Effects of Flushing Flows on the Transport of Mercury-Polluted Particulate Matter
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*Clean revised Manuscript Click here to view linked References 1 Effects of flushing flows on the transport of mercury-polluted particulate matter 2 from the Flix Reservoir to the Ebro Estuary 3 Albert Palanquesa,*, Jorge Guilléna, Pere Puiga, Joan O. Grimaltb 4 a Institute of Marine Sciences (CSIC), Passeig Maritim de la Barceloneta, 37-49, 5 Barcelona 08003, Spain 6 b Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18, 7 Barcelona 08034, Spain 8 *Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 932309500; fax: +34 932309555. E-mail address: 9 [email protected] (A. Palanques). 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 1 22 Abstract 23 24 Polluted sediments retained in water reservoirs are potential sources of 25 deleterious materials downstream, especially during floods or flushing flows (FFs). 26 Their interaction with these events is important for determining potential risks and 27 evaluating management actions. In the Ebro River, the Flix Reservoir accumulated a 28 deposit of more than 3 x105 t of industrial waste with high Hg concentrations. Because 29 suspended particulate matter (SPM) is the main driver of Hg pollution downriver, this 30 study analyses the transport of particulate matter and Hg pollution from the Flix 31 Reservoir to the Ebro Estuary during FFs. Time series of currents, turbidity and 32 downward particulate matter fluxes were obtained by current meters, turbidimeters and 33 sediment traps assembled in benthic tripods. They were deployed in the reservoir and at 34 two locations in the estuary during two recording periods that each captured a flushing 35 flow (FF) event. In addition, SPM samples were collected during the study period at 36 several locations along the river course, from upstream of the Flix Reservoir down to 37 the river mouth, to measure the suspended particulate matter and associated Hg 38 mobilized downstream. 39 A continuous background level of Hg pollution was observed during the 40 deployment periods, but the Hg and particulate matter fluxes increased by between one 41 and two orders of magnitude during FFs. Though the two events reached similar water 42 discharges, the first FF was after the wet season and generated lower particulate matter 43 concentrations and fluxes, but higher Hg contents than the second, which occurred after 44 the dry season. The higher available particulate matter in the second event diluted the 45 polluted Hg particle load more than the first event. Thus, similar FFs may result in 2 46 different Hg concentration and sediment transport episodes, largely depending on the 47 previous hydrological regime and the river sediment availability. These findings should 48 be considered for FF management. 49 50 Keywords: flushing flow, mercury transport, particulate matter, polluted reservoir, salt 51 wedge estuary, Ebro River. 52 53 1. Introduction 54 55 The uncontrolled dumping of waste and the construction of dams in many rivers 56 around the world have favoured the accumulation of anthropogenic deposits in fluvial 57 systems on a global scale (Wildi et al., 2004; Syvitski et al., 2005; García Bravo et al., 58 2009; Man et al., 2013; Skalak et al., 2013). With about 800,000 dams around the 59 world, more than 50% of the river sediment flux is trapped in regulated watersheds 60 (Vörösmarty et al., 2003; Nilsson, 2009), and water reservoirs are on the whole an 61 effective global pollution trap (Wildi et al., 2004). These historical deposits are a 62 pollution source that could affect the quality of water used for irrigation and human 63 consumption. The more erodible part of these deposits can leak from the reservoir along 64 with the lighter fine suspended sediment and be transported downstream. In addition, 65 environmental management may induce changes in physicochemical conditions, leading 66 to the release of pollutants (Frémion et al., 2016) 67 Many pollutants are linked to fine particulate matter (<63 µm) (Feng et al., 68 1998; Israelsson et al 2014) that can bypass the dams and flow downstream to be 3 69 trapped in estuaries due to the convergence of flows associated with their circulation 70 (Yellen et al., 2017; Ralston and Geyer, 2017; Burchard et al., 2018). There, fine 71 particles and pollutants are recirculated and can be periodically deposited and 72 resuspended (Garnier et al., 1991; Grabemann et al., 1997; Turner and Millward, 2002; 73 Geyer and Ralston, 2018). 74 Under the Mediterranean climate, long periods of low river flow during droughts 75 alternate with flash floods, and most of the river sediment transport takes place during 76 flood events (Batalla et al., 1995; García et al, 2000; Vericat and Batalla, 2006). During 77 the 20th century, many dams were built for water management and hydroelectric energy 78 production, leading to artificial flood management. Controlled flood flows from dams, 79 known as FFs, are used for environmental and/or engineering purposes (Kondolf and 80 Wilcock, 1996; Batalla et al., 2006; Batalla and Vericat, 2009). 81 In the lower Ebro River (Fig. 1), FFs have been implemented since 2003, mainly 82 to remove the excess of macrophytes, and these events have been monitored, analysed 83 and modelled (Batalla and Vericat, 2009; Tena et al., 2012). FFs have also been 84 suggested as a sediment management tool for increasing the sediment delivered to the 85 coast and delta plain (Rovira and Ibáñez, 2007). During FFs, the SPM concentration 86 doubles that of natural floods, although discharges are typically lower due to their 87 shorter peaks and duration (Tena et al., 2012). 88 The last reservoir of the Ebro River (the Flix reservoir) is highly polluted by the 89 mercury (Hg) of a waste deposit retained on it since 1948 (Palanques et al., 2014). The 90 effect of FFs on the transport of Hg to the Ebro Estuary has not been addressed up to 91 now. This transport is closely tied to the transport of particulate matter because of the 92 great affinity of Hg for particles (Gunnarson et al., 2009; Masson et al., 2018). 4 93 In this paper, we study the effects of two FFs on the particulate matter and Hg 94 transport from the Hg-polluted Flix Reservoir to the Ebro Estuary. Like the Flix 95 Reservoir, many dams in the world were originally built for industrial purposes and now 96 retain polluted sediment (Lenhart, 2003). The interaction of these sediments with river 97 floods and FFs is important for determining their potential risks and evaluating 98 management actions. Moreover, though many studies have characterized contaminants 99 in steady conditions or in sediment records, fewer have considered the transport 100 dynamics of suspended sediment–borne pollution (Quesada et al., 2014; Geyer and 101 Ralston, 2018). 102 103 2. Study area and Methods 104 105 2.1 Study area 106 107 The Ebro River, the second largest river flowing into the NW Mediterranean, 108 drains an area of around 85,000 km2 that was progressively impounded during the 20th 109 century and now has close to 190 dams (Vericat and Batalla, 2006). The largest 110 complex of reservoirs in the Ebro River is formed by the Mequinenza (water capacity: 111 1534 hm3), Riba-roja (water capacity: 207 hm3) and Flix (water capacity: 11 hm3) dams. 112 This complex is located in the lower reaches of the river and impounds 97% of the basin 113 (Fig. 1A). The suspended sediment discharge in the pre-dam period was estimated to be 114 between 18 and 21 x 106 t y-1, whereas in the post-dam period it has only been about 0.1 115 x 106 t y-1 (Palanques et al., 1990; Guillén and Palanques, 1992; Vericat and Batalla, 116 2006). 5 117 The last downstream dam, that of the Flix Reservoir, is located 110 km upstream 118 from the Ebro River mouth. The Flix dam was built in 1948 only a few hundred metres 119 downstream from an industrial complex located on the south river bank (Fig. 1B). In 120 1949, this industrial complex was transformed into a chlor-alkali plant using the 121 mercury cathode electrolytic technique, which requires large amounts of mercury and is 122 well-known for its environmental impact (UNEP, United Nations Environment 123 Programme, 2002; OSPAR Commission, 2005; Ullrich et al., 2007). As a consequence, 124 the Flix Reservoir and the lower Ebro River have been affected by the residue dumped 125 from the plant for decades. This residue formed an industrial waste deposit of more than 126 3 x 105 t that obstructed about 50% of the reservoir water section (Fig. 1C), and Hg is 127 the trace element that shows the highest anomalies, reaching concentrations of up to 640 128 mg kg−1 (4 orders of magnitude higher than natural levels in river mud) (Palanques et al. 129 2014). The Hg pollution from the Flix industrial complex affects organisms living in the 130 Flix Reservoir and downstream, such as worms (Ramos et al. 1999), zebra mussels 131 (Carrasco et al. 2008), crayfish (Suarez-Serrano et al. 2010), carps (Navarro et al. 2009) 132 and catfish (Carrasco et al. 2011). 133 Between the Flix dam and the Ebro Delta plain, the river is gravel-bedded 134 (Vericat and Batalla 2006), and polluted suspended particles flow towards the estuary. 135 There is no significant particulate Hg pollution source downstream from the Flix 136 complex to the estuary. The Ebro River has a microtidal salt wedge estuary, and the salt 137 wedge can intrude more than 30 km when the water discharge decreases below 150-200 138 m3 s-1. Between this discharge and 350-400 m3 s-1, the head of the salt wedge is 139 generally located at Gracia Island, 15 km from the river mouth, which acts as a 140 topographic threshold for the intrusion.