University of Nigeria Research Publications

OBIUKWU, Christopher Ikechukwu Author PG/M.SC/92/14114

Nigeria and Her Neighbours: An Analysis of the

Title Socio-Economic Factors in Conflict Relations

Social Sciences Faculty

Political Science Department

September, 1996 Date

Signature

TITLE PAGE

NIGERIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS: AN ANALYSIS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS IN CONFLICT RELATIONS

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL PULFILMENT OF THE REQU1RE:MENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF SCIENCE (MoSc.) IN POLITICAL SCIENCE (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS)

SCHOOL OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA

OBIUKWU , CHRISTOPHER 1 KECHUKWU ~~/~oSc0/92/14114

FEBRUARY, 1996 OBXUK\W, Christopher Ikerhukwu, a post graduate student in the DepaJ-tmerit of political Science and wf th the Registra- tion No, P~/M,Sc/92~14114has satisfactory completed the requirerents for Course and Research-work for the degree of Master of Science f n ~olitic'al Science (International

Relations),

he work err.b~diedin this project report is original and laas not heen submitted in part or full for any other d!.plama or. ctcqree OF this or any other University,

------,-- Prof, Aforkn Mvcke OF DEPARTNENT iii

DEDICATION

T 0

ALL THE VICTIMS OF RORDER

OWPLICTS IN AFRICA ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

his work would not have been possible but for

~0d.sinfinite mercy and protection. I express my gratitude to the Almighty Father and to the entire members of obiukwu*~family.

I will ever remain grateful to my Supervisor, Dr. H.A. Asobie, who thoroughly and painstakingly inspired and guided me to the accomplishment of this scholarly task. Dr. ~sobie'sscholarly qualities inspire

students everywhere. I thank God for the opportunity

to share in his rare qualities and inspiration. These

fired more, my curiousity for knowledge; and contributed immensely to the ouccessful completion of this work. ~y appreciation and gratitude also go to my

mentor, Dr, A.E.C. Ogunna for his encouragement and support to me throughout the period of this programme,

uzoechi and Mr. Batcheson, G. ~gbachiare worth mentioning here for their invaluable advice and

, encouragement to me. Many thanks to my very good friends Raphel ~joku,

Rsph N jemanze, ~esmondosueke, Chikodi Okoro, Patterson

~keocha,Sunday (CUTO) and Patrick Aneke. I owe great affection and love to all these yowngmen who are striving towards their self-awareness and towards human development. v PREFACE

his study is an attempt to examine and analyse the cause(s) of conflicts which have characterised relations between ~igeriaand her immediate naiqhbours. ~tscentral focus is on the analysis of the socio- economic factors and the political/legal jurisdictions of the bordering states as accountable for the central issue of border conflicts in the sub-region.

~t is calculated that understanding the roles of

.these factor is very important in serving as a guide to the interacting states in their policies and actians. Especially, policies and actions that are related to the promotion and harmonleation of conf lfct-f ree relations and f nduced co-operrtion. The study is structured in a manner that allows for easy.and proper understanding of its historical, empirical and analytical thrust. The entire work is divided into six chapters, all logically linked to the other. Chapter one deals with the general introduction, Review of existing literature and theomtical framework.

Chapter two deals with the Background inf errnation.

It emphasized the need for proper understanding of the evolution and character of ~igeria'sborders with her immediate ncighbours in the analysis of border conflicts between them. The deteriorating socio-economic conditions of the sub-region and their consequent result to mass human and material movements across the borders, as major factors in the conflict relations among the bordering states are empirically analysed in chapter three. Chapter four examined and analysed critically,

common resources available in the shared borders of ~igeriaand her immediate neighbours and how their use .and exploitation have provoked irkdssant conflicts and clasheses between them - especially, between ~iyeriaand catneroun. Zmpedaments to solutions f~r the border problem were discussed in chapter Five.

ina ally, Chapter Six deals with the Conclusion and Summary of the entire work, ~t underlines, in general terms, the empirical and theoretical issues

in the work. vii

-. TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE Title page ...... i Certification ...... ii Dedication .. o .. iii ~cknowledgement. . .. iv Preface .t .. ..I v Table of Contents .. .. vii CHAPTER ONE: Introduction .. .. Statement of problem .. Objective of study .. significance of study .. Scope of study .. .a geview of Existing Literature Theoretical Framework .o Research Hypo theses .. ~ethodology .. .. ~otesand ~eferences .. CHPTER TWO:

2.0 Nigeria and Her ~eighbours; Background ~nformation .. 2. 1 Evolution of ~iqerian~oundaries With Her ~eighbours .. .. 2.2 The communities In The ~orderr Areas (Ethnic Groups And Sub-Groups) .. 2.3 Economic Resource potentials of Nigeria's Border Areas with Her Neiqhbours 2.4 ~llegalcross- order Trade .. ,2.5 ~otes~nd ~ef erences ., .. CHAPTER THREE: 3.0 Socio-Economic Dimension .of the conflicts ...... viii CONTENTS CONT'D. PAGE

3.1 Inter-Play of Forces in the Conf lictual Relations between Nigeria and Her ~eighbours 3.2 Refugees Migration .. 3.3 Economic Migratory Activities Across Nigeria's borders with her xmmediate Neighbours . 3-44 Notes and References .. CHAPTER FOUR:

4.0 Use and Exploitation of Common Resources and Conflict between Nigeria and her ~eighbours 4-1 water and water Resources .. 4.2 Fishing As a Source of Conflict in ~igeria's elations with her Noighbours .. .. 4-3 oil ~xploitationAs a Source of Conflict in ~igoria'sRelations with her Neighbours .. 4-4 Notes and References ..

5.0 Impedernents To Solution for Border problems .. .. 5.1 Convergence of aiverse State Control AgencLes at the i3order Area . .. .. ' 5.2 Lack of Permanent Settlement (~ediation)Machinary .. 5-3 Conflicting National Laws in Nigeria Border Area with her neighbours .. .. 5.4 ~otesand ~eferences .. CONTENTS CONT'D.

P AGE I__

6.0 Conclusion ,. 6.3 FOCUS of the study

6.2 Summary .. I . 6.3 Conclusion .I

BIBLIOGRAPHY CfIAPTER CNE

INTRCDUCTICN

World politics its played &laon&atates. Although they differ in mize, at~ength,culture and political forms, theae states are ~egardeda8 the 8Bief act~ra in world politicn. Their interests and aapimtions, the eonflictm amon& them and other liakr of selatiop- mhipe among them and tkeils people oomprime the primary eubJeclm of intesnational politiae. Ia the eondust of Nigeria'm international ~elationa, her mub-regional proximate neighboum are important in Nigeria's geo-political ealoulations. For reasonm of geographical proximity, eommon hiatoriaal experiences, between Nigeria and her neighboura, Nigeria cannot afford to ignore thea. Nor oan ~igeria'sneighbourr ignore her. W~itinyon Nigeria - neighboura mlationa therefore, provide8 an opportunity to look at an aepect of Nigeria'. external relations. This aspect aoncerna the iaaue of the international boundary p~oblera, the haraoni~ation

of eonflist-free and iaduced eo-operation with her neighbou~s. Higeria's proximate aeiqBbours are: the Republie of Benin in the Wert, Niger Republic in the North, and Chad whieh st~etrhelrfma Lake Chad in the Northeaat. 2

Alro there am the Republias of Camesoun in the Eaet and Xquatorial Guinea in the South. ligeria ha8 had ronflictr of different dimenaiona with theae neiyhbourm ranginy froi i~auerof ter~itorialclaim, the use and exploitation of ahared bo~derresourea and illegal eroaa-border movement of people and goods. However, the neighboura with which Nigeria had had the most frequent aonflicta over boundary groblena are Cameroun and Chad, and to a lesser extent with Benin and Niger. Hence, it beeornea apparent, that a aentral issue in the study of Nigeria's external lrelationa with her neighboura is ronflict. Nigeria'a relations with her immediate neighbour have been generally ohsracteriaed by ronflict.

A -A STATEMEETT CF PRCBLEM: The following question8 are posed for investigation:

Why is Nigeria'a relationship with her neighb~urs generally characteriaed by confLict? Is that a common experience among atatea aa neighboura? Is it the result of the nature of the colonial border imposed on them?

Cotild it be associated with the presence of colonial power8 (eagecially ~rance)in the neighbouring

territories? Again, why is thia conflict more pronounced and conatant in her reJ.ationahip with Bane neighboura (especially Chad and Cameroun), than with others

(eq. Benin and Niger)? Why have efforta toward8 solving these problem8 failed? These queations constitute the reseamh probzem of thia study.

1 2 OBJECTIVE CF STUDY: The primary objective of this atudy i8 to examine cloaeZy and analyae the factors which account for the conflicting interactions characte~isticsof Nigeria's relations with her immediate neighbours. It also intends to aactertain the cauae(8) for the va~iations in the degree of conflict between Nigeria and her individual atate neighbour. Finally, it ia the air of' the atudy to analyae the role of ~ocio-economic

' forcea as factor6 in the conflict between Nigeria and her neighboura; and to find out why efforta aimed at aolviny Nigeria ' a internat ional boundary yroblems

have 60 far failed.

1 03 SIGNIFICANCE CF STUDY: "The national security of Nigerians, when properly conceived ia naturally inte*wined with the prevailing condition8 in the contiguoua countries .. . , "the national aecurity of' Nigeria is the aeeurity of the immediate neighbours, and vice versa*.' 4 Again, ''~egiona or sub-regions defined on the ba8ia of geogmphical comtigriity and elentent of coBtlon interests, paaticularly of euono~aicchsracter .. . should grove n uaseful labouratories for deteming the extent of common grorud world vide."?

The study of Nigeria and he^ neighbours is significant and ~elevantat this time when the world community is mov iny toward8 regional and sub-reyional integmtion. This can only be promoted on the bedrock of mutual underatandin8 among the contiguous atates, auch as Nigeria and her immediate neighbours. The analysia of the varioua eources and forces of conflict will give clue to suggestions for harnessing their shared Feaourcee towa~duaub-regional integrations. In turn, this wi2l rerve a8 a bulwark against the ugly neo-colonial thrust and manifestations in the region.

-I e.4 SCCPE CF STUDY:

In the context of this atudy - Nigeria and her neiyhbours, the scope of atudy will cover Nigeria's inmediate four neighbours which incZude Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroun. These status constitute the inner most circle in what Bari'8 Administration described

as "Pattern of concentric circlew3 defined within the context of' geographical contiauity. The study also will cover the period of years atsetchinu from q980 to q99& which have witnessed major conflicts and socio-euonomic crisjia,

The conflictiny character of Nigeria's rclation- ahiy with her immediate neiqhbours has attracted a lot

of scholarly studies, Effort8 have been made by different studies to situate the factors responsible for this conflictual relations and how best to promote a conflict-free relations and co-operation between them, Among these numer2ua factors are:

(i) the nature of colonial borders imposed on Nigeria and her neighbours.

(ii) cross-boundary movements and activities.

(iii) the influence of foreign powers among Nigeria'a neiyhbouss.

(I) The Nature Cf Colonial Borders Imposed Cn Nigeria And Her Nsighbours:

Borders are the 8onea in which there are econoric, aocial, cultural and political interactions between or amon& states. It could alao refer to territories or zones cl~seto the boundaries of a political unit. The nature of African borders and boundaries in genera>, and Higeria and her neighboura in particular, has been identified and amlyaed ae constituting the major cauae of cunfZista (eapesia22y between or among neighbouriny atatea) in Africa.

Zartman (q 969) writing on Afpisan boundary problems projected that the neness of Africa etatea and the ir~elevanceof their yeogmphisal frames to their economic, social and political lives make the continent potentially more auace_ntible to territorial disputes than any other. He observed that "there are so many real and goesible boundary problems in Africa that it ia a living museum for taxonomy and amlyeiaU.4 Me also focuaed on the dynamics of frontier conflicts, to identify three units of interests and identity in which states will atrive to achieve coincidence. These he classified as; the popular unit or nation, the organisat ional or party-gove~ment, and the territorial unit or country. The efforts of states to achieve coincidence among these three units of interest and identify will often lead to problems. Cn the drive for popular mi t or nation, he feared that the broken historical contiauity chracteri-

atic of yre-colonial African lives, by colonialism will serve as a potential juatif ication for boundary claim8 in the new African atates. State8 make boundary claims because the# bezieve that either the peoyle (popula~unit) or the land (territorial unit) in queation am or were theirsbl .5 Boyd (1 9-79}, in an ealightening atudy of the origins of conflict or the African continent, explainer conflicts along African borders in terms of aets of

6tatenentrs of the causes of border conflict: (a) that there is a direct linkage between dia- rutyive, arbitrarly imposed boundaries and conflict. that for another school of Ihought, conflict derives not so much frw the specific imgact of bounda~iesupon the live&+of individuals or the environment as from the imgact that the bounddlrs situation has had ugon the percegtions and views of African decision 6 nakerr. Thia posits that the origin of boundary can be traced to the advent of colonialism and the attendant geographical and ethnological ignorance of the early aolonial oaptogpaphera and diploma fa. t)

Bargreaves (1 9&) quoting the Times of Aukust 6, 1 890, scporta that Lord Salisbury had acknowledged that colonial powe~ahad been engaged in "drawing

Zines upoaa maps where BO white 1~8n'bfeet have ever tread; we have been giving away mountains and rivers and lakea to each other .., without any knowledge of whe~ethese features werevt. Much of the documentations of the paraition of Afaica in Hargreaves ' view would a180 aupport an "accidental rather than a conapiratory theory of boundary demarcation in the period of scramble for Afrisaw,7

The merit of Boyd" study of the causes of border conflict is that it set out to test some hypotheses; the degsee of correlation between seven independent variables. (A' A~)and conflict occurancss, the dependent variables, 1 The A variable tested included A - Ethnic population over-hang; - ethnic fragmentation; - Domestic 5 instability; A' - Won-broundary conflict; A - Elite 7 instability (within the count~y);and A - aalience of Ethnic politics. Variables A', A2? were ia direct relationship hypothesis category; that is they wore expected to yield high positive correlation between thsn and, the occumnce of boM;te~conflicts betmeen Af ~icannation-atate. In order words a positive riae in ethnic popuLation overhang between two independent nation-states, for example will induce a cormsponding riae in border tension and conflict; When an ethnic group ia bisected by an artificial border, there will be domestic disruptionM,8 The result of the data analysis ahowed that where- a8 all expectations would be for a strong positive pelationship between gopulation overhang between ratates and conflict, thia yielded a weak poaritive correlation of' -07. Furthemore, Elite instability A 6 Elite politics A 7 provided the atrongest positive correlation of ,54 and .3q respectively, What this means, ia effeut, is th~tBthnic population overhang theory which according to Boyd en joys the yreatest support in traditional literature is not ~eliableafter all for explaining the streas and border strife in Africa. The army8 of scholaaly literature on Nigeria and her neighboura, correborate tke tmditio~l peaapectivea of conflict in the new African states, to Qustiiy the conflictual relatiolship between Nigeria and her neighbou~a, 4 0 XA his analyeia of isauea in Nigeria's becurity relation with her immediate neiyhbours, Bassey Ate

(4 932) , observed that ~igeria'a~elationa with her immediate neighborrra have often beerin beset by pmbhrpa, He sees the problema as principally occurring from the structural defect@of African territorial%pattern of politica bequeated to it by colonialimn, and it8 consequent adoption of lopsided poat colonial dependent

.development strategy. According to hia, the problema of Nigeria and it8 aeighbou~awtouehea on the iasues that awe fundamental, being struetually slated to the pattern of African territorial politica, French hegeaonic presence and indeed the development atratsw adopted bj African. in the post colonial eran.' He agreed with Hargreavee (9 9&) that the hasty and haphazard partition of the African uontiaent by the Pulbopean powers in the late 39th century principally fomed the root of bounhry criaia in post cdlQplal

Africa which has continled to disrupt peacef ~l, co-existence and cordial relation8 between Nigeria and her neighborare, in spite of the existing marked evidence of historical ties between them. According to Hargreaves, "where as the boundaries of modern states in Europe itself evolved over centuries as a res~ltof I1 reviaions after wars and conquest, atate boundaries

in Africa were determined b; imperial fiat within a . apace ~f tw~yeara and subsequently enforced with minor but reckleas executed adjuetment throqh coloniaL hegemony in lees than a hundred yearstt." This, remarked Hargreavss, led to African boiundaries appearing %rbitmr# and irrational that it aeams impossible to explain theis demarcation (as distinct from the wider

. historical context of the European partition) bjr any deteminist hypotheairt*.11 What this resulted into was that pattern of ethnic, linquistic, religious, ciultural and commercial affinities which for centuries cut accross mere admini- strative boundaries in Africa were suddenly and rudeLy terminated in order to accommodate imperial desires and normsW.' * Suyoesting that the prevailing problems of African boundaries could have been best solved had the colonial maatera wha partitioned Africa followed

the existing African boundaries, Hargreavea confirmed that well defined baundasiea and territorial sove~~ignty

had not became a general rule in Africa as it had in Europe than. '3 Thum Europeans over looked the consequent problem6 that could arise from assignin4 firm artificial boundaries to diverse territories of multi-ethnic population where the peoples themaelves had nr~idea of territorial liait, places where boundary loca t ion^ were constantly thanking and where there often existed amall tribes between the lsrye ones which owed allegiance bometimss to the one and aoastimes to the others. 1 4 In the case of Nigeria, Bassey Ate has stated th~tthe peoyles in most of these neighbouring cauntries commonly inhabited at one time or the other, parta of the present Wigerian tsr~itoryand therefore shared similar cultures and other attributes: The Cld Cyo Empire extended deep into the present Republic of Benin and Toho; Kanea-Barno Empire extended into the Republic of Chad; a aimable component of Niger Republic was part of Sokoto caliphate; while the present Southera Cameroun was part of gastern and Northern Nigeria. 15

Barkindo Bawwo (1 984) corroborates Ate's observation when he eunphasised that the greater part of pre-colonial Ahawa, one of the most extensive Emirates of the Sokoto ualiphate, ia atill to be fo:md in the Carefioun ~epublic. Most of the dependencies of the pre-colonial Borno &pire, one 09 the oldest states in the area are now found in Careroun, Chad and Niger, ' This ethno-oultural fusion and unrsstri cted movements of peoples, characteristic of pre-partitioned Africa which was tended to be tsr~inatedabrugty by artificial state jurisdiction and bouada~yautonamy imposed by Europe, failed to stop the already existiny shared interactions among group8 in goat colonial. Africa.

Mohammed Alkali (1 992), in a genera7, look at

. ifitemat j ona2 poli ti ca of African bowzlasiea, identified

verieties In the nature and cakaea of borader disputes

cla ins h~vereflectec? deep2.y-rooted vu.luer% rbe1e%ed

to a st~te'aself bake. @them appeared to be merely the out-growth of bad rele t ione between nel&hbours and with improved relations, the border or territorial chima waa abandoned. &I@elaasif'ied diaputee according to their aaaumed princf pal @'causeatl,to reflect; diayutea which c~~ncernfundamental of self image and touched on core voluea; an$ diayutea which do not affect iaabes conaiaered to be vital for a ate te'8 verx exiatenee. He stated that cleias which concern core value8 or eelf-bake can themtselvea be divided into thoae which focua upon ethnic dietinctions and thoae which emphasize hietorica: continuity. CBaima which Ilb eml.)hsine historical continuity can a2ao be divided into thsae rele tiny to (I) pre-cohnial #ittiat ion

(ii) and thoae baaed on 8 colonial border. Morocoo'r cleim to Maurl tania and part of Algeria la an 8xarr;pI.e of tk~eformer while Nigeria-Gamerowd conf2.ict is example of the later. " Historical continuity of the dirvese forms, disrupted by the principle8 ~f terrftcarial inte~jrlitaanu ~~atlonalaecurita of modern nation-stet6 strbcture haa contributed to the intricate web of disp~te~between Nigeria and her noiyhboura. Thua, the evident disharmony between Nigeria and her immediate neighbourm can not be completely deldnked from colonial hecithge of modern soverei&n state qxstem which intJroduced e~trictlyformblated externu?. pobicy mcaaurea that border much on national intereat and eecurity. Ayaln, thie existing disharmony csurd not be dissociated from the continually existing links between these Ni&eriaqsneighbours and their former colonial masters, who would wish to maintain a yerranent strong hold in this region for purely economic interest. Any possible success in restruc- turiny the existiny coSonfal African boundary to assume its natural settin4 will jeogardise neo-colonial interests in Africa. It will introduce csncisus feelinks of oneness and shared socio-economic life arncng Africens and open the way toward8 integration.

Thus, Aeiwt?ju (9984) hss claimed that sxittence of aocio-economic and ethno-cultural affinities between Ni&eria and her neighbours are far more important than the differences between them. ' These differences hawe made Nigeria ' a raZa tione with her neighbours more . complex and intricate te resolve. Thebr include the differences of artificial borders inherited from co2cnial powers; the f&ct that all Niheria'e neighbours had a cornmon colonja2 factsr, a common identity, namely a common heritage, Gn the other hand Nikeria had remaiined

conepieously a2.one as a British eoI.ow, oriented in the ~ngho/~axontype of imperialism. Nigeria inherited colonial legacies and cdture, different from her

neighbours. Again her political aria lsyal systems are derived from Roman constitbtion82. laws whereas the former French colonies which now fom Nigeria ' s immediate neighbours (except Equatorial Guinea), have practi aed a ayatem based on gallic and Napoleonic laws. Base

on these sj tuatione, Mohammed Alke2.i (1 992) had auvieed thst "these fundamental distinctions need to be properly understcod becalise they affect very profoundly the differant approaches of these neiyhbours to public laws and intermtion82 interactions and as well a@ pesssnal relationrr .19 This his observation tends to sapport Asiwaju who had rightly remarked thet "nationalist and patriots who do not have a firm howLedge of the nature and cheracter of the boundaries of their own particubr ayrstem cannot appreciate the nature of the bahmce . and ray not be in position to design appropriate instrument for survivaz of the system or tits proper mana&ementtt.20 Generally, the incessant oecumnce of border conFZicts between Nikeria and her nsiyhbours has been attributed to the natclre and character of these borders which x cut-across ethnic groups be tween the countries, and

in which gecaple~on both sides disre6ard the artificial

bouclaries in their daily activities. 2' This hbs formed the earlier sch~lars'wide sgread fear sf the dander inherent in the co2onial legacies of irredentism and trabalism which will eventuXy lead tc boudsry and territorial dieputes. This fear rataped largely from

the assumption that tribe8 and ethnic groups hitherto divided by boundaries wo\ild seek to unite to beatmaie member8 of the same nation-state, to Pora a state of their own; and tfst the* woulil thereZor.e, chall,an&

the artif3cia1 boundaries dividinb tCem. Thia fear anu expeeta t ion jenerally influenced

e~Ao%a~r'perspectives ana attitude8 towards the st~dy of border conflictra in Africa. It informea their conclusion that conflictual relatio~shipamong proximate meiyhbourr in Africa sstaua largely f ram the imprecirsed mture of' the a colonial statea' boundaries af Africa and other dirsrqtive legacies. While the irredentist character of sone African boundary conflicts (~orracco,Suralia , Mauritania, Ghana ana Toeo) wouLd be acmowled&ed here, the same cc~ulamot be said of Ni&eria and her neighbours, with sr ~'mrrxima?,borderlandn character. The coni? ictwl; rulations between Niyeria and her? neighbour~, could

therefore be paged on other variables or forces sf aocio-economic and human nature but not on the nature of colonial border as a single factor variable. Perbye, thia is what AaiwaJu implies when he recoynlsed tbie rale sf whunan factor" in African interriatiom1 buwciaries. He recognised the fact that the racio- cultural and economic eituation are insortant factors which may involve clandestine activities acroaa the border; activities which have on ocassions yosed serious threats to etate seaa~ityand a more or Zesa pelsnanent ckralllenye to the economy, 22 Sofio-economic drivee, always lead to population movements around and across the border. Population inovernents can be generated eontemporarily by a aar~edimprovement of condition8 on olne side of the border over those of the other sides which aould be cal',ed greaner pasture phenoaenon. War, repression or famine create mass movements, first to .other areas inhabited by some ethic groups and then beyond, with little reaard for meaningzess boundaries. These forces no do~btco~ld cause rift between or among neiyhbour'iny states.

(11) Cross-Bomdard Movements And Activities lnherent in the kroblem of artificial baundaries

, of Niueria anu her neiyhbours is the phenomenon of mass hwnan mijration, Artificial bcburaaar;r failed to terminate or close the wide aocio-economic space of hman inter- actissns which ht3are continued to eerve as a yopuLar response to the prevailiw shred common identity, interests,

' aspirations and values characteristic of the lives of the bsraer Lana people. This has direct effect on Nigeria's relations with her neighboura, It constitute8

mostly the immediate cauees of their soured relationship. Apgarently, mass human miamtion has often and f requent1.y distorted geographical or political

boundaries. MostLy, these human mibrations have

serves aa an out &r~wthof ~eteri~retfny~QC~CI- economic conditions of fa12 in domeotie productf ona, . high mte ~f dnfletion and unemployment tt~tbeset the c~ntiyuuuoststes.

S tudiese covering the socio-econtm ic space gsmemted

by Nigeria's borders with her nei~hbourshave shown a lot of clandestine transsctione takink place acroas Niberia's inter~atlona:, bauradaries. Igue (a 980) in

hi stwciy of the elandest ine movement of Nigerian

cocoa into Benin Ileyublic from 1966 to 1975 shc~wsa yrowlny im(tsist&bletendencies for soeio-economic interactisnn amon& border pepulstions, He demonstrated

that while the entire activitierj (il2eyal cocoa tmnsaction) was concentrated in locat ion of alose proxinit3 to the border, the entire networr of ogrtmtione cover much wider areas of Benin and Nikeria. Purchase of tho product extended over the enfire

Mi~eria"Cocoa Belt*, while sales in Benin involves the entire Republic from Parakou in the North to Cotonrau, tiit: mition 'a port which handles the re-exgorta- tion overseas. 23

NwoMedi (1 9%) indicted the co22eboration of Beninoise gamstatal (SCUD) in trda smub(i2iny of

Nl&eri&~lcocoa into Benin, f ram tk~elate 4 970s throurh the 60s. While rerutin& Igueb srklYnent tk~ntcocoa bratie harad.ly affected Niberia'a cocea economy, he observed tkat '"he effect of cocoa smug&Ld.n&and, infact, of suiu&t.ijlinb in general. on Ni~erianeconomy kms led its gaverrrment to reinforce its border security, to shut its frontier for almost two yeam between 19U4 and

19~6and to seek to reach agreement with other sub- regional countries in snder to stamp out such activities. 24

Agai~,it is the sane effect which prompted the cs:l, in I 964, bjr Cocoa Exporters urging that. Nigerian government to make the muggliny of this comffisddty a cagitaf offence pmishab2.e by death. 25 In his ear2ltr study of "the yolktics of intes-

Af'rjcan bcaurndary conflictst', Enreka Nwokedi (4 965).

LI LI idenlifieu an^ attributed the border ccdnf2icts between Nigeria and 1%~Francophone neighbours tea three factors, These factore are the imprecised natbre

of tho boundaries, availability of potential econbmic ~esuwcesaroma the beunciaries arrd the activities of eitiaens living aroad tkie border, According to him, these factors manifest in disputes about which country owns thda or that position along %he border and/or a dimute about the use of existing natural resuurces lad in6 in tk~ecomon borders BGC~a8 the waters of Lake Chad, 26 Activities of citizens living aroud the border which may create osnflict~inelucle the yr~acticeof smu&g:in& and illegal entry, These &o together with cases of theft and other negative aocinl externalities,

lsmael Mohann~ed (1 992) hw aemunstratsd evidences of these casea as real and yotential so~rcesof conflict between Nikeria anu her neighbours, yarticu- lasly in the management of border problems between Borno State of Nigeria and the Republics of Niger, Chhd and Cameroun. Among other issues of mechanism of co-operation and management of border conflicts, he examined, and spotlighted claims to available resources at the border, and issue sf border land acquisition and incursion as potentia2.s for conflict. 27 Undoubtably , informal movements of geoyle and boods couLd serve aa a function of the common socio- economic and cultural character of the bosder areas, However, one fact~rthst tenas to facilitate and enhance these relatiom, especially in the economic sphere is the economic plieies pursued by the nef ghbouring states.

Collins (1 9&), on the Nigeria-Niger border, provides evidence of srnuggLin& and tax evasion in crBosa-border movements, which demonstrate the t , the tyue of economy prevailing within the border rekion uisobeys the national laws of the countrf es concerned. Acc=ar4dinytc; him the economic polj cies purs~edby trAe~~uvernment of' the two neighmuring states, yr~videthe necessbrdF conditions for the existence of illegal transactions in &sous and cbrrency and other negative externalditius. In his study of Nigeria-Ni8er croas-border grudxnuts trade, he noted that the yrinciyal f~ectclrsinfluencinb a fanner'ia decision to crssa th~border to sell his &rolindnuts is the of"fr:s of a better price at the market on the other sideN. The exibtenca sf price advantakes or &e:atbve price differentia28 determines the direction and size of the cross-border groi;ncbuts fZaws. 26 The important consequence of trans-border aativilies and 8mug&ling in genera: is tht it often takes &lace at the expense of the one or the other of the neighbsurin& states. Thus, it is a potential for conf2ict, it leads to loss of' revenues by states and c~mpoundssit uat i~noof unem&loyment and inflation. States' resentment to these phenomenoizal occurence has informed their adoptions of stricter politicies and actions aired at dettering them. Mostly, these policies and action8 manifest in the form of increased police patrol along the borders, enactment and implemen- tation of immigration laws. The use of various states' .agents in the border areas creates tension and has resulted to the convergence of ill-aordinated states' border control and manakement mechanism. Added to the influences of economic disparity and price differentials as determinant factors for cross- boundary movements ana activities are the general factors

of deteriorating socio-economic conditions of the sub- region. Africa in general and West Africa in particular has been passing through excruciating experienc:es of wars, drought, flood, hmger, disease and many other allied socio-economic problem8 since the 197Qs. The

1 WOs, as a matter of fact, witnessed an unprecedented tbrn of ugly events in rela tionships between and among West African States in general and Nigeria and her neighbours in partic~la~~.The worsening socio-economic conditions of the region more than any other thing else

contrib~t~edto the crisis-ridden relationship tkat cbaracterised the neighbouring states during the period,

which spilled over into the .I 990s. Thus, as Ekpen ong ($989) observed as socio-econimic condition worsen generally around the world and particularly in West African region its effects and pressure become more critical on Nigeria's relationships .with her neighbours. According to him, the effects and presswe of these conditions may manifest in major eecale t ions. *' As in the cases of Ghana's expuleion of Nigerians residenced in her territory in 4969; ana the inhuman treatment of Nigerians workmen in Equatorial Guinea in the early 1970s which prompted Nigerian government to order the evacuation of all her nationals in that country. Again, Nigeria has had cause to expel citizens of her both near and distant neighbours in 13&3and abain in 1985. In almost all cases, the host countries, have claimed that their guest have invaded the social and economic fabric of their countries,

they have robbed citizens of scarce job opportunities and contributed to unemployment. These same conditions have also given rise to innumerable dajor and minor

skir-mishes that result mainly from the use of exploits- 25 tion of shared valued resources which abound in Nigeria's border with her neighbours especially Chad and Cameroun. Difficult situations create rooms fur intense compition for ana claim over various resources commonly exploited by the bordering states, Some of these resources which include Farmland, Water, Fisheries, Fuel and Petroleum can really provoke confl ict amung contiguous states. Among contending problems of the sub-region, Ekgenyon8 commented on the impact of drought and wars (especially Chadian crisis) on the waves of refugees, economic migrants and the general deplorable conditions of the sub-region. The Sahewan drought of the late 9970s and early 80s marked the beginning of unprece- dented influx of refugees and nationals of Nigerian neighbours into Nigeria at a time when Nigeria was battlin~with her economic reverse which had unleashed untold hardship on her citizene, This was compounded by the war in Chad which turned Nigeria int~a host country for refugees and war victims from her border- ing states. The war and drought situations, political instability and mismanagement of the economies of the states led to total collapse of the economy and threatens the means of livelihood of the people affected. These conditions more than any other factor influerlce the increase in the rate of trans-border mi~rationof ordinary people in search of means of livelihood. The

conaitions and their manifest effects are also capable of creating tension and conflict among contiguous states. These states, on becoming aware of the effects of s~ch conditions on their nadi.onal ec momy and security, adopt stricker restrictive measures and control of movement along their shared borders. It is the negative effects of' these measures and controls, on the interact in& states anu their people that cause most border tensions

anu conflicts in the neighbouring states. Thus, the

border cf osure of .\ 9dL( - 1986, the Nigerian-Chad clash of' 1983, the depc~rtatioriof illegal. aliens of 1983 and

, 41985, were all in responPfe to the effects of' the condition,

(1x1) The influence of Foreii~nPowers Among Nigeria % Neighbours

Border problsms are policy problems. A &over&ment decides whether it wants So claim neighbouring territory, and then decides how to pursue its goals. The problems

may alas be thrusted upon the state by its population,

by an accident or by somt other secondary eources, but the government makes the decision on whether to purosue matter or not, Indeed, the location of a border may complicate a state's relations and perhaps make them worst, but the principle factor determinin6 the policy of states on boundarx problems are not geokra- phical. They are rather political at both the domestic and international levels. Thus, the souring relationships be tween Nigeria and her immediate neighbours has been blfimed on Nigeria's structural weakness to tackle decisively and realisti- cally the constant issues of conflict that have arisen between her and the neighbours. This weakness has been attributed to Nigeri's fear of foreign power (.France) in her neighbourhood. Csenr Ede (1906) has observed tilat one leg in Nigeria's border policies is that Nigeria has always had non-aggressive and puri Lanic approach to border problems. This is unlike her neighbours, who despite their military inferiority are very aggressive on border issues. According to him, "this attitude can be attributed to the phobia of "French Factorw in these areas by Ni~eriawhose neighbours are sacredly tied to Frsnce civilieat ion and influencesw. He emphasized that though these neighbours have received the greatest from Nigeria's foreign policy goal and leadership in Africa, they still seem to have prefered being used aa surrogated by the emperial powero to exploit and and destabilize the sub-region, to promotin8 stability and development, Nigeria has therefore had to tread softly and cautiously, a characteristic seen and

described b, many as reflectin6 the behaviour of a

giant and the bi& brother that barks but does not bite the small fries, 34 Analysing problem-areas in Nigeria ' s relat ions with her neighbours, Akindele and Bola (1992) pointed . to the deey-rootedness of France interests in the neighbourhood as contributing to the conflic~al relations that have marked 8igeriaVsrelations with these immediate neighbours, He observed that political understanding between Nigeria and France has been at its low ebb and uneasy since 1960 when Nigeria pr~tested against France atonic test in the Sahara and finally break off diplomatic relations with Paris. He also sees ~igeria'sopposition to the presence of foreidn military base and interventi nist forces, in which France is deeply involved in, with her former colonies

in West-Central Africa sub-region, as a bases for Prance tryin& to destrnbilize ~igeria'sgrowing power in the ~ub-rcgion,~~The importance of Francats

privileged ties with the immediate neighbours has been

seen as a big threat to Nigeriai s securf ty interest, 29 predicated on a conf3ict-f roe relations with the proximate nei&hbours.

Vokt (1 9c)l ), Ate (1 983) recogniseu the role of "French Factort' in Nigeria's conflictual relations with her neighbours when they argue that France has to be "unseatedw in the sub-region and the Fmnce-phone made less dependent on France by ' re-af ricanising ' Franco- phone West Africa. It is their view that as long as there continues to exist foregin powers ancl inftuences in Nigeria's backyard, the search for socio-economic development, conf iict free interactions and peaceful co-existence will continue to remain a mirage. 33 However, what smacks the imagination of scholars is the continuous active support given to France's presence by Francs-phone west-Central Africa . There is a point to the fact that the neighbours' view of Nigeria is that of a colossus in the sub-region. This

view is informed by their calculation of Nigeria's vabrant population which is three times the size of the five neighbouring states combined; an economy second in size to that of South Africa, not to mention its superior military advantage. Thus, Nigeria in their thinking certainly has the potentialities of a sub-regionar imperial states. In the thinkink of the

neighbouring states, Nigeria's purs~itof a policy 30 of good neighbourliness, in the fashion of African big

brother is a tactice device of patternalism dangerous to their territotiral interests, 34

Bassey Ate, therefore, reasons that central in the yerspec tive of the immediate neighbours towards Nigeria is a deep concern abo~t~i&eria's competitive capacity to appropriate valuable resources which abound in the maritine and land border areas whoae ownerohip is being contested by many of the parties in the sub-region, He further argues that ~igeria'sneighbours are keenly sensitive about their perceived long-ranged sec~rity vulnerability; that the recurrent incidents of aggressive assult on Nigerians by their security agents can in that respect be regarded aeu nervous actions pre-emptively designed to bolster their national self-confidence, 35 Mohammed Alkali (1 992) corroborates ~te'sreasoning, when he wrote that it has all along been the desire of Cameround to acquire a territory on the Nigerian border that is known to be oil-rich, He attributes this ambition to sane of the causes of the current border problam between Nigeria and Cameround, However, he noted that no matter how territorially ambitious Cameround is, she alone could not be militarily strong nor in a position to provoke Nigeria on a border isaue, 3l Hence, he suspected the backing of an external power. According to him, "the ~ameroun's military and political behviour and subsequent actions seem to s~ggestthat

she was belng used as a surrogate of international imperialism in order to achieve set goals, which may not necessarizy be in her real national interestsw.36 The fact that Cameround in partic~lar,and other Franco-shone neighbours of Niyeria in general, take dictation from the French government directly or indirectly andor from hanco-Trans-national Corporations seems to exacerbate problems in the sub-region.

It is the opinion of scholars that the "French FactorN has affected Nigeria ' s external policy posture on border issues and the general promotion of mity and economic development in the west-Central African sub-region. The belligerences anu sanetunes blantant ecanomic sabotage of the bording states akainst Nigeria have been alarming. The Camerom menace has lingered over a long time without as much as eitnes- sing any articulate responses from successive Nigerian governments. Chad, benin and Niger have had occasions

to try Nigeria's will, Yet Nigerian governments seem helpless and yerpetually in want of how to respond, As highlighted by Ate, "for Nigeria this task appears 32 to be compounded by the neo-colonial connection of Prance to many of these neighbouring comtrles. Thus, a political-psychological explanation of ~igeria's histoxv of tepid policy towards the immediate neighbours is more convincing than a purely military one, being a superior over its five immediate neighbours combined in terms and Armamentt'. Puther, he opined that "these attributes ought to be translated into a more self- confident posture in the ~ub-region rather than one of timidity*', According to him, this has not been the case largezy because of an imaginary French Factor. 37 The issue of foreign poers occupying Nigerian

neighbsurhood created a more serioua tension in q 987 with the detected presence of Solith Africans in Equatorial Guinea at the time Nigeria-South African relations was at its lowest ebb, It was indeed feared then that South Africa waa nursing the possibility of using the ccjntact with Equatorial Guinea for patpose surprise military attack on Nigeria. To mend issues with Equatorial Guinea, Nigerian government adopted a policy of appeasement to renew friendship with her.

Yet while Nigeria was renewing its friendship with

Malabo, it was discovered thEn t France had already occupied the territory. It was the opinion of strategic analysts that with France control in& events in Equatorial Guinea,

it would surely aim at controllink the "Triankle of Survivalw under its mantle. "Triangle of survivalw

is the lsland of Bioko (~ormerFarnand PO), which, with the Island of Rio-Muni (or ~bini)in Equatorial Guinea is atrategis to Nigeria's security.

F.B.T. Porbeni (1 9831, in a paper presented to a Navy Seminar, outlined the strategic imp~rtanceof the Island, He refered to that area occupied by Bioko

which forms a triangle with Cameround and Benin RepubLiss as a Triangle of Survival, which Nigeria needed to monitor. 'li Both South and France had convergence sf interests in their8 occupation of Equatorial Guinea then. For South Africa, it was

* calsuLated that it needed the Island as a strategic base for destabilising those camtries in the fore.tron$

of the campaign against aparthied. Whereas Frauce 'a

interest was is1 the furtherance of its economic

he8emsny in sub-Sahara Africa which has created a big challenge to Ni&eriats eff~rtst~wards the economic uni.f icn t ion of: the sub-region.

Thus, Csurltokun (1988) has advised that from a historical hindsight, the strategic location of Fernanda Po in relation to Nigeria sho~ldmake Nigeria 34 be concious of an intesested in what becomes of' the

Pslana. Me warmd that if Nigeria is to play any meaningful role in Africa cc~mmensl~sateto her economic and human potentialities, it must protect her flank and organise her defence so that an off-shore Island such as Parnanda Po, desperately in need of economic sustenance does not gravitate to the orbit of any foreign power, which might be hostile to Nigeria now or in future. 39

The importance of the influences of foreign powers among Nigeria neighlouru, to the explanation of conflicts between Nige~i~and her neighbsurs is the emphasis it lays on the reality of Prance hegemmy and domination of affairs in the West-Central African sub-region. This canrmt be iejnored Lo the analysis and mdesstanding of the shape and causes of conflictual relations between Nige~.iaand her neighbours. It is a fundamental truism that France is operationally Nigeria's most important rival and is, in fact, the laterts crucia; frontline neighbours in the sub-rekior~. This prevail- ing reality accordhg to scholars informs Nigeria's tepid and yuritanfc approach t:, border yroblems. It explains why Nigeria has not atiopted militaxy option

Lo decisively addreas the belligerence8 of these ne ighbouss againat her. SUMMARY_ The above reviewed studies on the factors of border conff icts be tween Nigeria and her immediate neiyhbours have tended to situate the pronlems on several variables of: the nature and character of the borders; the effects of trans-boundary mass-human migrations and material Flows; and fimlly on the factor of neo-col~nial presence and influences on the sub-region,

It was the view of scholars that the arbitrary demarcation of African boundaries by European powers withaut regard for the prevailing patterns of ethnic, socio-ciiltural and economic affinities that cut-across mere political boundasies of the region is at the root of oour~darycrisis among the bordering states, It constitutes both real and potential causes for the border conf'licts because of its proneness to irsidentist drive and threat to national integrity and security of' the interacting new African states, Again, artificial boundaries failed to terminate or close the wide space generated by existing socao- economic interncti ona which &ive creaenct; to mass-human and material movements across the borders. These most often result to tensions and border clashes, Finally, there is the view of those who believe that Nigeria-neighbours relations have continued to sour because of Nigeria's tepid and yuritanic policies and approaches to border problems, that have arisen between her and the neighbours. They attributed these

goZicies and approaches, to Nigeria' 8 fear of "French Fac torw in the Pranco-phone neighbouring states.

Their argument is that France intends to use the Prance- . phone neighbours to came rift and destablise Nigeria's growing power and influence in the sub-region. Generally, the reviewed works suggested as solutions to the kroblem the redemarcation of the boundaries to capture the real frontiers of the inter-

acting states; mounting sf heavy security presence and a stricter measures to serve as detterences to any act of vlslation oP Nigeria's territorial integrity and

national security, tmt miyht either result from border incursions and/or uauthorised movement of peoples arid materials across the borders. It is pertinent to mention here that while the above reviewed works have merits in the explanation of the conflicts, they are in themselve inadequate. Thue, an adequate uderstarlding is necessary to enable

the society, identify the major variables which can be manipulated in an effort to contrd the conflict. A model of empirical annlysis of the causes of the conflie t is necessary, To fully appreciate the causes of the conflict be tween Nigeria and her neighbaurs, one must look beyond the explanations of arbitrary boundaries, cross-bowldary migra tiorrs and French factor, as they have contriblited to the conflictual relations. This is so because all these known analysis and explanations of the causes af . the conflizt have under ulayed the rolee of declining socio-sconomic conditions (forces) of the sub-rekion, as ind~cingvariables Por unprecedented increase in

the rate of cross-boundary human and material movements which have resulted in series of border clashes. Again the existence and discovery of valued resources at the boTder areas; and the role of the convergence of diverse ill-CQ-ardinated states' control measures and interventi~ns on border issues will be examined. These factors have played major roles in inducing crisis and spo Aling relations between Nigeria and her ne ighbours, These, therefore form the point of departure and

1 .6 TIIEORETIWL FRAMEWCRK Among the mechanism of conflict in %he societies is the existence of scarce resources. The existence 38 of scarce resources in societies would inevitably generate fight over the distpibut ion of these resources. Again, the fact that different interest groups (states) in a social system pursue different goals and hence often have to view with one another, assures that conflict will erupt. Since the attempt of this study is to empirically analyse and explain the causes of conflictual relations . between Nigeria and her neighbours within the uontext of: deteriorating socis-sconomic conditions (forces); existence and discovery of valued resources at the border areaa, and the state interventionist roles, the researcher adopted the political Economy Approach as a model of analysis. The Political Economy Approach is in contrast with the Traditional Approach as tools of analysis,

According to Shaw and Fashun (1 980) the traditional approach is closely associated with the realist politics genre, The approach identifies the state as the primary actor in international relations, occuring at the level of super-structure. By contrast, the political economy Approach treats the state as a dependent aocial fornation having transnational linkage with a variety of actors, It pecognises the euper-structure as the siient determinant behaviour and focuses on economic and political rather than on the issue area. 40 This approach to the annlysia of fomign policy of states seeks to focue attention on the structure of global economic relationship and their manifestation in the structure. It is the ass2aption here that foreign policy is a reflection of the character of the sscio-econsmie base and or the nature of the dominant value rrystem. It underlines economic determinism of states' relation8 with other states.

Claude Ake (19a) treated politics; economy as approach to the etudy of Africa in order to "better understand how thin8s are and whyw. His intereat in how Af sicn mi&t cknbe Led him to adopt the farm of examining and follow in^ the lodie and dy"mui~aof events to see where they mi&t leau rather than trying tss brink Afrkca around to a &articular rrtate sf being, however desirable. Accepting and appre- ciating the, necessity for change in Africa, he argued tiha t the ne@essit$of understanding African society in ~rderto chranke it aha:;Ld be taken more serioue2y. He observed that man$ well-meanin& attempts to change things in Africa have came to grief ibecauae of lack 4 sf understanding, and the quest for uaruerstax~ding

Africa ha alZ to^ often been ambuehed ana thwarted

by ow fixation on what 0u6ht be. PolitacaZ ~ssnomyApproach is based on dialectica2

matarialirrm which rnssilrnels that material conditions, particdlarly the economic structure exerts decisive influence in the formation or structuring of aocial life, This baeic assumption an the role and impact of the econombg? syarta in shaping the social system provides eaeential point of aeparture for the exploration, discovery arid exylamtion of 'the laws of' motion of a society, The economic system has secret force to exert perversive influace In the shagin8 ~f social formation. In tnds lidat, politic& economy as an approach to the atudy of' Ssta: society essentiall~reject8 the idera . cf ebeeiabiaed aiscipiines suck as economies, in fav~up or a composite social srciencea thoubh usin& materia:,

canaiticms as bLs focal point.

The 5ajor cmsactsarietics of political economy approach include: ( $1 The primacy given to material ccrnditions eayeeisalZy the ecarsomic factors in the analyefa sf socio- politlca2 phenomenon.

Qii) A dynamic vLew of reaEity and the significance of history in analysis. Ir.o

(kii) Acceptance of the Basic categories and basic methodological and theoretical cmmitment to marxism.

(iv) Bocue on the nature of cayitalkam as a global

(v) A comprehensive inter~wlated and inter-diaciplimrjr view of socia: phenomenon. (vf) Treatment of probleme concretely rather than abstmctly. (VIA) Adoption of a developmental perspective in the anausis of phenomenon; and (viii) Focua on domination, exploitation and colonialism in the process of capital accumulation. 42 Lt must be adaed that the political econsw ayproach is interested in poductlon, distribution, conemytion . r ana exchange relations in the society. Tiiis ayyroech lserves a relevant tool for the study of c0nflictu1 r'elat ione between Nigeria and her nedghboure because it wyturea the material conditions and forces which serve as psfmar~and major det;eminanta

of' the issue area of' border coglklict ial the sub-reefon.

1 t def iraea and analy et-+s the correlations be tween the

%he centra1 issue of crisis relations amon& the Sucf o-economic conciit ions in Nigeria and her nei&hbo~rin&stetes give rise tc constant movenoexkt of pecsyle nnd boods acrosG tile bbrdel'~ (am the cont6ct8 between these forces and tho state agents generate conf2ict). The confl acts become more pronounced in the border areas with. the discovera# or existence of velbed reeowces; at the border areas. Became the economic resohrces located in these borders areas are lrtore valtiable tbmn those lucated in the border areas between Nigeria, on the one hand and Niger and Benin. (iik) Bffosts aimed at soLvknh the border yrob2ea have failed becaue of the converkence ~f diverse

f 2:-co-ordinatea state control abeneies anu laws around the border. areas; and because no pem.anent mechinary has been established L'or mediation

between the uisputing parties,

4 *& METMCDCLCOY

This research is baaeil on data edlectea from secondary sources. A great deal of" aecijntrory materials exist on the pro~lem,numerous texts, journal materials, goveralient documents Earad arrays of other library and archives materials.

To enslire the reliabiXity and ve19ciity of" our data, our point of departure for this attidy lies in the use of

content analysis of documents. This is a research tectmf que for the objectf ve, systematic and quantitative aescr~ytionof the manifest c~ntentof cornmunice tlorn. The centpa% ob~ecLlveof' cantant analysis is to

coxavert recorded raw yhexbomenaa into aata wPlPch can be

treated in L 8 ~cleritif'ic:manner sc that A body of know--

leciLe mad be ui:Y. u~.The 2~sbiticuti.mbebirkcl the we

or cun%errt amly 8i E, oi' (iocment 8w u tiler secondarS' du th

is that it ~110~8,rese~reh :in areas where the researbeher

cannot. kve ytursiezal. accasfj to trLe reqmm-xt~~IU thus,

crauu,cst. s tudJ by a~fother mettoa. NOTES AND REFERENCES

9assey Ate nrmues in ~igeriasecurity Relations with its immediate neighboursfl in Bassey Ate and

~illiamGutteridget HThe case for regional security- voiding conflict in the 1990sW ondo don Centre for Security and Conflict Studies, NO. 217, Jan. 1989) PO 3.

See Mcyor General ~ohammaduBuharivs Speech at NIIA patron's Dinner, 3rd December, 1984 in ~igerianForum Oct - 3ec. 1984, pp. 287 - 288.

Zartman William, Vhe Foreign And ~ilitary politics of ~f rlcan Boundaries Problems@@in Carl Gosta widstrand (ed) African Boundary problems (Scandinavian Institute of African studfes Uppsala 1369) pp. 79 - 99.

Boyd Bar WThe origin of Boundary Conf lfct in ~f ;icaw7 in ~alancey,How. (ed) -~spectof Interna- tional elations In ~f rica. Bloominaton: African- Unrversity ~ro~ramme,p~niversity of ~ndia 1979) pp, 159 - 189. Hargreaves, J OD., "The Making of aoundarf est FOCUS on West ~frica,nin ~siwaju,A010 (ed) partiaioned African ~thnicnelations Across ~frica's ~nternationalBoundaries 10m - 984, (Lagost U- U- oagos press 33x4) pp. 19 - 27.

Boyd Be, Opl cit.

Bassey Ate, tl~ssuesxaa Nigeria security Relations with its immediate neighboursw, in Bassey Ate and Bola A. (eds) ~i eri Constraints an&-- Bassey Ate, Op. cit.

Hargreaves JoDo, Qpo cft. p. 23. bid.

Ate BaSSey, ~p.cit p. 2. Barkindo Be, "The Mandara stride THL NIGERIA- CAMEROUND BOUNDARIES", in Asiwaju (@dl, ope cite PO 29,

~oharnmedAlkali ~iqeria~nd Cameroun in World Affairs: Crisis Management on International Borders Bauchi Ramatia Press Ltd., Bauchi 1992, p. 7.

~siwajuAoIo, OP. cit. p. 14. as.

John Igue ttAn Aspect of Exchanse between Dahomey And ~igeria:The Commerce of Cocoetl in John Igue (ed) Economic P~OD~Wof west Africa ~ol.11 (Hational university of eni in, 1990) pp. 40 - 52. Emeka Nwokedi tt~igeria- eni in Relations: The Joys and ~nguishof Bilateralismbt in Ate and Akinternnwa (eds) Nigeria and its immediate neighbours, OPO @it-PO 130. kfrican Economic Digest 21 September 1984, p. 12.

Emeka Nwokedi @@ThePolitics of ~nter-~frican Boundary Conflicts: A Study of Nigeria and her Francophone ~eighboursn,quarterly ,Journal of Administration, vol. XIX, NO. 1 and 2 October, 1994/ January 1985 publish by University of Ife, ~iyeria, Po (170 I smael Mohammed, "Nigeria and Francophone states: The Problem of Border Management Between Borno State of ~igeriaand the Republics of Niger, Chad and cameroun~~in Ate and Zkinternwa (eds) Nigeria and its immediate Neighbours Op, tit, PPO 164 - 1690 ~ollinD., tt~artitionedculture areas and Smuggling: The Hausa and groundnuts trade across the ~iyeria- ~igerborder in Asiwaju (ed), op. cite p, 280, Ekpenyong Okon, l@doundaryCorridors and International Conflictn in Asiwaju and ~deniyi (eds) Borderlands in Africa: A multidisplinary comparative focus on ~igeriaand West Africa (Univsrsity of Lagos Press - Nigeria 1989) pp- 293 - 304.

OSCAR, 0.3. Ede, '*Nigeria and Francophone African in GvO. olusanya and 5.A. Akindele (eds) Nigerian- -xm~ers'~ig-z~zExternal Relation

RvAv Akindele and ~olaA. Akinternnwa: NThe Effect of Territorial Contiguity and ~eo-political propinguity on ors sign policy: A study of ~1geria.s elations with its neighboutst@in Ate and Akinternnwa (eds) ~igeriaand its Immediate Neiqhbours op. cite go 246.

Me A- Vogt., ttNigerian Defence: An Assessmenttt in ~iqeriaForum, April 1981, pv 80; and Bassey ~te The Presence of France in West Central ~fricaAS A Fundamental Problem to ~iqeria(MiLlenium LSC, London), Vole 12, NO* 2, Summer 1983, pp. 100 - 126, Ibid,

Bassey Ate Nigeria and its Immediate Neighbours op* sit*

Mohammed ~lkali,Nigeria And Cameround in World Affairs: crisis Management, op, cit, p. S$, -I - 38. PORBINI, F.B.J. #Equatorial Guinea: The Security Im2lication To Nigeria", A paper presented to the Navey Seminar, (NIPSS, Kuru 1993).

3. osuntokun, A., Equatorial Guinea-Nigeria Relations: The Diplomacy of Labour@l(NIIA Monographic Series NO. 1 Ibadan: oxford university Press, 1978 40. Shaw and Faoehun, ItNigeria In The world systerntt in Journal of Modern Af rican Studies, vol. 19, NO. 4 (1980) pa 558.

41- Claude Ake, A Political Economy of ~frica (Nigeria Lonqman Nigeria Limited, 1981) p. VII.

42. Ake, Op. cite 14, ~ina,F.A., "What is political economytt in ~igeriaeconomic society: A political Economy approach (Lagos, Longman 1986) pp. 4 - 5; eni in, v.I., Collected Works, (Vol. 29 MOSCOW Progress publisher 1380) p. 473. Thhle cklapter ie desikned to ?resent in o proper

borders wlth her immaaiate xaelljhbourh;. These under-

the borderin& statec. The centma. ysints in this infaanation are that:

Nigeria' a bolaardarlee are not groperlgr demarcated. Tile co2anial masters did not %ulLy and finally agreed on the Pine8 of dcmtix~e~it8onsbefore handing over the territories at, independenc:e. Agair~, the chrecter of'

Hence, these comuit.ies on becominu conscious of their mt;iana:ity disregard the boundaries in their daily intem~tion~1across the borxier~. Thi~is expcezpsed on mass human and material Fhwa across tho bor?ders. It is also mwiife~teeiin their competition which abound at the border areas. These huan and aaterjal activities serve as aourees of preesure on

the: stcrtes (gaverxxnen~s)to exercise l~ltatefunction at the border.

The ysevsilink Nikeria '8 borders with her immediate nei&hboure, like every other African bouciary is the beq~estof Eurcgean power golit ies in the ~hnoreof Africa. In the creat can of Atrfcan bounda~ies,European colonial sowers overslighted aru igr~~redcestsin geo-culturn: rudiments, historical and socio-economic

core values, identified asla shared amon& Af r~can nations as essential to their mutual co-existence and

inter~ction. Thus, these revised the basis oF Afrleark

' his tssl caL/cultuMI1 eontinui ty and pcacef ul so- existence towards the danger of' ccConia?e irredentism and tsibalfam. The atructuraP problems of Nigeria's border with

her neighhours and it0 inherent mclt %-dimenaiona2

iss~icaand crlefs can be traced back to the coaonial past. Precisely in the 19th centsry, the imperialist powers of' Europe conver&ed in Berlin between November

4 U& arnd February 4 W5, %;aput asclnaer the hiratcjrical demarcation of exi6tiny kingdoms, Empires and city-states. Accokdkng to Asiwaju (4 9&), "it was at Berlin that

the: thesretica: fciindatio~swere laid for the subssguent

balkanicsation of the black mantra ccmtiracs~t~~.The Berlin

Weot Africa conference, initiated by Port~gaLbut

commandeered by German'lls Ctto Von Bismark was intended to avert the imminent danger of friction among the imperialist states tkat had territories in Africa. It was attended by deLegates from tho United States and . the defunct Qttemera Emyire, as we91 as representative8 of a21 P~royeanstates excep Switzerland. Amon6 the cariferenee decisior~swas the ratification of' previous areas of' influence of the powers, and the spelling out of new TorrmuLae for sharing out the terriroties. Xt was the conference rule about lPEffective

Cccliyat ionN that started the dernanil for definite

tbo7md&r$occdpettion. Ae arcjued oy Asiwaju, "Xt was

tds Berlin ru2e that launches Africa into the omit of a new world of sharply bound territorial states 2 01-4 the model of' Busopean nation-stateaN.

However, this was only enhanced later by seriee of other minor canferences aimed at agreeing on syecific formu28 for demarcating the agreed baundaries,

Thu8, there was %he Anglo-France agreement of August

which Led to the yre~ientday Western border with the peoples Republic of Benin, althoukh this boraes Northwards wus settled with the An&Lo-Prencn

csnvention of June q kth, 1 U96.

Again, the 1 and 1gOb ecanventior~01' the two powers - lr&larra and L;'rtince, clellneatea the Nortslern

border with Nigeria mil Chad HepubZic - 8 state of affairs which l~jerveredHauoaLan-l and the Kanuri culture

amaa into separate nations, in much the same way ae

- %estern Yoruba-land was split by the Benin borderline. In al', these wlonial flat and practices of bourraary

demarcations there was aao respect for cultusal terrain. S~bsequexat3y,Niberiat8 iintexbnatioml bsmdary

slung Nortnerm Ba~mstate, sharela by Ni~er,Chad and

Carnercicbn was arbitmrild demarcated as far back as

$910 11-As .me parts, while other parts were left LX~~OUS~~~L; creatang eorrFusion anu fmj?seciseriess in bourrdary

defialbeation arnonb these neb&bo~rs. The imtruaent s

dsea iti the bce'u&iry t.ieifisPdc:atimwhich incluie beacmls

ri:ad yaLe~have 13~~~beelk either mutila teci, d~t34,r~~~'t~

(j~dia~:i~&&'+t;8XYX; bihf tit- tEw: ~X'O~LOIILA' t ~a'em.cs &WriXl

ktv?.iv; 8 it:$* Thu6 Nlber Xe;.ublic DLBP~~~P~kitn Ni6erit.i.

tai., .&&a, rxtt:ri:.?bvel.$ iie~ir,~t.::;ltei;i, ati? 2 csaas ti tuLe &roblt?u)&

of' yrbeciee or actual Ic.cntiun, TfAe was evlcberls 81.

tt,e alfiliultles H:.WUJM ~~l~~i~it~:1't2i.iir, the past by tho ti& AngZo-French agreement, which necessarily spZit the Shuw~lArab, the Juku, Mafig8 and Chmba; arnct some

Dwjng World #ar I , bath Arit8.h and cierw,ar~ waged series of' diglamtic batt2sa tu wrest the cc~ntrolof tile 8 t.r~tetic E'ernarido Yo from Spain. Af'ter Niberfa 's indepenuersce in q 960, tl.terue we s a camyailjrr in the

Niyerian press tkmt th Island be sm:exea. The goverrment of Tafawa Belewa, unwilling to confront 6 Spain, was not interested in the aremerit, Thas, Nigeria and her rive immediate neighhours share strb~xt~r.n17,y,grevslent historical, ethno- li~n~uistiez,developmentaZ and aec~irfty affinities.

These ahoulla have ymvided a aabnd just if'ication am mckm~t,I'QF pa(tef ?a2 co-existence, aud eoLlect ive elt"fcjrts &owarcis a soliu skb-segisnral sucio-tconomBc ancl uolj tical inte&ration; that would have sctec! as blclwaib~against exterrsally induced clunfllct and ex~ioita t ion. 1t theref ore somds yeibr-idoxic@larid umAe~lthdqthe eviiient disharmcsn,y between NiLerla axid her nei&hbour~. Histaabieally , relic and recollections abound which show ttmt peoples in rndiat of these neig&bouririn~ . countries commonZy inhabited, at one time cr tm other, parts sf the present ria$ Nikeriaan territory and therefore slmrAe aimiliar culture and ~ttrib~td8.Thue, the Kanem-Bqmo Empire had its pmad over the Repub2.i~of Chad; the aa; Niger Heyubllc as its sphere or influence and dominution; the oLu Gyo byire strecheci Far into the

U.N. &lebkacilte in q 361 in which tklater oyted to

Ncithern Came :7trun, outed to stabr with Northern Nigeri~

bzi1mnize tiun 0%' Afriea manifested in their 4 6135 a&rscmtint

and demarcation of Nigeria-C,arrrero,;nd border aLornlj the

Wiodel-Rey, located in the Southern-most section.

In the 4 dd5 agreement, the Riodel Rey was assmed

to be 8 River 60 miles (1 261 kflometre~)a1ong; and f2.owing

btL>the sea; whereae subsequent exglsra tion had revealed

that fiiodel-key was not a rivera at all but an estuary,

~Pri~h~outi~lueb]. in:.and, arm also was a maze of creeks

-containinh; small streanis linkin6 twi3 larder rivers, rpauCy Akpragrefe and the NolPan.

Ironically it wtrla the NoZiatr, which had marked (or r@yreswlted) ethnic bolmdaries between Erik-al~eaking

people of Niceria sru the Bantu-spea~in~;peaple of Cameromd. However, the imkeriwl powers did not consider

these siient factors in cmatinb hauluaries. Hrther,

the Britisn, bcce~seof their simplistic ayhroach and

assumptions thought that the whole area was part of

Akpayafe River. Nolisn should have been the groper

braurcisary . rinca it wwld have clearly msde it possible for the Efi~trapped in the Carnsroun Lo unite with their kith and kin in the present Cross River State of Nigeria. 4 I: Nigeria und it's neighbolrrs.

- .C

DELIMITATION MARKING ON INITIAL TREATIES PROTOCOL FIKAL SURVEYS GROUND SIGNED approval I 6. NIGERIA-CAKEROUN (Marona Declaration) a. long. 8' 249 10~1' I O. Lats 4' 269 3211' I 1 / May 1975 1 May 30, 1975 I I I I

-- Footnotes:

1. ~xaminationof frontier from confluence of ~iverIguidu and River ~giawunto road 200 metre ~0thof Ikoru

3. NO^ properly demarcated 4. ~otDernarcateo 5. No more international boundary . 6. Sea - R. Gamana was markeo ~y an ~nglo-German CO;i~ission* Source: Olayinka Y, aola~un The process of cartographic Uef initisn of higerian Gounaaries in Borderians in ~sricaup, cit. p. 201. FinaLly, the aeries of crisis ckur&cteristicof Nigeria ' s relations with her neighbours, most especial2y the incidence of clsslzea experienced alontl, tha Northern part of Nigeria-Benin boundar3 in April 19& , aroud Nigeria-Cameroun in 1982, 1983, 1987 and 1994 ffll date; Ni@ria-Grad in 1963, have revived interest in boundary iera~iesin Nikeria. Oeaerol. Yakibu Qowon'a alle&ed action at the meetin& he had with. President A knAujra of Lumzeruu at Morouu, Carueroriasd in 1975 of mivink away several Kilometres of Ndberia territory tu Camer:d~c(aJano, 1902)" shvas that Nigeria had, in the past, not taken tke iesue of' bourruary definition as acrrioualy as Britain did in the early decades of the colonial adairristration in Niueria.

Nigeria end Chad-Nigeria borders, suffers the greatest neglect in res~actof marking on the ground. The original boundary between Nigeria and Geman-Cameroun

had been demarcalec? with piZfPare! by 191 3, but with the post World War I, development, the only inter- nationally valid sections of the demarcated bomdn ry

PP*~a part of' the Yola Arm@and the section fror Hiadel Rey cmek to a p0in.t where the German River Crosses the old bomdary. Subsequent negotiations between Ni~eriaand Cameroun at determinink and resolving the boundar8y question had eluded mutual agreement, Even the controversi.al wYarcow declarationm between Gowon and Ahijo, on which Camcroun had amtinually laid her claim of legitimacy over the diaputed Bakasai

Peninsula was inconcluaiva, It was repudiated and . unapproved by the Nigerian ruling body (s,M,C.) and the then Head of State, General Murtala Mohammed in

I5376,

2.2 THE: CCMMUMlTlES IN THE BCRDERAHEAS (ETHNIC GRCUYS AND SUBGRCUPS) : Bthnic groups and sub-groups of Nigerian origin cut-across Nigeria International boundaries. They are therefore, located at least in part within border

region8 defined ao Ms~b-nationalareas whose economic and social life arm directly and significantly affected by proximity to intermt ional boundariesw.I ' These ethnic groups sapara ted by artiffcial boundaries posses community characteristics which make them inherently diareapectful of the concept of borders as barriers. Hence, their ~ocio-economic perception of border8 is wider than the statutory or Admini stratlve dimension, Most of theae ethic groupings share deities ancestral shrines, major rites, such as birth, manhood, maidenhood, wsmanhood, aasriage, child-bearing and burial ccletoma. Some still share annual festivals and rituals whieh all members of the ethnic groups have obrigati~n tc attend - irreag:ective of Zocation vis-a-via on international boudary. Examples of Nigeria and her neighboura ethnic . cornunities and sub-groups are shown in Table 11 and more graphically depicted in Figure I1 below. TABLE I1 :

Boundary Corridor Ethnic Qsouys or Sub-groupe

Benin - Nigeria Yorubas, Gun or Aja, Egbado, Borgu (~osubas)

Riger - Nigeria Hausa , Adamawa, Taoarawa, Manga, Moba, Kanenbu

Chad - Nigeria Kanembu/Kanuri/~aduma

Cameroun - Nigeria Shuwa , Mandara , Wa kura , Motakam, Kslpaiki, Gude Vese, Ghmba , Ndoro , Kent u, Fungan, Tivi, Bski Mambila, Wu,

Bkoi and Cdadop

N iP Ethnic Groups and Sub-Groups of Nigeria's Border Communities, ..-

1 Kebu 12 Shuwa & Arabic Kanuri 22 Ndoro 2 Gull (Egun) 13 Mandara (Lamana) 23 Mambila 3 Voruba 14 Wakcira (Kamwe) 24 Tiv Kuteb 4 Borgu 15 Fall (Matakam) 25 Yukebeo 5 Dei-ltli 1G Kapsilti 26 Betcheve G Z:IIII~LI 1'7 Nzancji (Gude) 27 Bokk~ 7 Adarawa 18 Yola/Lalta/lLagos State, are in every way part of the same aub-&sou& sf the A jca- speaking peoples who similarly dominate the ethnobm- phic and cultural landscape sf the rural district of Sane-Podjl, Adjanfa and Avmnkou as well as the urban district of Yorto Novo. Badaery and Yorto Novo, the two main urban centres in the Region, contain a com- parable pocket 0% Ysruba who speak a clsseZy re2ated dialect, refered to by their Gun neighbol~rssa '%fagsssar 'Anago', and are also bilingual in Gun. Both towns are located on the sane stretch of the famius lagoon which, together with Neighbouring Yewa (~iyeria)arid Gueme Benin Rivers, serve the generaLity of the people from tine immemorial both as means sf comunictiition and as source sf livelihood for the fishermen majority among them.

The essentials of what cbracterised the Gun subgroup sf the A ja culture area across the gsri-Porto Novo area of the border are re&licnted f'or specific Yoruba sub-e~ltureor sub-groups who constitute the main inter-locking factors between (from South to ~orth)the Egbado South, Egbado North,

Kajdla anti Ifedags Low2 Ccsmmlmi-,ie:; E.r Cgim and Cyo states of Nigeria on the one hand, and ora the other, trne Rural Uistrlct of' ISonyin, Itakete, Ipabe, Ketu and Sabe in the Cueme and Zou provinces of the Republic of Benin.

The extent of the disregard whish the Yorubas in the border rebians have continued ta show to the borader as a dividing line is easily illu~trsltedby khe Ketu caae (~siwaju 1 976). The Alaketu (ruler of' Ketu, the ancestral city in Benin) has continued ta be acknowledged as a supreme authority by all Ketu and related people on both sides of the border.

Adew~L-1Adegbite, the Alaketu of Ketu (4 937 - 4 963) aysKe for his people and the generality of the Yoruba when in a reply to a question in 4 960, he asseted

that '%we regard the bolmdsir$ as dividing the British arbd the French, not the YorubaW.j9 The persistence of this Ketu view is proved b~ an established tradition of csoes-border visits among Yoruba Cba of which the most celebrated has been the visit sf

CCNI of Ire-ruler or the ancient Yoruba town in Gsun state of Nigeria, widely customary believed to be the ancestral home or all Yorum - to the Alsketu of' K~tuin January 4 983. North of the Yoruba sub-groups and similarly s%radd;?etlby the Nigeria-Benin border was the area of

Ancient Borgu (called Bari ba by the ~oruba)kingdom

oP Nikki split into two by the original Anglo-French lines of the partition so that Nikki the capital was pl~~edin today's Benin Republic while the rest of the traditional state - including Yashikera, Kaima, Cmta and YBesa-Ibsriba - was sitl~rmted.in what became the Nigerian side of the border, Nikki itself partakes of the same language, tradition of ori&in, political

anrl social institutions and overall gmup cunssious-

nesv with such otker Borgu slates centred on Busa and lYlo an the Nigerian side of the border arnd Kandi

(~ouanda)West of NiMck on the Benin side. The Borgou privince of Bernin now embraces the part sf the ~~Ptureares in that country while the Nigerian

share of' it is contained mostly within the Borgh

community or Kwara State with the rest, including

ILlo, placed in the Bagudo L.G,A. of Sokoto state. St is important Lo emphaisze here that the reason for details about Nigeria-Benin border communi- ties is to show that the interlocking patterns and network are not unique, Sirnilas pattersn of' relatiouships are discernable on other border of Nigeria and elsewhere, The Nigeria-Niger Boundary

split into two an obsesvablely coherent Hausa culture area in exactly the same way as the border with Benin is huwn to have created the double image for each of the asme central Sudanese terrain and vegetation

a yredomimnt2.y Hause society with yoekcts 0% the normadie Fulani, the same islsmic culture of same farmers (planting mostly cereals am later gro~ndnutfor export), t~adessand csnftmen, Aside generalities of a common geography, culture, history and economy, the border-lands in Northern Nigeria and Southern Niger share the areas of parti-

cular Hausa sub-gruups and traditional atates. Thm,

the areas of Argungu am Qwadabawa of Sokoto state and th adjacent local areas embraeinti, communities such

as Dago Buchi, Yanta KaI and PilPingum in Nigeria approximate to the area of' the traditional Hausa state of Kebbi with headquarter at Birnin Kebbi, aaow capital, of Kebbi State. Nothing illustrates better the '~iameseTwin' relationship between Nigerian and % Nigerian'border-lands, as between the past and the present of this locality; than the eapecia171y binatural locational cItnaraeteristPes of Birin Kuh in the Bambe village area of Mani eommity, one of the series of tkie border settlements with houses partly in Niger and partly in Nigeria. 21 The otory is not different in Borno state vis-a-vis the adjacent area of Chad and Nigeri. Here, it is a

common place knowledge that Borno Emirate, which dominates the modern Nigeria states, was originally "an offshot of the ancient Islamic kingdom of Kanem, centred in the

North and North-Xast of lake Chad and has had more in

-common with such states of the Chad depressioli as Kenern, Bagimi ancr Wadad (a11 in modern Republic of had)

historically, than with the rest oP Northern Nigeria''. 22 The Nguru Geidam and Western section of Kukawa communities sf Borno state vis-a-vis the adjacent local areas of the Niger and the rest uf towns in the border areas such as Monguno, 'Ngala, Bama and Gwoza, which front adjacent amas of Chad, are all interlaced not only by the fact ot the same y redominantly ' sudan savari environment dominated by tile Lake Chad, The commonly sparse yopula- tion is pre-dominantly Kanuri on both sides of the Nigerian boraer in relation to the Niger and Chad, 23 The inherent difficulties in maintaining a divisive border super-imposed in such a region of geographic, cultural and historical unity have been more than adequately demonstrated in what has now gone down into records as the Shugaba Affair of 1 9&1 ; ire which the then Majority leader in the Borno state Hause of Assembly, Alhaji Rahman Shugba, was deported on allegation that he was a Chadian, not a Kanuri (~igeria),

With regard to Nigeria-Cameroun border communities, a lat of background studies have been completed and

gublished (~nene,1 978, Adeleye, q 9'72; N jeuma, q 980;

Bongfem Chm-langhee, 1976; Fanso 1983). However, it could be emphasised here, the partieioned cultures of the areas and communities as Adamawa, Mandara, the Hingi ana others: in the Taraba state as well as the Cdodop, the Ekoi and the Efik of the Cross River vis-a-vis adjacent communities and local communities

In the Southern Cameroun, the areas around the * bahssi and Ebiong peninsulars situated on both West and East of the Mount of R$o-de-B@y and Calabar channel,

are Nkgeilinn Fishermen of Ef ik orisin who settled in tae cornunity areas that are being contested between

Nigeria and Cmerom. Prominent aruong such villa~es

bein& cirntesteu are Abane, INE EKGI, INE Edem Nton&,

111s Cdion6, Amm aruo~ss Gbuta, Caobo, ~kobidi,Pbekwe,

Arab, Usah, 1NB Edet, INE Aha, INE Attaye, INE lNUA Abasi and INh Xkarr&. 24 The inter-losking rezations between border-lands in across Nigeria's - and indeed other African nations - boiwdaries 1~:lve fntsicacies other than ordimri2gr augbested by the P~etof the some areciric lands anel pople~across the lines. In Nigeria, trie general ayglicilbility of" the ::cmceyt car oorder lands as areas ilr which "the economic-social f %netion 02 olie state iauw cje1,tLy hto that or its nei(/hoours~.~~is borne csut bj incorntrovert ible evidencies of intesyreta tion sf the national economics. The Nigerian encl nei&hbourin&rnsltlvnal border larlds at a11 yoints freeLd exchn3e eacn athr3r'~CLirrencj as legal tender. The Nigerian Ntnira is ucceytaole in nel &hbourin8 border lanus of Benin, Niger, Chad, Camesom and Equaterial Guinea as the West or Central Africa

Frmc is in the respective bo~lderregions are, like those crimilarLy :created in any of the border areas, fmely pparoniered bd traders coming across the borders from neighbouring sovereign states and vice versa. Heenctione from Nigeria's neighbours on any ~ccssion of' border closure by Nigerian goverruent goes to oemoatttrate tkmt a1~chanke in the economy of' one state

qdcay sena its riyyle effects across the border into the meighbouring state where they are ~eenlyFelt.

AGMCIILWUfriL AGTI

Agri~ult:~salactivities have Fsrued tfie kriassj earnet; had been tmuitiunal l~ arn arcn 02' what Mcsnc-pd (1 915)~'describes as psatoria: - nomadic economy.

was red"erssc! to bsta tiLe Sabl. It was the semi-arid ficarth wliicka includes Niger and Chad whooe chief' ecports, groeundnuts, cotton and livelertock were draetfcal.ly destroyed Fab the dsught. The xbesultant effects of' the

nei.&buuriab collntriea inkto Nigeria. The distress of tkla area .was awt relieved by Lhe rloods ttat reatilted f'rw t~t.rains which foll~wedthe dlbou&htof 6 973.

Ac@vrdln& tc Le&w (1975), the fleods of August and early

September 697b worsened tke prbobLernu already created

rehgees carny. Water exjat in this re&fom, both In form of . Rjwes and Rain, Tho yastaml nornude ts the north south as the dry aeason approaches and Nerpth en&adn as tht: mi,^ &t:ason beeins. This ha been a mudtine plbac:s; ice from t Fmc PIIPICCHI~OF~R~.The numeroue rivers %hid?" travarm? the area Inc:lude Riv~raNiger, Benue

Croes River ~inc;.Lake Chad, These bodies of water have hclkesn as QR~Pmtekrsltint, i'orce by bringin& the cumtries using tIiam tobether, iae manifested in the fomatiuns Asain, there exist a water way from Cotonau in

the Repub2.l c of Benin to the Western edge of the Niger Delta in Nigeria. This lagoon sjstern, like most others arauna the world, is sheltered from the open sea by a complex arrangement of sandy ridges interspersed

with muady hallows and backed by much narrower sub- parallel ridges. These sheltered wa tere of the coastal lagooris and creeks have provided an important East-West . route, extending from Lake Nokouc and Porto Novo in

Benin Republic to the estuary oP the Cross River in the Cross River State of Nigeria without ventourin& out to sea. " Equally significant are the creeks and

back waters that separate, Nigeria from Cameroun. At the height of colonial traae and commerce, foreign commercLal companies operated efficiently organised fleet6 of river crafts which evacuated palm produce, rubber, copra and bananas from Nigeria and Cameromian point. Althoug11 %he local rarmers ~ndmerchants have

plied these routes in their dugout canoes before the

arrival of' Euroyeans, the European merchsng houses caw tu use these same rcatites in moving their goods to numerube coastal bases by powered launches and

stem wheelers. Cutside the transportation of good 63 and other items of exchange across Nigeria 'Y coastal

Beb~dersarid. ports with her neighbours, the numerous riveras and named above, together with the various Lakes, pools arid the shalLow waters of' the continental shelf', have ~lwaysprovided fish and shrimps from which the local yopti2ation derived 8 good part of much needed &rotein. In addition, the inland waters such as Riveras

Niger, Benue anu Cross River, all rise i'rom outside

Mkseabia and FZow through a ne9 ghbuuring, tersitory before ent.erirn& the COL~PIL~~,they also provide alterm tive

~l~ricu^Ltur*allard on their rlood ylains. Th~sthey provide For all-seasoned ylanting.

YINEHAL UEPCSIT RESCURCES

Perhaps, the rnost converted resources of' this area

is tne aineszll deposits, especially oil, which is explored ~m~aexploited arounarl tne border zones. This

black gold forms the major export base and Farei gn exchange earner of' the @ountraies,especially Nigeria 8nd Cameroun.

Cil exploration had started in the region as early

as I954 when Nigeria hit its first mark or oil in

c~mrnerciulquantity. In the WepubZic of Benin, t

exp:caratisran sta~tedEn 4 364, with the rirst shipment

made iu a 962. Since then, Benin has bee~prodbicine, fit Yll,e8aZ trude across Bideria oosclera has been said

tL> be fis dti as the borders themselves. kt was nutured b3 large prof its anta corarupt bordex* sffl cials, irrespec- tive !sf rsnu and f'carnnation. This together with crimina2 aetivitiea b%p some u?,iens Pwd. led to the adoption rsk harsh policies by Nigerian government against not i onals of her nei&bour~ in the past, AppartmtZy, the ilLega1 traffic in foo(.i items and assorted essential commodities has tentied to displace the so called legitimate trade, This illekal trade ant1 activities are yuBsue:i vigorolmslyi thru?+gh illekal routes by traders from both siies of' the borders. However, it cu~ld be emphasized that this smuggling asrcsss Nigesia and herv neighkrrsuw borders Look an unimaginab.le proportim

Ecunomic LiberaZiza tion policy by the Bsbangide Acimin i- r;tr:itim. With tLlis yol.icy, Migeria government eonsi~ler*edit H necessary step to throw open Nigeria's I I burlderbs witin heno neighbobrs whim had remained I

@Loseti befubBe this time. NOTES AND REFERENCES

~siwaju,**The global perspective: Border Manage- menttl in ~siwaju,ope cit. po 236.

saidu, Mohammed Alkali, "Nigeria and Cameroun, in World Affairs: crisis Management Dn ~nternationalBorders!' op. cit. p, 3, African Concord, @'South ~f rican Threat*', 17th February, 1987 NO. 129, po 30,

Tom, A. Imobighe, ,'Defence and security Implications of Nigerians relations with Her Five Contigous Neighboursll (Mirneo) Nigerian ~nstituteof International ~ffairs, Lagos.

Margret A. Vogt; ,*Approaches towards the enhancement of security of Nigeria's international bordersa, in Nigerian Journal of International ~ffairs, Vol. 12, NOSO 1 and 2, 1986 p. 69.

Ate Bassey; '@Issuesin Nigerian s Security elations sf@ in Nigeria ana her neighbours, Ope cit. p. 3.

Akin Mabogunji, Vhe lana and proples of West ~f ricalt in JoF. ~deajayi/~icheal- Crowder (eds) /and History of West Africa, Vol. I (New york: colum6ia university Press, 1972), pp. 1 - 32.

3.F.A. Ajdyi, Historical Factors in ~egional IntegratLon: Population Movement and Exchange in Pre-colonial ~f ricaa, presented to the World Bank Morkshop on Regional ~nteyrationin Sub-Sahara ~trica,dashington, DOC., 1988, p, 2 (cited in Bassey ~te,op/ cdt.).

Cited in ~oharnmedAlkali Op. cit, 14. See the re20r-t of the Task Force on the Cameraun, 1981, heaaed by the Director General of the NI~A; also documentation in Oscar Ede Q.B. The Nigeria-Comeround baundary, Diplomatic intrigues and crisis (Mineo) NIIA,Lagos.

15. Ajomo, M.A. ttThe Nigeria-Cameround border dispute: ~mplicationat International Lawlt in Nigeria current Law Review, April 1982, pp. 133 - 144. 16. ~layinka,Y.B., The Process of Catographic definition of ~igerianboundaries in ~siwaju(ed) Borderlands in ~f rica (~niversity of Lagos Press Nigeria 1989) pp. 182 - 207. 17. Hansen, M.q The Border Economy: Regional Development in the South-west, (Austin: ~niv,of Texas Press, 1981).

153. "siwaju, A.P., The Alaketu of Ketu and the Onimeko of Meko: @@Thechanging status of two yoruba Rulers under French and nritish Colonial Rule@@in Csowder M. and ~kirne,0. (eds) West African Chiefs (univ. press, 1976).

. "1. Yrescott, J.R.V. *@Thegeography of frontier and ~oundariesn(London 1967) and also the evolution of Nigeria*s Internakional and Regional Boundaries, (Vancouver: 19711.

20. The OOni*s Visit itself was a return of courtesy in respect of previous visits by the Alaketu of Ketu in 1981 and 1982, the one following the installation of the new Ooni and the other to attend the conference of Yoruba obas at Ibadan, at the invitation of the Ooni who presided as Chairman.

21. Asiwaju, A. J. @@Borderlands:Policy implications of definition for ~igerials %ateway@@ states' administration and local governments@@in ~siwaju, A.1. (ed) order lands in Africa, op. cite pp. 63 - 81. Poster, R. nperiodic rural markets and rural development in Bornu, NorthoEast Nigerialt, Savana 1983.

Auefuyi, A.I. WThe Kanuri Factors in Nigeria- Chad ~elationslrin Journal of Historial Society of ~igeria(JHSN) Vol. XII, NOS. 3 and 4 (1984) pp. 120 - 138.

~ills,R.L., The ~evelopmentof a frontier Zone and Border Landscape along the Dahomey-Nigeria boundary11 in Journal of Tropical Geography V01o 36 (1973) pp. 42 - 49.

Olatunbosun, 00, The silent majority (Ibaden: NISER) 1975.

MONOD, T. (ed), Pastorialism in Africa (gbadan: oup for Int. Institute, 1975).

k3penyonq, Okon, "Water and ~akerResources aase of Nigeria and her neighbsursw in ~siwaju(ed) borderlands in ~frica,op. cit. p. 299. CHAPTER TIIREX

3 SCCPC-WCNCMlIj DIMXNSl.CN CF THE CCNFLICTS BETHEEN NIGERIA AND HXR NEIGHBCUHS

The tendency in the past amun8 researchers on, arid analyst or, border eonflicte in Afrf ca 1.n general, and the cnnf Lictu~mlrelationship between Nigeria and her neighbows in part. ieulw, Pm3 been to define and situate its underlying a~aus~mytions- the orthodox views that the colonial le8acy of impresise border demarcation in independent neighbourkng states of Africa, constituted

%hema jos variables accoun &able for* potential and manifest I border eonSlicSs between the sovereign neighbouring i states. Added to this assunaption are the views held and I I exg,r*essc=d,mainly by Nigerian analya ts of the contiicts, t,at the over-$lay on the policy of appeasement and good neighbourliness by Nigeria, even in the face of deljlberrs ae outright yrovoca tiora by the nei,hbours; and

Lhe tepid fear of tm torces of nes-colonialism, as mnrhif estecd in the permanent presence of extesnial alied forces (b'rench factor) among Nigeria imediate neighbsurs constitute major factors in the cause and intractable search for solution to the caxnf2ictual relrationshiy While these rialale ales have their merits in the

armlysi s of ~igeria's border emf licts, anU overall

conf"1i c?+~&lrela ticans wi"ib her immediate neighbcmrs,

tk?c,y nevertheless, do ncrt constitilte QP yta2ify hs the

m:i jor* variables fur the explana t ion of the ecanfiicts

which have chamc terkselr Nigeria' ra relet ions with her

Lmmedia $e mei5hbours.

Again, the trniti tiorla: yersyect ive s sugbesteu

. as ps.llc& mewsbres to contain the con.fliets, the re-

rxemarcat ion d' Af'rienn bullir~mlriesto recuytue its lost

nu turn2 setting; or in the alterm-itive, thc concentra-

tion and kmtensificat ion of states p~esencein arid II

I

aroma the bcsrsaer areas, in the foxam of convergence of I cr4f'fer.emt security P'r~maCiorrguard posts and patrol - customs, immigrcl tion alld othero agents sf border security . The ctmsequences of tkaese me::sl_ares have been repopted

eases of constant clashes between seeuri ty agents

and the bir_)g-.derpeople in) their dally routine of socicp- ecoisomic: activities across the bosders, on the one hand,

U~LLLelasl~eo between secmity abents of the converging staLes, exemisin& jurisdiction over tne borders areas,

on the other hand. This approach thus, tended to

neglect bk6: inter-glay ot' the socio-economic cond it iczns,

character ?and f'orcea of the border8iny states, their border areas and other conatellation of economic intesests (mainly economic migrants, states and

their allies) aroxnd the bo~mdariesas the ma j~rcore v>rPa bles for8 expla ining the emf l icts between Nigeria and he^ immeaiate neighbours, As a shift f'rom this traditional yersyective, ltriis c~haytertends to ex&ain the conflicts within the cantext of scacio-economic factors, Thus, the c central, ar&ument of this chapter is that conflicts between Nigeria and each oF her neighbo~.~ringstates is the result of two interrelated variables, These are the deteriora tin& socio-economic eondit ions in 1

N igesia and the neighboarin& strites and the consequent I I

I movement of people across the borders in search of I better weans of livelihood.

3.1 INTER-PLAY CF F@R@BS CTUAL RELATICNS

Certain aocis-economic f'osces in encoutes with

TABLE 2: % CHANGES IN GROSS DOMESTIC PaODUCTS (GDP) AS INDICATORS ECOhOMIC GROdTH IN NIGCRIA AND HER NEIGHBOURING STATES

SOURCES: (1) In'arla Ta~les,(published for the worla dank by he John Hopkins Uni. Press Ballhope, Maryland, u.s.A.) 1993.

(2) ~fricaSouth of Sahara (22 edition), 1993. Within 'Like~eaiod, 4 9@h$- j 330, R\eiaer.is and her r-*.ci&hbwr mb nta ten in %mKes t-Gen tra2 AP'n"St:en s J$~--xJs~~U;I expef*iep?t:ej.f', ,? ?,!,a t i ;:xu i;i the ,r:>ntr; of th~di.3nmr4:: mmr :;?. I I: f.rw..icAct B (L+~Y). 3.x~~~t. Fgr.

+ b ., .tPd-' ~t*,,; %P;OSt 8::Cai!CrdPh;p had PT=c~F~~&f Pi38 1* S-.3C":f2fiS

?I t ax F' i A';: a'idn: f ~f t iie 1 ~oGB~$'~t-:-:l~g' irth~~* :; t8 $& al. XX:;:vaaO--reblvar 1 P f-ii;.A &~i::id,;? fa: uzta:rP 6oea8 Wg:twaeul . . ilL,.h;b IubCdb1e'l'& b~*9de'" ,.,. k:'t-: li~t.i:c &I: aB BL, . F L~P~JPs il ,k*rC " ' i L: k l '<>U-14' :. *

La., ti j bGt'S.ir, a'~8', ,t"dts:.; b.td~~:~,;!,it: i.g':g,i,~.:t:: s~cJ~.,

P" ,,. 3 . Tl,,eit~~$t'ter, ttr a.,pu &,A$$ I~L~:., v?,~ at!

' rm:'t, Lu --,+z,-, .;;A ~p3j--O,O/, fy3is -6.b;~ 1811 \~oJ

, I 1 -3~.JF [tr ;JLU~ t rser5, th; b?~ddbP.Jii~vste V&B

I abriskltural cx~,or4tsarrcr inerecsecn when pe knrlem

~roductior~commence in the late 4970a. The econoniy I deteriorated in ?kt ~q8tWdhalf of' the 1980s, owing to the decline in world market prices for Cameroun e~.~orts,bkt Cameround had a GNP of U.S. $896 per head in 1 990.

Eccinomi c growth (GIN?) increases by 9 5.651, arid I2 .% respectively in 1980 and I981. In I982, the groms domestic prod~ctincreased by 2.6$, while there was averake increase of 7.0% during the years 9 983 - 1985. However, the deepf'all in international prices for yetroleun in 4986 ended this era of economic growth, althoukh the impact was ini tiai2.3 cushioned by government policy of' drawing an accumulated revenue from sales of yetrbole~in order to sustain the level of investment expenditure ano exports. Whe~the fund exhsus Led, government introduced aeihterity mea sues involving ma jcr reduction in both current and capital budget. The measures resulted in a sharp contraction in the economy, mith the rate of decline in gross domestic

In view of this sitmt on, anci v\lith the support of l'oaai f rcm the World Bank (AI~B)and France, Camer~ununder

too^ BE extensive f ive-yeer probramnie of economic recorlstr~ctionarid reetructupine, in 19~9/1'390. This entailed the refc>rm of the comtsy % paras tatal organisation thro~gh the liquidation of unprofitable enterprices and transfer to yriva te owntrship uf others.

ckanges In ~edci~3tiorlin some years. Within the yt:ars the sukj-rbegion passed threough constant excruciating, deterlo- rat.ing sucbs-econornai.~ condit ions that ~e-manifested, msinly in the increasing rates of inflution and unemployment.

These had inc~easedeff'ects cdn the sufferink of the people

?-1r~~lthe intensification of thejr search for means or 1 0.9 llval.ih,;wd. CA the part of tne states, cliFrerent socis- economic yolicies and measures were irltrouuced to cusr~iun the effects of the auverse sits tions, wlli erj advertentfy or inacraerterit2y threatened trle socio-economic security ard ~i~tiena.2sovereA:i;an%y and id; egrity of' the interacting

8 tu~te~.

Bnf ZH t ion ra tes 'in Nigeria and her irnniediate neighborirs within this period have been on the increase wlth only moderate ~eductionin some yeurs. Using

.9 9bO - -IOC, as a base year for the measure of" consumer price inaex (CFI), it is clearu that all the es-mtries wb Lnessed an irnrla ticma ry trends in their econumics.

(See tab~e). TASLE 3:

ANNUAL AVERAGES CHANGE IN ALL COMPOSITE CONSUMER PRICE-- INDEX (CPI) AS INDICATORS OF INFLATION RATE IN NIGERIA ----o.c1- AND HER NEIGHBWRING- STATES: INDEX BASE:^^^- - 0

Co'N- 1980 1981 TRIES / 1

NIGERIA I 100 I 121

BENIN 1 / 1 /

SOURCE: STATISTICAL YEAR aaoK (38~~EDIT~~) UNITED NATION SERIZS NEWYORK 1992: pa339 The situation was worst in Nigeria with high inflation rates pushing the price index tu 379 and 534 in 4'366 t*nu q 969 respec tiwel~. This represent over* 400% rise .in. pnalces of coxac,mer5 product, as against mild cie&.,ir*eeof' inflcation recorded in the e~rly1980s. The trend continaues in %he 'B 990s with the consumer price

.index (CPI) weaswed with the base year 4969 - 3 Oil. As infPati~l~rates cuxntimea to rise, unemployment. rilsu i~acreasel; iri. F;i ~c:ria creating a general state ol' hoye7,essrmecs in the ma jurity of Nigerians.

Umennrp,l(;yrnent rose to 'B 6.8% in -j 9b8 but mo(lest2~

i~~crekascsian bht: rate ui' unemyloymtx~t in the rest of tile s~bsequentyears, which emed only in -j965.

Tre unem~luymentproufeas in igeria beccme more seriiouz t!..~rin&the years as the number of secondary and Ler Liary school gradua ke swelled the labour market, Wo18kers were retrenciied in both the public and yrivate sectvra on6 the influx of' illegal a11Pens into

Nigeria continued, with stiff .r3onnpetiLlrm fax3 the Few

~ivail:~bBJobs in the co'lintry, The inflowing alliens also added a dimension to the growink economic kfirdshiy. As cheap labours, they terndad to squeeze Mi&erliralnc out, of available jobs. In $983, ernemploymerit stood at L10,2$ of the

icibrskrA force, This was 4 L).9$ lower tnan what #as

reouarded 111 the $9&. However, accor9.ing to CenLrzL

Bank of Niderid? (CBM) annual reyort and statcmeut of

Account, this registered unemyloyrnent, thr~udhemployment

exr:h;l~lge ofti ces, did not srdequa tely reflect the

reail i & ies of' the 2ubour market,, Therefore, the I985

d'iaua?e sko~-~Ldnot be regarded as a reduction in the rate of ~ncmployment, rather many unemployed persons

i14.1 r1u t register, yrobrlblJ because of thei r disenchant- m.m% wi tn th en~i.iloyrnent exchange sff'ices in not being

able to solve theisl emplabrment yroblem, Even the high

rak (of uneray2oyment registered in the stibsequent

yea r 1 966 - 1 990 sciffered the same inadequency , and ~~nemyloymentrates in Niger and Cameram, there

In Benin, the generalay dwindling socio-sconornie conaitims worsened further in the later yart of' the

caasing sharp deteskorstiorl in relations between the

%trio The re-opening of the frontiers in

Lts gkra rantee jobs to secondary schoo2 &rsac$uateswhich caused students unrest. Uurirnb 1 Pdb, the! worsening

towards the Western bloc and the HMF. Civil ser4vants

Ins1,:it.e of the evidence of the declining sacfor-

ha131.1 crf' tale IgrjOs, the existence, discovery anu exylui- ts8l.m of oP1, have saved Carrrerotm from total ecorrmic

of tile Gameruunci govermient in alL sectors of' hhe eccxxmj, , I has saved L he country frro %.)reerupt iuri of incessant sc~cialterns i on prbecipitaLed by worsening economy and ssoiaj, c(maitisn of' %he people. Yet, all could not be well w i th Cnrne roun, considering the nmbera of Camerom.ians ffuctunti~nsin the gromth :af gross domestic product

(G~P),Ni yeria still possessed greater soci3-economic 110 uf ec~nomicmigrations from lgd0 to 4985 and 49th - 2 .t 9W- The rehtive afll~entstatus of Nigerja in relst iun with her nei8hb3~l.r.sin the West-Central

African sub-redion has azwajrs intit;zed an Csmotic

ecoimmic pressure on he^, hene ever the economies of' these neighbours dwindled.

3.2 REFUGEES MlGRATlCN :

Hei'h8ees have alwabs existed, shiftinp; in numbers - anit 8eagraphical concentration, seeking protections r~vrnwars, yersecution, political or relikious repression,

ria ~LLIT-~: d i sastet-, hmge r ana poverty. The Sahel drought

of the first half' uf the 70s and early bOs, set the

pace fos an wlima&inable proportion of influx of refubees

into Nigeria. The ab~lityof' Niserian bovernment to accornm:>dnte and s~stainthese aliens through~utthe

period coii3d be attributed to the relative boyancf

of t%w oil boom and ecuntsmic stability of' Nigeria at the time. However, the influx of the drought victims into

Nigeria was compounded bbr the general Pall in the 8tandard of livinh in the sub-region, as prices of

gmds :mi services went beyond the reach of common man;

us~@m$loymentincreased, RCL~the wor in Chad took a aendlj dimension. These increased two-fold the numbers or refugees, iies t i tultes and unskilled 2.3 bours (umproduet f ve human resuurces) in Nigerian cities and towns. Tjnis movement towards and into Niberis, t.rigp2.ecf &nu re .checi ita m&ximwa pe&m kktb the sisnins sre" ECCNAY protscoL om

A-ire= acveilasi~to.C citizens of memrrer etotes of the &C'CW.AS, wi thi~ntxie HUM-xge&isrliin 120,OOG were from Burkina-F'aso and many others from

~igeria'simmediate neiyhbours of Cameroun 120,000, Chad

150,000, Niger 180,00 and unspecified number from Benin

negualic. Ayain, out ot the 700,000 illegal alien

expellee; in 1985, 300,000 were from Ghana, while many

others niicjrated from Niqeria's immediate neighbours.

lrb January 1985, alone, about 40,000 Chadiana entered

the North-East of Nigeria through many entry points in

~amboril~gala,~ukawa, sigal and Banki partly because

of the drought, 3

~ccordinqto united ati ion ~ighCommission fur

Ref uyees (UNHCR), refugees population in ~igeriafall within 51,000, between the years 1986 - 1990, The toll o$ refugees in ~igeriahas continued to increase during

, these periods, inspite of the previous expulsion orders

of illegal aliens, and the continues dwindling condition

of biigerian economy, This was attriuuted to more

serious socio-economic problems that bedevilled her

immeoiate neighbours,

prl general, one of the main characteristics of

refugees situation in west-Central ~f rica is that they

okten concern mass movement of rural population,

completely destitutes, who meet up on the other side 113 of the boraer with rural population, who have only slender resources themselves. They also tind their ways into major towns and cities of their host country.

It also frequently happens that when Ehey crossea a border, refugees find that the populatiori they meet have themselves been displace0 within their country, followiny various economic disaster and are also destitutes. These populations, outside constituting

nmisance to the host country, fall a willing instrument

in the hands of social miscreants and religious bigots, who convert and insinuate them into religious fanacticism.

The religious risk which beset ~igeriain 1980

in Kano, 1982 in BuEumkutu in Borno and Rigesa in

Kauuna, 1984 in Jimeta, then GongOla states and 1985

in Gornbe, Bauchi state, were ail traced to the

crct ivities oi illegal aliens f rom Nicjeriaf s ordering

statesO4 The violent riots oemonstrated in an

unequivocal term, the outburst of accumulated grie-

vances of impoverishes groups, hard hit by worsening

economic problem in their native land, who hid under

the clout of reliyion for their search of means of

livelihood across the ~orders. since the original cabse of trie violence. could not be situated, it cannot be ruleu uuL thaL the atterripted efforts by Niyeria 114 security agents to fr~stratethe iliegdi aliens economic survivdl migration into hiyeria, anu the resistance of such moves, turnea them into voilent ericvunter witn the Doruer security agents, which consequently erupteu into civil disturbances in the areas. The menance of these yruups was arnony the ott~ervarious issues tihat led to the expulsion of illegal aliens in Nigeria in 1983 and 1985 respecti~ely,

at all the issues of coniiicts tbhat have chard- cterisea Niyer'iar s re1 dtiorls with her inmeaiate neighbours since 19t3Qs, non was as pronounced anu serious, in strainLrij ~iyeria*s relations witrl them as the expulsion orders of 1983 anu 1985, dith these desperate acts, ~igeridexpecte~ly caught the i Baks nGt only of her imiuediate neighuours but also of sc:vt.rai other ndtions in trle suu-region, They accused r .. 1 .I:> *iccitiai~.;her role as the yi&t of kfrica,

Cornp1icatiorb:i cirose ~n the 1385 expulsion exercise

~~XCILA:;~cr~~lri t.~ies lir(*?tjeain a6ld ~icgerrefusea to open

~r~ei~side of the borders for fears of aliens of uif i-exent ndtiol~aiitiessettlirly in thelr countries. when trrey eventuaily opened tneir borders on the entredty df. ~iyeria,tiley imposed strigent conclitions 115

tf~dt i r~volvedc~rnplex aocurnerita Lions. Thousanus

o? the aliens were inevitauly strended with only

#2;5,00 allowra to each ol them by ~iyeriangovernment 5 as a traveliiny money,

~gdin,tns cunf ~icts~etween hiyeria dnd her

t~eirjili~ourswere co[ pourmciea wi tnin this perioti by

~ige~~iarlgovernment decision to close all her borclets with tht? boraering states. 'I'nis uecision was

cdicclldted ds a airect response to tinding solution

to tnt? deteriorating socio-economic cc~nclitians of

hicje~ians,wh.~.r-h was mdde ,:!;,re aeploraole ~y the

irif lux settlement of illegal aliens, Nigerian

yo~~rilmenisseenred not r;o have taken into accobnt

the weight (3k tne effects ot her t~ecjsi.:~ns on her poorer neiyhbouring states, especid b ly Chad wi~ose

ecorlurrrir: drla social life had suit ered irrepairaule colhdpse ds a re:;ulL ol tile persistent. war's; allu who aepend Dn her seil ok cattle to Nigeria and

Carneruhn to survive. ~ccoraingto quarter iy economic

review of Chac~ (1985), tne war in Chdd which seerned

fdr from endinq, coupled with her expulsion from

LLLAC, hr.id thrown her into ecori~micuisasl.er. AS

clt 2983, Cr)arr recot'aeu Cr'A iranc 8 billion trade

uef icit, rr~assiveoutf low on services, adc! smothering

117 reaction oi. the expulsion oi alien Chaaians in ~igeria.

Gaddaf f i had uncnaritadly berar-eu [qigerid for wtlat he caiieil rts~lojectinq the Arab thauians tu degrauing 6 exisrence~~.

~t the break oi the war, Nigeria wrote a Letter to the Cha~iangoverrlrnent protesting Itthis act of wanton violation of Nigeria's territorial integritytf. On

Flay 4, officials of the two countries met in Layos to discuss ways or dif iusing tension in the disputed lslancl. Scdrcely two weeks after the nreetinl,, there were reneweo hostilities as Nigerian troops yot reinforced and moved into the Islanu to recapture the position fcreefully occclpieo by the ~haaiansor1 the Islana.

~ccordingto the idon. External Ninister, Ishaya Audu, the caualty iiguses were put at ~ineNigerians and

33 Chaclians dead; 19 Nigerians arla 33 Chadians were

However, on duly 2, 1983, Shagari and Cnadrs Hissen

Habre met for one day at ~nujato rectify a series of agreeinen ls which included the cessation of hostilities, re-oper1i.n~ of the baraer on duly 11 ana exchange of prisoners of war, who were refered to as detained persons. cjf the nineteen ~icjeriansdetained, 17 were soldiers, one was a member of ~irjeriansecurity organisat ion (MU) and the other a policement8 I The border closure Dy Niberian ,overnifien t be tween

April qgd4 to Febriiary 1966, ancl the repeatea expilsion order of illegal aliens it1 Nigeria in 1985, drew a

Lot of criticism anc: fur~tnelzstmined Migerfa*~ relstionship with her immediate neighbours in a cold conffict dimension. Even tho~ghthe actions were taken as a redress to the continged dwindling socio-economic severed conditions in Nigeria, it never . .L a propep therapy to the pronlems, as Nigerian businessmen and their co~nterpartsin the neikhbourind states, (mainly uiemployed grailxates who had taken to smubaling) affected by the policy; adopted a more subtle tna so9histicatea means, LiKe attacicixlb and or bribin, the boraer patrol and gsard aberlts to defy the policies. This has often pr~vokedeonflizts aro~indthe border areas. From this period too, maw more iLle@l. routes were discoverAed by the smuggleras ana their activities intensifieu.

3.3 ECCNCMIC MIGHATCRY ACTIVITIES ACHCSS NIS~WIA'S BCRDERS ViITIi HER IMMEAJIATE NEIGHBCUHS

Mass human mibrations have often and frequently distorted geographical or political bmndaries. Mostly these human migrations have resulted from aconomically motivated movements of' pastorialist farmers, traders and fishermen in search of? are::s of optirnun opportunities. In Nigeria's border areas "where the border line between the states remained quite free, frequent and conmion*, 9 it wouLd req~iremsre than the conventiona2 strategies of a nilat at era?. state's action to cailtain. Apart from issues of illegal aliens (~iei'ugees) and border cLosures, as direct consequences of declining socio-economic conditions in Nigeria and her neighbouring states, which have induced conf lictual relations between them as the above analysis had shown, another direst consequence of the familiar conditions is intense economic migration or smuggling activities across Nigeria's borders with the conti- guous states. Smuggling activities across Nigeria's border with her neighbo~rsconstitute a major source of the conflictual relations between them. This economic activity is promoted b, the complex character an3 conditions of boruer areas and its ir~habitants. Hansen (1 961 ), aptly capures the economic character and funstions of ~igeria'sborder areas with her neighbows when he defines border rekions as sub- national areas whose ecmomic ancr social lif'e is direct:; arid sibnificalltly effected by proximity to an international boundaries. ' The borders are lar~elyltunpatrolled an3 unpa trollable and have little consensual or physical reaZity at the local leveltt.

Consequently, thes have served as an inter-state path- way, a conduit, an incentive For the muverrient oF booas and people, especialli where there is economic ciiskaritj between the neighbowink stabes durkn& periou of severe socio-economic problems. With increasing hardship in Nigeria and her neigh- bodrs, as evidenced in the crippliny, domestic shortfall 'and unemployment rate from 1980 - 1990, many unemployed graauates from both sides of the borders engaged in smuggling activities across-borders as an available alternative means of survival. The interacting states also, through their various border security agents and guards intensify their tax drive efforts on cross-border traue towards generating revenue for the states and p~~omotine,her economic base. Consequently, harsher laws and penalties are r~isde and ayyly on the tax defa~lting or evading ecunomie mibrants. A&airi, it happens that some states who benefit from this type of transaction as a sustainink base for their economic brawth encourake the activities thrauah other s~tbtlemearltj favocirabfe to them. Thus, between 1960 - qStr5, there was a massive movement of pwyle (~canomicmigrants) across Nigerian 1 21 borders with eacri of tile neighbowing states of' Niger,

Benin, Chad an41 Camerotin. Accorlzing to Customs ana &xcise Ueyartment, reports of various years, on re,is- terecl cases of arrest of smugblers around ~igeria's borders, trlere was rbe&isteredcases of arrests of dOi,

SI~U~~Z~I'Senbaged in business across Nigeria-Niker borders between 19bO - q3b5. Within the same perioa,

I ,390 ecormriic mi8rants were arrested, using the variods ille6al mutes acrass Niteria-BBnin boruers.

Nikeria-Chad borders recorded 7ti0 cases of' arrest of smugglers; while 1 ,200 cases mere treated in Nigeria- Cnmeroun borders. In each of the cases goods seized worth millions of Naira and rankes from petroleum praij~~ts,cmsilmer goods, French wines, liquor and assortea wears. There were also cases of Tobncco r;nd cu.rency traff ic~ingacross the borders. TABLE 6: NUMkiER OE. REGISTERED CASES OF' ARRESTS OF ECCNOMIC MIGRANTS ACROSS NIGERIA BORDERS WITH EACH OF HER II"rfYiEL)IA?E NELGHBUURS

COU NTRI ES 1980 - 1985 1986 - 1990

NIGERIA - NIGER 800 1,300 NIGERIA-BENIN 1 1,500 1 2,800 NIGERIA - CHAD

NIGERIA-CAFACROUN

SuUhCE: SqUn ~kinpeloye,ttpolitical Economy of Nigerian border-Regions 1980 - 1990tt. An unpublished

1q.s~. Thesis, univdrsity of ~agos~koka 1991,

pp, 73 - 75.

Betweeri 1986 - 1990 the registered number of cases of arre:>t of trans-border economic migrants swelled to 1,300 cases in ~igeria-~igerborder; 2,800 in

~igeria-Benin border; 900 in ~igeria-chad border; while

~igeria-cameroun border witnesseu 2,600 illegal cross-boraer cases of arrest, In all cases, of' arrest, Niberian srnu~~le~~saccounted

for over 70% of the total sumrnarj. Althoubl~there

were cases of' aif'ficulties irt identifsiirr, kne tmze ria t ionali ties or some arresteu srn~~blersbecame of the common ethnic iaentities of the peopLe involved,

especially in border aress of Niger and Chad

(s. Akinpelage i991 , bid).

The increase in number 01' cases between 1 986 . - 1990 was af'fected by further deterioration in the socio-economic conditions in Nigeria ana her bordering states, and the introd~ctionof Economic liberaliza-

tion poiicy by' Niberia, and the s~bsequentre-oyening

of her borders closed aeja lnst her i~nmddiateneighbours

since q 9&+, for free movement of people and unprohibited cate&orkes of goods. The policies were considered

to be logical akproaches towaras a national economic

Thus, the ecorlomit muvemcmts across the buruers

were enga&ed in, by both nutiormls From Ni6eria &nu

each uf her in;meaiate neighbours, bl;t Inure bs Niker4ians,

wit.h ti relntitely, an unequalled match cf' busiriess

enterprising spirit. The l~reor Nigerian businees-

men into t~*ens-bor*ciertrbans%ict8icrn across the @~ZILCO-

phone neiyhbours is tke access to CFA franc, which can easily be converted intcr the hard currency of, especially the Crgalii sat lon fora Economic Go-opera ti on

snu Duvr;lopmcnL (cECL)) natims.

Thus, in kauit ibn tc the grouLema of i21eba2

&Liens arlu tkir expufaicns, and border clcs~rr:Dy

Nigeria akainst her neighuours, as ibs~e~of conf'lictkal refa ticmu wtween Nigeria and her* yroxin~atsneighbuurs,

moot of the conflicts that have occured between tmse

neighbouras and Niaeraia since the 1960s have direct

. Lirr~s~i.th activities of konorn.tc Migrbants. This will

te well aysiwciat.ect if we realised that most of' the reporteu border conflicts hve resctlted frwm encc,unter.s

t>e?ween economi:. rnik,rarlte, (in the foiln: of' sm~gglers,

cat,lt:e herc?mer,, ft raan;ers, fishermen and crimimls) who

oeiong to eil.he13 of' the ~ieiklhuourinb states an,^ boruer

secld*it, abenrts - (CLS~UIIIEJ imn.i~ration,police, arms amnitv$) sf eitter states, a~thoriseato enforce tke

ec!unriniic ariu security poljcies of the interzctiri~

states. It has also res~ltecifrom cases of' criminals activities across the boruer. The disagreement amon& the oorder. aterltb or the irrter~ctedstates, tkiemselvss, ora wi tri tr~eecw~ornic

mi,rwits often provoked c?.asnes, severs: cases abound to prove tnis. 111 jue 19b4, a chsh ensueiL between the keople of Ssbiu arid M~jodi,irl Salami Local Liovem~ilentarea uf Sokut~State, Nigerja anu cattle nerusmen Trm Niber Republic, which resuLted from customs and

~mrr:lgrationoffirerst restrBict~onori cattle tr.ilnsacticin from Niger into Nigeria. The conflict ~vriichstaisted ill one gf' tht: Illmerotis boxbuer posts betwten So~otcl stbte of Nigeria mid Niger HepubLic, spreha ir~totLe boraer vi17,aGes and lasted for nearly a WeeK. It took tk.e intervention of' the Sokoto state police comnand anci their counterparts i:~tke district of Pr'igeria, in the Soutr..erri port of Biker to quell it, after several arrtst were made. An mdisclosed nmber of lives were lost in the encomter. ? 1

shut, one Nikerian uf'f'izerb, captttred another aria con- 1'iacs;tk.l their riri'Ses, at tn,e border vi32age of

rl State in qi3tr9. Ihe Arnied men were saiu tcj be on the

&urasuit of' a ~roukfrun Nigeria suspxted to have been involve~lill title series ol' reyorted cilses of cattle thef't rrcm I\r .ie;er into Piigerbizr, bmn trxy confronte~i I Ll~e imnhi&ratiorn off'icc.rs, If tlit petition of' the Borrao state council of' c~st~rnsand excise and imrni&ration 8taPf' Ilnlorr, to the military Governor of the state h:,d been answered with retal_iator$ moves, it wouldn't

Another inciuent of' borauer conl'lict terisivn occLcrecr

border by boreuer. official, wi.trxcct ilw permission from

Nigeraiar; bovun-menl,. It was alle6ed thct tke ineiuent occured owing to disagreement over "a large sum of' money so id to have been &iven to Nigeria/Niger joint border 2at.r~lteam by 8 smugk,ler on petr*cl.em product into Niger Republic. An inevitable Armed clash wo~ld

;ave result.ed betweer, the two states, if lives were

Lo:;t ip tnr: enco~nter. And perhaps, it wo~2ah~ve been attributed to tne ceuse of territorial clsims ~y eitrier or the two states. q 3

These same experierrces have been common with

Nigeria's rdatiorLswith Benin and Chad, b~tWI th seraiaus conseqtiences f cir Nigeria ' s relations with

Camerolm since q 9bOs.

~igeria'8 relations witrl Benin witnesses the ,rtost serio~sof' border incidents in March 1 961, when it was reported tho t a mj siir~cberstar~ciin~which arose between faimers Srcm Sokoto st&te Nigeria anu their coulter&arts f'rm Benin HepWiLic and msrllted in attack on, anu occ~ybtionof Nigerian villages in the boruer

state. As Nigerian bovernment contemplat.ed a riposite abuinst Benin, if the report WO~LUue conl'irnieu to be t me, the deninoise Ambassaclor iu Lakes q~ie~1~uenieci tmt the Beninoise solaiers or troops ccjuld emba r~ed on s~cliactiorl. It took the sarnrriit of Nigeria president

Shehu Shabari and his Beninoise counterpart, Mzlthieu Kereko~~,in Lab20s on April 16, 19& , to resolve the crisis. Kemkou subsequently asstired Nigeria that his cclaun:rd- v~okldnot mder ar,y circunstances, invade any prt of pigeria. He attrib~tedthe crisis to the activ$ties of crb~mi.nalsopera tin& across the bordt,rs: which is not short of' ~hji~lbthat the: :;ctivities were tnose of economic mi,gants operatin& across the: bar'der. ' Both states later agreed to establish a "NeutraL zoneH alcnk their common borad.t:r am from which all hrmnn activities wotild be excluded. 15

In November 1 3dh, after several abyeal to Nigerian govenlment 'mder Buk;ari/Idiakbon to reccnsider its stand on the permanent border closure against ~igeria's immediate nelghboura had fallen into a deaf ear, armed clashes erupted between Nigeria's border security officers and their cotintergar%s ~PUEZBenin Eeg&Llic at the Seme-Kiatri border. The clash resr;Lteu from tl~e fuileci attelmkt b$ the Beninoise border security akents to encoura&e smuggling into the cut of Nigeria, through nunerous undef irled route transversing Nigeria-Eenin border. A quick intervention of the Internal Affairs

Minister of Nigeria, Jom Shabaya and his Beninoisa counterpart, L t . Col, Edwa ra Zodeho~~hen,prevented the c?.ash fsom deterioratin6 into an internationa2 war k~etvkeen Niberia and Benin. The two Ministers met ana toak a f ive-da$ tour of 22 vilzakes alsnb Niberials border wjth Benin Republic, to demonstrate to the inhabitants of' the bc.rder villages that the two countries were at peace, Shaguya later assured the people of Nigeria's 16 plan to r4e-open the closed basdcr in no distant time,

Ap~rf.from t1:t: q 4& and I !?aborder incidents between Nie,esib ana Benin, all other comp!.aints in their relnt ionship have stemmed. from the activities of sm~k&lers:~nd and actions of over-zealous states' fun- c tionariee v~hoatter1,pted to enforce Pegi sletion beyond

thei ra area 01' j~risdiction. Ti:e Idi-IroKo border between Niber.ia and denin, fLourishes daily on activities of' frequent reports of influx of Armed Robbers who

terrurised La,os ;ntf. its enuirsns (~r;inaBsn;rri; cast:

in 1 992) who f'c;und sunctua~r*yin Benin Re~ublic.

These socially ar~deconomically reLated problems

which have incurecl destnoilizing influence on Nigeria

have been at the centre of burning issues of conflictuaZ

re% tioris bctweeri Benin 3x1 Nigeria since the q 980s

Tnese activities have nut blown into fuLZ international

wur, &ar.tl_s becril~seof tk Economic: libra2ization

Tlirsl~tur Nip,eria '6 econ6m.i~poli e.g intsod~iceusince

q 'job an~ltk GU-SLA~t 01' poZich OP nei&hb~~~rLines t svmrd s beairz.

Iri 1 S)dO, crisis bnaoice out betiwen Nigerit. aru Chla

ovcr l'isLiint. anu fishinh rihht in LaKe Chaa. These

&ere also ::r~sesof' t.klef't oi' cattle frorn Niberia into

Chid anti (;arnerrj.,r,; imposition of tax on NiberBian f isLel.-

her: dri Ishno of Kljkisnr; t,, a ChaJiafi distr~ct.ric:ed;

s A-1.' . s . isNiAerlii ' Y rcla tiurls

wi t..rj Chzicr from 1 !-id6 -. 4 vob were del'ineu o; eor~stsnt 20 t:,ruer clask:es over f'isnink2 ribhts. The crtisis

f'e:.? etac\; an:1 inileeu wo13scned bsr 9 Pb6, when Hissen llar;irle,

wcc7~se;Ri6eri:j of sesvina as a reerhitment and

t r'i ib~ir~~,t,r:3br1 J for Chi8 dinn di ssi~lent s, parti c~lar.l y

th9se nuylio tat.ive of G;.~c~mrirni'Nadaye. 21 Healisin& tLe irnclic~tiunof' cr~ss-buruer

iiii; vm:t.l;t S trj t~ibzBt;Se 32' trie ye,urf,ea ciasrles Get~cen

I\;i,,er3~aaria Chau, NiGeriu:l ~overnri~e~itiri 1 9a4, set

I.;, c rnin-i stcrinl csnimitiee to looli int.; the iss~eof

horacr ue tween her ant1 Cira d. Arnurig the reeomnlenda tiona

{GL' the C:omrnittee include more ef'fective ccntrol, of the

m:,vcmerit:i :rr goods :ins. se~~vieesby Nigerian customs

:!rid Xxcise, the est2af31ishnent of BarXing facilities

'. Lrie bi~r.a.e~*a ,! c.;is between Chad hrati Ni &erPs; tkie lise

esP' v~t:i;t A~'rie:~~:tlt;.ii~iiii, j?oi;:..e s,;t;t;en, t.9 facilif+at,l::

::,:.;.;;ct::fit f"o c- a~05sex::hn~eci; proper &ocla~ tr.r t ,i 011 3r e.!sus.~sest.c:ikirii,cd a.cebo:;s the Lordera and tk,e estf-iblisj;-

TGC.:;t ut' ic~i;*L c~~t<:.jm;~:LIG i~nrrii~ry~%ior~k;i:.r:~L tea^!^ t,s 22 Iii:.ifii t,:>j.& t.KY-cI.~:~.~ a~: t, i vi ties iri t,ti,e: apeti .

1-1 ~fuct, Chad' s prslmgea antagoniorn Z~FI~RS~Niigerh

stemmed From the severe ef"fect; of:' border clasii~+~-be

:lc ,-,-I..,:Is~.~x~c 1:~f the oorders reminiled Chnci of' the

rir;t;~alit$ .,IYti.te.i.r d~~.:enuerl::~..Child was uell:i.~;cr hit:r

RC:C~;~Sto ?;.he sea uli:~her &etruleum imports which

,& .a,,, .v3 f.h , vital to her war effo~~ts,esi~e~i;~ll~ uitki LiuAra,

aai",l._; Ni&er.i.ci ,&as denied of hera cattle irnpurts from

Cfi>.aii. This ~HSa tel1\in.& ef'f'ect, on the Chaiii.arr poor

ec!snorn,y. A-lr;o the Lc".ke Cbd rcgi':~neonst.itut.es onc:

of the mooS, f'ertile Ram rest:,i.i.r~e-richares of' azl arid the:::: tsxe:; find levies imiiose:i blr the Gendemes on

Nl,crintl border users (~usine:;smera, Ti shermer,, f'?mrer*s), at.t?.sCked by the Carne~o1~nianGendarmes. This provoked an attack on Cameround Smbnssy by a &rol;p of: studeats

moves, mn11e by Nigerian goverrm nt to &,et Camero:ints ayoZok2 and promise :~f compensation to the ~o?~ciiers' fs~:r,ilies,failed into the ,leaf ears 06 unrepentant

I-?,wrnero;~n kjoverrmcrit..

Irl March 4 963, tension increased a~etueenNigeria

ixl Car~iero~~rsred~~~eil the ftllol;l of mter to Borno state.

oorder movement ar~dactivities (ecoriomic rmisr.a tiom) 4 z I IL+ uDsexaved tkit cross boruer movenlerlts or. precisely smbb,L ine incluced conf'licts r*~.a~~c-,ddrast icn l l;r ana cim.si&%raaolyul ti-&iri trze arise t of F*'iGe:*i~nbove,rraen+, *s poL iq' of Eccirlomic Liberalize tim, intmacrced by

Tbrarlirn Btils~ri~inmin 19~6,except irl trie eases or

N igeria-Camesolmu borcier insiilents, complicated D, trie existence oc4 ctiscuvery ;(nu LSC or shareu val~eci re:;oldr4ces, esdecia12y oil in comrne~~ialq~antity.

The lioera2isinlj thrust o:' thc economic ycslic., t~~oxits initial step with the opening of Niberia's bordt:rs with her neigh~ours,cLosed in 19d;(. The un ilrj tcral action n t border c2osure uy Nijie~~isnyovern- ment which was adopted accl~rdiriBto Mohammed Buh~ri,

"so :IS to stern :'ct,s of' economic s:-lbotog,e that inclr;de!x tnt: urnl~,~lin~of Nige.,isn petroleum :-lad conslimer yrodic:ts, even ' s the nntlar~faced cripyPina domestic: s I~(B1' k l'n 1'".2',, diu not ,o ciovtn wall lithNigericts irnrileciia tt. neiiahbours. The :is Lion was partic~3~r2y of'f'ensive ut' the sec:onu ,hast: of' ECCWAS pr30toco.l nrlich

1-rvviu~ilfor the fret: movement of 80~s811~ services bY itkrill the sl~b-w,ion.

With the economic 2iberulizzition polieh, Niheria reducea and relaxecl he11 order ecol~umic security c mcentrbation, contr801 trnd r3estrictions on bo r*dexl tccmornic activi ies. The perlod vetweell 1 9d6 - 1903, tillis, witnessecl H. corlflizt-free, blisy border economic

trans~~ction, thou& with minor incidents that cot;Ld

rmt strain ~dstions, Zs&eei.rfly st :4ir5e~ia*sIdi-

Iroau-Seme r)ordernwitn Beriin fiegublic and Nigeria's

inari time borxier with Carne.ro>m, which flourished on

as:iorteu find items s~chas rice, textiLe mate&ials

arid yetr~lemprod~cts. At the Norti~ernbolder witn

Nigera and Chad, trans-bordera tmnsact ion also f lotiriskled,

.meinLy in petrolem yrodt~ctsfrom Niaeria to Niker

aria Chrtd; ancl livestocx (eattles) from the tho colatries,

especiallg Niaer into Niberis. Cattle srn!&~lin6 haa

Ivrl;; re~lacedgrotinan~ts srn~~~litl~ with tk,e fali in

the ~r~~~r~clll~tpx.oilbct ion in N igeri a, occnss.iuneu b;

the oil boom era of the ?9(40.

The forgoina analysis has been able to show how

the corlf'ZictuaZ relationship between Nikeris and her

neignboxrs cosld be tied with tkie socio-economic

variables operst in& within their common borders. The

rcslities of' these forces to the problem, therefore

call foxD socio-economic ;~alicsguide and orient~tion

to the s jl~tion. 3.4 NOTES AIGD REFLHENCES

1. ~uarterly~conomic ~eview, ~ugust - Dec. 1985 p.14.

2. kkinpelayo Segun, npolikical Economy of sigeria border regions 1980 - 1990*@. (An unpublished f4.S~. ~hesis)university of Lagos, ~koka1991 p. 78.

3. Newswatch, 6th May, 1985.

4. West ~frica23ra NOV., 1981.

5. he African ~uardian,March 20, 1986 p. 15.

9. west Africa, 2 ~ugust,1982.

10- Hansen M., The Border Economy: Regional ~evelo~ment in the southwest (Austin urliversity of Texas press, 1981).

11. The African ~uardian,Op. cit.

12- Guaruian 3rd May, 1989.

13. Guaruian 7 March, 1990, p. 10.

14. ~igerian~erald (Ilorin), March 19, 1981; ~ailyTimes 14th April, 1981.

15. New higeria 20th June, 1981.

16. The African Guaruian, arch 20, 1986.

17. ~f rican Concord 21 March, 1994, p. 15,

18. Pbid. p. 20 21. Recora of Uiscussions between the ~igerian ~eleyationana the ~hadianDelegation at ~'djarnena on Monaay 24th November, 1986.

22. Margaret Voyt., tf~igeriaanu Chadtt in aassey Ate and Akintorunwa (eas) Nigeria anu its immediate neiqhbours, op. cit. p. 100.

23. SA'IDU PIOHAMI%LD A. ~'Nigeriaand carneroun in ~orld Aftairs crisis management on ~nternationalBorders*' up. cit.

24. R. Ornotayo ~laniyam; ~igeriaand West Africa: problems and Prospect in future relations in ~lunsayaand Akindele (eds) Nigerian Journal of lnternatiormal if airs, 1986.

25. See Af rican Guaroian March 20, 1986 Op. cite CHAPTER PC'UR

Some of? the common reeowces available to Nigeria and her neighbours, whose use and exgloita tion have served as sources of conflict in their relations are mainly water and water resources, Rnci crude oil. which traverse the common borders.

~c.1 KATEH ANJ WATEH REXCLJHCSS :

The popular body of water available ttr the s~b- rc~ion wk~ichs~staines lives anll interactions are River Niger and Lake Chad. While the Niger Basin comprises such renowned tributaries as So~otoRiver,

Kaduna and Benue Rivers; La~eCb-I Hasin receives its w~tersfrom rains aru chari, Lo&onne and Komoa~8bi. rivern' (niver YOD~).For tile rnarmaement of these cmmon resouces, dif'ferent regulatory boiries have been set up bs the common creaty of the interacting states. The bodies include the Lake Chad Basin

Commissio=l and its development authority and Niger-.. River Commission. Member states of' the Lake Chad Basin Commissisn which incluae Niger, Chnd, Nigeria and Cameroun, are restrained from unilateral or unauthoorised case and exploitation of the sesolirces of the LaKe Chad

Basin water surface and its adjoinin& territorial coverake. The manadement and re61;latord7 jurisixiction of the commission's treaty exten,~sto an area coverabe of 22,000 square miles of water suface and L+27,200 square miles of territorial coverage.' Cn the other hand, member nations of the Niger Basin Commission

include Guinea, Ma: i, Ivord Coast, Burkina Faso, Nik,eria, Benin, Cameram znd Niker.

The no@ and elcploitation or the resources of the

LLKC Chid and Niber Basins waters snared between Nigeria and henb irurnecdicl te eni&huoi;rs (especi:.l:; hith regard

tc, LacK hii id), are or yreater relevance to the ex~lanation

or ~i~el@ia(srelations with hera immeaiate nei&oo~~rs khcre, becslise of the potential ana marlifest danber poseu

u; the Itinact ivitj and insensitivity of' their redu2ating

commissioris (ans ai~tkurities)wriich fail to monitor

the way member co;litr3ies st: and manrbe parts OF the

Rivers thst flows throuah their sovereibrl territories". a

These attituues ancL acti3ns of' member states of the

emmissicln wiiich violate the provisions of the cammissions

are reflective of' the dissatisfaction arid frustration

among some member nations on the q~estionof use and

exploitatiori of the common resources. Again, they are

refzective of' the insatisble desire an3 curiosity of those states to &ain mdue advanta,es at the expense

Commissior, wliieh pevents merneer states f raom tappin&

anu aevelopin& the water and Land unaer the commission

becmes a sourace of frustration so soale: menibcrs, such

;is Nikeria which has the capucit~to utiLisea tne water

.nicrnucr states from ~*tilisin&the land aha water of the

commission was to ensure that no advantage was ta~en

by meaber states at the expense of the othersu.' He

arV6i;ed with Ibrnhim James (1 964) that the provision of

tf,e commission and its a~thoritywas contrived against

arlj measme by members, capable of affectin& the

,erlcral water system of Lalte Chad anu its Basin.

Ho~ever,it oecmes a common ,r:nctice by tne inter- acting mernDer statts to embard on me construction or

water ssrstem of both Hiver Nibera unu Laire Chau Basins.

This na s res~2Leu to miswaerstanui& ue tween Ni&eria

and her neikhoours, es~~eciallyCarnerwri. The Niger

has ;-i nwnuer uf barxna,es and dams cunstructeu at various mila terally constr~cLed the Ladgo Dan on the ~pstream ut' tile Benie River which narmalLy serves fisnemen and f'nlmer*~in Xiberia anu Camerolin res&ective2y,

Tills ailversela aft'ecteu Sishina anu abric~ltural uctivlties of Niejei~iansin tne riorder area with Caruer*oLin,

Vvhen the sit~~stion%as becoming explosive, Nieeria considered a redress in International Co?;lStuf' dustice, while she also bolrbht the idea of a NieSer4ian-Caiuerou~

tamed by the uiversiorl of' the Kalia Rivers (called

E1 Beicr on the Camerouniati siae). 5 Inaddition, the

50 kilnmetres from Goroua has contraj.bted imrnenc;ely

tc.1 the consjderabfy reduced volme of water in the

N i.ger- Eiver and its adjoining tributaries, affectir:g

studies have sr:ov~rl tiLaf;the conatiucti.on GT dams and

barr;le;eci upstreanis tenu to reu&r:e nut onlyl the volme also the availar;le areas or Fanlama (a rntx~shyarea tkit cs~iswtain the grcwth of crops even dtrln~tke drg seasun)

9r~q. Sjria was stispectea tu have tiirrled uown the 6 sluices at Tabqu Dam.

Between Nigeria arid her ncighbours, the constru- ction of stiekl barrages anu other water system projects

st.8 tes uf eitker tke NmC or LCBC. For instance, implements t ion of the SuutL Chad irSlii&ation project was tu affect tke 96,000 sgrr;lre Krc cf? Nigeria's oasl treaty portion dl' the Lake Chad Basin, however because of the size aria cc;ntylexitY.uf the kroject beine; planned, wiiesl f ~,llyo~eratiunal could affect the general water sdster:lf.3 Apparaerltly-, it is rearea thrt s~chprojects

tu:; sldffereu anci ccintknuet: to scrffer since the Sahelfan

con~klicatecrbjr the uiversiori of tile wat8ei3s oy the con-

tigbcaus states. Eui.;e cha~,esyt;ciaf.Ly, is a vita!. econmic Life line to the keople of the arm containing u rich reserve of' fish.,, it is a fertile besin, vital for :i&rbicultureanu pastoral activities in the aria re&,icjn of Nigerili find her neighbows. This has mado

::nc divert the waters from multi-purpose cosio-economic grc;jecLs fox* national gains.

It theref'orde, becomes glarinblj cle:, r that the use and exkloitation of shared conimon resouces, bhick

the LaKe Chaci anc Niejer Basins waters and resr-L ~~irces formed part of, between Nigeria ar~dher neikhbo~rs, constitute a sowce of conflict which cklzracterised

Lkeir- relstiorrs. Therefaore it is hoped ttat efforts willbe made to moni tor the developments and management aZonej rivers and related WE ter which Nigeria shares with her neighbo~rs,

~4.2 BIShING AS A SCNHCE CP CCNFLICT Il4 NlGEkIA'S RELATlCNS BITH HEH NElGHBCUKS

maritime border areas of the skb-r8e6ion, as have beell the cases between Nigeria nnG Chau, and Nigeria and

Csmero~ntion several instances of interna t ionaL cfmflicts. The rich fishing resources mainly reserved in the Lake Chad and its feeder waters, arid the waters sr.a~etibetween Nigeria and Camerom in the sub-region has attracted various people from Nigeria and her neighr)ou6sand otker economic group interests especi;:l!.y

The f'isllin, zone, e!;i~ecis:lsr on tLe siue o?. ll i,eria ':; tcl'ri tjr'i:il wl ~LX'S,11:::; ~ZSGatt~*t!~tt~! Lik;

.I) ie:.ust 1: xif'dre i ,,) vessel:; - ttmdne thcii~tl!c:;i;

31' U:~I~L~L"YA, I taIdz ;irici 'ht9. MarW or ti~cstv~sst,ls have bet?;, rejiortelrl~urlres teu t'or i'i sxin, iller,all,j b-, .ll t,hirr Ni p;e ria ' :j :.er*r.ltl? ~~iqlwn teru. I'1,c; hive teen r;cch;e : ~f'violti tin& ex: :?l.i:l,r~Nigez'*inri fiskicri e:; rbl.,,;t~l:~ti ,;, , tq;f:c ;P" I, thh: kiske~lc:: Aet of' q 4 J:

.L i ;L -> ;>aaf,l:iSit pnskirlt, cvcr-r:~~~1~it?CYi~ra:I!? tk.c

;L',,'? ". h:l~:'~A.~~:;,pf 12: f t,n, .;,i?nace 53 i'orei,+n :drid lu!:ri,_w JAS trnbklers cxyorti3 tlon ,JC shrimps r? t sea

.l 1., rr:A Thc sit).~?til-~nbeeamr:

:;Q 11-13 i:: recet~t;.ctu7t, tr~t:^.tir! hleur;ars 1Sia3, the

AL~~Cl-1~1 bla~~:~tz L> t' t~~e1rL~libe1~~~ Shi2,ijiilb Lcm&,2ny

(h ;,:el.i 01, ;ix1~*,7,iil& f'ii;~?;:i, cmk:-~~l~lirniteu) nmdc

:3!: C)L>U:L ~mf13~rai 31i in A,:rbil !-I(:) "JV!ACXBXiberia a:?U

C~LLI,LI:~~-;, ~~1~11~3 91- fcrcc,, c :-:i:;t;e I,* ~heseulli.~r~~rmt(;

inzitfcrlts W~~L'Lvri L;jcls PC~SI~LC~JiAi Llie vv(>l1:u brlcs-~ at the time, West-~frica (1983) put the losses at

9 ~igeriansand 75 Chadian troops, while 20 ~igerians 17 ana 32 Chadians #use reported captured,

If the situation on the Chadian border coula be

considered critical, that at the marine border with

duties at Kang, Cross Rives state, the boraer areas

with camesolin coula be described as unsafe and death

zone for ~igerianset.tiers, fishermen, traders and

border patrol agents and personnel. The lislaermen in the

C"amc.:ro:mnian harrassrnent as a way ot life, Some of the

villages or iqigerian settlements in the area have been

capture^^ ma occupied by the Carneraunian Gendarmes 18 ' who replaced ~icqeriand lag with the camerounian flag,

~tricarvConcord March 7, "199), interview of Chief

state, reveaLed the agonies of the ~iqeriansin the

Niqernans in the ~igcria-~amesaunuorder area, ACCOr-

ding t3 ~konkon~bok, the fear of Cameroun Gendarmes

bas becorns the beginniny of wisdom for his people, V'iJsr~a;iiy they came in graups of bO or 100 pattol boats, kv.Ar?ir~g quns, they came into the village dnd start crrdrjing up up ana down- Sametmes, they wcj~bdshoo%

:ntd Liar: air"- 'The Genaarmes of ten ask for all toms

ko tax irorn the villagers. IlWhen we &ell them that we cave already paid tax to ~igeria,since we are

~icjer-ians,&he? said we should leave the village because 19 tnc &dna is theirs@'.

In 1991, six fishermen were kilEed in Abana, while

trhc Ley as she Pay sleeping beside her mother in their

thakcheo roof anu wsI 1-hut. pathetic also was the

hdpe of a six-mot3tao pregnant woman by several Gendarmes whi Be irer huns~anawas forced t.a watci~, These are

just to mention few of the. ugly incidents that

~ost :3L the ;digeria*s fish prodixtion and supply,

especially cryfish supply is obtained from the cross

rier~danrrries~harrassement i orces the fishermen in the

wtiae crisis situation in the ~a~assicould cause to Nigeb id ana Nigerians. These incessant Gendarmes

ctc-&ions in tne Bakassi penhimula cueid also ue tracea

try tiat. anxiety to protect another valued resources in

uorraer art-a-crude oil or pekroleurn. The same is true of

Niyel ia-Chad ian border in the latter case. However,

to a lesser aeyrec, thus, one factor which has set all

~icjeriarmneighbs~~rs working feverishly is the explbita-

tiurn oi rn.EneraEs, particularly fuel minerals. aPi

.$he cudntries have watched ~iyeriabenefit from the

proceeds ol petroleum resources. ~t is not surprising

therefure, Cnat every country sharing csrninvn borders

with ~iyeriaand beyond is actively involved in the

explarat.iora, eaploikation aria refining of hydrocarbol-rs.

4.3 01L EKPLOITATIUN AND A SOUHCL OF CONFLICT IN -NIGEHIAvS RSLAI'X3NS WITH HLR NEIGHUOURS

he critical importance of minerals availability

to third worPa countries, especially as major export

products fads set many nations strul;gliny for cuntrol,

claims and acquisitions of territories discovered to hvc. c-eude ail. The centrality of petroleum as an

issue in contemporary inrernational relations and

po8iLics is such that nations1 policies and actions

towards others, are to a greater extent calculated

around oil interest. Nations have gone to wars $0 15 2 pEWtest s;,)aArlstpolicies anu actions oi other nations whlbsha afPecLecl their oil interest - the perennial ~ulf wars, especially the recent one inv~lvinqIraq and

~uws~k,ana the U, S. led allied fotces adai.nst lraq iii 3330, Even within nati.)ns, the issue of crude oil has set groups aqainsb bne other as in the case of

Ogani people of River State of. ~igeriaand the oil companies, cum the federal government ot Nigeria,

Irm most of these ir~stdnces, the staugyle for the rc'bnt-rol ui oil tesritc~rieshas been fierce and has led to loss of many lives and property, The situation becomes more cri%iaza%where the oil Location, exploration and expollh.athon .is around the borders of two or more neiyhsour-iny states - as is the case with ~iyeriaand her- neighbours, especially Carner-oun and Chaa t.o a lesser extent. Thus, nations and groups l~avecome to identity their viLa1 interests in oil areas ana have adopted policies ~ndac tiuns Lhat will sat eguard them,

~igeriatsoil discovery and production dates uack to 19b6, when tale first oil hit was achieved in commerciaP qudntilf at oloibiri in Rivers Stake. prior Qlo tnis

t,ime, several attempts had been snacie on oil exploration

dna expP~itat..ion in ~werriarea, specifically at

IHO-UPMEZZ in the present Ikeduru ~ocal~overnment Ared of Irno State - the first port of call of shell oil

Company. In 1964 Tchad starked exploration at Rig Rig by the shores of Lake Chad and at Dam, &bout 270 ki lometres Sauth-~astok &*ajamena, " ow ever, the civil war which starked in 2964 furc~:itile 021. Cozi,~;?ny,

Csnoco "l suspend its operation, Another attempt was made with the drf P1:hnc i.;; ~n expiur;ition well in the Scbutrarn Sahr area by Exxon in the 2986s, which sclw Chad in the list, c!! co;.!.nt,-ie;i prospecting for and exploiting oil En the ~igeriavs background. Cameroun k!.:,s been pumping oil from ~akassipenninsula on-shore ancl f rorn several. off -shore c.ri.1. f L??.:.(.i on the htlantic csds t since 3977, The production and estimated

recoverable reserv;?:; havi.! itncc~:.:r~~.c;~t.jSQNARA (the oil

Company)' to build a refinery at Limbe, while the construction l.,! di~J~..?III!~ CL:.::. iiq~lefactionproject was postponed In 1982 due to downwards revision ot the

0t t/3<2 C' J;.Az,'".'.:::..

~xplorationstarted in ~igerin 1968 with the oil beiiring f urmation located in the Erg region of

in Tsuma, which Bas a further stretch into Lake Chad,

la? recent t.imes, ~igeriahas shitted its exploration 22 acti.vit.ie!; to ~ajiGana in the very region. The Republic of Benin started exploration in 1964 anc maue her first shipment of oil in 1982. ~uther oil reserves and production rate is not enough to place her among the contending oii exporkin5 neighmurs of

~iyeria. In all the cases where Nigerian neiqhbours

&re prospectirllj for ail, the oil fields are located near their common boundaries,

Huwever, it is pertinent- to emphasize here that of- all the countries concerned only ~igeriaand Carneroun al'e exportincj csresiderable quantity ot oil - giving more reason for the unsettled claims ot ownership and jurisdiction owe1 tlbe disputea ~dkassi~enninsula, endoweo with oil riches and other resources, ~t also goes to explain the eruption of constant clashes and suspicion that have relatively characterised their relations iince the 1980s - making Cameroun the most belligerent of aPP ~iyeria'sfive immediate neiyhuours, since thc location of mineral does not respect international boundaries, those that occur at such locdti~rrsin ~iricahave raised some vexing issues and crt~atec problems of boundary authentication. This becornea more complex in border areas with maximal chdracter as is the case: with ~~igeridand her ,neiyhbiouss, whose boundaries lack clear demarcation or are physically unciemursateu. The undemarcated character ot the bounda- ries has, thus, created very serious and elusive problems between ~igeria&nu the CCameroun at, the estuary ot the Cross River dnd tne of f-shore oil fiela. This has been compounded further by the naroua ccsnvenrtion in 1975 bet.ween General Gowon and president ~hidjo, where - Pike European imperialist negotiators a century bedore - the two rulers used biro pens to re-draw the baundC%ryover the sea where oil prospectin9 ta~espldce,

~iyeria'sinvestment expencaiture on oil had taken

its proper shape in the early 1970s, with a progressive yield in profit dnd an enviable stable economy on whish other countries in the sub-reqion beneiited from, in terms of Aid and employment support BLo their nationals. From

'e~drly 1980~~thesefore, there wat, an, increase in

investment expenciiture in GdrterJun. %his was partially

clue tu the introduction of 6~i.hto the camerounian economy.

,Ithe 0i.L industry went fully operational in 1981 at the 23 cost of 72 billion FCFA. From 1981, tne trend of oil

produr:tlion has been increasing at arfthmetical progressi.on.

The table below presents the situation from 1981 - 1985.

The tdble also reveals that the share in the 4ocaP market

dominated the share in the foreijn market. 1 1981 1982/83 1983/84

Proauction 1066844 1224488 1245385 1335589 1490895

Local sales 750788 747432 818677 818677 874969

Direct txports 468656 467177 506758 506758 620797

SUGRCE: Post Watcn, Oct. 31 - ~ov.30, 1991 p. 24.

Ilic boost oil production in Carneroun and its local. ur!~ export sales tendencies, an oil refinery was construetea

Dy a liiul tinatlonai company called PKOCOFHANE. he company x~rbuyt;t along Itdliarn ana Korean workers. Today, SONARA

(I\iltl;~naiokP He1i:lery 1 Keeps more than 36 expatriate workers

L!-I auoitiorr, investment irn to Cdrneroun oil, between 1979

irr~~ irl oi i ~LOGUCt.i~n has errcourarjed a more intensi- i yin, el io~Ls uy Carr~erounts prospect in.^ for, and exploitd-

Lkon uf oil of 1-shores irl the dakassi pen:~insula, thsouyh France's over-riding interest in ~akassioil dealtn was expressed in the deployment of Naval frigates

kc protect the oil wells off-shares from tho ~akassi 25 islanu, The wells are drilled uy Elt Camcroan.

'rhese parts ot the penninsilla were the only section wkab~hthe idigerian soldiers, UepPoyed to protect lives

~J~IC:property in the penninsula were unable to capture uuri nj the 19'34 conltlict with Cameraun. The presence

CP~k rurlce in kin2 penninsula has made military experts

reason is "elat it camdround (and by extnsion France)

sc_.c_:~rity,esj.~eelally in the strategic oil rich ssuth- eastern. pcirt oi tfke csilnkry wmla be imperilled

E'rance f rigaics ana warships locatisr? threaten all rndrltirne activities araJ ~igsria's oil installations in

Cross River and Akwa lbom states. ~ntelbigencereports hag4 .iL tnat 2'rdsrc-e suyrestecl to Camaroun, the bu.ildinq of a snlsJ-1 Naval Base in ~akassion the Eastern Bank eaf Hiu-del-~ey Mivcr, which hhey believes would secure

&heir control of the 56 oil wells be~nydrilled oit-

shore the petlninsula. The oil well has a proauction capacity of 130,000 barrels per day. The major clashes between Nigeria and Cmeroun had tatren pBuce at ktamng, where both Elf Cameroun and Ashiand ~igeriaare prospec:tiny for oil, East and West respectively, pointing to the fact that the quest for oil wealth is one of the major variables causing the conflicts uetween the two countries.

The situation is also not altog8ther quiet between

Nigeria rind p en in vis-a-vis sff-shore l ieEds or between ~igeriaanu each af Chad and ~igeras further prospecting for off-shore oil continues in the Chad basin. ~t will get even more complicated and worse should Equaterial Guinea start prospecting for off- shore petrobsum in the atlantic towards Nigeria and

Cameround. Byogo Mguema Island, the major Island of

~quatoria'b.Guinea, is barely 30 milometres from the nearest ~iyerianoil rig.

Finally, tine extenk the oil issue can go in provoking conflicts coulu be demonstrated in the recent disputes between ~kwaabom State and cross ~iverState, bokh in ~igetia,over the ownership of some Bakassi vi.l.lages - the same area of dispute between Nigeria anti Canrercdun. his conflict is no doubt, spurred by the interests of the states in maintaining relevance among oil producing states. Akwa Ibom state officials say their counterparts do not want to lose their present

Coamissiun, ~MPADEC.27 This is because the body project for edch state in lirle with its faroduct;ion quota, The of loss of ail rich island by eithrr/the- two states will defilnetly affect its rating irs the community of oil producing states in ~igeria, Again, ~igeria'sprefernce for diplomatic salutisn despite the brazen unprovoked conskarrt harnrassment f rorn its neighbour-Carnerr~adn, may also have been bnformed by the aanyer a war situation poses to a large concentration of her oil installations arouncl tbae area, nrakhet than cawtardice.

These sit;ua%iuns therefore, aall for a mutually i;tcceptable' policy by the contiguous states - a policy or policies embracing the idea 0% economically ana sdciadly integrated @transOborderareas', where people can continues to live the way they have always lived.

he solukion can no longer be sought in the unrealistic conventisnaL iaea of purely demarcation of boundaries because this will have always amounted to exercise in futility, having been founa incongruent with the prevai.linr,q characteristic realities sf boraer areas

ir~~irican in general, dnd aigeria and her neiyhbours

An particular. ~lsu,the i~eacat boundaries ins the

ldst area of state power, exclusiveiy dividbng and

separat~nylands ana people is an austraction. ~t

defeats the socio-econmic functian and cnaracter

of the hraef areds and tirear ye~pie,who continue

eo invt! tk~z~.rnvrrnal lives unhinde~euby the stdters

. kmuil~id~ie~ ayents of coerciun. 'I'hus, for Nigeria

arm her r'reighbours, in the best ~entra1 ~Srican

sub-reqhori, the search tor security aria ~.kiaceful

co-ex~stettce will ultirncitely r_cnu functionally hinge

an t&rr s'bate of trac2 sudaP arro economic well beang

01 t.i\~- L b-region. bkon LKpenyony, ~cbcrurwaryCorrioors ana intcr- natiundl conf Lictlc in ~slwajuand Aueriiyi (eds) Boruer lands in Africa, Op. cit pp. 243 - 304.

Jdmes, 1. Vhtt 1383 Nigerian - Chaaian boraer conf iicttc in Nicjer~arlJournal ot ~nterrlational Alf alrs, Vol. 10 No. 1, Vantage pu~~lishers luauan 19b4 p. 70.

Ismael lvl~hdinrr~ec~,1lNiye~ la and F'rancophone states: the prouierr~of border inandgeri~entbetween Borno State ~f ~i(jf2riaarw 'yhe ~epublicsof ~iger, Chad arld Carnerourltl in Bassey ~teand ~kinterinwa (eus) Nigeria anu its immediat neighuours 0p. cit.

R-A. inde dele arm mla A. ~kinterinwa, Il'rhe tf-fect of terri toricll contiquity anu ~eo-polit~cai propinquity on toreign policy: A study of NiCjeria's Relations with its neighooursll, bid; also see iqat~~nalConcord, 26th Iv~arch, 1982; 2nti kprll, 1982 p. 2, Niger-iari Call, 14th Oct., 1982, p. 16.

Set? baily 'l'imes, jan. 196b ItChad fisheries make big progresst; also Tide, The deek ly Magazine, lvrarch 14, 197'7, p. 21, Net ~ainAlony the shore. 13. Apanpa, i~. ana U.O. ACiebbla, IlSecurity in Nigeria waters with respect ku Fisheries Sectorff ~igeriank'orurn, Vol. 3, 1983, 1054 - 1061.

14. csajere, A. ftF isheries ani: ~arineResourcesfit, Daily Times, March 12, 1985.

1 dkpenyong, J.L.O. OP. cit.

17. dest Af rica, No 3434, June 6, 1983 p. 13b9.

Ib, See Vameroun Annexes six more villayes, in New Nigeria NO. 8011, June 8, 1991.

1. i\fricdn Concord, plarch 7, 1'394.

21. Lkpenyong, J.L.Oe Op. cit. p. 301

23. See k'oreiyn Investment in Camerounian oil Industry-I nvestment Revenue Char (I~it'/~orla BanK chart) In encyclopaedia Britannica ~ook of the year, 1981 - 19115; also Carner:~un post datcl-n, ~ct-~uer31 - NOW. 30, 1991, p. 24.

24. POST WA'L'Cii, lbid.

25. See hewswatch hagazine, piarch 21, 1994 pp. 24 - 26; also ~fricanConcord, c arch 7, 1994, The central argument of this chapter is tirat various erforLs abnteu dL ~~Pvingthe border prouleui have faileo,

C 13 r)=cause of the convergence of divrrse ill-co-ordindt ea states cuntroP agencies and laws ot khe interdsting state:, ar~~dnrr'kne nmrcler areas. Arsu that these makes

conlpatib2r with the character and economic function of the udndrr areas ana their people. (ii) Because no permanent machinery has been esta~lishedfor me~iation between the aisputinl; pdr ties, which wilP ue tasked wiklr the lcesponsiuility of ensuring that such border cont licts and disputes are resolved or contained. Thus, it isrrplit2s that adequate border mmayement ana control. strcrteyies have rut. been designed &,nd utilized in the efforts airnea at settling the disputes arisiny in the reldtions between the contiguous states.

5- 1 CuPjVEHGEEJ(I-E OF DIVERSE STATE COfir'l'ROL AGENCIES AT THE BORDER AREA

hiqer-ia*s border ar'eas with her neiyhbours are chan-ac terisea by the existence of groups wf th sub-national. anu binational states, whose real social anu economic spaces of interactions are wiaer than, and extended far beyond the artificial states* boundaries of the

interacting states, The fear of the states against potential threats to their territarial integrity, and

destabilization of their internal security is expressed on the concentration of diverse states* control

agencies aro~ndthe Dorder zone. These are intended to serve as bulwarks against external interventionq

However these arrangements failed to take into

consideration the character and aspirations of the

burder people; their perception of, and reactions ayainst

the modern state's agencies clustering arouna and intervening in their natural inheritance,

What all. tRese point to is the fact thit contradic- tions and incompatibility exist between the prevalent

atavistic psychological drive for socio-cul turah

* identity and econoniic interactions among the border

popu~atiorkin their day to aay search for means of

lfvelihood =nu &he modern state, 2ursuinq policy of national security and territ~rialintegrity. The border

pevyle still see themselves as existing in the same

natural settiny, acting in ignorance or in total dis-

regarcs of tht? existence of the artificial political.

boundaries ot state as against their national frontiers, Hence contradition exist between the awareness and perceptions bhl& the border inhabitants hold of

themselves and that which the rn~dernsovereign states hold of them.

Here iche questir.>l-nof nationality as percelvea

in the historisal/cuhtural sense, and nati~nality

conceived within the context of modern nation-state

come into serious conltklct. ~hiPethe people of

the bor.der areas, especially border areas with maximal

character' like that of ~igeriaand her neighbours

still think or themselves and act as groups with

shared identity, common destiny and aspirations, the

st.ate under which they supposedly belony - whose mordk responsibility it is, to protect their lives

&ncl ~roperty,t-hink otherwise. Tile state guided by

the principle of sovereignty and the sacredness of her Ber ri tor'ial kntrecjsi ty arru socls-economic security

tends ko draw bounaaries separating itself from

the neighbout-lng states. It yoes ahead La maintain nati~~nalsecurity seen as a rational measure for ttle survival of the political unit. ~t thus, grant nationality (nationality in tiie legal and polit.ical sense) to its citizens anu introa~cecimeasures to 165

t.o yuiue anu control socio-economic interactio~~

between itself anu other neighbuuring states,

xn ~:oin(, this, the stake gives iittlc or no

csr~sidercltionko the character and predicaments of

tire order areas and it.~jpeople in terms of historical,

sucio-cuLLusal and interactions, No doubt, this

co:! trad.lsts the aspirdtions of the border people who

sce i*he a:tiorhs 01 the state as impingement on their

ncnkur~ik rkykat ol social co-exiskence ana ecoriornic

survival, consequently, they resist the state action

ani; dely the ~OLC~Semployed by government Cu urirq

t iium to sabrn~ssionarlu allegiance.

In ~iricain general, and ~iyerid'inu her

nci.-jhbsur-s in particul,~~,where the problerii of irnprer.ise

border uemascat ion and binational character of border people pose a ti-iredt to the principle sf state

terrj torialit.,., the quest ion of nationalit) is diffused.

So cl1s-j are socio-ecrsnmic dctivities of the border

people, which are predominantly driven by socia-cul-

trnr 33 =ind psychol~~yicalaff Eiations ok the binational

&lid sub-national groups existing across the proximate

states. They are resistant to, and operate in total

disregard of the existence of boundaries and state

srxhlrib:~ presence. Thus, the question of having nationaliky is not important to individuals and groups

in the border areas except in cases of restric.tions

on labour rniyr.ati.sns and other socio-economic acti-

vities, but it is important to government who can

use i ii as an always available tool for achieving 2 some ends - pcdlit.i.cal and economic ends, The sub-ndtional status of the border people is

expressed on the ssocio-economic cohesion or common

. K-esourc:e an t.i.l.i.zatian which characteri-sed their

co-existencc. even in the face of artificial or imaginary

pali tical bc>undaries separating khem, Corny lication

and disruptions arise ira this resoarce utilization

wit bl tile unusual convergence of diverse political

awl jurisdictional interests ano intervention of

th~-,praxirndte sta8"es in the affair's of the border

~n the case of ~i.geria and her neiyhbours, border

areas sufler from the problem that relate to the

converqence of laws and rnultip8icit;y of control

mechan-rksrn. No% only are there laws of ~iqeriaand

khose of edcha uk her neightouring states; there are

also t k~ i nternaticsnal laws governi ny trade, passages

drad other relations with e:jdcL-~oi them, as well the by-laws af local and regional authorities 'an the immediate neighhourhood in each of her inter- nat Icsnal bls=runaaries. This convergence of diverse jurisdiction imply either an acbual or a potential existeract? of generally ill-eo-ordinated state a5encies it~cludirlgthe police, the customs enforcement units, knarniqration and intelligent services both of ~igeria 3 dnd thc j rater-related independent states.

Thus, border cunf licts have sontinued to occur as a result af the imcornpatibility that exists between the sub-naLi0na.l status anc: character of the border people, asld the diverse convergence of un-uniformed sttitcs' c~ntsoBand mandyernent strategies, whish do not ref Pect the character and function 05 %he shared boraers. This uecornes more yrono~ncedin border areas endowed with shared valued resources atad intense cxchdngeaule ec(2nornic activities and social services around tkp? borders. Hence, the economic and security duracthons, of the boundaries attract consteklation of int.Mests mainly the interactiny states and othe~ social forces of business inclination csrnpetiting far cvrmtrol over the available shared resources. This make:; the efforts towards the crtaraagernent and control of Ltie conflictual relak..ions between ~igeriaarid the bordering states impossible, 168

Again, the concept oi political bounuaries as a f urrc tion of states jurisdictional claims and policies int-roduced in Africa by imperial powers is antithetical to the long established migration of labours whish had been and still is a special feature of labour market in West Africa- This is more so when we realised the rcalised the underlying fact that t-he well established flows of cattles, fish, textile materials and consumer goods products - what may be called traditional trade - still exist and goes on almost un-hampered by the existence of boundaries, This mostly unregistered tracie is one of the most outstanding examples of natural division of labour in trans-border 'trade in West

~f rica. It has raised problems in the pattern of co-operation ancl sf f ective boraer control measures between ~iyeriaand her neighbourse The erection of customs walls and other uarriers to informal trade ana migration inters.-tions between socio-economic forces across the contiyuous states, constitute obstacles to peaceful co-existence between kigeria and her immeuiate neighbours arid have of ten worsen conf licts.

Tnis will be appreciated it we realised that most of the reported border clashes have resulted from encounters between economic forces, who bel.ong to either of the neighbousing states and border security agents (customs, immigrat~ons,police, army and navy) of either

states, autharised to enforce the econ~micand security policies of the states, The disagreement among the

border rnanitorlng agents of the interacting states,

themselves, or with border settlers and other groups

of economic interest around the border, over numerous

issues of border contention often evoke clashes.

Ismail ~ohammed(l992), has demonstrattd evidences

of such cases in his study of the Proulems of Border

Management between Borno State of ~igsriaand the

Republics of ~igeria,,Chad ano ~ameroun.~~t is often the case, that where there is issue of conflict over

boundaries between the adjacent states, the source of

the conflicts will not ue unconrlected with the initial misundersatancling thdt might have arisen between individuals

or yroups on trans-border transaction ana the states'

agents, or between the states, ayents of the neighbouriny

stdtes, ?ayirh9 claims to fight of control anb jurisdictian

over adjoining border villages with high economic

, values, These actiont CJ~security agents attract the

synlydthy anca intervention af otner uorder users of common

interest an:! the state so affected uy the action which worsen the situdtion, kt this level, the issue turns

intb inkerrro"onal cawfhict. The a~craP1conclusion on th2 cause uf the tailuse of etforta almeu at sulviny trie border probleins, is t-b~zt, tilt2 lack. ut ahlequate knuwkedye or neglect of the dynamic factors uf socko-ecanomic character and kunc:lun ot the boruer areas tcr~ the policy makers of s:.crtr:..i un both bides of the basdexs, has contrssuted to the ziourirr*~,ielatil;inship between hiyeria and her neiybrfiours. Thus, opinea Iraraham James ( l9Mb) that a recfiist~c apyrvach to the critical >robleas pased by riierit a permanent machinary tor rnidiating xtween

tnc. isp put ins ppartics. The back of this machinary had

nbt n~lpeaissues eitntx.

nature of the borders and socio-eeoraonaic cunuitions of

ixigeria arad her neighbours have been used to analyse

Qlc central issue uf conPiict in thc rel~tionsbetween

then:, Hawever, in tne manayement uf the disputes,

,J gap has been crcatecj in term of inadequate use of

effective cvntroB cin~settlement strategies of the many

many issues sf cowflick at the border area and the

entire state relations. The control arm management

~trdteqiesSO far adopted are made less effective by trre

B~CKof an establishes functional permanent machinary

for rnediatlng between the disputing parties.

AU the past eiforts to the settlement of- the

disi,'wtes have ref lectea a f ire-brigadge approach of

. dealing with the effect rather than cause. They have emphasized much on detterant str;tegies of security

beef-up at the border areas; threats sf relation, i.e

qivinq siqn of possible military option to the setttle-

merit of Ithe camf lict. These strategies have more of ten than not eroded the very security they are meant to maintain. They have inaavertently ~ivenrise to the milfterization ad the borders by the contiguous states which have resulted in perpatual tension among the boruer inhabitants,

At best the ilisputinq states have adopted and signed aqreen~rratsor protocols estabiishing joint border patrol teams anc or instituting joint border commissions

%hilt will demarcate the conflicting borders. EX63mpke here was the assignment given ts the Lake Chad Basin

Authority irnmeaiately after the ~iyerian-Chadian mrder cllasnes over the ~slandof Kinasasa in 1989. The Lake

Chad Basin Commission was assigned with instituting a joint border commission to demarcate the conflicting

border between the f our-memoex' coontries sf ~igekia, 6 Chad, hliger arid Canreroun. There was also the quadru-

plicate agreement between Nigeria and her neighbours of

n en in, Toqo anc bhana over uoraer '~S$I~C~in lgd4,

haj.+iFi, in 198% ~aLanijidagsregime sent out a six-man delecjates, Icd by ukpabi ~sikato Cameroun, ~lgerand

Chad. Qn return, Asika claimed the deleqation had *@a

messa(.je of soliderity and fraternity+@from the government 6 of the three nations. The Nigeria-Cameround permanent consul&tive commission estaulished in the 70s has long

ceast>b to f tint Lion, In fact, even the C.A.U. as a conflict management m4rcl:inarj has rut been effective here, considering its teyia approach to, and the weaK role it played in the .i 951 Nijieria-Camero!ull border conflict. The C.A.U. 's nun-interbvenLion in tile settLement of the boruer dia- putes, made Shehu Shgnri to rlefuse to attend the 1 8th stmrnit uf the G.A.U. heads of state that year. a

Generally, most or the measures were ta~ensr sokght for, after major incident w~F,' cauflict had occureu.

Tbesc have not servela alu fhnckional purpose or boal.

They have rather served as temporary solutions to the problem8 and thenDe.€'oreof littfe merit. Thus, the a~eeci for H pemanent machinary ror the settlement of the cii s~~uteswising between the cmtiguous states.

The mediatory machinsay in view, cs:~ldbe in the form <>f' n yemaneant bilateral or multilateral border rvwmqwnent cumnit tees and i niterb-governmenta'9, border clefence zummissie>~is. Tklejr will be composesa of' both c lvilian RI~iinili tar3 personnel drawn Prom the iditera- ctin= states *ith their basis or secmtariates in the border areas. Their locatiolrs .in the border areas kill fiiaKe f'or easy accessikrilkLy axru cmsultation in time ai' emerbgerkcy. Pt will also brink their hosti- Li ty and rcsentrnernt of &he &sTiticsl boundaries - which kvh: served as tkee pemanwnt soxrce of tt~reat to the . minnrrs, enrent between Cnxmcla amx United States cvrn the

n i t,h t!,e U~,'~wrrrdianmilitelry c:t1-oyep.at kcm committee, of heerest,.

At a wider extent, Nigeria aml herb immediate

gresit legti?. systems - the civil law system, prevalent La] Fmricsplmne states and the commons law system whish

obtains in the Anglo-phone states. Within these legal.

ay stems, n*ef'leclting the diverse sovereign states and

cmmmunication existing side by side with myraid of

tradi tionai or customary Lars. These diverse legal systems supposedly operate in a peculiar national I76 envSror:ment, and by extention are aypzitd in the border region. They cover o wide area of issues ranging from the quest,j.ons of nationalit-y, imigrc?t ion arid taxation laws. Also included are company laws, transportation la.^, labour anu agriculture laws; investment arid cxp2oit~ttionlaws. The existcr~ceami a~glicationof Nationality or cit.izenshiy Laws in the border areas by the conti- guous sovereign states neg2ect the realit& that some commlm.'al,ies inhabit both siues of the shared borders,

Members of these communities mi&rat,e so freeLy that theirb nationa2it.a is not yet distin&~ishable, They wou1d not wish to be subject,eci to the rikours anu resl,r4ctions of' natir~naijnritliera tion laws, wkrile at the same time evudinly, tlle houko ~f"naeional taxaticrn laws.

Inemigru t icm laws is the strongest aeagon wk. i.ch mu2;t comLries hold aga lmst aliens; wkiich is an obatscle to Tree mc~vernerrt. and thus, antithe ti eal to sgar: border kmteractisns. The laws of tk~eiriterecting stti tes have peculiar anti specific procedures rela tin&

to el~tryi~ltcs the countrx. Movemnts and emgloyments of non-ns tional s a re stjyctla tcd by the laws some-

ti.me:i st$rilla,tinq authorization ui' entry or movement briseci onL$ un the yossessi~rlami yrenentatlon of' ntitiona?, identity cars or p,erZi~iit, Tsanaacti ons on certain goods and services, uses aaid exp!.oitatirana uf abound natwal resotirces rrrajr clm::nd the payment or taxes and rents, e~t:~bliehed

rxc%icns. Perhays, it is iru recognition or the above pswbleme .f 41- trl r: need in Lebrrr i

3. ~siwaju,A.I. tli5oraerlands: policy Implications**, in ksiwaju ana Adeniyi Of). cit, p. 70.

4. Ismael ~v~oharnrnea*Ii\liger'ia ana Francophone states: problem 0.f Border Management**. in Uassey Ate and Atinterinwa (eds) ~igeriaand the neighbours Op. cit. p. 164.

5. lbrahh Jarrles **LakeChad AS An Instrumenr of Co-operat.ionf in Borderlands in ~irica Ope cit. p. 307.

6. See the African Guardian, piarch 20, 1986 p. 19.

9- Vogt., AIM- "Approaches Towars the Lnhancernent of the security of ~igeria*s ~nternationalBordersfl, in ~igeriaJournal of International Affairs vol. 12, NO- 1&2, 1986, p. 69,

10. Reger Swars, l*An analytical assessment or the Uni~eil States - Canada defence issue area*!, also stephen P. Mumme, Regional Power in National Uiplornacy: The case of US section of the irlternational Br~jundary anu water cummission**. The Journal of Federalism, 14 (Fall 1384) SCSF Associate, PhiPadephia, p. 115,

11. lsrnael ~oharnmed,Op. cit.

12. AaeCj~iteLateef: The neeU for integration of legal systenr anlong ECOWAS States: in A.B. Akinyeni arid 5.d. Falegan (eds) Readinys and Documents in ECOWAS (NIIA Lagos 1981) pp, 475 - 481. clsui ve b!,unuu~y juri adictlon and Lerri toria2 intebrity.

Tk,&r:.e difinnnce:; have beeri demonstrated ink the mas::

ir:,nrr'd~:and ;IP~ti011al movernenl,e; ~C~(-PBEthe borbdem and

tk~be,"t~~r~.l b:4~d~r il~tt~*act.i(~~i~ tiua ;rl~f.ivktic~. A~RO

d~&,;estiv e ril' tLte uci'knance kai L~PCrntinlfe~t evi clt:~kce

0.t' c:ompt t i t1.m amont: t bc borderi lib, $St tes, for the

' LE:C UIUI. exglui&at.i:rra of Ecnrrtrmic resohrces which

abca~mdnntl trbaraverse $.he common borders, 'L'k:!in, ?msirieriri~,tk~e enormous shared potential

asu nnun; f't::;L hiytr.~lait.al,k~ea-yg-r7,it,ical, eat' no-

lixlgliis"j c anti w-~eic~-ecr~rmuicva2ue:; tinti resouraces

t~c!.ween N :ber'i:+ anci her imrncdiate nei yhbo:ir*s, one

W~I'IILL~~rojecta a,encef~l -0-existence nnacd Ent~ractions

bs:tb,cc~n lahem. This wlczuZa have been si pmjecttc-d

~Y~cHCL::.~,tghe~e ~3a rmi ll.irala::, vaLues and resources

6 .I PCCUS CP THE STWY

A:x f'c3~8: goin te of' de&ar*tur8e,the st\ru$ presented

tLe f"ol?owing hypothetic:al assrunytions;

(i) that sjc;eiu-economic conditions in N i geris and

her borderink states rise to eonatant movement

of' peol.le anad. &,-ootln crass the :)rders and that,

cmtacts between these forces and the state a&ents

[,ea?erate conflic: ts.

- (ii ) t.ht cvnfl iatt becomes more ga'onoumeed in the

border* areas, with the disc~verjror existence of

valued rescuuoao; ,at the b~rderareas.

(iii) efrorts aimed at solvink the border yroblems

hve failed as a refiuit uf the convesg(erlces or diverse

ill-coprdimted atlutest contro?. abencies armu laws

urour~dthe Isruer Pibeas; aua a&a in, becsl~se no yer~aarlent

~hchiiioryhas beer, esta~lishedfur mec11atim tPetws;un the dispbtl~gparties.

Hy]~iothecsisGmne addresses 'the yrobleln of laentifa inc

the henere: uaue ud" cmf:.ict cb~~acteristicof

Nigeria's selatiuns with her nelghbuur.6.

In it, we estatjlished that the manjfest areas

~f'csnf"?lct between Nigeria and hem. nei@murs ~OGLS,

emmi& othepb ~SSUCU,011 dete~Poratank ROC~O-~CO~~III~C better+means elf' 1ivelihood.

These movements across the borders have served

. as violati~nsof territoriaZ integrity 0% the interacting

soveref yn states, as we21 as threates to their arationa2.

sec~~rity . They bred mjiL t i-faceted pmblerns of crimiraal cnctivi ties am srugg&?in&among the border

states resident %in i~erterritorbd in q963 arid 1965 r

resyectivefy, in rbes,or~se to thi8 uald &Plenol~mkon.

lnvterbiably , the various attempts by tne meikhbour HYPCTmSIS TWG Hypotbeefs Two addressed the prbcablew - wrry the cmflict between Eigeria and her neighbour~f s more yrUi~s~c.isAraceciin pelat ionship wit some ~liel~hbuurs, aa~eszieX;, Gamemu and Chad.

"n"krcj 2inadinbs established that the existence

:mir azisccruerjr ol' val~cc~reshamaces .La1 tkae maritime and

It.ri,d &older areti s ,JC Niber.m t~al.~her neighb~)urs exi;ls,~u. wmb there h&8 beer!, such va14ed lrntenezit~ od" c~aai';i c', u~ tireelan tiisn; thure. wjB,h "v~eotk~ r nekbalbu~aas.

G ,~ar.:a:: t f k- P~:JW ys un~~~keed~lra~ cmstaakt esper;.Lsall,f, b~.tweara$u"idel*hh and Ciml:rPu~irntrial1 wtik csthexD

P~BI,IAO,~UPSb~c~hue ;.if tr:e corm&et.itioi~ostwt~trl tr,eear over tiae use arld exp2oitati09 :~t: VialLit;G dI%81dtllbCe!8

LJA tw ::6;18sgudeate1lr.l k0rPe8

Tdte..~1*f28iJUl1C:t2d B"bKi&tt f1'0M WtdttaB'hKru i~~t.ttf21' r's:a:+~.i$~=e~~1.3 f h&e~'ie~f~l*Q ;I1 - d~biich abo*i;elria In

Pf)ffb'rj&ijlS TIim

Hyyo"utnes;ia Three t~.l$dresst.sthe $roblent - wny eff~r~tu

~imeatat solwin8 tile conflict; hove f"ai?~:~~.

its rnahjl~rfirmink is that eff'or-tc3 aimed rat ~s~~lvfng tire ussnbdenr cml'1,lzte arid ing between Nigelais wad her areiytaml4r8s hnve kerb i~rtyodedby the pagolifers tl.~bra ~f bor8aer c,~l:n.~o'baid g'mra po2ici%s @mi~~ec:Blcsnds~as

~rectedbj Laic Inl.erbt,c*tingstates aru~nrihkr ucxder re1L ;11bV3 iusatbl'ie2d irn&edemeuts stlb~.~",,in& f'wm $BI~C;X i eieeltce and gem & ion 0C cunf":ic:tin& laas

:~8YtlieLY: L~PF~CLPIP~S~S teb which kbia e not rxeen hammizei.~.

Hore~ven*,the ::law of' es tablisi~ed&e,.~~rnammrnt machi nary

.f'uxa ;lieula t4ing ~etweentint.: di st>ud! rib &orties t~s~101:

~~r:aPke~n,$1.1 prom art^ yetice, e.ktiie~~.

cursanst be aettlad bith the conventional nationalistic am unilateral seclhch for security. The aol~tisnto

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UNPUBLISHED WORKS

Asiwaju, A-I., "Trans-border Trade on Indicator of Export opportunities in ECOWAS; the Experience on ~iyeriaWestern border!, Paper to an invitational seminar on strategies for mobilization of Export Traue anC the role Financial Institutions: Sponsored by Savana Bank Ltd-, Sheraton Hotel, Lagos Feb- 4, 1988.

"border Populations as neglected dimension in study of African bounaary Problems: The ~iserian- en in Front.ier caseft NIIA Lacjos, ~pr-P11982-

YI"ansborder Trace, 6or'der Control arid ~conomicRecovery Problem: The prespective of ~i~eriandestern Boundaryl, Paper Commission by the Department of Customs and Execise, 1988 Seminar Uubar ~otel,Lagos May 1388. aeyun, ~kinpeloye; flpolitical Economy of ~igeria- order neyionsw M.ac., Thesis university oL Lagos, Akoka 1991.