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CULTURALLY AND ECONOMICALLY SIGNIFICANT EDIBLE INSECTS IN THE BLOUBERG REGION, LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA BRONW YN ANN EGAN Culturally and Economically Significant Insects in the Blouberg Region, Limpopo Province, South Africa by Bronwyn Ann Egan THESIS Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Zoology in the FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE (School of Molecular and Life Sciences) at the UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO Supervisors: Dr R. Toms Prof. L. Minter and Prof. A. Addo-Bediako 2013 Declaration I declare that the thesis hereby submitted to the University of Limpopo, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university; that it is my own work in design and execution, and that all material contained herein has been duly acknowledged. Egan, BA _______________________ Date _________________________ DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my parents, Bryan and Kathleen Wallis, my husband, Vincent Egan, and my children, Aine and Tadhg Egan. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mountains have always been the place for me to go for solitude, serenity, wonder and for spiritual quiet. Blouberg Mountain, however, is not only a still and isolated place of natural splendour. It is also vibrant with the clamour of the community living on the slopes and plains below. I thank you, the Bahananwa of Blouberg, for teaching me about the edible insects of your mountain. You have taught me much more than what is encapsulated within these pages. You shared your homes, your knowledge, your mountain and your friendship. I have learnt that mountain people are just as extraordinary and beautiful as the mountains they inhabit. Ke a leboha and may we meet again, often. Vincent, I thank you for your deep love and support. You kept my feet on the ground and a grin on my face through all the panic and promise of caterpillars hatching and pupae emerging. On top of this you provided much needed scientific and GIS advice. Mom and Dad, thanks for nurturing my life-long love of mountains and wild places, and I also thank you for food, finances, babysitting services, lots of encouragement, laughter, and above all, love. Margaret, Stuart, Allen, Lorraine and Damien, you have supported me unconditionally in person and from great distances, sometimes in the face of justified bafflement. You are so very important to me and I thank you wholeheartedly for your positive influence in my life. Aine and Tadhg, I have very special thanks to give you for your gift of time. For almost as long as you have both been alive, you have helped to collect, weigh, count, cook, taste, label, run from and play with edible insects. Thank you for your delightful company on field trips, your resigned tolerance of my bug obsession and your unconditional love. You constantly remind me that games are much more important than work, and that love doesn’t appear miraculously, to be harvested once a year like caterpillars, but needs nurturing to grow. Megan, my heartfelt thanks to you for your love and listening ear when I was in the doldrums so many times, over so many years. Sincere apologies for regaling you with caterpillar recipes while you were suffering from morning sickness. My friends, Rae, Renuka, Arda, Lisa, Saskia and Anita, you are optometrists, educators, lawyers, pharmacists, business women and engineers but you have listened carefully and never implied by the flicker of an eye that edible insects were anything but fascinating. Thank you for your belief that this thesis would eventually be completed. Cathy, you started us both on this gastronomic ii journey and I thank you for sharing insect advice but also for your wonderful friendship and your belief that a woman can do anything. My thanks to you, Dr Rob Toms, for the chance to combine my interest in indigenous knowledge with my passion for zoology and for your guidance from New Zealand. Particular thanks for the mopane worm T-shirt that spurred me on to register. Prof. Les Minter and Prof. Abe Addo-Bediako, I am greatly indebted to you for your efficient but light-hearted editing. You also shared your experience and many helpful insights but it is your genuine interest and excitement in research that inspired me to finish. Prof. Olivier, you were a magical Professor Dumbledore, smoothing the administration hiccups along the way. Indeed, the entire Department of Biodiversity at the University of Limpopo has my profound gratitude for your inspiration, friendship, encouragement, and practical assistance from travel to housing various creepy crawlies. Prof. Wilmien Luus-Powell, Prof. Antoinette Jooste and Prof. Martin Potgieter, you all played a vital role in enabling me to merge my research with my work duties. Thank you for allowing me space and time. Mrs. Helena duPlessis, thanks for your patience with my printing needs. Prof. Peter Masoko and Dr. Maboko Mphosi, I thank you for your analytical skills and technical advice which contributed inestimably to Chapter Four. Finally to the following Blouberg friends, assistants and fellow insect enthusiasts, thank you for your long-standing support: Lucas and Emma Mohlabeng, Aubrey and Mr Chipu, Francine Waleng, Mr Waleng, Dick Moitsi, Junicca Sebetha, Frank Ramela, Evelyn Mabote, Martin Selepe, William and Pietnet Sepaela, Daniel Setata, Mr Manaka, Johannes Motsoko, Evelyn Sebola, Lisbeth Morapedi, Vincent Matlabo, Melusi Changwesha, Ellias Kgatla, Salphy Salomo, Bernard Kobo, Lucious Moemi, Hellen Mathekgane, Ronald Kobe, Beauty Selomo, Jaqueline Theta, Beverley Matlonya, Mary Tsita, Patrick Morata, William Maponya, Lonia Leboho, Franz Mathebele, Charles Raphiri, Johan van Wijk and Elisabeth Brace. This research was supported by the National Research Foundation (RSA) and the Department of Biodiversity, University of Limpopo, whose assistance is greatly appreciated. Mogalakwena River Lodge generously provided accommodation and information during northern site visits. Those who confirm themselves in favour of the Divine give attention to the wonders which are displayed in the production both of plants and animals. Divine love and wisdom 351 How wonderful it is that the insignificant silkworm should clothe with silk and magnificently adorn both women and men, from queens and kings to maidservants and menservants, and that a petty insect like the bee should supply wax for the tapers which make temples and palaces brilliant True Christian Religion 13 iii ABSTRACT Edible insects have been used as a nutritious food source by mankind for millennia, but in the modern era their use in more industrialised and western countries has dwindled. In the face of concern over the global food security crisis, scientists are urging investigation into edible insects as an alternate food. This study contributes to this global initiative by investigating entomophagy in the Blouberg area of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. The research develops a database of Blouberg edible insects, documents the importance of entomophagy to the people of Blouberg and for the wider community, and investigates aspects of the biology, ecology, socio- economics and nutritional value of a key species harvested in the area. Semi- structured questionnaires were carried out between 2007 and 2008 amongst households in the vicinity of Blouberg Mountain. Nearly 91% of the households in the Blouberg area consume insects. The most important reasons cited for consuming insects are that they are a traditional food, that they taste good and that they are a free food resource. Twenty eight species of edible insects were identified to at least genus level. Education was more important than income in influencing whether or not insects were consumed in a household. Households with lower education scores were more likely to consume insects than those with mid-level education scores. However, those with low income scores consumed a greater quantity of insects than those with higher scores. Similarly, those with low education scores consumed more insects than those with higher education scores. Pasture land was the area most preferred for collecting insects, with crop lands second in importance. Natural vegetation was not a preferred collecting habitat. Most households (78.57%) believe there has been a decline in edible insect consumption in recent years. According to the Blouberg insect collectors, edible insects are also on the decline in Blouberg and most households are unhappy about this. The lepidopteran, Hemijana variegata (bophetha), which was targeted for more in depth research, was found to be univoltine in the field, with caterpillars emerging in early November. The caterpillars feed predominantly on Canthium armatum and to a lesser extent on Pyrostria hystrix. They take four weeks to develop, burrowing into the soil to overwinter as pupae to emerge as adults in late spring. The development of the moth is profoundly influenced by temperature at all life stages and ceased below 17ºC and above 35ºC. Temperatures between 23ºC and 29ºC were most favourable for growth. iv The food value of the bophetha caterpillars was found to be high. The protein value of traditionally prepared caterpillars is 45.5%, with carbohydrates at 11.86 mg/100 g and fat at 19.75%. The caterpillars are not as rich in vitamins as fruit or vegetables, but compare favourably with beef. Traditionally prepared bophetha were found to be contaminated by two bacteria and one fungus, none of which are dangerously pathogenic to humans. Bophetha are traded between Blouberg villages at costs equivalent to other edible insects in South Africa (R10.19 per cup). Almost one third of Blouberg inhabitants sell bophetha, with this percentage decreasing to about 10% in poor seasons. Households collect between 3 and 3.5 litres of bophetha per season. Blouberg households are of the opinion that knowledge about edible insects is important enough that it should be included in formal education as a way of ensuring that the younger generation assimilates aspects of this knowledge despite cultural changes.

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