study of the history and psychology of the mystics which is embodied in her large work entitled Mysticism. The first three chapters of Practical Mysticism are devoted to “the reality and importance” of the faculty of mystical experiences “which all men possess in a greater or less degree.” By this assertion Miss Underhill separates herself from modem psychology, which has shelved the “faculty” theory of mind, and from the older faculty psychology itself, which never posited a mystical faculty. An attempt is made to show that men have the power to achieve an intuitive imion with reality, in much the same manner as the patriot knows his country, the artist the subject of his art, and the lover his beloved. The mystic experience is described as if it were identified with the passionate immediacy of intense feeling. “ The visionary is a mystic when his vision mediates to him an actuality beyond the reach of the senses. The phUosopher is a mystic when he passes beyond thought to the pure apprehension of tmth. The active man is a mystic when he knows his actions to be a part of a greater activity.” Capacity for vivid, intense emotional appreciation of things which are usually seen prosaically would seem to be about the equivalent of the mystical faculty. In such moods one does feel a keen elation, a sense of higher “levels,” a tang of wonder and mystery. The mystic interprets this to mean that one has attained deeper penetration into reality itself. In recommending this experience, it is customary to begin by iliscrediting the common-sense, ordinary view of the world. This is held to be fragmentary, subjective, and dull, while beyond it is another, lovelier world, “tinted with unimaginable wonders, alive with ultimate music.” It is necessary, accordingly, to purify one’s self from the common knowledge of the world, overridden as it is with convention and self-interest. This purification b achieved by the development of the power of will to control the attention. Attending to any object steadily for fifteen minutes, difficult as it is, brings rewards in new meaning, beauty, and power. Thus b attained, by repeated effort, the first stage of the contempbtive life. Involved in this b a realization of the disharmony and unreality of previous experience. It b a kind of “conviction of sin” which awakens the desire for drastic purgation. The con¬ flict which ensues b for the “severance of old habits, old notions, old prejudices,” to kill out smaller centers of interest. A large dbinterestedness b the goal of poet, artbt, and saint alike. It has often led mystics to the practice of the most austere asceticism. The seventh, eighth, and ninth chapters of Practical Mysticism deal with the main forms or stages of mystical union. They illustrate a striking characteristic 54 THE BIBLICAL WORLD of mystical literature in the matter of terminology. The terms are not those of scientific psychology, but are rather the words of emotional experience and of religious aspiration. It is consequently exceedingly difficult to hold them to strict, consistent usage. “Concentration,” “recollection,” and “illumination’’are the stages. Illumination has three phases which are three ways of contemplating Reality. They are the apprehension of Reality as Becoming, as Being, and as Divine Reality. The first, the Natural World of Becoming, is flowing and chan¬ ging in perpetual flux and will be seen not to be separated by fixed barriers into different elements and objects, but all things will appear transformed by new meaning and beauty. “Because of your new sensitiveness, anthems will be heard of you from every gutter; poems of intolerable loveliness will bud for you on every weed.” Every lowliest thing reflects the Transcendent Whole. In the second phase of illumination one realizes that the World of Becoming is not ulti¬ mate. You now begin to perceive each word in relation to the whole Poem to which it belongs. “Thanks to the development of the higher side of your con¬ sciousness, you are now lifted to a new poise; a direct participation in that simple, transcendent life, ‘broken, yet not divided,’ which gives to this time-world all its meaning and validity.” The third stage is the achievement of a certain passive submission to Reality in which one ceases all anxious striving. “An attitude of perfect generosity, complete submission, willing acquiescence in anything that may happen—even in failure and death—^is here your only hope.” The advent of this experience is incalculable and beyond direct control. In all of her writings Miss Underhill makes much of the point that mysticism does not end in contemplation, but is rather a means to active effort. “The mystics are artists; and the stuff in which they work is most often human life. They want to heal the disharmony between the actual and the real.” Several his¬ toric examples are given and it is no doubt true that mysticism has often been accompanied by great practical efficiency. It might well be questioned, however, whether the same attention given to scientific training and efficiency in the service of lofty ideals would not bring even greater results. Professor Buckham is also sympathetic toward mysticism. He thinks of it as “spiritual enlightenment,” as “the immediate sense of Supreme Reality.” He seeks to free it from confusion with vagueness, otherworldliness, occultism, and magic. That which appeals to him seems to be the emphasis upon inner feeling and appreciation as contrasted with cold and prosaic intellectualism. His writ¬ ing is clearer and simpler than much of this literature, and several fresh interpre¬ tations are contributed in this book. The Mystic Way is marked off into four stages here. There is very little uniformity as to the number. The minimum is three. Five and seven stages are often indicated, and in The Book of the Nine Rocks there are nine. Our author enumerates Awakening, Purification (Purga¬ tion), Illumination, Unification. These are described in a direct and unusually comprehensible manner. A chapter is devoted to “Health Mysticism,” in which Christian Science, New Thought, theosophy, and other such cults are included. These seek to rein¬ force the body, whereas the older mysticism sought to suppress it. While critical of its feeble metaphysics, the author says, “ Everyone who cares for the furtherance of the spiritual life has reason to hail this recent mushroom mysticism, as a fresh indication of the unquenchable longing of the human heart for the Infinite.” But AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE 55 it is intellectually weak and morally incompetent. It is inconsistent in placing inordinate emphasis upon physical health. How moderate and cautious a mystic Professor Buckham is may be clearly seen in his chapter on the “Defects and Limitations of Mysticism,” in which he discusses its tendency to extreme individualism with all its faults, its liability to extravagance and fanaticism, its minimizing of evil. In this connection he shows, too, that mysticism has not properly appreciated the institutional, political, social, and historical phases of life. In a discussion of mysticism and rationality an attempt is made to defend the familiar contention of mystics that there is a “higher reason” known also as intuition which they contrast sharply with ordinary judgment and inference. No modem psychologist, however, is quoted to justify such a doctrine of a transcend¬ ent reason. It is true .that, in comparison with the labored processes of analysis and inference, intuition is sometimes used to indicate the quick comprehension which a trained mind achieves with reference to its familiar field. But this facility is not something mysterious or transcendental. That it was so regarded in a prescientific age is not strange, but that it still confuses men familiar to a large extent with modem psychology is but another proof that the survivals from the earlier period endure long and are cleared away only with difficulty. The voluntaristic, fimctional view of psychology has been welcomed by many writers with mjrstical tendencies because it seems to reinstate the vaguer, less rational elements of experience. Professor James is a favorite authority in this connection. He was so ready to examine all phenomena, so hospitable to novel and academically tabooed subjects, that he has often been misunderstood. For example, because he was willing to examine cases and evidence in the work of the Society for Psychical Research he is commonly regarded as believing in spirit communication. As a matter of fact, he never expressed belief in these alleged phenomena, but distinctly declared that he was not convinced by the evidence. His attitude toward m3rsticism was much the same. The phenomena interested his himgry mind. The claims of having attained new modes of knowledge fascinated but did not persuade him. He explicitly said he did not share the mjrstic’s states and made an excellent attempt to put them into an order of events rising from cases of simple emotion and memory through various kinds of intoxica¬ tion produced by alcohol, ether, opium, and religious mania. More will be said of the principle involved here in the discussion of the subconscious. The commendable reserve of Professor Buckham is seen in his treatment of normal mysticism. To satisfy him mysticism must avoid excessive speculatiim, must enter into service and be practical, must avoid the occult and magical. “Science, art, commerce, industry, labor, society—all may be made holy. This is what the mystics of the past could not, except in rare instances and with limited vision, see.” The modem church is not the center of the present revival of interest in mysticism. That center is outside the church, and this is held to be a cause of serious concern. At the same moment, the church is not so vital and effective as it should be, especially in matters of worship. Emphasis upon social service is considered good, but it needs to be humanized and personalized. The develop¬ ment of the religion of the inner life may be the way to Christian unity. This is suggested by the present revolt against doctrinal theology and against literalism. 56 THE BIBLICAL WORLD

It is suggested that mysticism may even furnish a common ground for new under¬ standing and co-operation between Protestants and Catholics. The author regards mysticism as capable of taking on new forms, of appearing in social movements as well as in the lives of individuals, of belonging to a healthy natural¬ ism as well as to abnormal conditions, of displaying humor as well as austerity. In many passages in this suggestive book mysticism becomes almost, if not quite, identical with religion, thus broadening into indefiniteness. But when the term is used in its narrowest sense it becomes least convincing. Both facts suggest that something remains unsettled in the conception of mysticism itself. A chapter on m3rstical literature will open for the inquiring reader a world of strange but earnest writing and introduce him to a great company of eager souls who have had marvelous experiences which still await adequate interpretation. The Subconscious, by Joseph Jastrow, is brought into relation to the foregoing books because the phenomena with which it deals have so much in common with the problems of mjrstidsm. Professor Jastrow represents the point of view and the methods of modem scientific psychology. His book does not deal with the questions of religion. Some of these were treated by him in an earlier book entitled Fact and Fable in Psychology. The volume under review deals with the subconscious in its normal, its abnormal, and its theoretical a^cts. The general procedure is to show that there is no sudden break between the subconscious phenomena of normal, waking experience and the extreme, seemingly completely mysterious events of pathological forms. Thus in showing the mechanism of the subconscious, the case of Stevenson and his Brownies is brought in to illustrate the action of extra-marginal factors in such work as the serious literary achieve¬ ments of men of the first rank. Stevenson declared that they “do one half my work while I am asleep, and in all human likelihood do the rest for me as well, when I am wide awake and fondly suppose 1 do it for myself.” Similar cases are cited from the work of scientific men and inventors. In the clearest thinking asso¬ ciative processes are at work of which the thinker is not at the moment aware. In the discussion of the way in which thought matures and ripens are to be found many suggestions of importance in the interpretation of mj-sticism. The mystic is ever striving to achieve vision and peace. When these are attained at last, they seem to be given from without and not to come in response to effort. Thus one labors at a problem in mathematics and seems to make no progress. Afterward, while one is taking a walk, without having the attention centered upon the problem, its solution occurs to consciousness. It is the same with the familiar case of recalling a forgotten name. The minister who selects the subjects of sermons a week or longer in advance 'vill find material gathering to them in a most surprising way at times. Lapses of consciousness occur in all sorts of people and in most unexpected ways. Illustrations are abundant: “A, already retired for the night, leaves his bed to lock the door and finds it securely fastened; B, working at his desk on a warm summer day, decides to remove his coat and finds he has already done so.” Dreams present a wealth of informing illustrations of the activity of the subcon¬ scious and of its dependence upon normal activity. We often dream of those things which were most in consciousness when we went to sleep. “Dreaming may thus be viewed as a reversion to a more primitive type of thought, the less developed procedure being due negatively to the loss of voluntary regulation, and AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE 57 positively to the imaginative musings and self-contained reveries to which the natural movement of the mind dominantly trends.” Dreams were once held to be important media of revelation, channels through which new information came, but that view is no longer held. Other strange forms of mental activity, such as occur under intoxication or great religious excitement, have similarly been credited with supernatural significance, but are no longer.' There are, for example, the phenomena of the divided self or the dissociated consciousness, as in sonmambulism, hypnotism, and hysteria. In all of these cases the individual is not aware of the different r61es he takes, and yet there are definite relations between the seemingly widely separated selves. It is possible for a trained observer to discover the connections and to reintegrate the personality so that the subject no longer suffers from extreme changes of the self. It will be well to keep in mind while reading these interesting cases that the m)rstic’s tran¬ scendental consciousness is probably not so radically different from his usual self as are these selves of the various types of dissociated personality. The mystics, of the extreme types at least, may well be viewed as subject to various suggestions which gradually build up definite attitudes and habits. At first the difficulty in concentrating attention upon supersensuous reality is very great, but every effort made to achieve this end helps to impress upon the subject the existence and actuality of that with which he seeks union. At length, sometimes only after years of struggle and prayer, the mystical self, so to speak, is so fully formed that the devotee attains a sense of effortless unity. He seems taken up and held within a Power greater than himself and outside himself. Whether he is blessed with visions and comforting voices depends much upon his temperament and his mental imagery. That he should insist upon talking of such experiences in words of devotion and emotional exaltation is not strange. Neither is it marvelous that he should be unable to describe to others what he experiences in these states. They are events truly of another order from his normal life, and for him they may have the value of divine illumination, but they are not on that accoimt superior to psychological investigation and explanation. It is perhaps not too much to say that as yet no sufficient treatment of mysti¬ cism has been undertaken by modem psychology. Beginnings at the task have been made by James and Leuba and Coe, but the comprehensive investigation and interpretation remain for the future. As yet the mystics have written too exclu¬ sively as reporters and apologists for mysticism, while the psychologists have been preoccupied with other tasks.

Book* for Farther Reading Underhill, Mysticism. Von Hiigel, The Mystical Element in Herman, The Meaning and Value of Religion. Mysticism. Hocking, The Meaning of God in Human Inge, Christian Mysticism. Experience. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion.

Writings of Mystics Augustine’s Confessions. George Fox’s Journal. Theologia Germanica. Pascal’s Thoughts. The Imitation of Christ. Tauler’s Sermons. THE PROBLEM OF SUFFERING IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

BY J. M. POWIS SMITH

AN OUTLINE BIBLE-STUDY COURSE

[Those who desire to conduct classes or to have this course in separate form can secure rq>rints from the Amekican Institute op Sacked Ltieratuke, The University OP Chicago, at twenty-five cents for the course of five months. Leaders of classes will also be provided with a series of programs and suggestions, as well as lists of reference books, upon reporting classes to the Institute.]

STUDY IV THE PROBLEM OF SUFFERING AND THE LIFE AFTER DEATH Many people in all ages have sought consolation for themselves, in the face of the misery and loss attending the life that now is, in the thought of reparation or compensation in the life that is to come. This interpretation of the problem of suffering is well phrased in the New Testament statement: "For our light afflic¬ tion, which is for the moment, worketh for us more and more exceedingly an eternal weight of glory” (11 Cor. 4:17). In this closing lesson of our series we shall try to discover to what extent the Hebrews comforted themselves for present sorrows with the thought of blessings in the life to come. § 49. It is a well-known fact that practically all primitive races have believed in the persistence of the personality after the death of the body. Such a volume as Sir James G. Fraser’s Immortality gives abundant proof of this proposition. It may be taken for granted, therefore, that the early Semites, too, believed in the per¬ sistence of the spirit after the death of the body. There is, indeed, plenty of evidence of this fact; we may give but a few specimens. First day.—^An inscription of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, in describing the overthrow of his enemies, viz., the kings of Elam, sajrs of them: “I took their bones to Ass3nia; I gave their shades no rest; and I deprived them of their food and drink-offerings.” Does not this show that the Assyrians thought of all men, even their foes, as continuing to exist after death and, in the case of lings at least, as p>assing into the class of divine beings ? Second day.—^The same belief in the persistence of the spirit after death is reflected in another Assyrian inscription, which bids the survivors of the deceased "pour out a libation that the dead may be stayed.” This certainly corresponds in part to the conception of "ghosts,” still powerful in many minds. Third day.—^Among the Bedouins of today, who continue the practice of many customs that are ages old, sacrifices are spoken of as made "for the sake of Allah.” Exactly the same formula is used of certain other sacrifices which are said to be made "for the sake of the dead.” This seems to point to the classification of departed spirits as belonging in the order of the gods or demons. In any case they certainly are thought of as stirviving. S8 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE 59

Fourth day.—$ 50* The same attitude toward departed ^irits is foimd among the early Hebrews. Read I Sam., chap. 38, which shows that the con¬ temporaries of Samuel, even so intelligent a man as King Saul, evidently believed in the continuance of the spirit after death and thought that such spirits might be called back to earth if the proper agencies were employed. Note especially vss. 13, 14, where the woman says, “I see a god coming up out of the earth.” The word “god” here is precisely the word used to characterize Jehovah himself. Observe that Saul has no hesitation in identifying this “god” as Samuel. Fifth day.—§ 31. Read the story of the death of David’s child of sin, in U Sam. X3:15-33. Consider particularly vs. 33. Does not this phraseology seem to show David is thinking of the boy as still living, though in the place of departed spirits ? Sixth day.—{ 53. It is a noteworthy fact that the great Hebrew prophets are almost wholly silent regarding the subject of life after death. At first thought this might be accounted for by supposing that the conception had not yet come into being in Israel, but the facts are all against that explanation. This prophetic silence is rather to be explained by the fact that the prophets were primarily con¬ cerned with the interests of the Hebrew nation rather than with those of individuals as such. They were the guides of the national destiny, and this task was more than sufficient to absorb all of their time and energy. Individuals were of interest to them only in so far as these individuals were significant for the national life. Notwithstanding the silence of the prophets, it is quite clear that the belief in the existence of the spirit after death persisted in Israel all down through the prophetic centuries. Read Deut. 18:9-130, noting the prohibition of necromancy therein con¬ tained. Bear in mind that the Book of Deuteronomy was promulgated about 631 B.c. The makers of that code of laws did not waste their time in legislating against non-existent abuses or errors. The fact that a law is directed against the practice of consulting departed spirits is convincing evidence that that practice was actually in vogue at this time. Seventh day.—§ 53. Read Deut. 14:1, 2 and 36:14, noting the significance of these laws wherein certain practices connected with the worship of the dead are prohibited. Read also Lev. 19:38, wherein the same prohibition is contained, and remember that the code of laws contained in Leviticus is quite generally regarded as having come into effect in the fifth century B.c. Eighth day.—§ 54. Read Isa. 8:19, 30, in which this prophet protests against the current habit of consulting with the spirits of the dead. Interpreters differ here as to whether the prophet’s own words begin in the middle of vs. 19 or at the beginning of vs. 30; perhaps the weight of evidence is slightly in favor of the latter supposition. But in either case it is testimony to the practice of necromancy. Ninth day.—§ 55. Read H Kings 48:-37, in which Elisha is represented as having brought to life again the son of the widow who had shown him kindness. Does not this indicate likewise that the spirits of those departed were thought to continue their existence? Read II Kings 13:20, 31, wherein Elisha’s body is represented as having had power to revivify one who had been long dead. This of course shows the same conviction that the spirit of the d^arted was still living somewhere. None of these passages shows us anything more than the thought 60 THE BIBLICAL WORLD of a bare existence on the part of the departed spirit. There is no suggestion anywhere of the thought that the existence of the departed spirit was at all worth¬ ful or desirable. There b nothing in the way of longing on the part of the living for entrance into this life beyond the grave. Tenth day.—§ 56. Read Ezek. 37, in which the prophet in figurative fashion strives to encourage Israel, now in exile, to believe that the days are coming when the Hebrew nation, though now dead, shall be revivified and exalted to great glory. Thb of course b a doctrine of national resurrection, not of individual resurrection. Nevertheless re-read the passage and ask yourself the following questions. The prophet b striving to present an unfamiliar, yes indeed, a hard, thought to his people. He seeks, therefore, in thb figurative way to make it simple and easy of comprehension to them. Would he have employed the thought of the resur¬ rection of individual bodies, as he does here, for purposes of illustration if that thought had been wholly unfamiliar to hb hearers ? Is it not a sound principle of pedagogy that the unknown should be illustrated by means of the known, the unfamiliar by the familiar? Were not the prophets masters of the art of teaching? Is it likely that Ezekiel would have made so great a mistake as a teacher as to confuse hb people hopelessly by attempting to explain one imfamiUar thought by another absolutely imknown ? Is not thb passage then, which deab primarily with national resurrection, really to be understood as involving the exbtence in the minds of the people of that day of a belief in individual, personal resurrection ? Eleventh day.—§57. Read Isa. 26:16-19, and note that the prophet b speaking to a people who are in the lowest depths of despair. Looking back upon their past hbtory, a hbtory full of suffering and disaster, they are unable to see that they have accomplbhed anything, nor does the future seem to hold in store anything better for them. The prophet, however, has a different thought. In vs. 19 he assures them, just as Ezekiel did in chap. 37, that the nation b to come to life again. Notice that he uses exactly the same figurative way of express¬ ing thb thought that Ezekiel has employed in chap. 37. The time of thb prophet b not definitely known, but chaps. 24-27 are pretty generally sup(>osed to come from the Greek period—that b to say, some time after Alexander the Great, 333 B.C. Tivelfth day.—§ 58. While isolated utterances, such as these we have been considering, demonstrate the presence in the Hebrew mind of the belief in the persbtence of the spirits of the departed, it b noticeable, on the one hand, that there are exceedingly few utterances upon the subject up to the time of the exile, and, on the other hand, that alongside of this belief in the persbtence of the spirit there exbted a conception of Sheol, the place of departed spirits, which impresses us as anything but attractive. Read Ps. 6, noting vs. s, in which it b dbtinctly stated that Jehovah may expect no gratitude, no remembrance, from those who have gone down into Sheol. Thirteenth day.—§ 59. Read Ps. 30, noting vss. 8 and 9, in which the same cheerless aspect of Sheol b emphasized. Fourteenth day.—§ 60. Read Ps. 88, noting vss. $ and 10-12, in which the dead are thought of as those who are even forgotten by Jehovah, and who may AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE 61 expect no favors from him, partioilarly vs. lo, in which the proposition of a resur¬ rection of the dead is practically denied. Fifteenth day.—§6i. Read Ps. 115 and note vss. 17 and 18, in which in similar fashion the dead are declared to contribute nothing to Jehovah in the way of praise. Sheol is a region of silence. Sixteenth day.—§62. Read Eccles. 9:3-6, in which in the most emphatic fashion the dead are described as those who know nothing, who expect nothing, and who are wholly forgotten by the living and have no expectation whatsoever. Seventeenth day.—§ 63. Read Isa. 38:17-19, wherein the poet thanks Jehovah for having kept him out of Sheol and goes on to say that this is well, since those in Sheol are cut off from God, cannot sing his praises, and have no hopes in him. Eighteenth day.—§ 64. Read Job 7:7-10, in which the poet very clearly expresses his conviction that death ends all. He represents God in days to come as having repented himself of his harshness toward Job and as himself looking for Job (vs. 8), only to discover that Job has eluded him forever through death. Observe how in vss. 9 and 10 the thought of resurrection is practicaUy excluded. Nineteenth day.—§ 65. Read Job 14:7-13, in which the fate of the tree is con¬ trasted with the fate of man. When the tree is cut down, it springs to life again. When men die, they sleep never to wake again. But read vss. 13,14, and notice how Job, recoiling from the paralyzing horror of the description he has just given in vs. 13, utters a wish that Sheol might be for him a place in which he might await the cooling of Jehovah’s anger and from which he might come forth to resume his former relations with Jehovah. But in vs. 14 does he not emphatically push aside such a thought as impossible? Observe that in the Hebrew in the first line of vs. 14 the word “again” is not present. What the Hebrew sa}^ is this: “When a man dies, is he alive?” To ask such a question, of course, is to answer it. Observe, however, that in the latter part of the verse Job recurs to this longing for a chance in the life to come. Having once been raised, the ques¬ tion (vss. 13-15) will not down. Twentieth day.—^Read Job 14:18-23, observing that Job closes this considera¬ tion of the significance of death by reaffirming in the strongest possible language the fact that death practically ends all. Notice particularly vs. 33, which seems to leave the departed spirit a bare existence, but which distinctly represents that existence as one consisting only of pain and sorrow. Twenty-first day.—§ 66. Read Job 19:23-27. Bear in mind in coming to this passage that Job has nowhere else in the book, before this point or after it, enter¬ tained the thought of a worthful life after death as a possibility for himself. Does he come to a new conception of the life hereafter in this passage ? As we saw in our last study, he quite clearly states his conviction that Jehovah will ultimately be found on his side, attesting his innocence and defending him from all attacks. But does he think of this vindication by God as taking place in the life that now is, or after his death ? If the latter, does he think of himself as consciously partici¬ pating in that triumph, or is it a vindication in which he himself has no conscious part? Twenty-second day.—^Let us follow the course of thought in the passage of yesterday more closely. In vss. 33 and 34 Job longs for a permanent record of the facts of his life that coming generations may know that he was a righteous 62 THE BIBUCAL WORLD man. In vs. 35 he puts this thought away from himself and sa)rs that the One who knows his innocence and will attest his righteousness, his vindicator, is God himself. Up to this point there is no difficulty whatsoever in understanding the passage, but from this point and on difficulties abound. The main ones are the following: the word translated “at last” in vs. 25 is better rendered “as a later one.” Does this mean that, after all other witnesses have spoken and have sought to condemn Job, Jehovah as the last witness will gloriously vindicate him ? The word translated “earth” in vs. 35 is really the word for “dust.” Does that mean the dust of Job’s body ? And therefore is this whole experience to take place after Job’s death? In vs. 36 the phrase “after my skin’’ is perhaps equivalent to “when I am dead’’; but it may also be rendered “behind my skin,’’ which would mean “while I am still alive.’’ In vs. 36 the phrase “without my flesh,’’ which thus translated naturally means “as a disembodied spirit,’’ may equally well be translated “from my flesh,’’ that is, “from the standpoint of my body’’—in other words, “in my lifetime.’’ In the face of such imcertainties as these, it is unsafe to say what Job 19:35, 36 means, other than that it is Job’s confident assurance of his ultimate vindication. Whether he thought of that vindication as an experience to come prior to his death or to come after his death must remain unknown to us. The emphasis of the Book of Job as a whole upon the finality of death rather tells against Job 19:25, 36 as looking forward to Job’s conscious participation in an experience of vindication after death. But, we must reaffirm, there can be no certainty as to the meaning of this passage. Tiventy-third day.—§ 67. Read Ps. 16, noting in vss. 9 and 10 the exulting confidence of the speaker. What is the basis of this joy? Vs. 10 would be more accurately and clearly translated, “Thou wilt not forsake or abandon me to Sheol. Thou wilt not suffer thy holy one to see the pit.’’ The “holy one’’ here is Jehovah’s nation, Israel. It is represented as rejoicing in the assurance that Jehovah will not allow it to go down to death. He will not abandon it to the insatiable jaws of that frightful monster. He has in store for his people a glorious future, the thought of which buoys them up. Twenty-fourth day.—§ 68. Read Ps. 30, in which, in vss. 3 and 3, the same note of thankfulness is sounded. The poet, speaking in Israel’s behalf, rejoices that Jehovah has “kept me alive that I should not go down to the pit.’’ It must be borne in mind that these psalms came from days when the nation was appar¬ ently on the brink of destruction. It was only by an effort of the mightiest faith that the religious leaders of Israel were able to keep alive the spirit of confidence in God and the hope for a glorious future. It was by the constant reiteration of such thoughts as these on the part of psalmists and prophets that the nation’s faith in Jehovah was maintained. Twenty-fifth day.—$ 69. Read Ps. 73. Observe that the theme of this psalm is the problem of suffering. Note in vss. 3-13 how the poet sets forth the fact of the prosperity of the wicked, and how for a time that prosperity was to him a great problem. Observe how (vss. 13-19) after meditation and prayer upon this problem the poet came back to the old orthodox proposition that the wicked are doomed to sudden destruction. Re-read vss. 20-26, noting the ^)eaker’s confident assurance of his continual communion with God. Vs. 34 is rather vague in its meaning. The common translation, “receive me to glory,’’ is hardly legitimate. What the text AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE 63 really says is “and afterward thou wilt take me gloriously.” Whether this refers to a life after death or not is wholly uncertain. The main thought of the passage in any case is the poet’s exultant joy in contemplation of the fact of his continual communion with God, who is for him the desire of his heart, whether in the heavens or on earth. He can conceive of nothing superior to God’s gift of himself to his people. Twenty-sixth day.—§70. Read Ps. 49:1-14, noting the poet’s confidence that for the wicked death ends all. In contrast with that, read vs. 15, observing that the speaker seems to declare that God will save him from death and will “take” or “receive” him. Just what is meant by this latter expression “take or receive” is not clear. It may be noted that exactly the same expression is used in the story of Enoch. “Enoch was not, for God took him.” The taking cer¬ tainly does not mean death. Does it mean ascension to the heavens as in the case of E^jah ? Twenty-seventh day.—§ 71. Read Ps. r7, especially vss. 13-15, in which the poet calls down the curse of God upon the wicked and in contrast with their fate declares confidently that he himself will enter into intimate communion with God. The last line of vs. 15 is another figurative and uncertain passage—^namely, “I shall be satisfied when I awake with thy form.” What does the term “awake” mean here ? Is it awake from death, or is it the normal awakening of the morning after the night’s sleep, or is it an awakening of the nation to prosperity and honor after a period of disaster and gloom ? As bearing upon the meaning of Ps. 17:15 read Ps. 3:5, in which the awakening referred to is clearly an experience in the life that now is. Twenty-eighth day.—§ 72. Read Ps. 139. Note vss. 17 and 18, in which the conception of the preciousness of conununion with God reappears. Here it evi¬ dently refers to an experience in this life, whether the awakening after the night’s sleep or after a period of gloom and discouragement is not wholly clear. Twenty-ninth day.—§ 73. Read Isa. 25:6-8, in which the prophet is confi¬ dently portraying the future, especially as it affects his own people. Looking back upon an experience that has been fraught with disaster and destruction, he thinks of the glorious age to come as involving the destruction of death itself and the consequent removal of all cause for sorrow. Thirtieth day.—§ 74. Read Dan. 12:1-3. Bear in mind that the writer is describing tbe course that events will take at the end of the age. This writer lived in the days of the Maccabees about 165 b.c. He looks back upon the long history of desolation, destruction, and death. He looks forward to a messianic age of glory. But, after he contemplates this glorious future, two things are borne in upon his mind; the first is the fact that so few of God’s faithful people are left to establish the Kingdom of God. There are really not enough of them to establish a kingdom worthy of their great King, God himself. On the other hand, as he thinks of the sufferings endured by generation after generation of his own people, it is borne in upon him that these people ought not to be deprived of any share in the future glory. He therefore, from the point of view of both of these lines of thought, pushes forward to the utterance of the doctrine of the resurrection. Note, however, that this resurrection is only partial. It is not universal. “ Many of them that sleep in the dust shall awake.” Not all—“some to everlasting life 64 THE BIBUCAL WORLD and some to shame and everlasting abhorrence.” This is not a consistent, com* prehensive vision of the resurrection; it is rather an idea worked out to meet a given situation. Notice that this, the only passage in the Old Testament in which there is certainly expressed the thought of resurrection to a life that is distinctly desirable, grows out of the needs of a situation that is attended vrith great suffering and sorrow; that is to say, the doctrine of a future life as it is expressed in the Old Testament was finally linked up with the problem of suffering and was made to serve as the solution, or at least a partial solution, of that problem.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

I. Give some of the evidence that all ancient nations believed in the con¬ tinuance of life after death. 3. Give instances that show the belief of the Hebrew people in this subject in the days of Saul and David. 3. Were such beliefs an inheritance or a new revelation through great moral leaders such as Samuel ? 4. How did the great lawmakers regard the doctrine or practice of consulting departed spirits ? 5. What story about Elisha gives further proof that the people believed that the departed ^irits of good people could help them ? 6. What form did the idea of resurrection take in the minds of those prophets who were supremely concerned with the national life and hopes ? 7. What great story from Ezekiel illustrates this ? 8. How did writers of the exilic and pre-exilic periods picture life after death in its relation to God ? 9. How in relation to activities or pleasure ? 10. Was the future life which they pictured in any way to be desired ? If so, why ? II. Why did not Job accept in peace of mind the beliefs of his day ? 13. Tell what you can of Job’s mental struggle concerning the future, and give any conclusions which it seems to you that he reached. 13. Did the psalmists and poets differentiate between the righteous and the wicked in their views of life after death ? 14. Quote references showing that communion with God, whether in the present or in the future life, was thought of by some Hebrew writers as the highest good, the supreme satisfaction, of religion. 15. Give a quotation which indicates the supreme ideal that death itself would eventually be destroyed. 16. What is the contribution of the Book of Daniel to this theme ? 17. How is all this thought about the future life associated with the problem of suffering in the Old Testament ? 18. Does our modem hope of immortality arise from the same problem, or is there now a larger point of view than escape from the possibility of suffering ? 19. What is your ideal of life after death ? 30. Name some things which you have gained from the study of this course.