COMMODITIES AND IN THE GREATER

IMPACTS OF COMMODITY DEVELOPMENT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN THE GREATER MEKONG AND ITS HEADWATERS Authors Max Fancourt, Sarah Walker, Marieke Sassen

Prepared for John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation

Acknowledgements With support from Matthew Dixon, Sarah Ivory. Charlotte Hicks served as an internal reviewer. Michael Green (ADB, GNS-EOC program) and Andrew Tordoff (BirdLife International) served as external reviewers and provided comments on the draft report. 2 Published: March 2015 Copyright 2015 Environment Programme

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List of Figures, Tables and Boxes 4 Figures 4 3 Tables 5 Boxes 6 List of Acronyms 6 1. Key points 7 2. Executive Summary 8 3. Introduction 11 4. The Greater Mekong and its Headwaters 13 4.1 Geographic, Political and Economic Boundaries 14 4.2 Geology 15 4.3 Climate and Hydrology 16 4.4 Biogeography 17 4.5 and Ecosystems 20 4.6 Socio-Economic Context 21 5. Status and Trends of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 25 5.1 Biodiversity 26 5.2 Ecosystem Services 32 6. Status and Trends in Commodity Developments 37 6.1 Agriculture 38 6.2 Fisheries 46 6.3 Forestry 50 6.4 Energy 53 6.5 Mining 60 6.6 Transport and Infrastructure 64 6.7 Hunting and 66 6.8 Tourism 68 7. Initiating and Responding to Change 71 7.1 Environmental Policy, Law and Controls 72 7.2 Land Management and Planning 75 7.3 Transboundary Cooperation on Environmental Conservation 79 7.4 Civil Society 82 7.5 Data and Information Gaps 83 8. Conclusions 85 9. References 87 LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES

Figures

No. Title Page 1 The Greater Mekong Basin (, 2005a; UNEP-WCMC; MacArthur 14 Foundation, 2012) 2 Monsoon seasons of the Greater Mekong Basin (adapted from Snidvongs et al. (2003); data 16 4 from Mekong River Commissiom (2005b); World Weather Online (2014)) 3 Mean annual runoff (mm) in the Greater Mekong Basin (Waterworld version 2 2014) 17 4 Map of the biogeographic regions of the Greater Mekong Basin (Mekong River Commission 18 2004; Mekong River Commission 1997) 5 Boundaries of the Indo-Burma hotspot (Conservation International 2011a) 20 6 GDP in constant 2005 USD billions (World Bank 2014) 22 7 GDP per capita in constant 2005 USD (World Bank 2014) 22 8 Percentage share of national accounts attributable to agriculture, mining and manufacturing 23 and electricity, gas and water ( 2014b) 9 Percentage of total population living below the national poverty line (GMS-EOC 2014a) 24 10 Human Development Index (UNDP 2014) 24 11 Important biodiversity areas in the Greater Mekong region, including Key Biodiversity Areas, 26 Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas and Ramsar Sites (BirdLife International 2013; IUCN & UNEP 2014; ArcGIS 2014; MacArthur Foundation 2012) 12 cover by area and naturalness in five countries of the Greater Mekong (FAO 28 2010a) 13 Average percentage change in forest cover and other wooded land per year for whole 28 countries in the Greater Mekong Basin from 1990 to 2010 (FAO 2010a) 14 Forest Cover (50% canopy cover) in the Greater Mekong Basin (Hansen et al. 2013) 29 15 Average percentage forest (>50% canopy cover) loss and gain from 2001-2012 for the 29 country areas that fall within the Greater Mekong Basin (Hansen et al. 2013) 16 Change in the extent of agricultural land from 1990, 2000, and 2011 (Asian Development 38 Bank 2013a) 17 Harvested area of in , Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (FAO 2014) 40 18 Harvested area of selected agricultural commodities (FAO 2014) 42 19 Production of inland freshwater capture fisheries by country from 2000-2012 (FishStat 2014) 47 20 Production of inland freshwater aquaculture by country from 2000-2012 (FishStat 2014) 48 21 Gigawatt-hours of electrical power consumed in a given year for 51 countries (GMS-EOC 2014a) 22 Existing oil wells in the Greater Mekong Basin region (IHS 2013) 54 23 Percentage contribution of energy source to consumption in the Greater Mekong Subregion 54 (Asian Development Bank 2009) 24 Distribution of existing and potential hydropower development by country (Mekong River 55 Commission 2010b) 25 Dams, Present and Projected, in the Greater Mekong Subregion (Mulligan et al. 2011; van 56 Soesbergen 2012; DIVA GIS 2014; MacArthur Foundation 2012; NGA 2000; Natural Earth 2014) 26 A) Active, and B) Planned mining zones within the Greater Mekong Basin (SNL 2013) 61 27 Length of road network by year for the area of constituent countries that overlaps the Greater 64 Mekong Basin (GMS-EOC 2014a) 28 Priority threats to biodiversity in the Indo-Burma Hotspot based on stakeholder consultation 66 in each country (Mittermeier et al. 2004; Conservation International 2011b; Tordoff et al. 2012b) 29 Revenue generated from tourism in the constituent countries of the Greater Mekong Basin 68 (GMS-EOC 2014a) 30 Change in protected area coverage in the Lower Mekong Basin (WDPA 2012; IUCN & UNEP 76 2014) 5 31 Location of protection areas within the Greater Mekong Basin and their overlap with 77 important biodiversity areas (BirdLife International 2013; IUCN & UNEP 2014; MacArthur Foundation 2012; NGA 2000)

Tables

No. Title Page 1 The overlap of Greater Mekong Subregion countries with the Greater Mekong Basin region 14 2 Overlap between important biodiversity areas and the Greater Mekong Basin 26 3 Estimated richness and number of threatened species for the constituent countries 27 of the Greater Mekong Subregion (IUCN 2014; The Royal Government of Cambodia 2014; Republic of the Union of 2014; Government of Thailand 2014; ’s Democratic Republic 2010; Viet Nam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment 2014). *for these groups there are still many species that have not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List, (v) Vascular. 4 Forest cover, loss and gain for 2001-2012 for the country areas that fall within the Greater 29 Mekong Basin, 50% canopy cover (Hansen et al. 2013) 5 Change in area (hectares) in Viet Nam from 1980 to 2005 (WWF, 2013c) 30 6 Flagship species of the Mekong: distribution and threats (IUCN 2013) 31 7 Major ecosystem services in the Greater Mekong Basin 33 8 An assessment of current and future ecosystem service availability 35 9 The top ten agricultural commodities based on ten year averages of production (FAO 2013) 39 10 Rice production by season for Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand (Mekong River Commission 41 2010b) 11 Predicted expansion of rice and other crops in the near future in the Lower Mekong Basin 43 (Baumüller 2008) 12 Estimate production of inland capture fisheries in the Greater Mekong Basin in 2000 (tonnes) 46 (Baran et al. 2007) 13 Details on the Upper Lancang-Mekong cascade of dams (Mekong River Commission 2010b) 56 14 Proposed mainstream hydropower power projects in the Lower Mekong Basin (Mekong 57 River Commission, 2010b) 15 Mining sector percentage share of GDP (Mekong River Commission 2010b) 62 16 Tourism contribution to GDP and employment in the constituent countries of the Lower 68 Mekong Basin for 2005, estimated (E) for 2008, and forecasted (F) for 2019 (Mekong River Commission 2010b) 17 International MEAs signed by the countries of the Greater Mekong Basin 73 18 Protected area coverage in the Lower Mekong Basin (ICEM, 2014 based on WDPA 2012) 76 19 Total area of key biodiversity measures found within protected areas in the region 77 Boxes

No. Title Page 1 Genetic diversity of rice 32 2 Nutrient spiralling - an example of a regulating ecosystem function directly dependent on 35 biodiversity 3 That Luang Marsh – an urban in 36 4 Removing Barriers to Movement 59 5 Environmental contamination from gold mining in Cambodia 63 6 6 Cyanide spill, Lao PDR 64 7 Illegal Trade in Lao PDR 67 8 The Stung Treng/Kratie river corridor 69 9 Nam Nern Night Safari 69 10 farming in 75 11 Xayaburi and Don Sahong dams on the Mekong 81

LIST OF ACRONYMS 3S river Se Kong, Se San and IBAs Important Bird and Biodiversity system Sre Pok river system Areas ADB Asian Development Bank IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations KBA Key Biodiversity Area BCI Biodiversity Conservation Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Corridors Initiative Republic CBD Convention on Biological LMB Lower Mekong Basin Diversity MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment CEP Core Environment Program MRC Mekong River Commission CITES Convention on the International NTFP Non-timber forest product Trade in Threatened and PA Protected area CSO Civil society organisation PNPCA Procedures for Notification, Prior Consultation and Agreement EIA Environmental Impact Assessment REDD+ Reducing Emissions from ELC Economic Land Concession and Forest Degradation plus ESIA Environmental and Social Impact SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment Assessment EU European union SEZ Special Economic Zone FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation UMB Upper Mekong Basin GDP Gross Domestic Product UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific GMB Greater Mekong Basin and Cultural Organisation GMS Greater Mekong Subregion WCS Wild Conservation Society GMS5 Greater Mekong Subregion excluding WWF World Wide Fund for Nature China 1. Key Points

● The Greater Mekong and its headwaters, ● Major regional road networks are being or Greater Mekong Basin (GMB), sit within developed to link capital cities and ports, 7 the Indo-Burma hotspot, an area of high including through protected areas and biodiversity and endemism which faces conservation corridors. Increased access has significant pressures from rapid economic boosted land prices, facilitated land grabs, development. encouraged permanent cash crop agriculture and facilitated illegal wildlife and timber trade. ● The GMB provides immensely important ecosystem services to millions of people and ● Unregulated hunting and wildlife trade are supports all sectors of the region’s largely major threats to biodiversity in the region. natural resource-based economies. ● The environmental planning and management ● Agricultural expansion and intensification is processes in all GMB countries are largely the main driver of deforestation. Expansion unable to address or respond to the enormous into vulnerable upland areas is of particular pressure generated by the rapid economic concern. Reforestation programmes exist development. but mainly in the form of industrial tree ● Political and institutional changes in the region plantations. are, however, providing opportunities for ● The fisheries of the Mekong River are among change. the most productive in the world, with a total ● Existing initiatives to address the impacts of estimated value of US$9 billion per year. Signs commodity development need to be expanded of overharvesting are not well documented. and coordinated within the wider GMB region. Aquaculture has expanded greatly, leading Environmental Impact Assessment processes in to water pollution and the loss of mangrove commodity development projects also need to . be strengthened. ● Hydropower dams, including on the Mekong’s ● International civil society organisations and mainstream, are being constructed at donors should work together with national unprecedented rates to meet future energy organisations to support and strengthen demands, with little consideration for social government processes and capacity to and environmental impacts. Altering the onset address the adverse impacts of commodity of the seasonal floods and the functioning development on biodiversity and ecosystem of the aquatic ecosystems that depend on services within the region. the Mekong and its tributaries will affect the biodiversity and ecosystem services on which the people and economies in the region depend. 2. Executive Summary

The Greater Mekong and its headwaters is a region of high biodiversity, high carbon-storage 8 value and, crucially, immensely important freshwater services for millions of people. The region’s ecosystems are under threat from massive commodity-driven transformation which will affect the biodiversity and ecosystem services upon which people and economies in the region depend. This enormous pressure is a challenge for the environmental planning and management processes in all Greater Mekong Basin countries, and national and regional environmental policy and legal frameworks will need strengthening in to ensure that the rapid economic development is sustainable over the long term.

The Greater Mekong and its Headwaters The Greater Mekong is both a geographically and The river and its associated ecosystems provide a politically defined region. The region referred an invaluable range of ecosystem services to more to as the Greater Mekong and its headwaters or as than 60 million people. The Mekong with its the Greater Mekong Basin (GMB) includes most annual flood pulse is critical for the maintenance of Cambodia and Lao PDR, a third of Thailand, of the productivity of the region’s agriculture the region of Viet Nam and small and fisheries. Associated ecosystems such as parts of Myanmar and China. The countries of forests and provide food, medicines, the GMB are also part of the Greater Mekong timber and water, but also for species, Subregion (GMS). storm protection and Delta rebuilding, as well as other services such as cultural services and The GMB is included within the Indo-Burma transportation. . The region encompasses an extremely wide range of ecosystems, from high The GMS has seen high rates of economic altitude mountain ranges to lowland tropical forest development over recent years, largely and wetlands. These ecosystems host an extremely fuelled by investment in natural resource rich biodiversity with very high levels of endemism, exploitation. Economic activities are principally i.e. around 50% of the 20,000 vascular plant species based on fisheries, timber, wildlife trade, are thought to be endemic. The Mekong River itself agriculture, hydropower, extractive industries is thought to contain at least 850 freshwater fish and biofuel production. While agriculture’s species. Forests cover over 44% of the GMB. economic contribution is decreasing, mining, manufacturing, and energy services are increasing. Despite this economic development, human development is still considered to be relatively low. Commodity Developments and Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Commodity development is a major driver of species are still recorded. Non timber forest habitat and species loss in the GMB. Forest products, in particular medicinal substances, are loss was highest in the past, but 75% of the important sources of income for rural households. remaining forests in the region are considered Growing populations and industrialisation degraded. Over 1,800 species in the region are lead to increasing energy demands. Currently considered threatened. Most importantly, rapid around 80% of the region’s energy is produced developments also affect the functioning of the through fossil fuels. However, the region has Mekong River system, the region’s lifeline. huge potential for hydropower, and the number 9 Increasing and rapidly developing populations of dams is growing rapidly. In particular the have driven the expansion and modernisation of planned building of dams on the mainstream agriculture in the GMB. The cultivated area of of the Lower Mekong (predominantly in Lao non-rice export crops is increasing fastest, maize PDR) is of concern as this will have significant in particular. The governments of the region are implications for countries downstream. Dams also placing an increasing emphasis on biofuel alter the hydrology of aquatic ecosystems and production. In Thailand, the harvested area of the onset of the seasonal floods, affecting fish oil palm has almost tripled between 2000 and migration and reproduction, reducing sediment 2012. Agriculture expansion is the primary driver deposition and therefore agricultural productivity of forest conversion, including into upland and Delta-forming processes downstream. Dam and other vulnerable areas. Regulating services construction has led to forest loss and the forced provided by forests, such as erosion control, displacement of local populations. water quality regulation and slope stability, have Since the 1990s, mining has developed rapidly, been affected. Excessive fertiliser and pesticide largely due to increased foreign direct investment, use to support intensification have impacted soil particularly originating from China. There is and water quality, and irrigation is reportedly widespread small-scale artisanal mining but few responsible for 85 to 95% of water withdrawals in economically important large-scale operations. the Mekong region. Contamination of water and soil with chemicals The fisheries of the Mekong River are among and metals used in extraction and processing, as the most productive in the world, with a total well as acid spills have been recorded. estimated value of US$9 billion per year. They Rapid economic development in the GMS has are essential to the livelihoods and subsistence also led to fast development of infrastructure, of millions of people. There are some signs for processing and trade. Major regional road of overharvesting but these are not well networks are being developed to link capital documented. Aquaculture has expanded cities and ports, including through protected greatly, with a five-fold increase in the past ten areas and conservation corridors. Increased years. This expansion has sometimes come at access has boosted land prices and facilitated high environmental cost, in particular for the land grabs, as well as a shift to permanent cash mangrove forests of the Delta. crop agriculture in traditional shifting cultivation Timber and wood-based products, including areas. Illegally harvested timber and wildlife can those intended for export, are important sources of also be more easily transported across borders. income in the region. In Viet Nam and Thailand, Unregulated, unsustainable and unreported timber is mainly sourced from plantations, whilst hunting and wildlife trade is a major threat to in Lao PDR commercial timber mainly originates biodiversity in the region. The trade in rare and from land conversion projects. Impacts of logging threatened species is driven by domestic and appear to have peaked in most countries in the international demand, in particular from China, region, although some impacts on highly valued where biodiversity declines were largest in the past. Initiating and Responding to Commodity-Driven Change in the GMB

The environmental planning and management ● Influence the policies of donors, investors, processes in all GMB countries are largely unable operators and other key actors to adopt higher to address or respond to the enormous pressure standards regarding environmental and social generated by the rapid economic development impacts of development activities. in the region. In particular, laws regarding the ● Further support the combatting of illegal requirements for EIAs are almost systematically wildlife and timber trade, including through broken or their findings ignored. market-based approaches. 10 Political and institutional changes in the region ● Strengthen the capacity for the implementation are, however, providing opportunities for change. of PES schemes, especially at the local level. Local and national-level projects by various conservation organisations and bilateral and International civil society organisations and multilateral donors already address some of donors should work together with national the existing and potential future impacts from organisations to support and strengthen commodity developments government processes and capacity to address the adverse impacts of commodity development Existing initiatives need to be expanded and on biodiversity and ecosystem services within the coordinated within the wider GMB region. region. Recommendations for actions to better address the impacts of commodity developments in the GMB are summarised as:

● Support the integrated assessment and valuation of ecosystem services to inform sustainable watershed level and transboundary land-use planning.

● Increase knowledge on the impacts of dams on downstream biodiversity, food and livelihood security and on methods for offsetting such impacts.

● Strengthen the Mekong River Commission’s (MRC) capacity for basin-wide assessments and support the implementation of their recommendations.

● Generally strengthen national and regional environmental policy and legal frameworks and processes, including EIAs, to better include downstream and longer term impacts. 3. Introduction

The Greater Mekong and its inhabitants have been shaped by the Mekong River and its tributaries. This interaction has moulded the ecosystems and cultures in the region. The 11 natural resources of the Mekong River and its headwaters play an essential role in ensuring water, food and energy security for the people and countries of . However, massive transformation is taking place and commodity-driven developments are threatening the region’s biodiversity and the ecosystem services its inhabitants and economies depend on. This report is the first of a two-part study that A detailed literature review and targeted expert supports the targeting of conservation-related consultation were carried out to identify the investments in the Greater Mekong Basin social, economic and political context of the (GMB) by the MacArthur Foundation and other region and to assess the status and trends in donors. The second part of the study is a spatial important biodiversity and ecosystem services. analysis of the potential impacts of future Existing datasets were used to analyse commodity scenarios for commodity-driven land-use change development trends in the region. Peer-reviewed on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the and grey literature helped identify impacts on region’s watersheds. biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well- 12 being from these developments. The main objective of this report is to provide a synthesis of the impacts of major commodity Finally, the capacity to respond to these threats developments on biodiversity and ecosystem was investigated through an analysis of the services in the GMB and the current capacity to institutional contexts (policy, civil society) in respond to these pressures. relation to land and resource use in the countries of the region, taking into account the socio- The study aims to collect the best available economic context and the evidence from the information and provide analysis on the current review of past and current developments and situation in the region regarding biodiversity their impacts. and ecosystem services, their importance for economic and social development, impacts on The report outlines data and information gaps, them from major commodity developments, and and key messages to help guide investment (by the current capacity to initiate change to address the MacArthur foundation) to reduce negative these impacts. The report brings together a broad impacts. range of new and existing information and builds on previous assessments of the status and trends of biodiversity conservation in the region, in particular the Ecosystem Critical Partnership Fund’s Ecosystem profile for the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot (Tordoff et al. 2012).

Where available, information referring specifically to the region was used, however the region overlaps with variously-sized parts of six different countries (Figure 1). Also, many processes influencing the region take place outside of the area of the GMB, therefore country-specific data was used, as well as information from international organisations such as the Mekong River Commission (MRC), Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). A greater emphasis was put on the four main countries overlapping the GMB region as defined by the MacArthur Foundation, namely Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Thailand and Viet Nam. 4. The Greater Mekong and its Headwaters

This chapter describes some of the main geographical, geological, climatic and biophysical characteristics of the study region, including major habitat and ecosystem types and areas 13 considered of great ecological importance. It also gives a broad socio-economic profile of the countries of the Greater Mekong and its headwaters. 4.1 GEOGRAPHIC, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BOUNDARIES The Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) covers over 2,300 Mha over six countries: Cambodia, Thailand, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Viet Nam, and China ( and provinces; GMS- OEC 2014; Figure 1).

The Greater Mekong and its headwaters - also called the Greater Mekong Basin, and referred to 14 as GMB is this report - overlaps with parts of the GMS countries (Table 1). The Mekong headwaters originate in the Tanggula Mountains, on the northeast rim of the Great Tibetan Plateau, 5,500m above sea level. On its journey down to the ocean it passes through China’s Yunnan Province, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Cambodia before finally passing through Viet Nam to reach the South China Sea. During this journey the Mekong is estimated to travel 4,900 km, draining an area of approximately 79,500,000 hectares (Kummu & Varis 2007; Snidvongs et al. 2003).

The GMB region is composed of the Upper and the Lower Mekong Basins. The Upper Mekong Basin (UMB) is the area of the basin located in Figure 1: The Greater Mekong Basin (Mekong River Tibet and Yunnan Province of China (where the Commission, 2005a; UNEP-WCMC; MacArthur Mekong is called Lancang Jiang; Mekong River Foundation, 2012) Commission 2005a), while the Lower Mekong The six countries of the GMS - Cambodia, Thailand, Basin (LMB) is the area from Yunnan Province Lao PDR, Myanmar, Viet Nam, and China (Yunnan downstream to the South China Sea (Mekong and Guangxi provinces) - are engaged in the GMS River Commission 2005a). The LMB is the main Economic Cooperation Programme, initiated by focus of this review as this is where the largest the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in 1992 (Asian overlap between GMS countries and the GMB Development Bank 2013b). region occurs (Figure 1).

Table 1: The overlap of Greater Mekong Subregion countries with the Greater Mekong Basin region

Land area within the Percentage country area Country Greater Mekong Basin (ha). Total country area (ha) covered (%) Lao PDR 20,650,000 22,968,500 89.9 Cambodia 15,588,200 18,143,400 85.9 Thailand 18,800,600 51,392,300 36.6 Viet Nam 6,507,600 32,684,800 9.7 Myanmar 2,174,200 66,762,100 3.3 China 16,461,800 938,551,200 1.8 Totals 80,182,400 1,130,502,300 100 4.2 GEOLOGY The geology of the region is complex, as several constrained by bedrock or old alluvium in significant events have shaped the physiographic the riverbed and riverbank (Mekong River character of the GMB. In the Tertiary period, Commission 2010b). Consequently, features the Indian Plate collided with the Asian such as oxbow lakes, meanders and floodplains, subcontinent. This collision resulted in the uplift which are normally associated with a mature of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau (Brookfield river, such as the Mekong, are relatively rare 1998; Fielding 2000). In addition to significantly and restricted to the upper basin. They are only altering the landscape, the uplift of the Tibetan present in the short stretch of the mainstream 15 Plateau is thought to be one of the key factors around Vientiane (Lao PDR) and downstream of responsible for the formation of the southwest Kratie (Cambodia), where the underlying geology monsoon, which now dominates the climate of changes. the region (Clift & Plumb 2008). The soils of the GMB have many limitations In comparison with other large river systems, for agriculture, including: low organic content, the Mekong and its basin have an unusual high acidity, saline intrusion and periodic structure. Most large river systems have a damage from floods and droughts (van Liere & relatively simple, dendritic tributary network, McNeely 2005). They can be split broadly into resembling a branching tree (Twidale 2004). The the upland and lowlands soils. Lowland soils underlying geology of these networks consists occupy the majority of the Korat Plateau and the of relatively “soft rocks” that play little to no Mekong Plain - areas with the most potential for role in determining the morphology of the river agricultural development. By contrast, upland, (Twidale 2004). The underlying geology of the or mountain, soils are freshly weathered from Mekong fundamentally differs and strongly the underlying rocks and less fertile, with deep influences its morphology (Tandon & Sinha groundwater tables even in the wet season (van 2007). For much of its length the Mekong is Liere & McNeely 2005). 4.3 CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY The climate of the GMB is characterised by The rainy season stretches from mid-May to mid- seven climatic zones ranging from tropical September and is characterised by frequent heavy to frigid-temperate (Snidvongs et al. 2003). rainfall, high humidity, high temperature and Marked differences in climate exist across this cloudiness. The cold season that follows, caused broad sweep of diverse landscapes—from coral by the movement of high pressure fronts from reefs and sun-drenched beaches in equatorial Siberia and China, typically has light rainfall, low climes, through tropical, subtropical and humidity, the lowest annual temperatures for 16 temperate forests to alpine habitats and glaciers. the region, and little cloud cover. The following It is governed by the monsoon winds that blow summer season lasts from March through to mid- alternately from the northeast and southwest, May and is characterised by increasing levels of each for approximately half the year (Hoanh et al. rainfall, humidity and cloud cover (Snidvongs et 2003). A typical yearly cycle of the basin (Figure al. 2003). 2) is characterised by two monsoons annually.

350 30 Average rainfall 300 25 Average 250 temperature 20 200 15 150 10

Average rainfall (mm) rainfall Average 100 Average Rainfall (mm) Average

50 5

0 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D Month

Cold Summer Cold Season Season Rainy Season Season Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Northeast First Southwest Second Northeast Monsoon Transition Monsoon Transition Monsoon

Figure 2: Monsoon seasons of the Greater Mekong Basin (adapted from Snidvongs et al. (2003); data from Mekong River Commissiom (2005b); World Weather Online (2014)) The timing of the southwest monsoon results in an annual flood pulse, which causes a drastic change in flow along the entire length of the Mekong. The lowlands feel this change especially strongly, with the river rising as much as 4m (Snidvongs et al. 2003) and flow rates reaching over 50 times that of the dry season (Cronin 2011). The estimated mean annual flow of the Mekong River varies temporally and spatially (Figure 3) but is estimated at 460 km3. Over 17 75% of the annual flow occurs between July and October. The convergence and accumulation of such a high input of rainwater into a single flow results in the Mekong floods being amongst the largest in the world (O’Connor & Costa 2004).

The UMB contributes 15-20% of the water that flows into the river and accounts for 33% of the total catchment area of the basin (Mekong River Commission 2011; Figure 3). By contrast, the LMB accounts for 77% of the total catchment area, and 80% of the river’s flow (Grumbine et al. 2012). Lao PDR is especially important as 55% of annual flow comes from the large left bank tributaries originating in Lao PDR. The Se Kong, Se San and Figure 3: Mean annual runoff (mm) in the Greater Sre Pok (3S) river system (Figure 3) shared by Viet Mekong Basin (Waterworld version 2 2014) Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR contributes an estimated 19% of the Mekong’s annual discharge (GMS-OEC 2014).

4.4 BIOGEOGRAPHY The UMB is characterised by precipitous Lancang River Basin mountains, narrow gorges and high angle slopes. The Lancang River Basin, or "Upper Mekong" as in Agriculture is made difficult due to the steep Figure 4, contains areas of Qinghai province, Tibet slopes and the ongoing impacts of soil erosion and Yunnan province in China. The watershed (Mekong River Commission 2005a). Despite of the Lancang River Basin is characterised by its limited potential for agriculture, the UMB precipitous mountains (3,500m to 5,500m in has great potential for hydroelectric power height), narrow gorges and high angled slopes generation. The LMB is largely dominated by (Mekong River Commission 1997). Soil erosion lowlands and highly fertile floodplains (with the rates are extremely high and are responsible for exception of the Annamite Mountains). over 50% of the sediment in the river (Mekong The MRC divides the GMB into six bio- River Commission 2005a). The central part of geographical regions (Figure 4) based on the catchment comprises more medium sized common agricultural practices, climate and mountains than the north and contains many wide, landscape (UNEP 2006). fertile valleys. This is the most densely populated and developed region of the north, where relatively large-scale agricultural and industrial development has taken place (UNEP 2006). high potential for hydroelectric power. A number of dams have already been built on tributaries to the Mekong, with plans for further development both on the tributaries and the river itself (Mekong River Commission 2010b).

Korat-Sakon Plateau The Korat-Sakon Plateau extends over northern 18 Thailand and the floodplains of southern Lao PDR, and is surrounded by the Northern and Eastern Highlands in Lao PDR, and the Petchabun and Phnom Dangrek mountain ranges in Thailand and northern Cambodia (Mekong River Commission 1997). The plateau receives the least rainfall in the GMB (UNEP 2006), its soils have a low capacity to retain moisture (Hirsch & Cheong 1996) and the area suffers from salinity problems (Mekong River Commission 1997). Despite these unfavourable conditions, agriculture is widely practiced and is undergoing significant development (Mekong River Commission 1997).

Eastern Highlands Covering the mountain range in eastern Lao PDR and central Viet Nam, the Eastern Highlands, in stark contrast to the Korat-Sakon Plateau, Figure 4: Map of the biogeographic regions of the receives the most rainfall within the GMB. Greater Mekong Basin (Mekong River Commission Consequently it has a large network of tributaries 2004; Mekong River Commission 1997) that together contribute around two fifths of the total water volume in the Mekong River (UNEP Northern Highlands 2006). The Eastern Highlands are heavily forested and hold high levels of biodiversity (Johnston The Northern Highlands include land within et al. 2010). Agriculture in this region takes two Yunnan Province, China, Myanmar, Thailand main forms: intensive sedentary farming, and and Lao PDR. The region is characterised by shifting agriculture. Shifting agriculture includes high mountain peaks, several over 2,000m, and both rotational agriculture - the most prevalent steep valleys. Population density is relatively low form of agriculture in the region - and slash (UNEP 2006). Two main types of agriculture are and burn techniques (Evans 1992). The Eastern practiced: intensive rice farming on the narrow Highlands are also home to the 3S area, the valley floors and shifting agriculture on the triangle of the Mekong tributaries that contribute higher planes (UNEP 2006). The subtropical about 19% of the Mekong’s annual discharge climate becomes more temperate as altitude (GMS-OEC 2014), and are currently undergoing increases, providing hospitable conditions for a development for plantations, logging and wide variety of crops including maize, vegetables, hydropower (GMS-OEC 2014). wheat and cassava. The Northern Highlands have 19

Southern Uplands Two features play an important role in shaping the environment, ecology and livelihoods of the The Southern Uplands are an extension of the Lowlands: Northern Highlands and include the Cardamom and Elephant ranges (Mekong River Commission ● Tonle Sap lake, in Cambodia, is a UNESCO 2003b). The Southern Uplands, like the Eastern biosphere reserve. It also supports one of the Highlands, are densely forested and home to high most productive fisheries in the world. Tonle levels of biodiversity. Sap has a remarkable hydrological regime: due to the biannual reversal of flow in the Mekong, Lowlands and Delta the lake is more than four times larger in the wet season than in the dry season. In the wet The Lowlands comprise an area covering over season, the flooded area reaches over three half of Cambodia, areas in Lao PDR, Thailand, million ha making it one of the world’s largest and the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam. The Mekong wetland areas (Ringler et al. 2004). flows from the Korat-Sakon Plateau into this region passing through the Khone Falls, one of ● The Mekong Delta is situated at the southern the most significant obstacles to making the tip of the Lowlands region and is the most river navigable along its length. Close to the densely populated region of the GMB. It covers border between Lao PDR and Cambodia, the an area of approximately 4,900,500 ha, 75% of Mekong broadens and then splits into numerous which is in Viet Nam and the rest in Cambodia channels, creating a vast number of small islands. (UNEP 2006). The soil of the Mekong Delta This area is known as Siphandone, or the ‘Four is highly fertile with fertility maintained by Thousand Islands’ and is endowed with a wide the regular flooding of the Mekong. The Delta array of natural features, from large complexes produces around 45% of Viet Nam’s agricultural of waterfalls and rapids to seasonally flooded products while comprising only 31% of the riverine habitats (Daconto et al. 2001). The area country’s available agricultural land and holds extremely high aquatic biodiversity (Hogan contributes over half of all rice consumed in 2011). the country. In addition, 80% of Viet Nam’s rice exports are produced in the region. 4.5 HABITATS AND ECOSYSTEMS The GMB is home to an extremely wide variety The GMB has long received international of ecosystems. Forests cover over 44% of the attention due to its extremely diverse biota. It GMS (UNEP & TEI 2007) and include highly is thought that a combination of fluctuating diverse systems from evergreen, semi-evergreen sea levels during the Pleistocene, as well as and mixed deciduous forests to deciduous fluctuations in the relative extent of lowland dipterocarp forests. evergreen forest during past glacial episodes, resulted in the repeated isolation and 20 reconnection of ecosystems and plant and animal populations. These events promote speciation and are likely the reason for high levels of species endemism in the region (van Dijk et al. 1999; Thompson & Thompson 2008).

As a result of these high levels of unique biodiversity, the GMB is included within the Indo Burma Hotspot (Figure 5; Conservation International 2011a; Tordoff et al. 2012b), which ranks in the top ten hotspots for irreplaceability, and in the top five for threat, with only 5% of its natural habitat remaining (Myers et al. 2000).

Seasonally inundated swamp forest ecosystems surround , with many other wetland systems in the region. The Mangrove forests, by contrast, are distributed along the coast, intertidal mudflats and sandflats, which together provide key habitats to many migratory shorebirds.

Grassland ecosystems range from small, seasonally wet meadows within dry forest landscapes, to permanently flooded , to the extensive, seasonally inundated grasslands that characterise the Tonle Sap Lake zone. Freshwater ecosystems range from fast-flowing Figure 5: Boundaries of the Indo-Burma hotspot rocky mountain streams to wide, slow flowing (Conservation International 2011a) lowland rivers, braided by large, partly vegetated sand and rock bars. 4.6 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT

Population The GMB is home to a large number of minority groups that often inhabit relatively remote The countries in the GMS are home to an estimated areas, where most biodiversity is still found 330 million people (GMS-OEC 2014). In 2000, the and protected areas are located (Tordoff et al. population of the GMB itself was estimated at 2012). Traditional natural resource management around 65 million people, 55 million of which live systems by these groups therefore play an in the LMB (UNEP 2006), which is characterised by important role in biodiversity conservation. high population growth (Grumbine et al. 2012). 21 Government planned migration is drastically The population of the GMB has grown by 12% changing the geographic distribution of the since 2003 (Mekong River Commission 2010b). population of Lao PDR. Dispersed villages are Around 75% of the population lives in rural areas ‘consolidated’ and/or moved to areas identified and relies heavily on the river and aquaculture to for development, with the goal of improving meet basic subsistence needs (Ziv et al. 2012). service delivery to the rural population. Annual population growth rates are highest in Further aims are to relocate upland villages to Lao PDR (±1.8%), followed by Viet Nam (±1.2%) lowland areas in order to help ‘stabilise’ shifting and Cambodia (±1.15%) (2010 estimates) and cultivation, eradicate opium production, extend lowest in Thailand (±0.5%). Growth rates have administrative control (by consolidating villages decreased significantly since the 1990s however, into larger units), foster cultural integration of in particular in Lao PDR (from 2.7%) and ethnic minorities, and resettle villagers with a Cambodia (from 3.2%) (UNDP 2011). history of armed rebellion (Bechstedt et al. 2007).

Two broad types of population migration occur across the GMS: rural-urban migration and rural-rural migration. Rural-to-urban migration, in particular, has been a significant feature of population movement in the GMS since the 1990s (Guest 2003).

In Cambodia, the number of people moving to in order to find employment, chiefly in the garment factories, is steadily increasing (World Bank 2007a). However, there has also been significant movement of people from the more densely populated regions around Phnom Penh and the Tonle Sap ‘rice belt’ to more sparsely populated regions, including protected areas (Pollard & Evans 2008a).

In Viet Nam, significant rural-urban migration has taken place from the Northern Highlands to the industrial Red region (AAG 2012). In addition, an estimated six million people have resettled through rural-rural migration during the second half of the 20th century (UNDP 1998), many of these due to the Indochinese War, the Viet Nam War, and post-war reconstruction (European Union 2007). Economic Development The economies of the GMS are among the fastest more industrialised economies. Lao PDR and growing in the world. This growth is partly Cambodia are still behind, but high rates of driven by increased integration with the global development are fuelled by investment in natural economy, a key pillar of the development plans resource exploitation. of many GMS countries (Kumar & Srivastava The regional average growth rate, excluding 2010). The three communist states of the GMS, China (as its significantly larger growth rates the People’s Republic of China, Lao People’s make comparison difficult), is 6.1% per year over Democratic Republic and the Socialist Republic 22 the last five years (2009 to 2013). Thailand has the of Viet Nam have liberalised their economies highest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and GDP since the 1990s. Most countries of the GMS are per capita (Figure 6 and Figure 7). transitioning from rural agriculture-based to

250 Cambodia Lao PDR 200 Thailand Viet Nam 150

100

50 GDP (constant 2005 billion US$) billion 2005 (constant GDP

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 6: GDP in constant 2005 USD billions (World Bank 2014)

3500 Cambodia 3000 Lao PDR Thailand 2500 Viet Nam

2000

1500

1000

500 GDP per capita (constant 2005 US$) 2005 (constant capita per GDP

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 7: GDP per capita in constant 2005 USD (World Bank 2014) Figure 8 examines how economic growth has but indicates that mining, manufacturing, been partitioned by sector (for agriculture, electricity, gas and water services are increasing mining, manufacturing, electricity, gas and in their contribution to national accounts, water) in the GMS countries (excluding China). providing evidence for increasing pressure on The graph highlights agriculture as a significant natural resources. sector yet decreasing in economic importance, 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 23 10 0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Cambodia Myanmar Lao PDR Thailand Viet Nam

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Electricity, gas, and water Other

Figure 8: Percentage share of national accounts attributable to agriculture, mining and manufacturing and electricity, gas and water (Asian Development Bank 2014b) Fisheries, timber, wildlife trade, coffee, In Thailand, industry contributed 45% of the hydropower, agriculture, mining and minerals/ GDP in 2006, and expanded at an average extractives, biofuels, and sand/gravel are annual rate of 3.4% from 1995–2004. However, important sectors in the region. 54% of the in 2004, industry as a whole employed only population of the entire basin engage in 23% of the workforce. In contrast, agriculture agriculture, fishing and forestry, mainly to meet contributes relatively little in terms of GDP, but subsistence needs (CIA 2014). Rapid economic employs a large percentage of the population. development across the Mekong region as a Manufacturing is becoming increasingly whole has led to rapid industrialisation since the important in Thailand, already accounting 1970s. Industry and manufacturing now provide for 34.5% of total GDP in 2004. Thailand has 44% of total GDP in Thailand (2012), 39% in Viet established itself as a centre of automobile Nam, 36% in Lao PDR and 24% in Cambodia manufacturing for the Association of Southeast (World Bank 2014). Asian Nations market and is also looking to become a centre for eco-car production (Library In Viet Nam, both the industrial and of Congress - Federal Research Division 2007). manufacturing sectors have experienced rapid The expansion of the automotive industry has growth with contributions to GDP growing had a number of benefits for the country, with at average annual rates of 10.3% and 11.2% domestic steel production experiencing a boom respectively between 1994–2004 (Library of due to increased demand. Thailand’s electronics Congress - Federal Research Division 2005). industry has recently begun to face competition In 2004, industry contributed 40.1% of the from Malaysia and Singapore, while its textile GDP but only employed approximately 13% industry faces competition from China and Viet of the workforce. Manufacturing meanwhile Nam (Library of Congress - Federal Research contributed around 20% of the GDP in the Division 2007). same year and employed 10.2% of the workforce. Although important nationally, manufacturing In Cambodia, the garment industry accounts for and retail activities within Viet Nam are 80% of the country’s exports. In 2012, exports not evenly distributed, with almost a third grew to US$4.61 billion, an increase of 8% since concentrated in Ho Chi Minh City. 2011. The sector employs 335,400 workers, of which 91% are female. In Lao PDR, the economy continues to be and Myanmar. Much of this investment is in strongly influenced by the agricultural sector natural resource exploitation (agro-industrial which operates largely outside the money plantations, extractives). The GMS Economic economy. The public sector continues to play a Cooperation Programme, supported by dominant role, although a number of successful the ADB and other donors, is designed to private enterprises have, however, been founded, enhance economic relations amongst the for example in handicrafts, beer, coffee and the countries of the region. The programme also tourism industries. Mining and other sectors are supports the implementation of high-priority growing in importance (Figure 8). In 2007, the sub-regional projects in: transport, energy, 24 total government revenue from taxes and fees telecommunications, environment, human from the mining sector exceeded US$120 million. resource development, tourism, trade, private sector investment, and agriculture (Asian China, similar to Thailand and Viet Nam, is Development Bank 2013b). increasingly investing in Lao PDR, Cambodia

Poverty Rapid economic growth has contributed to poverty 2012a). In addition, economic gains have tended to reduction across the GMS (Figure 9). However, 50 benefit the rich over the poor. The Gini Coefficient million (of ~330 million people) are still estimated (a measure of inequality in income distribution) to live on less than US$1 a day, 70% of which live in increased during the early 2000s in all the GMS rural agricultural areas (Asian Development Bank countries except Thailand (Kumar & Srivastava 2010).

40 Figure 10 displays the Human Development Cambodia Index (HDI) for the GMS countries from 1980 to 35 Lao PDR 2013. All countries have made significant progress 30 Thailand Viet Nam towards improving the basic dimensions of 25 human development, yet all still have relatively 20 low rankings and are classified as “medium” or 15 “low” in the HDI ranking (UNDP 2011). 10 Percentage of population Percentage

5 Increased wealth is leading to changes in

0 consumption patterns. The demand for energy 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 and meat products is increasing, driving increased Year development of natural energy resources and Figure 9: Percentage of total population living below livestock production, which requires more energy the national poverty line (GMS-EOC 2014a) to produce than plant-based foods.

0.8 Cambodia 0.7 Lao PDR 0.6 Myanmar Thailand 0.5 Viet Nam

0.4

0.3

0.2 Human Development Index Development Human 0.1

0 1980 1990 2000 2005 2008 2010 2012 Year 2011 2013

Figure 10: Human Development Index (UNDP 2014) 5. Status and Trends of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

This chapter aims to demonstrate the significance of the GMB region in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem services. It first considers biodiversity, and in particular the high levels of 25 species and habitat richness of the region, before discussing the importance of ecosystem services in the region, looking at provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services in turn. 5.1 BIODIVERSITY

Species richness The GMB contains at least 430 mammal species, 1,200 bird species, 800 species of and The GMB is home to Key Biodiversity Areas amphibians, and 20,000 species of vascular (KBAs), Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas plants (around 50% of which are thought to (IBAs) and Ramsar Sites (Figure 11). Almost 18% be endemic; Davis et al. 1986; WWF 2013b). of the region is designated as IBAs, and 16% as Between 1997 and 2007 at least 1,068 species (~ KBAs, whereas Ramsar sites cover only 0.03% of two per week) were officially described by science the region (Table 2). 26 as newly discovered. These include 519 plants, 279 fish, 88 , 88 spiders, 46 lizards, 22 snakes, 15 mammals, four birds, four , two salamanders and a toad (Thompson & Thompson 2008).

The GMB is home to some of the biggest freshwater fish species in the world, and is extremely diverse in terms of aquatic biodiversity. The region has unparalleled “hotspots” of aquatic biodiversity. Tonle Sap Lake, for instance, has almost 300 fish species which makes it the third richest lake in the world in terms of fish diversity (Baran et al. 2007). In addition, rice fields in Viet Nam and China have been documented as species-rich systems, with 74 aquatic vertebrate and 95 aquatic invertebrate species (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2003).

The LMB supports at least 850 freshwater fish species, rising to around 1,100 species if coastal or marine migrants are included (Hortle 2009). However, there is high uncertainty around these numbers; they are likely to be underestimated Figure 11: Important biodiversity areas in the Greater due to numerous taxonomic uncertainties Mekong region, including Key Biodiversity Areas, (Tordoff et al. 2012), incomplete survey data, and Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas and Ramsar many species known only from single localities Sites (BirdLife International 2013; IUCN & UNEP 2014; (Baltzer et al. 2001; Kottelat & Whitten 1996). ArcGIS 2014; MacArthur Foundation 2012) Fish species in the UMB (Lancang River) are Table 2: Overlap between important biodiversity areas less well documented, but a study by Kang et al. and the Greater Mekong Basin (2009) documented 173 species and subspecies (including 87 endemic species) in the UMB. Total area within % Area GMB (ha) within GMB The high rate at which new fish species were KBAs 14,192,700 15.5 described during the 1990s and 2000s still show IBAs 12,535,700 17.6 no sign of slowing down. For example, Kottelat’s 2011 short, nine-day survey of parts of the Lao Xe Ramsars 28,800 0.03 Kong (Sekong) found five species new to science (Kottelat 2011). The GMS5 (the five GMS countries excluding TEI 2007). Of the endemic species identified, it is China) are home to 2.1% of the worlds threatened estimated that up to 70% are endangered. Table species, including up to 70 endemic mammal 3 shows species richness and threat levels for a species, and 10% of known bird species (UNEP & number of taxonomic groups.

Table 3: Estimated species richness and number of threatened species for the constituent countries of the Greater Mekong Subregion (IUCN 2014; The Royal Government of Cambodia 2014; Republic of the Union of Myanmar 2014; Government of Thailand 2014; Lao People’s Democratic Republic 2010; Viet Nam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment 2014). *for these groups there are still many species that have not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List, (v) Vascular. 27 Cambodia Lao PDR Myanmar Thailand Viet Nam Taxa Species threatened Species Species threatened Species Species threatened Species Species threatened Species Species threatened Species

Mammals 135 37 282 45 252 46 336 57 310 54 Birds 599 27 700 24 1,056 45 1,010 48 840 44 Reptiles* 173 19 150 17 293 29 394 27 296 43 Amphibians 72 3 89 6 139 0 157 4 162 19 Fish* 955 42 1,200 55 775 41 2,825 97 2,500 75 Plants* 4,500 (v) 32 412 32 11,824 47 9,551 133 177 TOTAL 237 200 285 577 13,766 538 (including other taxa)

In the past 100 years the GMB has dramatically Forests changed. For example, the dry forest savannahs The forests of Southeast Asia contain much of of the region were once considered the ‘Serengeti the biodiversity of the region. The mainland of Southeast Asia’ (Thompson & Thompson forests alone contain four of the world’s 25 2008), home to large numbers of elephants, wild biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al. 2000). The cattle and other large mammals. However, much GMS5 is estimated to be covered by 98 Mha of of the biodiversity of the GMB is under threat forest (WWF 2013b), constituting just over half of as a result of human activity. In Lao PDR alone, the total land area. Of this, 13% is primary forest, 13 species are known to have gone extinct in the 10% is tree plantations, and the remaining 75% past 100 years. By 2100, 13-43% of species are is mostly degraded or regenerating natural forest expected to be lost from Southeast Asia. For at (Figure 12; FAO 2011; Corlett 1994; FAO 2010a). least half this would mean their global (WWF 2013b). The IUCN Red List (IUCN 2013) Secondary forests nevertheless still host categorises over 1,800 , and plants significant biodiversity and provide important across the constituent countries of the GMB as services. Most secondary forests in the region threatened, many of which are endemic to the are fallow forests in short-cultivation swidden GMS (Table 3). systems, these forests have high biodiversity and functional diversity. They provide watershed The extent and quality of habitats strongly protection and habitat, and contribute to soil influences trends for biodiversity. The status and conservation (Heinimann et al. 2007). trends in some of the major habitats of the region are discussed below. 35 In the LMB countries specifically, forest area covers 54 Mha, approximately 43% of available 30 land area (FAO 2006b). Between 1990 and 2005 a total of 1.55 Mha of forest were cleared in 25 the LMB countries. Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and

20 Thailand have targets for the percentage of total land that should be forested. In Viet Nam

15 and Thailand, this translates into ambitious

Area (million ha) (million Area policies for reforestation. In Viet Nam, forest 28 10 cover increased at around 2-2.5% per year between 1990 and 2005 – equating to a total gain 5 of more than 3.5 Mha (Figure 13). During the same period, Thailand lost just under 1.5 Mha. 0 Viet Nam Thailand Myanmar Lao PDR Cambodia Overall rates of forest loss were considerably higher in Lao PDR and Cambodia, where forest Primary forest Naturally regenerated forest Planted forest cover losses amounted to about 1 and 2.5 Mha Figure 12: Forest cover by area and naturalness in respectively (Mekong River Commission 2010b). five countries of the Greater Mekong Subregion (FAO These differences are largely due to differences in 2010a) environmental protection policies and measures to promote reforestation and plantations in Viet However, rapid agricultural expansion means Nam and Thailand. that by 2030 it is estimated that the GMS could lose 34% of its forest cover, with only 14% of the The establishment of large-scale monoculture remaining forest capable of sustaining viable plantations, often stocked with exotic species, populations of forest-dependent wildlife (WWF masks forest losses in national statistics such as 2013b). An analysis by WWF looking at historic in Viet Nam (Figure 13, but see also below and trends shows that from 1973 to 2009, forest loss Figure 15; WWF 2013b). in Myanmar accounted for about 31% of total forest loss for the GMS, followed by Thailand 3 (27%), Viet Nam (24%), Lao PDR (12%) and 2.5

Cambodia (7%). Over the same period, forests 2 became increasingly fragmented, and intact 1.5 core forests declined from over 70% of total area in 1973, to only 20% in 2009 (WWF 2013b). 1

WWF’s Living Forests Report identified part 0.5 of the GMS as one of 10 “deforestation fronts”. 0 These deforestation fronts are areas containing extensive natural forest of which several million -0.5 hectares are projected to be lost over the next -1 Average percentage change in forest cover per year per cover in forest change percentage Average 20 years. Natural forest loss is likely to remain -1.5 highest in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar -2 (where 4.8 Mha are projected to be lost between Cambodia Lao PDR Myanmar Thailand Viet Nam 2010 and 2020; FAO 2009), unless major shifts in 1990-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010 policy occur and are implemented. Figure 13: Average percentage change in forest cover and other wooded land per year for whole countries in the Greater Mekong Basin from 1990 to 2010 (FAO 2010a) It should be noted that Figure 12, Figure 13 and the trends presented above are for forest with a minimum of 10% canopy cover as defined by FAO, and for whole countries of the GMS5. In order to get an indication of the loss of primary forest in the GMB, Figure 15 and Table 4 present the average loss and gain of forest with at least 50% canopy cover, and only for the area within each country covered by the GMB. Loss here likely captures clear-cutting of dense natural 29 forest or plantations whereas gains likely reflect increases in plantation forests. These numbers are unlikely to include the open dry forest area in the LMB (e.g. in northeastern Cambodia).

Forest cover within the GMB is higher in Lao PDR and Cambodia than in Viet Nam and Thailand (Figure 14), but the whole GMB has reportedly already lost around 70% of its original tree cover (Cronin 2011). The part of Cambodia that is included in the GMB shows high levels of deforestation (Figure 15 and Table 4), a result of increasing agricultural expansion. In Lao PDR areas of forest loss are smaller and more scattered (Figure 14). Forest gain in Thailand is likely due Figure 14: Forest Cover (50% canopy cover) in the to increases in productive plantations (WWF Greater Mekong Basin (Hansen et al. 2013) 2013b; Figure 15). 18 Forest loss Forest gain Table 4: Forest cover, loss and gain for 2001-2012 for 16 the country areas that fall within the Greater Mekong 14 Basin, 50% canopy cover (Hansen et al. 2013) 12 10

Forest Loss Gain 8 % change cover 2000 2001-2012 2001-2012 6 Country (ha) (ha) (ha) 4

Cambodia 6,015,200 1,012,000 84,900 2

China 4,515,500 183,500 89,300 0 Cambodia China Lao PDR Myanmar Thailand Viet Nam Lao PDR 16,213,000 986,100 285,300 Myanmar 1,622,200 73,800 14,900 Figure 15: Average percentage forest (>50% canopy Thailand 2,484,300 115,000 170,800 cover) loss and gain from 2001-2012 for the country areas that fall within the Greater Mekong Basin Viet Nam 1,863,500 250,500 51,200 (Hansen et al. 2013) The mangrove area in Viet Nam’s Mekong River 11 of the 13 freshwater ecosystem types currently Delta has declined by approximately 80% over remain highly connected across 60% of the the last six decades, from 408,500 ha in 1943, to system. With the exception of wetlands, much 157,000 ha in 2005. Some of this loss is due to of the original ecological patterns and processes historic events such as the Viet Nam war, where within these freshwater systems have been large expanses were destroyed by defoliants in the maintained (Meng et al. 2011; Sindorf & Wickel 1960s and 1970s (Do & Bennett 2007; Table 5). 2011). Wetlands across the Mekong Delta have however experienced almost complete loss of Table 5: Change in Mangrove area (hectares) in Viet habitat through conversion to agricultural lands Nam from 1980 to 2005 (WWF, 2013c) 30 or aquaculture, with less than 2% now remaining 1980 1990 2000 2005 (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Viet Nam 269,150 213,500 157,500 157,000 Tonle Sap: Tonle Sap is the largest lake in Southeast Asia and serves as a natural reservoir, Freshwater systems releasing water throughout the dry season. This allows the river flow to be maintained in The Mekong, despite being a continuous body of Southern Cambodia and the Mekong Delta, water, has 13 highly connected ecosystem types, reducing the risk of drought. This storing of each with unique environmental conditions water is also critical to fish migration (Ringler et and associated natural communities (Sindorf al. 2004). & Wickel 2011; Sverdrup-Jensen 2002). This connectivity can result in degradation and In addition, whilst the Mekong River and its pollution in one ecosystem impacting others. tributaries are still regarded as fairly unpolluted, In addition, long-term damage and degradation waters near urban centres are showing increasing has the potential to exceed stability thresholds, levels of nutrient and organic matter pollution risking rapid collapse of the functionality of the from intensive agriculture and aquaculture, whole interconnected system (Meng et al. 2011). risking eutrophication (Asian Development Bank However, despite long-term intensive human use, 2012a). Important species A number of species in the Mekong are because they are under threat and the focus of particularly important either due to their conservation efforts or initiatives (Table 6). status in folklore, their charismatic nature, or

Table 6: Flagship species of the Mekong: distribution and threats (IUCN 2013)

Species name Distribution IUCN threat status and threats Irrawaddy Formerly found along the entire length of the Vulnerable Dolphins LMB and many of its tributaries including, Planned hydropower 31 (Orcaella Cambodia’s Tonle Sap. developments. brevirostris) Today only known population consists of less than 85 individuals in the stretch of the Mekong between Cambodia and Lao PDR. Indochinese Formerly found across the region. Endangered (Panthera tigris ssp. Today, as few as 350 endangered Indochinese Poaching for traditional Corbetti) tigers are thought to inhabit the forests of medicines, habitat fragmentation Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and and decrease in prey abundance. Viet Nam. Formerly found from modern Iraq and Syria to Endangered (Elephas maximus) the Yellow River in China. Encroachment by human Today, found from India to Viet Nam, with a expansion into its habitat and very small population in the extreme southwest subsequent human-elephant of China's Yunnan Province. Estimated global conflict. population of 41,410–52,345. Mekong Giant Formerly found along the LMB and further north Critically endangered along the Thai - Lao PDR border. and decreasing water ( Today, mostly restricted to the lower basin and quality. gigas) small populations along the Thai - Lao PDR border. Unknown population size, but catch frequency is decreasing, suggesting a small population. Saola A recently discovered species, distributed Critically endangered (Pseudoryx in scattered populations in the Annamites, Poaching and infrastructural nghetinhensis) along the northwest-southeast Viet Nam - development. Lao PDR border. In Viet Nam, the species is distributed from the Ca River in the north to Quang Nam province in the south. Estimated to be a maximum of 750 individuals, but likely significantly less. Cao Vit gibbon The rarest known ape species in the world after Critically endangered (Nomascus nasutus) its closest relative the gibbon. It is only and known from one patch of forest on the China - agricultural expansion. Viet Nam border. Less than 100 individuals known to exist. Grey-Shanked Populations in central Viet Nam, Quang Nam, Critically endangered Doucs Quang Ngai, Binh Dinh, Kon Tum, and Gia Lai Logging and agricultural (Pygathrix cinerea) provinces (Nadler et al. 2003; Ha Thang Long conversion, hunted for food, 2004). Population thought to be 500 – 700 traditional "medicine", and for individuals. sale in the pet trade. Overuse of a species can impact genetic diversity. regenerating areas showed elevated levels of Species with low genetic diversity have less ability inbreeding (Minn & Finkeldey 2014). This could to adapt to changes in biotic or abiotic factors. not however be linked to logging. In Viet Nam, For example, due to overfishing, the level of a national strategy is being promoted for the genetic variability of the conservation of genetic diversity in traditional has significantly decreased in the wild population poultry breeds (i.e. the Black H’mong, Lien (Ngamsiri et al. 2007). An analysis of the genetic Minh, Luong Phuong and Red Jungle Fowl; Pham diversity of teak - a tree species of high economic et al. 2013). 32 value at risk of overexploitation - found that Box 1: Genetic diversity of rice Rice is the staple crop of the GMB region, with average annual per capita demand around 100 kg (Mekong River Commission 2005b). To meet rapidly growing demands for rice export, there has recently been a push for farmers to swap traditional varieties for higher yielding commercial strains. In the lowlands of Thailand, farmers grow modern high-yield rice, whereas in the hills, the Karen people practice traditional agriculture and grow ancestral varieties. The rice grown by Karen people is genetically dynamic, resulting from genetic drift and artificial selection year on year by the farmers. As farmers’ fields vary in soil type, elevation, and temperature, rice is constantly adapting to local conditions. The varieties resulting from these farming methods are thought to have higher resistance and adaptability to local conditions than any one single variety. Source: Washington University in St. Louis (2010)

5.2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES The Mekong River plays an integral role in The upland ecosystems in the UMB and LMB the daily lives of the people of the GMB. It is provide numerous and important ecosystem considered one of the most important rivers goods and services that support both upland and in the world in terms of the number (over 60 lowland livelihoods and economies, including million) and the extent of human dependency on forest products, but also water flows to lowland its resources (Mekong River Commission 2010a). rice producing areas and urban areas. The health A Social Impact Monitoring and Vulnerability of these upland ecosystems is crucial to all Assessment, conducted by the MRC between downstream users and ultimately provide the 2008-2009 (Hall & Bouapao 2010), found that basis for economic development in the region. 63% of people had a water resources-related The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) occupation as their primary source of income classifies ecosystem services into four categories: and 38% as their secondary source, for example provisioning services, regulating services, farming, fishing, collection of aquatic animals/ supporting services and cultural services (MA plants, aquaculture, mini-hydro and fishing 2005). Table 7 summarises the major ecosystem equipment marketing or processing. services in the GMB. Table 8 provides a summary of current and future ecosystem service availability in the GMB as estimated based on the literature reviewed for this report. Table 7: Major ecosystem services in the Greater Mekong Basin

Provisioning Products that can be obtained from ecosystems (including freshwater, energy and Services capture fisheries) and their value Food e.g. The wetlands and floodplains of the GMB are important for rice cultivation, livestock wildlife, production, and edible wildlife and plants (Snidvongs et al. 2003).The floodplains of the vegetables, LMB are particularly rich fishery resources (Nikula 2008). Basin-wide, the average per fruit, honey, capita consumption of inland fish and other aquatic animals is estimated at 56 kg, but and spices may reach 71 kg per person per year in some areas. These estimates are significantly higher than the global average of 17 kg per capita (FAO 2006c). A large variety of aquatic animals are consumed, including: frogs, snakes, water birds, snails, , shrimp and water , collectively constituting a major source of protein and many 33 essential vitamins (Halwart 2006). Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are extremely important in supporting livelihoods. Foppes and Ketphanh (2004) found that the direct contribution of NTFPs to food security in Lao PDR was roughly 50%, compared to that of rice - the staple food - and that together these foods take up around 80% of family subsistence expenditures. Furthermore, the same study estimated that NTFPs contribute 40-50% of cash income of Lao PDR rural households. Medicinal Medicinal plants and animals are an important NTFP in the GMB, they are used in substances traditional medicine but their trade also generates cash income. The diversity of medicinal plants used is extremely high. For example, over 280 medical plant species were identified in downstream Mekong wetlands, 150 of which are frequently harvested (Pereira et al. 2005). Construction Trees, their branches, leaves and timber are utilised in a variety of ways, from materials, fuel construction of houses and animal enclosures, to firewood and charcoal production. wood, resin Wood is used more commonly than charcoal as a fuel source in rural areas due to the and fibres ease and low cost of collection. The collection of timber for fuel wood purposes such as cooking and heating is significant in the region with approximately four and a half times the reported industrial round wood consumption being collected annually (Mekong River Commission 2010b). In rural areas, wood is often collected from outside forests (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Timber harvested from plantations and wild sources is an extremely valuable resource, with demand increasing drastically. For example, the wooden furniture sector has grown 10-fold in Viet Nam since 2000 (EIA & Telapak 2008). Rattan and Bamboo are both commonly used NTFPs and are the most economically significant commercialized and cultivated NTFPs in Thailand and Viet Nam (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Bio-active Pereira et al. (2005) found that 16 plant species were used to provide toxic products, 28 substances species to provide colour products, and 21 species used to provide tannin, which are then utilised in a number of other processes. Fresh water Freshwater provision from the GMB and its ecosystems allows rice to be grown throughout the year and forms the main source of water for human usage (Subramanian 2012) and combat the effects of salt water intrusion, which has negative impacts on agriculture. Groundwater in the Mekong Delta plays an important role in supplying water for domestic use (4.5 million people in the region depend upon groundwater for drinking, urban water supply, irrigation, aquaculture, and industrial sites (Ghassemi & Brennan, 2000; Danh 2008). The services which are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem Supporting services, they differ from provisioning, regulating, and cultural services in that their Services impacts on people are either indirect or occur over a very long time Floods Flood waters carry silts which, when deposited on the surrounding farm land and pastures during flood events, restore fertility and provide nutrient-rich conditions for agriculture (Nikula 2008; Cronin 2011; Baran et al. 2007). Sediments and nutrients from upriver help support more than 50% of Viet Nam’s staple food crop production and marine fisheries/aquaculture, the latter of which is worth up to US$2.7 billion per year (ICEM 2010). The MRC's State of the Basin Report (Mekong River Commission 2010b) reports that 34 the economic benefits of the floods far outweighed the direct costs incurred through loss of agriculture, damage to infrastructure and buildings etc. While the costs were estimated to be in the range of US$60-70 million a year, the benefits received from the enhancement of fisheries, through supporting the migrations of important fish species, water supply, sediments, removal of stagnant water, groundwater replenishment etc. were estimated to be worth in the range of US$8-10 billion a year. Wetlands Wetlands provide habitat which supports many threatened species (Snidvongs et al. 2003) and therefore act as important stores of genetic material. Regulating Services The benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes Detoxification The regular flooding of agricultural land regulates the concentration of aluminium in the soil (increasing due to artificial fertiliser and pollution) and helps maintain high agricultural productivity (Pereira et al. 2005). Water Both flood plain and wetland ecosystems have the potential to aid purification of water purification sources (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Forests are particularly valuable near rivers as they help protect the river from sediments and pollutants and their roots help to anchor soils, reducing the impact of erosion (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Silt deposition Silt transportation, the upriver erosion of soil, and the seasonal formation of wetlands where these silts are deposited are important in rebuilding the Delta, which is subject to attrition by the sea (Cronin 2011). Without the constant flow of silt to rebuild the Delta, sea water would quickly overwhelm it and contaminate its fertile agricultural lands. Storm and coral reefs are important buffers from the frequent storms that hit the protection low lying land of the Mekong Delta. In Thailand, this protection was valued between US$27,264 and US$35,921 per hectare (Sathirathai & Barbier 2001). The non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic Cultural experiences Spirituality For the people of the GMB the Mekong is part of their culture, a subject of folklore and legend, home to spirits and demigods. A study conducted by Foppes and Ketphanh (2000) found that wetlands are important in terms of the religious connections that indigenous populations have with them. For example, they found that almost every Lao village has a holy forest or spirit forest. Tourism The GMB is well known for its exotic biodiversity and stunning landscapes. Being one of the few relatively untouched large rivers remaining globally, tourism is rapidly growing in the region. Transportation In addition to general transportation, the elaborate network of streams, rivers and channels allow shipping of agricultural goods to markets (Snidvongs et al. 2003). Box 2: Nutrient spiralling - an example of a regulating ecosystem function directly dependent on biodiversity Rivers transfer water from their upland source areas to the sea. Along the way the river picks up nutrients and organic matter from the surrounding land, through erosion of soils and run-off. Through complex food webs, these nutrients and energy are transferred amongst animals and plants within the river. When these organisms die, the nutrients are transferred again to organisms (e.g. decomposers) lower in the food chain, or are released into the water starting the cycle over again. There is normally a slow shift of nutrients downstream through constant absorption, use, decay and recycling through these linkages. This cycling of nutrients through the food web results in the flow of nutrients through the system being significantly slower than the flow of water downstream; the phenomenon is known as nutrient 35 spiralling. The crucial role of biodiversity can be seen if links in the food web are broken or removed, i.e. if biodiversity is reduced, the cycle is interrupted and nutrients are washed downstream much more rapidly. This causes losses in productive capacity as the potential energy and nutrients are not utilised.

Source: Mekong River Commission (2003a)

Table 8: An assessment of current and future ecosystem service availability

Ecosystem Service Availability Current Future Provisioning Services Food: wildlife, vegetables, fruit, honey, and spices. Provisioning of medicinal substances. Timber: For construction, fuel wood, including resin and fibers Provisioning of bio-active substances Fresh water Supporting Services Floods Wetlands Regulating Services Detoxification Data Deficient Water Purification Data Deficient Data Deficient Silt Deposition Storm Protection Cultural Services Spirtuality Data Deficient Data Deficient Tourism Transportation

Key: High availability Increasing availability Medium availability Steady availability Low availability Decreasing availability Changes in extent and quality of biomes such as The loss of species from forested areas in forests, mangroves and freshwater systems can have the region has already altered disturbance significant implications for the services that these and regeneration regimes, and subsequently ecosystems provide. Deforestation, agricultural altered the structure, function and services of expansion, mining and road construction increase ecosystems (WWF 2013b). In some cases, this the amount of silt and sediment present in rivers has resulted in the ecosystem becoming more and wetlands. Such impacts can negatively affect vulnerable to invasive species. Mimosa (Mimosa fisheries: excess silt has been shown to block the pigra L.), for example, has spread widely and gills of fish, suffocate freshly laid eggs, affect nursery replaced native vegetation. Mimosa forms large 36 grounds of juvenile fish, and reduce plant survival mono-species stands, which cause economic by reducing the amount of light penetrating the damage to livestock, fisheries and crops water (Baird 2007). In addition, deforestation also (Samouth 2004). The spread of Mimosa has been has the potential to significantly impact hydropower enhanced notably by increased rice-cropping. generation by changing river discharge rates. The quantity and quality of surface and Degradation of seasonally inundated forests along groundwater in the GMB is under threat from the banks, channels and islands of the Mekong dam building and other human activities such mainstream and its tributaries impacts the as urban, industrial, and rural pollutants and provisioning of forest fruits, flowers, leaves, bark increasingly high concentrations of natural and roots as food sources for various economically contaminants and salt water intrusions (IUCN important fish species that feed in the flooded 2011). areas in the rainy season (Baird 2007).

Box 3: That Luang Marsh – an urban wetland in Vientiane Urban wetlands can significantly enhance livelihoods. That Luang Marsh in Vientiane, Lao PDR, is the largest remaining wetland in the Vientiane region, covering over 2,000 ha. Gerrard (2004) undertook a study to examine the extent of this support and concluded that the marsh provided harvestable resources to over 3,000 households, in addition to a number of indirect ecosystem services such as urban flood control, wastewater purification and sanitation processes, which are critical for the functioning of the city and basic standards of urban living. The total direct benefit of wetland goods from That Luang Marsh was estimated to comprise 40% of the total economic value of the wetland, whilst indirect services represented 60% of the total value of the marsh. The combined value of these direct and indirect uses was estimated at US$5 million annually, with half the population living near the marsh dependent on wetland resources in some way for their livelihoods. Rice, for example, is cultivated on approximately 1,000 ha of the wetland, while vegetable gardens and fish farms are located along its edges. Fish was found to be the single most significant wetland resource contributing to local livelihoods, while other aquatic animals comprised a much smaller portion of household income. Gerrard estimated that the average household collected 175 kg of snails, 17 kg of frogs and 62 kg of aquatic invertebrates annually, in addition to harvesting animals and aquatic vegetation. These ecosystem services need to be considered in future planning. By 2020, Vientiane’s population is expected to reach 1,158,000 people, with waste water from 250,000 people expected to enter the marsh along with waste from an anticipated 700 factories. However, in December 2011, the government of Lao PDR agreed for a Chinese company, Wan Feng Shanghai real estate, to develop a 365 ha portion of That Luang marsh as a Special Economic Zone (SEZ), to stimulate socio-economic development. The company plans to create a large lagoon in the centre of the new urban area and develop infrastructure in line with the government's plan to ensure wastewater is properly drained. The development will include a residential area, a public park, lagoon, , roads, a sports centre, trade and service centers and facilities that are hoped to attract tourists.

Adapted from Gerrard (2004) and Lao National Committee for Special Economic Zone (2012) 6. Status and Trends in Commodity Developments

The rapidly changing economy and growing population of the GMB are likely to result in changes in the environment and livelihoods of the region. This section reviews the status, 37 trends and drivers of the major commodity sectors in the GMB, and the existing and predicted effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services. 6.1 AGRICULTURE

The agriculture sector 45 1990 40 Agriculture has played, and continues to play, a 2000 35 2011 major role in the economies and environment 30

of the GMB countries, making substantial 25

contributions in terms of gross domestic 20

product (GDP). In 2012, agriculture provided 15 38 the single greatest contribution to GDP in Viet of land area Percentage 10 Nam, Cambodia, Myanmar and Lao PDR (Asian 5 Development Bank 2013a). 0 Cambodia Lao PDR Myanmar Thailand Viet Nam

Steadily increasing and rapidly developing Figure 16: Change in the extent of agricultural land from populations in the GMB have driven the 1990, 2000, and 2011 (Asian Development Bank 2013a) modernisation and expansion of agriculture. Increases in yield have been achieved primarily The granting of land concessions in Lao PDR through expansion of agricultural land cover and Cambodia accelerated in 2007 and 2008, (Figure 16), but also through intensification of following strong increases in demand for land existing agricultural land. Much of the remaining and agricultural commodities and the allocation available land in the region is considered low of Economic Land Concessions (ELC). quality (Pech & Sunada 2008). Rice is the top commodity in terms of production Due to the large variation in environmental in all countries except Thailand (Table 9), conditions, agricultural practices vary considerably where growing markets for sugar in Asia have between the upper and lower basins. In LMB, encouraged Thailand to develop its sugarcane agricultural crops are grown in both the upland production for export. Thailand has now become and lowland areas. Intensive farming practices one of the world’s leading exporters of sugar in the lowlands include wet season rice, floating (FAO 1997). rice, flood recession rice, dry season irrigated rice and multi-crop production systems (Baumüller 2008). In the UMB, typically shifting and semi- shifting cultivation is practiced with rainfed crops and little irrigation; in contrast to the lowlands, agricultural intensity is relatively low.

The agricultural sector is also the single largest employer, responsible for employing 47% of the Vietnamese population and 34% of the Cambodian population in 2012, and 67% of the Laotian population in 2010 (Asian Development Bank 2013a).

The agricultural sector of Lao PDR has undergone significant changes in production in recent years. In 1998, agricultural products played a small role in terms of exports, contributing only 2.4%, approximately US$8 million, of Lao PDR’s exports (Baran et al. 2007). As a result of rapid agricultural development and the introduction of industrial plantations and farms, they now contribute over US$54 million (FAO 2013). Table 9: The top ten agricultural commodities based on ten year averages of production (FAO 2013)

China Viet Nam Myanmar 1. Rice 1. Rice 1. Rice 2. Maize 2. Sugarcane 2. Sugarcane 3. Vegetables 3. Cassava 3. Vegetables 4. Wheat 4. Vegetables 4. Beans 5. Sugarcane 5. Maize 5. Fruit 6. Sweet potatoes 6. Fruit 6. Maize 7. Potatoes 7. Bananas 7. Onions 39 8. Watermelons 8. Sweet potatoes 8. Groundnuts 9. Tomatoes 9. Coconuts 9. Plantains 10. Cucumbers and gherkins 10. Cashew nuts 10. Pigeon peas Lao PDR Thailand Cambodia 1. Rice 1. Sugarcane 1. Rice 2. Maize 2. Rice 2. Cassava 3. Vegetables 3. Cassava 3. Maize 4. Sugar cane 4. Maize 4. Vegetables 5. Sweet potatoes 5. Natural rubber 5. Sugarcane 6. Cassava 6. Mangoes, mangosteens 6. Bananas 7. Watermelons 7. Pineapples 7. Soybeans 8. Bananas 8. Bananas 8. Sweet potatoes 9. Other melons 9. Coconuts 9. Coconuts 10. Coffee 10. Palm oil 10. Beans

Rice Historically, the GMS countries have operated on In Lao PDR, the harvested area for rice increased a ‘rice first’ basis, geared at addressing poverty by 2% between 2000 and 2012 (Figure 17) but and food security issues. The resulting rice- crop yields increased faster, for example by 13% focused policies have promoted yield increases in 2005 (Table 10). Rice production in Lao PDR through irrigation, new agricultural techniques can be classified into three broad ecosystems: and improved varieties. More than 10 Mha irrigated lowland, rainfed lowland and upland of available land in the LMB is used for rice (Linquist et al. 2006). Lowland rice is grown in cultivation (Mekong River Commission 2005b). fields where the soil is inundated with water for at least half the year. Upland rice is grown In Cambodia, rice production has slowly as a rainfed dryland crop, usually only planted increased in both area and yield since the early during the wet season, and often associated with 1990s due to ongoing post-war rehabilitation shifting cultivation to deal with the steep slopes and reconstruction (Table 10 and Figure 17). The (Linquist et al. 2006). The most important rice total agricultural area increased from 2.10 to 2.41 production system in the country is wet season Mha between 2000 and 2005. Average yields in lowland rice, which has expanded continuously the same time period increased by 10% (Table since 1996 (Mekong River Commission 2010b). 10), through improved agricultural practices, Dry season irrigated rice, on the other hand, irrigation and an increase in the use of artificial rapidly increased between 1995 and 2001 but has fertilisers (Mekong River Commission 2010b). declined considerably since then (Mekong River Commission 2010b). In northeast Thailand, more than 80% of the cultivated area is used for rice production, or a mix of rice and upland crops (Mekong River Commission 2005b). The three main rice cropping systems are: lower paddy land, which are planted annually with rice in the wet season and face risks of flooding and temporary water logging; middle paddy land, which are the most productive with better water control and reduced 40 flood risk; and upper paddy land, which are planted with drought-resistant, short-duration rice varieties. The harvested area under rice production in northeast Thailand fell slightly between 2000 and 2005 (Table 10). Harvested area for rice in the whole country is, however, still increasing (Figure 17).

15

12

9

6 Finally, in Viet Nam the major rice growing area,

Area harvested (million ha) (million harvested Area 3 containing nearly half the farms in the country, 0 is located in the fertile Mekong Delta region. 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 With the highly fertile soils and relatively recent Year changes in agricultural practices, up to three rice

Cambodia Thailand cropping seasons can now occur annually. About Lao PDR Viet Nam 60% of the rice grown in the Viet Nam Delta is Figure 17: Harvested area of rice in Cambodia, irrigated (Mekong River Commission 2010b) and Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam (FAO 2014) yields are considerably higher than the other countries of the GMB. Although the agricultural area in the Delta has declined over the last two decades, productivity has increased. Spatially, yields are lower in the central highlands where irrigation is limited. Farm production in this region is increasingly diversifying, with annual and perennial crop cultivation decreasing and greater levels of animal husbandry, aquaculture and mixed production (GSO 2007). Table 10: Rice production by season for Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand (Mekong River Commission 2010b)

Wet season Dry season Total 2000 2005 2000 2005 2000 2005 Cambodiaa Area Harvested (‘000 ha) 1846 2094 233 321 2079 2414 Production (‘000 tonnes) 3333 4734 708 1252 4041 5986 Yield (tonne/ha) 1.8 2.3 3.0 3.9 1.9 2.2 Lao PDRb Area Harvested (‘000 ha) 627 675 92 61 719 736 41 Production (‘000 tonne) 1812 2297 390 271 2202 2568 Yield (tonne/ha) 2.9 3.4 4.3 4.4 3.1 3.5 Northeast Thailandc d d d Area Harvested (‘000 ha) 4675 4305 138 112 4813 4417 Production (‘000 tonne) 9046 7914 451 358 9497 8272 Yield (tonne/ha) 1.9 1.8 3.3 3.2 2.0 1.9 Notes: aFAO-RIDES: Cambodia, Agriculutre, Forestry and Fisheries Statistics in Cambodia 2005-2006. bFAO-RIDES: dry season rice = irrigation rice; wet season includes both upland and lowland rice production; cOffice of Agricultural Economics;d data for 2001.

Other crops The production area of agricultural commodities from Thailand and Viet Nam drove an increase other than rice is increasing, including non- in Cambodia’s cassava exports by more than 80% traditional food crops such as maize (Figure 18), between 2010 and 2011 (see Figure 18). for which prices on both global and regional Industrial crops occupy 3.5% of the total markets increased considerably between 2000 cultivated area in Cambodia. Rubber is the and 2008. The area devoted to other crops, such traditional industrial plantation crop. Different as vegetables and fruit, is predicted to expand at studies report an increase in investments in the expense of rice but will likely remain a small rubber and oil palm (Li & Fox 2011; Colchester proportion of total agricultural commodities et al. 2011). Fox et al. (2012) estimate that the (Mekong River Commission 2010b). area of rubber in currently non-rubber growing Figure 18 shows the area harvested for a number areas in Southeast Asian countries, including of agricultural commodities for the countries Cambodia, could quadruple by 2050 (see also with the largest overlap with the GMB region. Figure 18), replacing mainly evergreen broadleaf The commodities in the graphs represent crops forests and existing vegetation currently under that are important in terms of area or because shifting cultivation. No trend data on oil palm they show notable trends over time. Areas of cash was available, but oil palm in Cambodia has and plantation crops are on the rise in all four reportedly expanded through the allocation to countries (Figure 18), both by smallholders as private companies of ELCs on state private land. well as large-scale agribusiness, as also reported Up to 2008, 231,500 ha of land had been given by Tordoff et al. (2012). out as ELCs, although around 25% of these were subsequently cancelled for lack of a management In Cambodia, the expansion of maize is linked to plan. Oil palm plantations covered 118,000 ha by deficits in local rice availability and the clearing 2009 (Colchester et al. 2011). of upland areas suitable for maize cultivation (FAO & UNDP 1994). Maize is grown mainly in Between 1980 and 1990 non-rice crops in Lao the GMB area of Cambodia, along the border PDR increased in area from 80,000 to 150,000 with Thailand. Increased demand for cassava ha (Savada 1994). The area of traditional upland a) Viet Nam agriculture and swidden farming has decreased, 1.5 while permanent intensive agriculture has increased (Thongmanivong & Fujita 2006). For 1.2 example, land area dedicated to vegetables in Lao

0.9 PDR has increased from 7,168 ha in 1990 (FAO 2014) to 121,595 ha in 2012 (FAO 2014 and Figure 0.6 18), driven by demand from urban centres and exports to Thailand (Mekong River Commission

Area harvested (million ha) (million harvested Area 0.3 2010b). Maize, coffee, groundnuts and sugarcane 42 0.0 also show upward trends (Figure 18). Foreign 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 investment in rubber plantations (no data on Year b) Lao PDR harvested areas) is actively encouraged by the 2.5 government (Douangsavanh 2009).

2.0 In Thailand, large-scale plantation and cash crops include rubber, oil palm, coconuts, 1.5 sugarcane, cassava, and maize (Fox et al. 1995; Entwisle et al. 2005). The area of oil palm, rubber 1.0 and sugar cane is increasing (Figure 18). There has been a change from a traditional subsistence

Area harvested (million ha) (million harvested Area 0.5 farming system to cash crops (Entwisle et al. 0.0 2005). 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year In Viet Nam, rubber, coffee, tea, groundnuts c) Thailand and sugarcane are important cash crops. Most 2.5 of these crops are expanding (Figure 18). The

2.0 government aims to boost foreign investment in Vietnamese agriculture ( Briefing 2014). 1.5 It should be noted that figures for sugarcane and oil

1.0 palm in particular may also include those grown for biofuels. Contrary to other regions, such as Latin

Area harvested (million ha) (million harvested Area 0.5 America, the area for soybean has not increased in the region, except in Cambodia where the area 0.0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 doubled but is still relatively limited (33,000 ha). Year Harvested area has halved in Thailand and Lao PDR Cambodia d) (FAO 2013). Soybeans and also maize are important 0.40 crops in animal feed, and livestock production is 0.35 increasing throughout the region which may drive 0.30 expansion and intensification of these crops. 0.25

0.20 Table 11 summarises likely trajectories for rice and 0.15 other commercially important crops in the LMB.

0.10 Rice-based agriculture is likely to remain the Area harvested (million ha) (million harvested Area 0.05 most important agricultural commodity in the

0.00 LMB, and production is predicted to meet and 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 then surpass domestic needs (Baumüller 2008). Year

Beans Coffee Soyabeans Cassava Coconuts Rubber Tea Oil Palm Figure 18: Harvested area of selected agricultural Groundnuts Sugarcane Vegetables Maize Maize Tobacco Sweet Potatoes Sorghum commodities (FAO 2014) Table 11: Predicted expansion of rice and other crops in the near future in the Lower Mekong Basin (Baumüller 2008)

Thailand Viet Nam Cambodia Lao PDR Current Large-scale Rice is the main Rice is the main Rice is the main Production production of sugar agricultural crop (for agricultural crop (for agricultural crop (for and rubber (mainly food and export). subsistence). subsistence). for export) and rice Rapidly expanding Sugar production, Sugar has rapidly (two thirds of rice production of sugar until recently, increased recently, production is for (for domestic use) for household but still small. local consumption). and rubber (for consumption. Rubber cultivation is 43 export). Rubber cultivation is a new but growing a new but growing trend. trend. Predicted Rice expansion Some rice expansion Rice expansion Most significant expansion of limited. and contraction through migration. expansion in sugar, rice for domestic rice, followed by Sugarcane Most significant and rubber consumption. sugarcane. expansion absorbed expansion in rubber. by agricultural land. Most significant Rubber expansion Sugarcane expansion in most rapid, but Most significant expansion more rubber, followed by comparatively small expansion in rubber limited (although sugarcane. area. (although still unclear). only small share of total area of rubber cultivation nationwide). Predicted Cassava and Mainly fruit trees and Tree crops (teak Mainly maize expansion of eucalyptus are tea, also cacao. and acacia, cassava expansion. other crops already widespread. (minor). Coffee area Also coffee, Jatropha is at an expected to Countrywide vegetables, oil experimental stage. decrease, shift to expansion of crops, eucalyptus, high quality varieties. Jatropha. acacia, and cassava.

Biofuels Biofuel development has potentially important Thailand is now one of the top eight global impacts on food production and on the biofuel producers. The Thai government policy environment. Their development is also linked to on biofuels aimed to replace 10% of petro-diesel national and global energy policies and markets. by bio-diesel by 2012 (Gonsalves 2006) and plans to expand oil palm plantations to cover 1.6m ha In recent years, biofuels have become an by 2023 (Siriwardhana et al. 2009). increasingly important energy source for the GMS with strong national backing (Asian Viet Nam has ambitiously set targets for biofuels Development Bank 2012a). A strong demand for to constitute 1% of its total fuel demand in the biofuels in international markets has encouraged transport sector in 2015 and 5% by 2025. In biofuel promotion programs across the region Cambodia and Lao PDR, the focus has instead with policy mechanisms, such as regulatory been on pilot biofuel projects using jatropha mechanisms, incentives and subsidies (Tharakan to raise awareness of process and technology. et al. 2012). Cambodia has no specific policies/targets regarding biofuels (Tharakan et al. 2012). Diversification into non-traditional crops is leading to expansion of agriculture into new areas, including for large-scale industrial agriculture. Permanent upland agriculture has also increased due to government resettlement programmes (UNEP & TEI 2007). Expansion of agriculture is coming at the expense of forest cover in the GMB. 44 Cambodia and Viet Nam have the highest rates of agricultural expansion (Figure 16) and forest loss (Figure 15). Most forest conversion is An increase in biofuel production often affects reportedly driven by the large-scale production the structure of agricultural production and of exportable commodities (Figure 18) rather trade, potentially at the expense of other crops. than by smallholder agriculture (Stibig et al. 2011; Increasing biofuel exports could therefore WWF 2013b). In Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar increase prices of food commodities, increasing and Viet Nam, the production of rubber, cashew competition for resources (Tharakan et al. 2012). nuts, coconut, sugar cane and, in the highlands, To overcome the potential conflicts between of cacao, coffee and tea has been a major cause biofuel and food security, some GMS countries of forest loss and fragmentation (Entwisle et al. promote biofuels that can be grown on marginal 2005; FAO 2011). Rubber has been a particularly lands and use less water. However, yields for such important cause of forest conversion in Lao PDR, crops, for example jatropha, on these lands have Cambodia, Thailand and the central highlands of been lower than predicted (Tharakan et al. 2012) Viet Nam (Stibig et al. 2011). and their promotion is likely to lead to expansion In the coastal zones of Viet Nam, the demand onto lands that are currently used for food for land for agriculture and shrimp ponds has production. resulted in the loss of mangrove forests (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Shifting cultivation in Impacts of developments in agriculture the uplands of northern Lao PDR and Thailand Historical rice-focused policies in the GMB has resulted in loss of mostly secondary forest. region have promoted yield increases through In Cambodia several industrial agricultural irrigation, new agricultural techniques and concessions are located within category I to improved varieties. More recently policies have IV protected areas and nationally protected promoted diversification and investment into areas. Nearly all of these are rubber plantations. large-scale agriculture. Both strategies have Development of land for industrial cropping, important environmental consequences. and rubber production in particular, has become Increased crop production in the wider region a threat to forests on sloping lands where has been achieved for a large part through the watershed and biodiversity values are often application of ‘green revolution’ approaches and highest (EIA & Telapak 2008; Katsigiris et al. technologies, such as more effective irrigation, 2004). Social impacts of large-scale agricultural better plant varieties, more fertilizer, and better expansion and deforestation include the farming practices (Delforge 2001; UNEP & marginalisation of farmers, loss of farmland and TEI 2007). Intensification is resulting in the pastureland, and loss of access to forests and modification of existing agricultural practices NTFPs. such as traditional swidden agriculture: fallow lengths have become shorter due to population pressure which have resulted in erosion and reduced soil fertility (UNEP & TEI 2007). Upstream deforestation for agriculture is also Water availability is seen as one of the most affecting downstream hydrology, resulting in critical constraints to current and future degradation of wetlands and floodplain habitats agricultural potential. With its strongly seasonal (Baran et al. 2007). Increases in the extent rainfall distribution, farmers in the Mekong of irrigated land have led to increased water Region that use mostly rainfed production demand and use. This demand has been met systems have multiple strategies to cope with through a rise in the number of dams and the this variability. These range from investment in amount of unregulated pumping from rivers, on-farm storage and pumps, to cropping patterns groundwater aquifers and other water bodies. that allow for rainfall shortfalls during the rainy Over-extraction of groundwater throughout season and to the adaptation of appropriate 45 the basin is affecting fish populations and crop varieties that can withstand temporary habitats as well as water and sediment flows crop water shortages. In northeast Thailand, (UNEP & TEI 2007). Irrigation for agricultural for example, farmers often employ different purposes is estimated to be responsible for 85 strategies on their generally more drought-prone to 95% of water withdrawals in the Mekong upper paddy fields than on the flood-prone lower region (Segnestam & Nilsson 2001), consuming fields (Rigg 1985). Even so, shortfalls in water approximately 41.8 billion m3 of freshwater in supply can have profound impacts on agricultural the LMB, over half of which is used by Viet Nam production, both for individual farmers and in the Mekong Delta. In the Chao Phraya River at a regional scale. Over the last 50 years such basin aquifers, the water level of the water- shortfalls have been common, with the most bearing sand layers has declined significantly recent major drought occurring between 2003 through over-pumping (Bhattacharya 2013). and 2005, when an atypical rainfall pattern, particularly the changes in rainfall distribution Fertiliser and pesticide use is widespread and towards the end of the monsoon season, had often excessive, due to poor knowledge on a critical impact on agricultural production effective use and disposal, and is contaminating throughout the LMB (Mekong River Commission water bodies (UNEP & TEI 2007). Pesticides are 2010b). Given the effect that changes in rainfall used in and around Tonle Sap Lake in very large can have on agricultural productivity, concerns quantities. 67% of farmers used pesticides in are being raised over the possible impacts of 2000, and a total of 1.3 Ml were used in the Tonle , which could result in changes Sap catchment (Koma et al. 2001; Environmental to the onset of the monsoon as well as greater Justice Foundation 2002). Agricultural runoff seasonal extremes. A recent study conducted by has resulted in contamination of coastal and the USAID Mekong Adaptation and Resilience to groundwater resources, and threats to aquatic Climate Change project (USAID Mekong ARCC) organisms (Mekong River Commission 2010a). showed that the period of agricultural drought In addition, salt water intrusion into ground may significantly increase across the LMB by water supplies due to over extraction has 2050. The Cambodian floodplain, Vietnamese resulted in poisoning of agricultural land and its highlands, southern Lao PDR and areas of the subsequent abandonment (UNEP & TEI 2007). Mekong Delta will most likely experience a Poorly designed or implemented irrigation 10-100% increase in drought months, equating itself can also cause negative impacts through to about one month of drought a year, while water logging and salinisation where drainage is northern areas such as Chian Rai and northern insufficient or irrigation is excessive (UNEP & TEI Lao PDR may experience a decrease in drought 2007). months of up to 25% (International Centre for Environmental Management 2013). 46

6.2 FISHERIES

Inland fisheries Fisheries in the UMB (Lancang River) are less well documented than those in the LMB. A study The fisheries of the GMS are among the most by Kang et al. (2009) reports an estimated catch productive in the world, with a total economic at about 10,000 t in 2004. value estimated at US$9 billion annually (Cronin 2011). The value of inland fisheries in the GMB The scale of fishing operations in the Mekong was estimated at over US$2 billion per year, 80% ranges from individual fishers to large-scale lot of which is from natural water bodies, the rest owners. The bulk of fish catches taken by small- mostly from reservoirs and aquaculture (Baran et scale farmers and fishers are consumed locally al. 2007). or traded fresh at village, district or provincial markets, making catch and production estimates At least 40 million rural people in the LMB rely difficult. Together with the lack of systematic on freshwater fisheries to meet basic subsistence assessments in most countries this results in needs, supplementing largely rice-based diets, discrepancies between scientific assessments and provide extra cash income (Sverdrup- and official country catch estimates (Table Jensen 2002). Across the basin, hundreds of fish 12). According to Coates (2002), all official species are caught in addition to a wide range of estimates of inland fisheries production are other aquatic animals, such as shrimps, crabs, underestimated by at least a factor of three. molluscs, insects, snakes, and turtles. Table 12: Estimate production of inland capture Data from consumption surveys in the LMB fisheries in the Greater Mekong Basin in 2000 (tonnes) indicate that about 2.6 Mt of freshwater fish and (Baran et al. 2007) other aquatic animals were consumed in 2002, an average of nearly 34 kg per capita. Fish made Annual catch Annual catch up 80% and other aquatic animals the remaining based on according to 20%. Viet Nam and Cambodia are the highest scientific official country Country assessments statistics consumers of freshwater fish, and freshwater Cambodia 289,000 – 431,000 245,600 production accounts for 47 to 80% of the animal protein consumed (Asian Development Bank Lao PDR 27,000 29,250 2012a). Thailand 303,000 209,404 Viet Nam 190,000 161,000 Total 809,000 – 951,000 645,254 Cambodia’s inland fisheries are the largest in most productive in the world because of their the region and the only to show a consistent high biodiversity, accessibility and high historical increase in production (Figure 19). Inland exploitation rates (Baran et al. 2007). fisheries contribute 90% of Cambodia’s fish In Viet Nam, the fisheries sector contributed catch. Tonle Sap provides the majority of this 3% to total GDP between 1994 and 1997, catch: an estimated 60% in 2000 (Baran et al. increasing to 7% from 2002 to 2007 due to rapid 2007). Tonle Sap is considered one of the most development (Baran et al. 2007). The Lao PDR productive freshwater fisheries in the world and it agricultural census indicated that more than is estimated that 80% of Cambodia’s population 50% of the population of Lao PDR engages in obtains its protein from its waters (Poole 2005). In 47 capture fisheries, and that the sector contributes 2004, inland fisheries were estimated to contribute around 20% of rural household income 16% to Cambodia’s GDP. The floodplains of (Lorenzen et al. 2003). Cambodia (including Tonle Sap) are among the

2500 Cambodia Lao PDR Thailand 2000 Viet Nam

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Figure 19: Production of inland freshwater capture fisheries by country from 2000-2012 (FishStat 2014)

Most of the production in the GMB is based on migratory river fish (Mekong River Commission 2010b). The fish species of the Mekong River can be classified broadly into two classes: white fish, which migrate seasonally up and down the river and its tributaries; and black fish, which live in lakes, ponds, and swamps. Both of these classes disperse seasonally across seven Mha of diverse habitats on the nutrient-rich floodplains to reproduce and grow (Asian Development Bank 2012a). Aquaculture Southeast Asia has a long history of aquaculture, increase in the past 10 years for the region as a but rapid expansion started in the 1970s. whole (Figure 20). Cultured fish such as tilapia The region currently produces a significant and pangasiidae dominate sales in city markets in proportion of the world’s aquaculture output in Lao PDR and Thailand (Asian Development Bank terms of volume and value. 2012a). Most of the inland aquaculture takes place in the northeast of Thailand on the Khorat Aquaculture in the GMS5 has expanded Plateau or in the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam. 48 considerably in recent years with a five-fold 600 Cambodia Lao PDR 400 Thailand Viet Nam

200 Thousands of Thousands tonnes

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Figure 20: Production of inland freshwater aquaculture by country from 2000-2012 (FishStat 2014)

Freshwater aquaculture in Viet Nam has Aquaculture is to an extent compensating for increased dramatically since the 1990’s, from reported recent declines in per unit effort catches 369,000 t in 2000 to 2,141,000 t in 2012 (Figure of fisheries, but it is likely that in years to come 20). In addition, brackishwater aquaculture capture fisheries yields will decline faster than production (in the Mekong Delta) has increased aquaculture can expand (Baran et al. 2007). from almost 90,000 t to 490,000 t between 2000 and 2012 (FishStat 2014). The Mekong Delta in Viet Nam has the largest area dedicated to aquaculture, dedicated to aquaculture; of 330,000 ha, 80,000 are under rice-fish cultur (Sverdrup- Jensen 2002). Thailand’s aquaculture production increased in the early 2000s but seems to have stabilised around 500,000 t (Figure 20). Cambodian aquaculture is still relatively modest, but has grown from only 1,000 t in 1984 to 73,000 t in 2012. Small-scale aquaculture production is likely under-reported among rural households, but fish ponds are an important asset in smallholder livelihoods in the GMB (Sverdrup- Jensen 2002). Impacts Scientists predict the maximum sustainable in the Mekong River (Bosma et al. 2009). Water annual freshwater catch in the LMB to be in withdrawal is estimated at around 2%, though the range of 0.7–2.9 Mt. The catch in 2008 was the majority of this is restored to the river. 1.9 Mt, suggesting potential to expand (Asian Aquaculture in the GMB relies heavily on Development Bank 2012a). introduced species such as carps and tilapias. The direct threats to biodiversity posed by the Accidental releases during floods are a risk to fisheries sector include: destructive fishing biodiversity in the GMB, including the risk methods, such as explosives, poisons, and of creating indigenous/exotic species hybrids 49 electro fishing; exploitation of fish at vulnerable (Segnestam & Nilsson 2001; Sverdrup-Jensen stages, such as at spawning times; and fishing in 2002). There is some concern over the culture of sensitive areas, such as spawning grounds. Of all predatory fish to feed catfish in Cambodia and the fish species in the Mekong, the migratory fish Viet Nam. Estimates suggest that up to 300,000 t stocks are most at risk of overharvesting. Large of such fish are used (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002). numbers of these fish migrate at the same time, The wild capture of juvenile fish and prawn making them vulnerable to intensive fishing, and for rearing in ponds potentially threatens wild especially to large-scale commercial operations, populations, but the majority of fish seed in the for example the bag net systems on the Tonle Sap region now comes from hatcheries. Wild capture River. Because licenses have a short duration, of juveniles has also been banned in both Viet many fishers tend to overexploit the resource Nam and Cambodia (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002). (Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission 2008). However, small-scale fish ponds spread Although capture fishing biomass is stable or throughout the region also contribute to even increasing in some regions, the composition environmental improvement. They store water of the catch is reportedly shifting to smaller, during the dry season which can be used for non-migratory species. This is one of the signs of livestock, crops or domestic water supply. They overharvesting as larger individuals and highly also support recycling of nutrients and organic migratory species are more vulnerable (Asia- matter for use on agricultural crops. (Sverdrup- Pacific Fishery Commission 2008). Jensen 2002). Rice-fish co-cultures, common in However, the impacts of aquaculture are many areas of the GMB, have also been found to better documented and likely more severe. enhance rice yields by alleviating the pressure The expansion of aquaculture in the GMB has of terrestrial and aquatic pests, and reducing come at high environmental costs, including vectors of both human and domestic animal the destruction of mangrove forest in the Delta diseases (Fernando & Halwart, 2000). Threats (see Table 5; FAO 2010b). Aquaculture practices to fisheries and aquaculture seem currently can threaten aquatic organisms as well as the more important than threats from fisheries, local and wider environment. For example, and the projected expansion of the aquaculture certain types of feed have been found to cause sector may be constrained by environmental acidification and eutrophication, and the problems, such as water shortages and pollution introduction of antibiotics into wild systems from agricultural run-off (Asian Development has not yet been fully explored (Mekong River Bank 2012a). Currently, many of the ecosystems Commission 2010b). Sludge from aquaculture supporting fisheries in the GMB are under threat ponds, if discharged into the river, can cause a from agricultural expansion (see 6.1) and altered substantial increases in the amount of suspended flow regimes from dams (see 6.4; Baran et al. solids. Nitrogen discharge from aquaculture 2007). ponds is thought to be responsible for around 2.4% of total nitrogen, and 3.7% of phosphorus 6.3 FORESTRY Timber and non-timber forest products Timber (NTFPs) are particularly important in Viet Nam, Between 1990 and 2005 the area of forest Cambodia and Lao PDR (Asian Development designated primarily for production in the LMB Bank 2012a). In Viet Nam, the export of timber countries increased by around one Mha (Mekong is estimated to have generated US$5.5 billion in River Commission 2010b). At the country level 2013, making it the second largest exporter of trends differ. timber in Asia (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural 50 Development 2013). In Cambodia, around half In Viet Nam, the total volume of domestic wood of the annual income for those living in/near harvest was 3.9 million m3, of which 3.7 million protected areas in the Annamites is generated m3 came from plantations and 0.2 million m3 from NTFPs (Asian Development Bank 2012a), from natural forests. However, public pressure whilst in Lao PDR, wood products contributed and government concern about natural forests 34% to total exports of US$337 million in 1998 led to a reduction of harvesting from natural compared to the 2.4% contribution of agriculture forest, down to one million m3 in 1990 (PROFOR in the same year (Baran et al. 2007). 2011). Logging was banned in most natural forests in 1997 (Brown et al. 2001). Demand for timber in the GMB is increasing. For example, the wooden furniture sector has grown In Lao PDR, the total volume of official timber 10-fold in Viet Nam since 2000 (EIA & Telapak harvest was 650,000 m3 in 2006/2007. Timber 2008). Employment in the furniture industry coming from land cleared for land conversion in Viet Nam increased by 28% per year and the projects (including dam reservoirs), is the main furniture industry has grown 10-fold since 2000 source of commercial timber and represents more (EIA & Telapak 2008). In Lao PDR wood products than 80% of timber harvests. Logging in these contributed 34% and wood manufactures sites is however difficult to control. Harvesting in 23% to total exports of US$337 million in 1998 production forest areas only represents around and remain important (compared to the 2.4% 8% of timber harvests (PROFOR 2011). contribution of Agriculture; Baran et al. 2007). In Cambodia, no industrial scale natural Status and trends of timber production, wood production forests are in operation anymore and fuels and NTFPs are discussed in turn. since 2002 all roundwood and timber exports were banned (PROFOR 2011).

Over the last decade, Thailand has almost doubled its production of paper products, creating a high demand for forest products that has encouraged plantation development. Industrial tree plantations have largely replaced the country’s former reliance on natural forests and rules and regulations on logging (effectively banning it) are largely operative (Forestry Administration 2009; PROFOR 2011).

In response to government policies, plantations are increasingly used to meet production needs. The increase in plantation area is greatest in Viet Nam: the area of productive plantations increased from 1.4 to 1.8 Mha between 2000 and 2005. An increase to just 223,000 ha was reported in Lao PDR, with their plantation target being 500,000 ha by 2020 (Poverty Environment Initiative of 2020 (Broadhead et al. 2001). This decrease is Lao PDR 2010). Statistics for Cambodia and predicted to occur as a result of increasing urban Thailand indicated no change in area between migration, slowing rates of rural population 2000 and 2005 although in Thailand, increasing growth, increasing income and an increasing areas of private plantations outside of designated availability of alternatives to fuelwood and forest areas are not included in official statistics charcoal. (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Non-timber forest products Policy enforcement is still an area of concern, it has been estimated that around 500,000 m3 NTFPs are increasingly recognized in the region 51 of logs are still transported from Lao PDR to as a valuable source of income. For instance, a Viet Nam every year (EIA & Telapak 2008), even report looking at Viet Nam’s forest resources, though Lao PDR has officially banned export of (Forest Science Institute et al. 2009), came to the raw logs (Agency 2011). Lack of law enforcement, conclusion that, given current trends, by 2020 corruption and increasing level of control on NTFPs are expected to represent 20% of total domestic logging in Viet Nam and China have forest production and export turnover is expected contributed to increased sourcing of timber to increase at an average of 15–20% per year. In from neighbouring countries and further afield addition, 1.5 million highland rural labourers will (Agency 2011). Logging of primary forests and be employed in collecting, processing and trading protected areas remains widespread and the NTFPs, accounting for half the total forestry forests of Cambodia and Lao PDR, where logging sector labour force and 15–20% of income in rural bans have not been imposed, are increasingly households will be from NTFPs. used to supply markets in Viet Nam (Katsigiris et The cash income generated from the trade in al. 2004; EIA & Telapak 2008). medicinal substances in the region is significant, and has been estimated to account for 70% of Wood fuel total export value generated from the sale of Wood fuel consumption in the GMB includes NTFPs, the total value of this being around US$ that by the industry and manufacturing sectors. six to seven million annually (IUCN 2008). Growing cities and urbanisation increase demand for building materials such as timber, bricks and Impacts tiles. Kilns to produce the latter two consume Although historically the forestry sector has had large amounts of charcoal (Blackett 2008). a significant impact on the forest cover of the For much of the 2000s this has been supplied GMB, levels appear to have peaked. Fuelwood by wood from senescent rubber plantations. consumption in the GMB is generally not However, currently the supply ending the considered a significant cause of deforestation shortfall is reportedly sourced from natural forest because it is largely collected from trees outside areas, including forests cleared for ELCs (Tordoff of forests. However, commercial collection of et al. 2012). However, there is little quantitative fuelwood and wood for charcoal has had major information on commercial and industrial impacts, especially in mangrove areas. consumption of wood energy. Industrial logging in the LMB countries has The collection of wood for domestic use such decreased as a result of resource depletion and as cooking and heating is also significant in the forest protection measures. However, demand for region with approximately four and a half times forest products, for example furniture, remains the reported industrial roundwood consumption high. being collected annually (Mekong River Commission 2010b). The amount of fuelwood collected is expected to fall in coming years, with estimates of a 9% decrease between 2010 and 52

Unsustainable overharvesting of high-value relevant to coastal ecosystems, where the removal species and breaking of cutting cycles to extract of mangroves can result in land loss, saline newly marketable species has left stocking intrusion and exposure of coastal populations densities low and ecosystem composition and assets to increased risk from coastal hazards greatly altered. High-value tropical tree species (Forbes & Broadhead 2007; FAO 2006a). such as rosewood are of particular concern. Conversion of forests on sloping land reduces the In the GMB, important tree species include: rooting strength of remaining tree cover for up to Thailand rosewood (Dalbergia cochinchinensis two decades even with subsequent regeneration Pierrre), classified as ‘Vulnerable’; and Burmese (Sidle et al. 2006). Although the removal of trees rosewood (Dalbergia bariensis Pierre), classified is unlikely to have an impact on deep landslides, as ‘Endangered’, according to the IUCN Red List they are likely to play a significant role in (IUCN 2013). Domestic controls on rosewood averting landslides under less extreme conditions logging in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and (Hamilton 2008). The creation of roads and trails Viet Nam exist; however, high overseas demand, for the forestry industry also increases surface with prices of US$1,500-2,000/m3 (CoP16 erosion and slope instability (Sidle et al. 2006). Prop. 60, CITES 2013), continues to encourage illegal cross border logging (Singh 2012). The Over the next decade, rates of rural population commercial viability of these species has been growth are expected to fall in the LMB countries, heavily reduced by excessive logging. yet the expansion of road networks is expected to bring renewed pressure on forests (UN Deforestation affects the ability of catchment Population Division 2006). Demands for areas to purify water. Forested areas along river agricultural products for export are likely to banks are particularly important in maintaining replace subsistence demands as urbanization the quality of water as they prevent the entry continues. Increased access is therefore of sediments and pollutants into the river. likely to be closely associated with future In addition, they play an important role in deforestation. Increasing market access, resource stabilizing river banks and reducing erosion extraction and agricultural conversion will also (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Erosion increase incentives for wood production and control and entrapment of sediments is also establishment of tree plantations. 6.4 ENERGY The high rate of economic growth in the GMS on fossil fuels (Figure 23) makes the region is driving and supported by a large increase in highly vulnerable to volatile international prices. energy demand (Figure 21). From 1993 to 2005, Energy imports to the region accounted for energy demand increased at an average annual more than 21% of final energy consumption rate of about 8%, one of the highest sustained in 2005. Thailand imported more than 60% growth rates in the world. of its domestic energy requirements in 2005- 2006 (Mekong River Commission 2010b), while While the growth rate of energy demand in the Cambodia and Lao PDR imported all of their region is high, the average per capita electricity 53 commercial fuels (Tharakan et al. 2012). Oil consumption remains only two-thirds of the dependency in the GMS is projected to increase average of all developing countries, and an dramatically in the coming decades, especially estimated 74 million people (around 20% of the with the growth of the transport sector (Asian population) do not yet have electricity in their Development Bank 2009). homes (Asian Development Bank 2009). The GMB as a whole is well endowed with natural Primary energy consumption in the GMS, resources to support energy production, but accounting for both traditional and commercial resources vary among countries. Lao PDR and energy sources, is dominated by biomass, coal and Viet Nam have the highest potential to develop crude oil. Together these represent around 76% of hydropower at all scales. Thailand has the largest energy consumption in the GMS (Figure 23). proven gas reserves to date, and Viet Nam the Domestic energy production does not meet largest proven coal deposits (Mekong River the growing demand, and the region as a whole Commission 2010b). Lao PDR is developing its is becoming increasingly reliant on fossil fuel first coal powered power plan, with financial imports. The fact that approximately 80% of backing from Thailand, who are also to be the total electricity generation in the GMS is based main buyers (PennEnergy Editorial Staff 2013).

18000 Cambodia 16000 Guangxi PRC Yunnan PRC Lao PDR 14000 Myanmar Thailand 12000 Viet Nam

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Figure 21: Gigawatt-hours of electrical power consumed in a given year for Greater Mekong Subregion countries (GMS-EOC 2014a) There are few active oil fields as yet in the GMB (Figure 22), but exploration is ongoing in Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Yunnan province and Tibet. Oil reserves have been found off the coast of Cambodia and exploration is ongoing in the Tonle Sap Basin. Depending on the commercial value of these deposits, their exploitation could have large implications for the Cambodian 54 economy as well as for the environment. Thailand has so far met its energy demands mainly through coal and hydropower for electricity, and diesel and gasoline for transport and industry, supported by pro-development government policies, including fossil fuel subsidies. However, the Thai government’s policy on bio-diesels also aimed to replace 10% of petro- diesel by bio-diesel and increase usage to 3,100 million litres by 2012, saving US$675 million in foreign exchange each year (Gonsalves 2006).

The GMB also has potential for renewable energy resources, such as from biomass, wind, solar energy and small-scale hydropower. Such resources are well-suited for supporting decentralised off-grid Figure 22: Existing oil wells in the Greater Mekong electricity generation, for example in rural areas, Basin region (IHS 2013) and to feed the electrical grid.

35 2001 2005 30

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Figure 23: Percentage contribution of energy source to consumption in the Greater Mekong Subregion (Asian Development Bank 2009) Hydropower The hydropower potential of the LMB is 35000 estimated at 30,000 Mega Watts (MW), 30000 distributed across the LMB countries (Figure

24; Mekong River Commission 2010b). Of this 25000 total capacity, about 3,235 MW has already been installed (Mekong River Commission 2010b), 20000 and a further 3,209 MW is currently under construction. A total of 134 projects (Figure 25) 15000

MegaWatts (MW) MegaWatts 55 are currently planned and if they are completed, the full hydropower potential of the LMB will 10000 be exploited. Thailand has already developed 5000 most of its potential tributary sites, Viet Nam is currently developing the potential of its 0 tributaries, Lao PDR has only developed a few Cambodia Lao PDR Thailand Viet Nam Total of many potential sites but has many planned Planned/proposed Under construction Existing (Table 14), while Cambodia has yet to construct Figure 24: Distribution of existing and potential its first major hydropower project within the hydropower development by country (Mekong River basin (Figure 24 and Figure 25). Commission 2010b). *Lao PDR and Thailand share In the UMB, dams exist both on the mainstream borders on two of the proposed mainstream dams. These of the Mekong as well as on its tributaries (Figure projects are included under Lao PDR in this graph. 25). China’s upper Lancang–Mekong cascade is a series of seven dams of which three are already in operation (Table 13). Dam function varies between dams, the upper-end Xiaowan and Nuozhadu dams are intended as large seasonal stores, whilst the Ganlanba reservoir at the lower end of the cascade will be operated as a regulation reservoir - absorbing daily variations in hydropower peaking discharges from the upstream dams and releasing a more regular flow immediately downstream into Lao PDR and Myanmar.

In the LMB, hydropower projects have so far all been located on tributaries. However, mainstream dams are now being considered. Potential sites are located on the Laotian, Laotian–Thai and Cambodian reaches of the Mekong mainstream (Figure 25). At least 11 sites are at various stages of feasibility studies under agreement with governments. Dams on these stretches of the river potentially have major impacts on the downstream environment. Mainstream dam building in the LMB is a controversial issue, and could affect political relations among countries (Baird 2011). Lao PDR in particular is keen to develop its hydropower potential (Table 14). Viet Nam, however, has shelved plans for two mainstream dams following environmental assessments that showed they would have significant environmental impacts 56 (Radio Free Asia 2013). The combination of high potential and strong political will has meant the Mekong has become one of the most active regions for hydropower development in the world. Much investment has already been undertaken. In addition, there is strong interest in promoting international power trade to generate national income.

Figure 25: Dams, Present and Projected, in the Greater Mekong Subregion (Mulligan et al. 2011; van Soesbergen 2012; DIVA GIS 2014; MacArthur Foundation 2012; NGA 2000; Natural Earth 2014

Table 13: Details on the Upper Lancang-Mekong cascade of dams (Mekong River Commission 2010b)

Expected installed Project Status Store (Million capacity (MW) Commissioning Manwan Operational 920/257 1500 1993-1996 Dachaoshan Operational 933/367 1350 2001-2004 Jinghong Operational 1233/249 1750 2008 Xiawan Filling and 14560/9900 4200 2009-2011 commissioning stage Gonguoquao Under construction 510/120 750 2012 Nuozhadu Under design 22400/12300 5500 2014 Ganlanba Under design -/0.2 150 Before 2025

Table 14: Proposed mainstream hydropower power The reservoirs of the Lancang cascade could projects in the Lower Mekong Basin (Mekong River theoretically store more than half the annual Commission, 2010b) discharge of the Mekong flowing out of China. Further upstream, dam development on the Installed Project Country capacity (MW) Mekong and its tributaries is likely to have a significant effect on the Tonle Sap Basin. Pak Lao PDR 1230 The storing of water affects local hydrology Luang Lao PDR 1410 by delaying the onset of the annual flood, Xayaburi Lao PDR 1260 shortening its duration, and decreasing its height Pak Lay Lao PDR 1320 and surface area (Baran et al. 2007). The Yali Dam 57 Sanakham Lao PDR 1200 in Viet Nam has caused irregular hydrological Pak Lao PDR – Thailand 1079 patterns, which have resulted in: the loss of Ban Lao PDR – Thailand 1872 people, animals and gear to flooding; water Lat Lao PDR 800 quality problems; change in riverine vegetation; Don Lao PDR 360 and significant impacts on wildlife, fisheries Stung Cambodia 980 and birds (Bonheur 2002). These erratic flows Sambor Cambodia 3300 resulted in an estimated US$2.5 million loss in TOTAL 14811 income in 1999 (Baran et al. 2007). Dam construction influences sediment and Impacts of hydropower development nutrient flows (Mekong River Commission 1997) that are critical to the productivity of Besides power generation, dams can also have downstream areas. The total sediment load in benefits in terms of navigation, flood control, the Mekong River has been estimated at around water supply, irrigation, jobs and control over 125 Mt per year, of which 50% comes from the the seasonality of flow. Upstream silt trapping Lancang catchment. Since the completion can reduce sediment deposition in irrigation of some of the dams of the Lancang-Mekong systems, decreasing their maintenance costs cascade, this has reduced considerably (Asian (Segnestam & Nilsson 2001). Through damming Development Bank 2012a). The development and appropriate water management, it is possible of the additional eight dams on the cascade to use dams to increase dry season flows, which will further trap sediment flows from the UMB is beneficial for example to counter the annual and affect the natural soil fertility of the Tonle saline intrusion that hinders rice culture in the Sap Basin. Reduced transport of sediment Delta (Baran et al. 2007). into floodplains also results in decreased These benefits are however counter-balanced nutrient availability for plant growth. As these by negative impacts on the delivery of other nutrients are the primary resource driving ecosystem services and on local livelihoods. productivity, yields are likely to drop. This may lead to increased fertilizer use with associated Impacts on supporting and regulating services environmental impacts (Baran et al. 2007). Dams on the Mekong River and its tributaries Changes to sediment flows can also result in alter the natural hydrology of the river degradation and loss of wetlands and floodplain ecosystems by storing water in the wet season habitat that are crucial to the life cycles of fish and releasing it in the dry season (Asian (Baran et al. 2007). Development Bank 2012a), thereby affecting the annual flood pulses characteristic of the Mekong River system. Release of this water during the dry-season increases average downstream dry- season flow, decreases wet-season flow, and increases in-season water level fluctuation. Reduced sediment supply downstream will likely than 70% of the basin’s catch (Dugan 2008), have implications for the stability of the Mekong with severe implications for food security, both Delta, which is continually rebuilt through the through reduced fish production and reduced deposition of sediments. Reducing sediment fishing livelihoods. Decreased fish catch caused flows could make it more vulnerable to climate by these dams is predicted to put 2.1 million change effects such as sea level rise, storms etc. people at risk (Barlow 2008; Mekong River (WWF 2013b). Commission 2010c).

Finally, the accumulation of sediment in The fish of the Mekong River have developed 58 upstream dam reservoirs can drastically affect behavioural traits over many millennia in dam capacity to regulate water and generate response to a flow regime that varies greatly from hydroelectricity. Observations from Manwan the wet to the dry season. These annual changes dam, China, have shown that three years after include not only large seasonal floodplains, but the dam was finished, the bottom of the reservoir also the important and unique reversing flow of was 30m higher than before construction due to the Tonle Sap River and the flood buffer system silt deposition (Kummu & Varis 2007). of Tonle Sap Lake itself. Fish reproduction is synchronised to this hydrological cycle (Asian Impacts on provisioning services: fisheries Development Bank 2012a). The effects of dams upon fisheries throughout Migratory fish in the Mekong normally migrate the Mekong will have major impacts for people upstream to breed, after which their eggs and larvae that rely on fish for food and income. A Strategic are carried downstream to the floodplains where Environmental Assessment (SEA) of the 12 the fry feed and grow. Dams affect critical habitats planned LMB mainstream dams showed huge such as spawning areas and divide populations benefits in terms of the income from hydropower into separate groups above and below each dam generation, but also identified massive costs in (Mekong River Commission 2010a). Smaller floods terms of risks to livelihoods: just based on loss of of shorter duration reduce habitat availability and habitat, the dams would lead to 12-27% reduction survival rates of eggs and juveniles (Barlow 2008). in primary productivity of aquatic systems. (ICEM 2010). This is projected to affect more Fish also migrate to feed at the beginning of the different environment than the spawning habitat rainy season, moving from the main course of the they seek. Only a few of the known fish species in river onto highly productive floodplains (Dugan the Mekong breed in reservoirs. In addition, fish et al. 2010). With the LMB containing about ladders often work only for the specific species they 20,000 dams and weirs, flow regimes have been were designed for and are therefore unlikely to be significantly altered and migratory routes of fish able to accommodate the high diversity of species have been blocked. In the dry season, changes found in the Mekong; at least 50 important species in the timing of the start of the floods can migrate at various moments throughout the year disrupt the spawning and migration cues that (Mekong River Commission 2010a). Finally, of the trigger the changes in fish behaviour needed for proposed 12 mainstream dams, eight are higher than 59 migration, reproduction and ultimately survival the maximum operational height for fish ladders (Baran 2006). In Tonle Sap, fish production is (ICEM 2010), and of the remaining six, only half much lower in dry years than wet years and the plan to incorporate fish ladders, none of which are permanent lowering of peak flood levels due to considered adequate (Kummu & Varis 2007). damming would therefore reduce fish catch in The effect of dams on fisheries is highly the area (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002). dependent on their location, design and In an attempt to mitigate negative impacts on operation. The floodplains of the middle and migratory fish populations, fish ladders or other lower parts of the basin are the most productive types of fish passages have been proposed. However, and hence dams built on the mainstream in these there is little evidence that fish-passage methods locations will have a much greater impact on fish can cope with the massive scale of fish migrations production than dams built on tributaries and (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002). Even if migrating fish in the upper part of the basin. Finally, upstream manage to cross the wall of a large dam, they find dams have also been found to impact coastal themselves in a large reservoir with a completely fisheries (Baran et al. 2007).

Box 4: Removing Barriers to Fish Movement The 12 million hectares Mun-Chi River Basin is one of the largest sub-catchments of the Mekong River. The Pak Mun Dam, five km from the confluence of the Mun and Mekong Rivers, has blocked the migration of white fish between the two rivers, and decimated important fisheries upstream from the dam. The small, poorly designed fish pass at the dam is inadequate to accommodate either large individual fish or large numbers of fish (many tens of thousands of fish may need to pass at the height of the migrations). Social protests since the dam’s completion in 1994 have occasionally forced authorities to keep its floodgates open to allow fish to pass through, and when that has happened, the fisheries have temporarily rebounded.

Adapted from Mekong River Commission (2010a)

Other impacts In addition to impacts on the hydrological Other impacts include a potential increase in system, dam construction is often accompanied the incidence of diseases whose epidemiology by the loss of vegetation cover. Planned is linked to wetland ecology and surface water hydropower development in the LMB is expected management. For example, the construction to inundate around two Mha of forest, in of the Danling and Huangshi Dams in China particular in upland areas (FAO 2011), such as in resulted in the emergence/re-emergence of the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (Asian schistosomiasis. The construction of such large Development Bank 2012a). The loss of flooded reservoirs also increases the amount of habitat forests which provide crucial habitat for fish is available for vectors (Ziegler et al. 2013). also a major concern. Hydropower development also often leads US$476 million a year, excluding coastal and to displacement of local communities, both Delta fisheries (ICEM 2010). The loss of riverbank physically and in terms of their livelihoods gardens and agricultural land necessary for dam (Segnestam & Nilsson 2001). Assessments have construction has been estimated at US$25.1 predicted that 10,000 people may be resettled as million a year, and the reduced nutrient loading a result of the planned mainstream dams in the will require approximately US$24 million a year LMB (Barlow 2008). The International Centre for to maintain floodplain agriculture productivity. Environmental Management (ICEM) reported Gains in reservoir fisheries and irrigation benefits that dams could exacerbate inequality as the rural from better water control are expected to be 60 and semi-urban poor suffer the negative effects worth in the region of US$14 million and 15.5 in terms of displacement and loss of vital natural million respectively. However, this would only resources, while the rich benefit from the power offer partial mitigation of the losses and will generated (ICEM 2010). require significant capital investment to reequip The net negative impacts on fisheries and the irrigation sector to use reservoir water (ICEM agriculture, if all 12 planned mainstream dams 2010). are constructed, is predicted to be worth about

6.5 MINING Up until the 1990s, the GMB had relatively many women, that undertake artisanal mining little in the way of mineral exploitation, due has increased dramatically (World Bank 2010). to a combination of ongoing conflict, lack of These operations, although small in scale, can foreign investment, and limited capital and have serious impacts as they generally have little capacity to establish large mining operations. in the way of environmental damage prevention, However, recent changes in legislation, the resulting in tailings and the spillage of chemicals direct encouragement of foreign investment by (World Bank 2010). governments (Mekong River Commission 2010b), The second broad type are the small to medium- and increasing mineral and metal commodity scale operators, these are often partnerships of prices have led to an increase in mining activity. national or regional companies who are targeting China has begun to strategically invest in the confirmed and relatively simple deposits of region, providing much needed capital and minerals (World Bank 2010). expertise necessary for mineral exploitation. The third category is industrial or large-scale Although large numbers of mining concessions international mine operators (World Bank 2010). have been granted over the past five years, there The past decade has seen the arrival of a number are relatively few formal, large-scale mining sites of large multinational mining enterprises to within the basin. Cambodia and Lao PDR hold the region, particularly in Lao PDR. These the highest number of active mining projects operations make substantial investments in (Mekong River Commission 2010a; Figure 26). infrastructure and are vitally important to the With limited in-country processing ability, the economy of the GMB countries as they are majority of the raw materials mined are shipped important contributors of taxes, employment and overseas. community development. Large and medium- Within the GMB, three broad types of mining scale mines in the GMB include gold, copper, exist. The first is small-scale, domestic operators. lead, zinc and coal (Mekong River Commission This artisanal mining has become widespread 2010b). and is thought to produce up to US$25 million of gold a year. With commodity prices sharply increasing, the number of people, including A B

61

Figure 26: A) Active, and B) Planned mining zones within the Greater Mekong Basin (SNL 2013)

Cambodia Lao PDR In Cambodia, mining activities accounted for In Lao PDR, mineral exploitation contributed just 0.3% of GDP in 2002 and have remained just 0.2% to GDP in 2000, but this has rapidly relatively stable since (Table 15). Mining in increased to 7.4% in 2010 (Table 15). Production Cambodia is mostly small-scale and partly value increased from US$8 million in 2002, to mechanised, with a small number of quarries, US$6-700 million in 2008 (World Bank 2010). and dredging for gravel and sand along the This has benefited the country through direct Mekong and its tributaries. Resources that income generation and employment, as well are currently exploited are mainly industrial as through royalties paid to the government minerals, such as sand, gravel and limestone for (Mélanie et al. 2005). domestic use and in the construction industry The main mineral resources exploited in Lao PDR (Asian Development Bank 2012a). As yet, there are barite, coal, copper, gemstones, gold, gypsum, is little large-scale mining (Mekong River iron ore, lead, silver, tin, and zinc. Exploratory Commission 2010b), although rich mineral mining operations have reported high likelihood deposits have recently been formally identified. of more reserves of iron ore, potash and rock Around 100 enterprises exist in the Cambodian salt. The government of Lao PDR is promoting mining sector employing approximately 11,000 further exploration for copper, coal, gemstones, workers and accounting for 0.17% of Cambodia’s gold, iron ore, lead, potash, tin and zinc (Asian workforce. Future development of mineral Development Bank 2012a). By June 2009, 75 exploitation in Cambodia is constrained by weak mining licences had been granted in Lao PDR, administration, uncertain mineral potential with a further 185 exploration and prospecting (quantity, quality and location), confusion about licences granted and a further 314 applications how to obtain licenses, land rights issues, and under consideration. The plan for sustainable poor road infrastructure (Mélanie et al. 2005). development of the mining sector lists 35 active mines (World Bank 2006). These consist of five national mines, eight foreign investment mines, Viet Nam seven Lao PDR–foreign joint ventures and the Viet Nam has significant potential for mineral remaining 15 run by local investors. The vast resource exploitation, yet the mining industry majority of these mining operations are managed is currently underdeveloped. In 2003, mining on a very small scale with only around 20 workers constituted just 1% of GDP and employment involved in each case. Despite the diversity of is decreasing; however, the income-generating operations, just two operators represented over potential of this sector is improving (Mélanie 90% of the total production value of the industry. et al. 2005). There is significant potential for The arrival of these two large companies, Lane extraction of lateritic bauxite, rare earths, coal, 62 Xang Minerals (MMG) Sepon and Phu Bia apatite, construction materials, kaolin, and silica Mining, coupled with a rise in the price of gold sand (Wu 2000). The biggest obstacles facing has led to renewed interest in artisanal mining the development of Viet Nam’s mining industry among the local population (Mekong River are: vague and ineffective mineral laws, slow Commission 2010b). government processes, poor infrastructure (despite Table 15: Mining sector percentage share of GDP recent improvements), privileges to state-owned (Mekong River Commission 2010b) enterprises for certain resources, and illegal/ unregulated mining (Mélanie et al. 2005). Mining Country 2000 2010 concessions are also only granted for two years at a Cambodia 0.24 0.62 time, a short period for the mining industry. Lao PDR 0.20 7.42 Thailand 2.37 3.42 Viet Nam’s cement industry is reportedly the Viet Nam 9.65 10.86 eighth largest in the world (Edwards 2012). In 2010, total production was approximately 53 Mt (Nguyen & Hens 2013). Formerly state-run, the Thailand cement sector is now transitioning to a mixture In Thailand, mineral production increased by of private and state-owned companies. The rapid 5.2% between 2009 and 2010, with cement, growth of this industry has led to concerns over crude steel, tin and natural gas production also environmental impacts, as cement production increasing significantly (Asian Development generates large quantities of dust, noise and air Bank 2012a). Thailand has also become involved pollutants as well as solid waste and wastewater in new opportunities for natural gas and (Nguyen & Hens 2013). oil exploitation in Myanmar (Bourne 2013). Within the Mekong Delta, peat deposits with Although there are predictions that mining potential for exploitation have been reported, will make a significant contribution to the Thai although there is currently no information economy, specific data is limited (Mekong River regarding their extent (Mekong River Commission 2010b). Commission 2010b). Large amounts of sand and gravel have also been dredged from channels along the Mekong River, but environmental protection regulations and livelihood development agreements now limit their exploitation to only local use.

A number of Vietnamese mining companies have invested in Lao PDR, for example Sakai Mining Joint Venture Company in Sangthong district. A joint Viet Nam-Lao PDR US$450 million salt extraction plant in Khammouan Province was also announced in 2013 (Viet Nam News 2013). Impacts of mining Chemical or metallic contamination A study of the extent of mercury usage in the The MRC’s 2010 State of the Basin report major areas of artisanal mining in Lao PDR highlighted three major direct environmental found significant mercury usage in two sites. impacts of mining including sedimentation, The first site is located on the Sekong River, chemical or metallic contamination, and acid Attapeu Province, where 25 mining operations generation/spills (Mekong River Commission are in operation and a number of new mining 2010b). An indirect impact from increased projects are planned. Although the majority of the mining activities in the region is improved access mercury is recovered and reused, small amounts to remote areas and increased hunting. of the mercury-acid mix are released into the 63 environment contaminating the local environment Sedimentation and water supplies and resulting in heavy metal Landscape conversion from mining activities bioaccumulation up the food chain (Mekong River can result in increased levels of erosion. Erosion Commission 2010b). The second area is in Nakadok results in increased sediment deposition, with Village, near Lak Sao, Bolikhamsay Province. In impacts particularly noticeable in smaller river Nakadok village, the burning of mercury amalgam tributaries. Dredging operations can increase the was found to release harmful mercury vapours into amount of silt suspended in water and disturb the atmosphere (Paulson et al. 2007; UNDP 2007). river bottoms (Sengupta 1993). Artisanal miners often have little knowledge of the health risks from mercury (Sotham 2004).

Box 5: Environmental contamination from gold mining in Cambodia Despite the fact that gold mining has effectively ceased in Cambodia, mining tailings discarded alongside the banks of the Prek Chas River continue to act as a serious source of pollution as leachate from the tailings, including unrecovered cyanide and heavy metals, migrate to the river. The river, which is the sole water source for the area, remains seriously polluted as a result of gold mining. According to local people, the water is completely unusable and fish and other aquatic fauna, which were abundant in the past, have disappeared. Cases of cattle death due to consumption of water from the river are also reported. Most wells used by local people as a source of drinking water had a pH of 5.3–5.6, and groundwater pH between 7.0 and 8.0 has been recorded around Sampeou Loon village. These impacts are likely a result of pollution by cyanide/other gold processing acids. People surveying the gold processing site also reported a strong smell of acid in the air that made breathing difficult. This air contamination represents a significant hazard for workers, as well as a source for airborne dispersion of pollutants further afield. Adapted from Sotham (2004)

Acid generation/spills While large-scale mining operations have limited acid generation from these sites. There the technical understanding and expertise to is indication that acid-generating waste has plan to specifically limit acid generation and contaminated riverine systems, but there is transportation, smaller-scale operations rarely no data on the extent of contamination or the have the expertise, knowledge or equipment direct environmental and health effects. Little necessary for such comprehensive water information is available on acid generation from management. In Lao PDR, both the Phu Bia and mining in Thailand (within the LMB), and Viet Sepon mining operations continually monitor Nam does not have mines in the region that are for spills and acid generation from waste rocks. likely to produce acid-generating waste material In Cambodia, mining is very artisanal and few (Mekong River Commission 2010b). mines delve deep enough to recover primary (unoxidised) material and as a result there is Box 6: Cyanide spill, Lao PDR In 2005, a cyanide spill was reported at the Phu Bia gold mine. The environmental impact was well recorded. The cyanide killed fish in the nearby rivers and poisoned villagers within at least three km of the mine site. Numerous sources in Lao PDR, including government officials, have reported that at least 60 to 100 of villagers fell ill as a result of poisoning after eating contaminated fish and drinking contaminated water. Despite confirmation by government owned media that hundreds of villagers were poisoned from the cyanide spill, the company has claimed that no one suffered illness as a result of the incident. 64 Source: River Information Centre (2009) 6.6 TRANSPORT AND INFRASTRUCTURE Rapid economic development in the GMS has road system. The regional railway network plays just also resulted in rapid development of supporting a small role in the transport of freight in the region. infrastructure. Road links across the basin are It only covers a small part of the region, the services increasing rapidly, in particular in Viet Nam (Figure offered are poor, based on out-of-date technology, 27). The region’s freight transport needs are currently old rail tracks, and a lack of equipment; capacity met mainly by the inland waterways system and the therefore does not meet demand (van Es 2010).

300 Cambodia Guangxi PRC Yunnan PRC 250 Lao PDR Myanmar Thailand 200 Viet Nam

150

100 Total road distance (thousands of km) (thousands distance road Total 50

0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year

Figure 27: Length of road network by year for the area of constituent countries that overlaps the Greater Mekong Basin (GMS-EOC 2014a)

The waterways system consists of 4,800 km of The demand for construction of national and navigable waterways and carries around 70% of transnational roads is increasing alongside goods, measured by weight. The road system increases in commodity demand. International comprises 28,000 km of road and carries around agencies such as the World Bank and the Asian 30% of goods. Generally, waterways carry the Development Bank are important funders region’s important but lower market-value bulk of infrastructure projects in the region are goods, such as rice, cement, building materials important (World Bank 2007b). and fertilizer, while roads are used to carry goods with higher market value, and/or time-sensitive goods, such as seafood and manufactured goods (World Bank 2007b). Many infrastructural developments, including Impacts road construction and upgrades, are being There are clear socioeconomic benefits from undertaken as part of the GMS programme (Asian transport development, including improved Development Bank 2013b). The GMS Strategic access to markets, healthcare and education, as Framework (2012-2022) proposes more than well as economic benefits relating to increased US$51.5 billion investment over the next decade in access to natural resources (Tordoff et al. 2012). infrastructural development (Asian Development However, many of the roads in the GMB have Bank 2014a) in three regional corridors to been built in environmentally sensitive areas, promote regional economic cooperation and including protected areas and conservation development (see also van Es 2010). 65 corridors. Extension of national transport As part of this programme, major road networks networks has opened forests up to illegal trade in are being created that link capital cities and wildlife, timber and other forest products (Asian major ports, such as the North-South Corridor Development Bank 2005). The presence of roads Project that now links all the countries with encourages trade and can create barriers to the two-lane highways, and the East-West Corridor dispersal and movement of species. Examples that links the port of Da Nang in Viet Nam with from Cambodia and Viet Nam below illustrate via southern Lao PDR. In Viet Nam, the impacts of national and transnational road a second major north-south highway is now development on biodiversity. linking with Ho Chi Minh City through In Cambodia, with assistance from a Chinese the Annamite Mountains (van Es 2010). loan, National Route 76, which runs through The Delta has a relatively poorly developed the Seima Protection Forest, was upgraded to an transport network. The 18 million inhabitants all-season sealed highway in 2008. The improved of the Mekong Delta currently rely on just two access to the immediate land has led to increased major routes into Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam. land prices, with subsequent increases in The provincial network in the Delta is also encroachment and land grabs. Improved access underdeveloped with only 35% of the provincial to markets has facilitated a shift away from small- road network and 10% of rural roads being paved. scale shifting agriculture and towards larger-scale The costs of road building are high in an area permanent agriculture (Pollard & Evans 2008). where embankments must be high and bridges Timber and wildlife which is harvested illegally frequent. Large areas of the Delta are not served from the forest can now be moved quicker and by roads at all. In response, the Mekong Delta easier to the nearby Vietnamese border or to Transport Infrastructure Development Project Phnom Penh. These have combined to greatly (MDTIDP), funded by the World Bank, aims to increase pressures on Seima Protection Forest revitalize the Delta’s inland waterway network (Tordoff et al. 2012). and improve roads by upgrading 415 km of rural In Viet Nam, the North-South highway roads, including 118 bridges, and 58 km of feeder through the Annamite Mountains has bisected canals (World Bank 2007b). several protected areas that host endemic and In addition, there are plans to improve the regional threatened species such as the Saola (Pseudoryx rail network. Supported by ADB, work began in nghetinhensis), southern white-cheeked gibbon 2010 on the renovation of the rail link from Phnom (Nomascus siki), and red-shanked langur Penh to the port of Sihanoukville. The ultimate goal (Pygathrix nemaeus; Tordoff et al. 2012). of this railway is the improvement of the line from Phnom Penh to the Thai border and eventually a link from Phnom Penh to Ho Chi Minh City. Filling this missing link will allow uninterrupted rail transport of goods and passengers throughout Asia, from Singapore to Vladivostok (Tordoff et al. 2012). 6.7 HUNTING AND WILDLIFE TRADE Hunting and trade of wildlife in the GMB are The demands of domestic and international having significant impacts on the long-term wildlife trade are key factors driving survival of many species in the region (Nooren overexploitation (Nijman 2010; Corlett 2007). & Claridge 2001; Nash 1997; Lau et al. 2010). In a Nooren and Claridge (2001) estimated the value study covering the Indoburma Hotspot, Tordoff of illegally smuggled wildlife along one road from et al. (2012) found that hunting and illegal Lao PDR into Viet Nam at US$11.8 million (IUCN wildlife trade were considered the top threat to et al. 2007). biodiversity in the region by representatives of 66 Wildlife trade has increased in recent years in civil society groups (Figure 28). the GMB and the species traded are increasingly Hunting for subsistence, together with the rare and endangered. A large number of collection of NTFPs, is common in rural areas mammal species are threatened. Pangolins and in the region. For example, in rural Lao PDR, turtles used for meat and in traditional Chinese wild foods contribute 61 to 79% of non-rice medicine are the most frequently encountered food consumption by weight (TRAFFIC 2008). vertebrates seized from illegal traders in The impacts of small-scale subsistence hunting Southeast Asia. Also affected are tigers, bears, and hunting for commercial bushmeat trade rhinoceros, snakes, geckos, monitor lizards are often difficult to distinguish. A recent study and primates (Tordoff et al. 2012). Most of in northern Myanmar found that hunting was these species are now Endangered or Critically the highest source of income among 24% of Endangered (TRAFFIC 2008). As a result, many respondents, after NTFP collection (31%) and forests exhibit ‘empty forest syndrome’ (TRAFFIC farming (45%; Rao et al. 2010). This was found to 2008). exert significant pressure on protected areas, with 70% of protected areas experiencing some level of hunting (Rao et al. 2002).

Hunting and trade of wildlife Agro-industrial plantations Hydropower dams Agricultural encroachment by smallholders Linear infrastructure (roads, railways, etc.) Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation (general) Logging Climate change Unsustainable exploitation of NTFPs Over-fishing Mining and quarrying Pollution

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Overall ranking score

Figure 28: Priority threats to biodiversity in the Indo-Burma Hotspot based on stakeholder consultation in each country (Mittermeier et al. 2004; Conservation International 2011b; Tordoff et al. 2012b) Many of the primates endemic to Indo- developments that opened access to previously Burma, such as Cao-vit crested gibbon remote areas, and the depletion of populations (Nomascus nasutus), Delacour’s leaf monkey in China combined with increased domestic (Trachypithecus delacouri) and Tonkin snub- demand (Tordoff et al. 2012). nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus avunculus) now Increasingly, even formerly secure populations only persist in a handful of relict populations in more affluent areas are heavily poached, for (Mittermeier et al. 2010). Indiscriminate snaring example the Chinese three-striped box has been identified as a major threat to Indo- (Cuora trifasciata) in (Lau 2003). Burma’s terrestrial flagship species, the saola Macaques are now also coming under increasing (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis), which has had little 67 pressure from hunting to supply demand from value in trade to date, perhaps partly because it the biomedical industry (Tordoff et al. 2012). was unknown in Chinese traditional medicine Many target species have been reduced to such (Hance 2011). low levels locally that traders acquire wildlife and In comparison with mammals, very few birds wildlife products from outside the region; most are considered economically viable targets. pangolins, for instance, that are traded in Viet Yet declines in some of the hotspot’s most Nam are sourced from Malaysia and Indonesia threatened bird species have been recorded due (Shepherd 2009). Recently, wildlife trade webs to hunting and egg collection, including white- have spread even further afield; Vietnamese shouldered ibis (Pseudibis davisoni), giant ibis traders have now been implicated in a surge in (Thaumatibis gigantean), white-winged duck rhinoceros hunting, sweeping South Africa and (Asarcornis scutulata), and white-eared night- Zimbabwe (Milliken et al. 2009). Trade in Lao heron (Gorsachius magnificus; Tordoffet al. PDR is also driving hunting in Africa (see Box 7). 2012). The collection of fish species for the international Prior to the 1990s, the greatest declines in aquarium trade has been identified as an biodiversity were observed in China, which important factor in the decline of fish stocks, was and still is the major market for wildlife including several globally threatened species: products in the GMB (Clarke 1999; Tordoff et red fin shark (), the al. 2012). However, during the 1990s, the focus (Betta splendens) and asian of pressure shifted to populations in Viet Nam, Arowana (Scleropages formosus), the latter of then Lao PDR, Myanmar and Cambodia, as which has been traded since at least the 1970s a result of economies becoming increasingly and has disappeared from many locations where open to international markets, infrastructural it formerly occurred (Tordoff et al. 2012).

Box 7: Illegal Animal Trade in Lao PDR Investigations into Lao PDR have found that syndicates are circumventing the African laws to hunt rhinos by hiring people to pose as hunters that are licensed to kill a limited number of rhinos as trophies. Animal laundering is also a significant problem in the region. Animal laundering involves smuggling animals from other countries into Lao PDR and then exporting them — with Laotian government paperwork — under the pretence that they were bred there in captivity and therefore, in many cases, could be sold legally. Law enforcement to stop these trades is often made difficult due to high levels of corruption; trafficking syndicates often have links to influential people. Source: Fuller (2013) 6.8 TOURISM

Status and trends Thailand attracts the greater share of international tourists and is an important The GMS is one of the world’s fastest growing transport hub for the region. Although Thailand’s tourist destinations. Over the past 30 years, share of total arrivals has declined from 61% international tourism has grown both in terms in 2004 to about 50% in 2011, the total revenue of the number of international tourists and the generated is still increasing (Asian Development revenue generated from tourism (Figure 29). Bank 2012a; Figure 29). In Thailand, most Between 2002 and 2011, the number of tourist 68 international tourism focuses on beach holidays arrivals in the GMS more than doubled from 18 and visits to major cities. Tourism in Cambodia to nearly 38 million (Asian Development Bank and Lao PDR focuses on cultural tourism, 2012a). According to the MRC, this increase has principally to the World Heritage sites at the been facilitated by a competitive cost structure, Temples of Angkor Wat, and the town of Luang diverse mix of attractions, rapidly improving sub Prabang (Asian Development Bank 2012a). regional connectivity, liberalization of immigration policies, and increasing affluence (Mekong River 35000 Commission 2010b). Tourism now contributes 30000 between 10 and 20% of GDP (Table 16), depending on the country, which is similar to the contribution 25000 of goods and services exports. According to the 20000 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), 15000 Millions (US$) Millions in 2010, the GMS5 generated US$22.1 billion in 10000 economic output from various tourism-related 5000 service occupations and productive sectors (Asian 0 Development Bank 2012a). 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 The United Nations World Tourism Organisation Year

(UNWTO) predict increased tourism growth over Cambodia Lao PDR Thailand the coming years, forecasting about 40 million Guangxi PRC Myanmar Viet Nam Yunnan PRC international arrivals annually by 2020, an almost 100% increase from 2008 figures. The highest Figure 29: Revenue generated from tourism in the growth is predicted for Lao PDR and Viet Nam constituent countries of the Greater Mekong Basin (UNWTO 2001). (GMS-EOC 2014a)

Table 16: Tourism contribution to GDP and employment in the constituent countries of the Lower Mekong Basin for 2005, estimated (E) for 2008, and forecasted (F) for 2019 (Mekong River Commission 2010b)

Contribution to GDP (%) Contribution to employment (% jobs) Country 2005 2008E 2019F 2005 2008E 2019F Cambodia 20.7 18.7 15.3 16.2 14.6 12.0 Lao PDR 11.1 11.4 9.3 8.8 9.1 7.4 Thailand 1.6 15.0 15.6 10.9 11.3 12.1 Viet Nam 12.0 13.8 13.0 9.6 11.0 10.4 Box 8: The Stung Treng/Kratie river corridor

The Stung Treng/Kratie river corridor is a 190 km stretch of the Mekong with two riverside towns, Stung Treng and Kratie. The former is on the banks of the River San near where it meets the Mekong, and is the nearest town to the Lao PDR border. The latter is a market town en route to Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri. Within the Stung Treng Province, lies a 37 km stretch of the Mekong, from north of Stung Treng to just south of the Lao PDR border; this stretch was designated a Ramsar site in 1999 as it contains valuable wetlands and a high diversity of distinctive vegetation, terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and amphibians. There is little tourism development in Stung Treng or Kratie, both of which have but a few guest houses. 69 However, treks to the local villages exist, including visits to a silk factory and to the Ramsar site to seek out dolphins in the deep water pools. In 2005, 14,468 tourists went through Stung Treng (9,386 domestic and 5,082 foreign), and in the same year 2,125 domestic and 431 foreign tourists went to the dolphin pools (Bauld & Soriya 2006). As tourist numbers are still low, biophysical impacts in the Strung Treng/Kratie corridor have been minimal. However, waste water from both towns, including the few guest houses and restaurants, is discharged directly into the river or drains that lead to the river and litter and waste has been noted in both. At Kampi Pool, Kratie, it was reported that the river is being polluted by waste and garbage from upstream floating restaurants, and the Anlung Cheutal Pool, near the Lao PDR border, is also said to receive waste from Lao PDR restaurants. Furthermore, dolphin viewing areas, most notably in Kampi Pool, are considered at risk from tourist boat fuel discharge.

Adapted from Mekong River Commission (2010d)

Box 9: Nam Nern Night Safari The Nam Nern Night Safari is a community-based ecotourism venture developed by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) in cooperation with the Government of Lao PDR and partner communities. River boats take tourists upstream in the afternoon and, after a riverside dinner, the boats float downstream at night without engines to spot wildlife. The night safari has been designed to support the conservation of tigers and their prey, as well as other wildlife, by placing a monetary value on tigers and other wildlife for local people. Each reported sighting of wildlife by a tourist results in a financial reward for the villagers. Poaching in Nam Et-Phou Louey has been a major challenge for conservation efforts. But the ecotourism project now generates funds to support rangers who go on long patrols collecting snares, looking for signs of poachers, and monitoring wildlife. The project also discourages poaching by providing alternative livelihoods for villagers, such as employment as guides, boatmen, cooks, and handicraft makers. The local communities also profit from this venture via running an overnight ecolodge in the area. Since the project launched in 2010, around 370 tourists have visited, generating revenue of US$200 per village across the 14 villages involved in the project. While the amount of money is modest, it is significant in an area where cash incomes are very low. Adapted from Mongabay (2013) Development of tourism in Cambodia Impacts has resulted in a growing demand for A review of tourist locations in the LMB found accommodation surrounding tourist no hard evidence that tourism has brought hotspots. Since 2010, a policy passed by the about large-scale deterioration to the resources Cambodian government allows foreigners to of the GMB (Mekong River Commission 2010d). own condominiums, which has helped attract However, they did find that in urban centres real estate investors to the country (Emerging dependent primarily on large-scale tourism, Frontiers 2013). As a result of the surge in real air pollution from traffic and construction, and estate investment, the value of Cambodia’s inadequate disposal of waste water, sewage, solid 70 construction industry increased by 72% between waste and garbage, have led to the pollution of 2011 and 2012, rising to US$2.1 billion in 2012. wells, rivers and streams, posing a threat to local There is also a small but significant market for aquatic biodiversity. Existing public facilities are nature-based tourism. Specialist ecotourism generally already under pressure from high urban operations currently contribute relatively little to population densities and are not suited to deal national income but can have positive impacts with the increasing environmental pollution. on rural communities and wildlife (Ministry of Impacts sometimes transcend national borders Tourism Cambodia 2013). making solutions more complicated. Tourism in The gambling industry is an important the region is also associated with bush meat and component of Cambodia’s tourism sector. It is wildlife consumption, along with other criminal mainly concentrated around Siem Reap province, activities such as drug trade and prostitution but also on the Lao PDR - Cambodia border. (Mekong River Commission 2010d). The introduction of casinos in border cities and towns across the country has created a thriving industry, generating employment and a steady stream of revenue for the government. Most tourists originate from Yunnan Province and Thailand, where casino gambling is illegal.

Viet Nam is also actively pursuing development of integrated casino-resort projects, including a US$5 billion venture in Da Nang and a 9,000- room, US$4.2 billion project on a pristine strip of the southern coast in Ba Ria–Vung Tau. Casinos are controversial in the region and associated with organised crime (Radio Free Asia 2011).

Domestic tourism is becoming increasingly important. An estimated 87 million domestic tourists spent US$12.3 billion in Thailand during 2009, and Yunnan Province in China counted 120 million domestic visitors the same year. Protected areas such as Khao Yai National Park in Thailand, Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Viet Nam and Angkor Wat in Cambodia are increasingly receiving domestic tourists. 7. Initiating and Responding to Change

This chapter reviews the institutional context and capacity for initiating or responding to commodity-driven change in the GMB. These include environmental law, policy and 71 controls, land management and planning (including protected areas), and transboundary cooperation. Building on previous assessments, this section addresses aspects of the policy and institutional contexts and processes that are important for the management of adverse impacts of commodity-driven developments. Finally, the chapter concludes with a brief consideration of data and information gaps. 7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY, LAW AND CONTROLS All countries of the GMB have legislation and Poor implementation and enforcement are seen regulations addressing environmental impacts of as the consequences of a lack of political will economic development activities. Unfortunately, and a lack of (financial) power of environmental these existing processes are often inadequate authorities in the face of large economic in the face of the changing context of economic interests implemented by, for example, the liberalisation and increased investments into Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries natural resource exploitation. The strong push in Cambodia, the Ministry of Agriculture and 72 for economic growth means that environmental Cooperatives in Thailand and the Ministry of concerns have often been pushed to the background. Planning and Investment in Viet Nam. Indeed, The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) key decision makers in the region often see EIAs Ecosystem Profile for the Indo-Burma hotspot as disincentives to potential investors. As a result, provides a more detailed overview of the policy local communities and civil society organisations context for biodiversity conservation in the hotspot do not trust EIAs conducted in the region (Li which includes the GMB (Tordoff et al. 2012). 2008). Here we focus on those elements that relate most In the mining sector, EIA procedures and directly to the potential impacts of commodity measures to mitigate the direct and indirect developments at national and regional level, such impacts of mining are limited, with international as the existence and functioning of Environmental companies tending to follow the environmental Impact Assessments (EIA), multilateral or regional policies of their country of origin. For example, environmental agreements and their enforcement. in Viet Nam the mining sector is characterised by vague and ineffective mineral laws, slow EIA legislation and processes government processes, poor infrastructure EIA laws and procedures have been established (despite recent improvements), privileges to in Thailand (1992), Viet Nam (1994), Cambodia state-owned enterprises (with the exploitation (1999), and Lao PDR (2000). No EIA legislation of some minerals being reserved for state-owned has been reported for Myanmar (Li 2008). enterprises only), and illegal/unregulated Originally most EIA processes in the region mining. There is a lack of planning for long- focussed on controlling pollution and industrial term/sustainable mining, as mining concessions development that had clear negative impacts are only granted over short time periods (2 years), on human and environmental health. They now as well as a lack of law enforcement and capacity include broader environmental, social, economic to monitor mining agreements (Mélanie et al. and cultural aspects as well as improved 2005). participation and enforcement. EIAs are required In relation to hydropower development, the MRC for agriculture, fisheries, forestry, infrastructure, conducted the strategic environmental impact mining, and other extractive activities as well as assessment of the long-term implications of for hydropower development (Li 2008). the mainstream dam proposals (ICEM 2010). The implementation of EIA procedures in the This project assessed all 12 of the proposed GMB is, however, considered below standard hydropower schemes currently planned against and unable to provide the independent analysis their cumulative risks and opportunities, and needed to inform decision-making. They are came to the conclusion that “while the benefits often undertaken as a mere formality when of hydropower are potentially considerable project design has already been completed for Mekong countries, the construction of one (Li 2008). International agencies that fund or more of the 12 hydropower schemes could development in the region, such as infrastructure have profound implications for the sustainable projects, often apply their own standards (e.g. development of the basin and irreversibly affect Wold Bank 2007c). the lives and livelihoods of millions of people in all four Lower Mekong Basin countries” (ICEM and Resilience to Climate Change Project, and 2010). The MRC, along with the governments of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Viet Nam and Cambodia and numerous other Forest Degradation (REDD+). The Association organisations, then jointly called for a 10 year of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Centre moratorium on mainstream dam building in for Biodiversity, in the Philippines, aims to the LMB in order to properly investigate their support national governments to meet their consequences. This did not stop the construction obligations under international agreements and of the nor the planning of others, commitments. illustrating how environmental interests are Under the Convention on Biological Diversity overshadowed by the drive for economic growth 73 (CBD), countries are required to prepare and and development. update a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) and to take action so Multilateral Environmental Agreements that it is integrated into the development and The GMS countries are signatories to most planning of activities in all sectors with potential global multilateral environmental agreements impacts on biodiversity. The International (Table 17). Tordoff et al. (2012) provide more Institute for Environment and Development detail on each agreement. In order to meet (IIED) and UNEP-WCMC lead a project that the commitments under these agreements, supports countries in doing so (project website: national governments have set up strategies http://www.iied.org/nbsaps-20-mainstreaming- and plans such as the Climate Change and biodiversity-development). Adaptation Initiatives, a Mekong Adaptation

Table 17: International MEAs signed by the countries of the Greater Mekong Basin

CBD CITES CMS ITPGRFA Ramsar WHC IPPC UNCCD UNFCCC Signed NBSAP Updated NBSAP Cambodia 1997 Range 2002 1999 1992 1952 1997 1995 1995 2002 Final state Viet Nam 1994 Range No 1989 1988 2005 1998 1994 1994 2007 Nearly final state Lao PDR 2004 Range 2006 2010 1987 1955 1996 1995 1996 2004 Nearly final state Thailand 1983 Range Signature 1998 1987 1978 2001 1994 2003 2008 No data state Myanmar 1997 Range 2002 2005 1994 2006 1997 1994 1994 2012 In progress state China 1981 Range No 1992 1986 2005 1997 1993 1993 2010 No data state

CITES: Convention on the International Trade in Threatened and Endangered Species CMS: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ITPGRFA: International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture WHC: World Heritage Convention IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change UNCCD: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity Enforcement Existing laws and regulations regarding Even though laws prohibiting hunting and environmental conservation or the impacts trading of wildlife and wildlife products exist, and of development activities on the environment all GMB countries are signatories to CITES (Table are not always effective. Due to a combination 16), their implementation remains problematic. of limited resources, manpower, capacity and The trade networks that currently exist are motivation among enforcement agencies, pervasive and financial incentives are often very enforcement of regulations in the region is often high, including for rural people where there are 74 inadequate. few alternative sources of income (Tordoff et al. 2012). Online retailing is an important tool Corruption and conflicting interests among for wildlife trade, but efforts to track and block sectors also play a role in the lack of enforcement online advertisements have led to an increase of environmental regulation. For example, the in social media platforms being used to market enforcement of protected area (PA) boundaries illegal wildlife products (TRAFFIC 2015). in the face of ELC allocations would require high- level political support to be successful (FAO 2011). Inconsistencies among the regulations However, there are encouraging signs of change in different countries also drive wildlife in forestry and wildlife trade. In Cambodia and exploitation. For example, the farming of bears Viet Nam, dam construction projects often for bile has been made illegal in Viet Nam but is include provisions for watershed protection, still legal in Lao PDR, resulting in an increase in but overall there is a lack of enforcement of the battery bear farming in Lao PDR in order to meet requirements to implement the results of EIAs. both countries’ demand (MacGregor 2010). In many cases there is also a reluctance to enforce In the forestry sector, commercial logging laws that would prevent hunting associated with and log exports are government-regulated in subsistence needs. all countries, but strong demand and weak enforcement means little control over trade. However, political will to combat illegal hunting However, forestry policies are working towards and trade is increasing. Together with seven other reducing illegal logging by strengthening Asian countries, all GMB countries have recently sustainable and legal forest management, (2015) committed to combat illegal hunting at including through the EU-FAO Forest Law a symposium in Nepal. China is taking steps, Enforcement Governance and Trade (FLEGT) including large-scale awareness campaigns Programme, with which Viet Nam and Lao PDR against illegal wildlife products and trade, but have signed Voluntary Partnership Agreements without stronger enforcement this will likely not (FAO 2011). The principles of the FLEGT process be sufficient to reverse the trends (e.g. Box 10; have been adopted by the ASEAN member states Ge Gabriel 2014). and are being incorporated into national-level plans (PROFOR 2011). PROFOR (2011) expect “the export-oriented industries of Vietnam and Thailand to lead the timber legality process in the Mekong countries, as they have to respond to new market requirements and incentives, and will ultimately demand legal timber from their suppliers in and Cambodia”. China has also developed guidelines for its companies involved in forestry and plantation activities in other countries, including in the region, but their implementation and impacts are as yet unclear. Box 10: Tiger farming in China “While the State Council of China banned the buying, sale and use of tiger bone more than twenty years ago, large industrial tiger farms have emerged in the country with the sole purpose of farming tigers for the trade in their parts and products. Under pressure from commercial interest in these “tiger farms,” wildlife authorities issued licenses for wineries and taxidermists, giving their tacit approval for the commercial trade in tiger bone tonic wine and tiger pelts used for home décor.” “Farming tigers for trade in their parts has revived a waning market interest in tiger products, thus further stimulating poaching. It costs as little as US$15 to kill a wild tiger compared to US$7,000 to farm an animal to maturity. This profit margin offers substantial incentives for poaching tigers in the wild. Since it is impossible to distinguish between farm-raised tigers and their wild counterparts from their 75 bones and other parts, farming tigers for trade creates enormous difficulties for law enforcement, and provides opportunities to “launder” products made from wild tigers.” Source: Ge Gabriel (2014).

7.2 LAND MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING

Decentralisation of land and resource In principle, decentralised land-use planning management and participatory management can benefit the environment by basing management on In the past 20 years or so, governments in the local ecological knowledge and increasing GMS, including China, have initiated processes accountability of management structures. of political and administrative decentralisation, However, public consultation and involvement including for the management of land and in policy development and implementation natural resources (Dupar & Badenoch 2002). is often lacking (Dupar & Badenoch 2002). In Lao PDR and Viet Nam, decentralisation has In most countries in the region, political and happened specifically in the natural resources economic power are held by a long-established sectors: water, forestry and agriculture. However, elite, fuelling corruption, but at the same time liberalisation of the economy has not always led this elite has led the push for rapid economic to decentralisation of decision-making, but has development through massive public and private rather been used to consolidate state control investment (Tordoff et al. 2012). over resources and in remote areas. Strong donor involvement is backing decentralisation Decentralisation of natural resources processes in Cambodia, but the central management can also have drawbacks when government’s policies on logging concessions, responsibilities are devolved to the point where whilst at the same time supporting decentralised sight of the ecosystem scale is lost and roles and participatory forest management, are and responsibilities for planning or monitoring leading to conflicts over resource rights (Dupar of activities and their impacts, for example & Badenoch 2002). The largest decentralisation at the watershed scale, becomes unclear. effort has taken place in Thailand, where the Support is needed to ensure that planning and Constitution gives local people and organizations management authorities exist at the appropriate responsibility for managing their own natural scale to monitor and address impacts of resources, but progress still has to be made in commodity development activities, and to ensure participatory forest management. coordination between authorities at different levels. Protected areas Cambodia was divided into seven conservation Governments of the GMB region appear to regions by IUCN which encompass clusters of recognise the importance of protected areas PAs, covering approximately 20% of the country (PAs) as a biodiversity conservation tool. The (ICEM 2003). Recent expansions of PA systems PA system in the four countries of the LMB have included fisheries and forest conservation Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam is areas as well as conservation landscapes. one of the largest in the world. In 2012, the LMB However, PAs have also undergone a series counted 115 PAs, covering 16% of its area (ICEM of downgrades with 10% of PAs (346,000 ha) 2014; Table 18). granted mining and economic land concessions 76 (Vrieze & Naren 2012). The majority of the region’s PAs are located in forested uplands and protect the most significant The PA system in Lao PDR is one of the most forests and watersheds of the region (ICEM 2014), recent and comprehensive in the world. It and the important ecosystem services flowing was established with significant international from these areas. support and follows an integrated management design based on ecological principles of habitat Table 18: Protected area coverage in the Lower connectivity. Similar to Cambodia, the PA Mekong Basin (ICEM 2014 based on WDPA 2012) network covered around 21% of the country Number Area (ha) in 2003; the number of district-level PAs, Cambodia 21 3,715,306 restricted use zones and watershed forest areas Lao PDR 27 3,922,359 has also been growing. Habitats are generally Thailand 46 1,803,063 well represented within this system, with the exception of wetlands and lowland forest and, Viet Nam 21 380,667 following historic forest losses, the focus of PAs Total 115 9,821,395 is generally on protection of forest cover and In Viet Nam, protected forests have been resources (ICEM 2003). established for headwater protection, wind 30 and sand shielding, tide-shielding and sea 1990 25 2000 encroachment prevention, and as environmental 2010 2014 protection forests (14% of which is planted). 20 In addition, 108 special use forests have been 15

established for biodiversity conservation, % cover including national parks and nature reserves 10

(5% of which are planted; Sawada et al. 2007). 5 Viet Nam has the lowest proportion PA coverage 0 (Figure 30). Many of the individual PAs are too Cambodia Lao PDR Thailand Viet Nam small and isolated to effectively conserve species Figure 30: Change in protected area coverage in the populations. However, some PAs play important Lower Mekong Basin (WDPA 2012; IUCN & UNEP roles in ensuring connectivity among PAs across 2014) the different countries of the LMB. It appears however that these PAs are not effective, as natural forest loss and degradation is among the highest in the region (ICEM 2003). Thailand’s PA system is one of the largest in the and sections of the upper reaches of the Yangtze, world in terms of proportion of area covered, Mekong and Salween, three of the great rivers of including around 81 terrestrial national parks, Asia that run roughly parallel. The PA system is 21 marine parks, 39 wildlife sanctuaries, 35 a hotspot of Chinese biodiversity and one of the forest parks and 17 other PAs of various types. richest temperate regions of the world in terms of After initial issues with the fragmentation species. It is classified as a World Heritage Site. of PAs, coverage has improved through the Whilst there is a strong case for the economic, establishment of 19 forest and PA complexes: 17 environmental and social benefits of effectively forested and two marine and coastal habitats. As managed PAs in the region (ICEM 2014), an with other LMB countries, many of Thailand’s 77 assessment by ICEM (2003) found that PAs in PAs are becoming rapidly degraded as a result the region are often not recognised for the wider of economic pressures and population growth ecosystem services they provide and are not (ICEM 2003 and 2014). All of Thailand’s 17 considered in development policy, programs forested protected areas include dams and and investment (ICEM 2003). This makes them reservoirs of various sizes (ICEM 2003). vulnerable in the face of economic development options that seem to bring greater direct economic benefits.

More than 75% of the GMB region’s KBAs and IBAs are under protection, whilst all Ramsar sites are inside PAs (Figure 31 and Table 19).

Table 19: Total area of key biodiversity measures found within protected areas in the region

Total area % Area Total area within within within protected protected GMB (ha) areas (ha) area IBAs 12,535,700 9,576,900 76 KBAs 14,192,700 10,739,600 76 Ramsar 28,800 28,800 100 sites

The number of trained staff needed to undertake and implement biodiversity conservation effectively is much greater than the number actually employed in the region (Asian Development Bank 2005). This lack of capacity Figure 31: Location of protection areas within translates to un- or mis-managed PAs, low the Greater Mekong Basin and their overlap with staff morale with an increased likelihood of important biodiversity areas (BirdLife International participating in illegal activities, inadequate 2013; IUCN & UNEP 2014; MacArthur Foundation 2012; budgets and an overemphasis on infrastructure NGA 2000) development. Those national parks and reserves that are effectively managed are inadequate for In Yunnan Province in China, the most notable the conservation of the species they were set up PA system is the Three Parallel Rivers National to protect; for example, the majority of PAs set Park, consisting of eight geographical clusters of up specifically to conserve Asian elephant are too protected areas in the mountainous north-west of small to accommodate viable populations (WWF the province. The site covers 1.7 million hectares 2013a). Land and resource-use planning Whilst PAs are an important strategy to conserve Government policies do recognise the biodiversity and ecosystem services, they are not significance of emerging environmental problems sufficient as most biodiversity occurs outside from economic development. For example, in their boundaries. Land-use planning is required response to erosion due to the expansion of to allocate land uses to meet increasing demands agriculture into steeper areas, it is prohibited for food and other products and services to plant crops on land exceeding a 25% incline that support economic development without in the Lancang river basin (Mekong River 78 compromising the natural resource base. Commission 2005a). High levels of subsidence, along with declines in the quality of groundwater, Tordoff et al. (2012) found that there is little use have resulted in the establishment of control of a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) measures; for example in 2010, the Vietnamese to evaluate the cumulative impacts of agriculture, government decided to stop exploitation of hydropower or mining development projects groundwater in key zones in the Delta by 2020 throughout the basin, and in particular to inform (IUCN 2011). However, programmes to resettle upstream planning and decision making. ethnic minorities nearer to services and to In Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and Lao PDR, eradicate shifting cultivation have led to the the development of Special Economic Zones expansion of permanent cultivation in sensitive (SEZ) are an important tool for land-use planning upland areas (Johnston et al. 2010). geared to economic development, although Policies promoting aquaculture are also seen implementation varies among countries. These at national levels, such as in Viet Nam and zones offer incentives such as reduced tax Thailand. These are being used as a means or subsidies in order to attract investors. An of reducing overexploitation of the Mekong, important element of the SEZs is the granting although they may also come at a high of ELCs for industrial agriculture or mining environmental cost if not well-managed. development. In Cambodia as a whole, between 1.15 - 2 million ha of economic land concessions While much forest has been lost in the region, have been granted (Vrieze & Naren 2012). the national forest sector plans in many countries However, these developments often come at a focus on reforestation and plantation projects. high social and ecological price, as residents of For example, Lao PDR plans to plant 500,000 the areas earmarked for development have little ha of plantations by 2020. However, this does or no say in the plans which may have significant not always mean that forests are no longer lost impacts on the ecosystem services on which to other land uses. In Viet Nam, government they depend. In the Eastern Plains Landscape of supported afforestation and reforestation Cambodia, ELCs include areas within PAs (ICEM programmes have slowed down but not stopped 2014). the loss of primary forests. In Thailand, forest protection measures that were implemented over two decades ago are finally having an effect, slowing deforestation rates, with secondary forest regenerating on abandoned agricultural land. Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes provides a framework to review existing and developed under Reducing Emissions from developing plans at different levels, geared Deforestation and Forest Degradation and the towards the agriculture and aquaculture value role of conservation, sustainable management of chains. forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks A number of programmes supporting in developing countries (REDD+) provide an sustainable investment into land and other opportunity for the countries in the region and national resources are active in the region. are being developed in Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Regional poverty reduction and environmental Nam, Cambodia and Myanmar. There is however conservation programmes, including still a lack of capacity for the implementation 79 assessments of biodiversity and PAs, already of REDD+ and other sustainable practices, existed in the 1990s (Clarke 1999). For example, especially at the local level. the Poverty Environment Initiative (PEI) in Lao Viet Nam has recently developed a Mekong PDR, works with the government to ensure that Delta Plan in partnership with the Netherlands. the flow of foreign direct investment generates The goal of the plan is to support sustainable more sustainable and inclusive development. agribusiness development in the Delta, which In addition, programmes for renewable energy is resilient to the effects of climate change and development are supported by the International changes in water resources due to upstream Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) in developments outside the country. The plan Viet Nam.

7.3 TRANSBOUNDARY COOPERATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION The Mekong and many of its tributaries The MRC was established to aid the development cross national boundaries. This makes the of projects which contribute to the well-being of governance and sustainable use of the river all, and to find alternative solutions to projects and the surrounding areas a transboundary that would benefit some and harm others issue by nature, as any modification of the (Mekong River Commission 1995). The 1995 mainstream or tributaries result in impacts agreement set out principles for cooperation, on downstream users. A selection of existing including procedures for negotiations and regional cooperation initiatives with a role in approvals regarding water allocation and initiating change or responding to impacts from use. Approved in 2003, the “Procedures for commodity developments at the regional level Notification, Prior Consultation and Agreement” are highlighted below. (PNPCA; Mekong River Commission 2003a) provide a more detailed framework for the The Mekong River Commission negotiation of water allocations and projects. To address the transboundary nature of One of the major roles of the MRC is that of these issues, the MRC was established by the information provider and synthesiser, producing governments of Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand reports that portray the current status and and Viet Nam in 1995. The MRC is the only possible future trends of the basin as a whole, legally constituted regional organization which in turn can be used to help decision mandated to deal with management of the makers make informed decisions regarding Mekong. China and Myanmar are excluded from future development (Mekong River Commission the Commission, although the decisions they 2003a, 2010b). make still have significant impacts on the river and its hydrology. The utility of the PNPCA has been tested recently The exclusion of China and Myanmar from in negotiations between Lao PDR and other the MRC has also resulted in challenges for MRC countries regarding the first two proposed communication and transboundary cooperation hydropower dams on the Mekong mainstream, of hydropower development, as the decisions the Xayaburi and Don Sahong dams. Lao PDR they make have significant impacts for stands to gain 70% of the power benefits from the downstream countries. However, both Myanmar dams, while Cambodia and Thailand will each and China have reportedly both steadily benefit 11-12% and Viet Nam 5% (ICEM 2010). increased their participation in a non-binding Despite the call for a moratorium on mainstream fashion with the MRC, and participate in regular 80 dam building by Viet Nam and Cambodia and dialogues (Anon 1995). the MRC, Lao PDR started construction of the The MRC, in addition to working with partner Xayaburi dam in 2012, and reportedly plans to countries, also works closely with a number of construct the second mainstream dam, Don other organisations, including developmental Sahong, raising tensions with Viet Nam and agencies: the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Cambodia (Avern 2012). With these decisions, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Lao PDR went against the 1995 Mekong (ASEAN), the European Union (EU), the Agreement, but it shows mainly the MRC’s lack International Union for Conservation of Nature of power to enforce such agreements in the (IUCN), the United Nations Development face of strong economic forces, and to resolve Programme (UNDP), the United Nations tensions. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN ESCAP), the World Bank, and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).

WWF, for example, is working with the MRC and ADB to improve the environmental performance of new dams. They aim to identify high conservation regions within the basin, such as the lower mainstream river, and work with the MRC to create a series of alternative options and locations where dams would have less significant environmental impacts (WWF 2013c). Recently, a concept note for a “Study on sustainable management and development of the Mekong River including impacts by mainstream hydropower projects” has been approved by the MRC member countries (Basin Development Plan Programme 2013).

As the MRC does not have the authority to enforce the implementation of regulation, there is a need for donors and civil society organisations to work with governments in the GMB countries to develop the mechanisms that would support the implementation of recommendations to improve the environmental performance of hydropower developments in the GMB. Box 11: Xayaburi and Don Sahong dams on the Mekong The Xayaburi (south of ) and Don Sahong (in Siphandone (‘Four Thousand Islands’) area near the southern border with Cambodia) dams, both of which are under construction, are causing political tensions between the countries of the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB). Under the MRC’s Procedures for Notification, Prior Consultation and Agreement (PNPCA), the 1995 Mekong Agreement (MA95) requires that proposals for mainstream hydropower projects are discussed extensively among all four LMB countries prior to any decision being taken. In 2010, Lao PDR proposed the construction of the Xayaburi dam; when brought to the MRC the resulting consultations did not resolve disagreements. In 2012, Lao PDR and Thailand decided to proceed with the dam, despite ongoing opposition from Cambodia and Viet Nam. Lao PDR has promised supplementary studies 81 into the impacts of the dam, but the studies so far have failed to meet the standards set by the other MRC members. When questioned about the impacts of the dam, Lao PDR vice Minister of Energy, Viraponh Viravong, was quoted as saying "The Xayburi dam is one of three or four dams that have rather insignificant impacts on the Mekong. We are very confident that the impacts, if any, will not be significant. We are very confident of that". However according to research by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the dam presents a risk to the endangered Giant Catfish (Pangasianodon gigas) and 227 other fish species. Given the risk that is likely to pose to fish migration and sediment flow, many consider that the dam will unjustifiably endanger the food security of 60 million people. Adapted from Herbertson (2013); Pollard (2013); Fawthrop (2013)

The Biodiversity Conservation Corridors The GMS Strategic Framework 2012-2022 was Initiative (BCI) adopted in 2011 and is based around the corridor- development approach. Proposing more than In addition to the MRC, regional cooperation US$51.5 billion in investment over the next is facilitated through the GMS Economic decade in infrastructural development (Asian Cooperation Programme, which includes the Development Bank 2014a), the GMS programme Core Environment Program (CEP) whose main is based around three regional corridors to goals are to: promote regional economic cooperation and ● Ensure the environmental of the development (see also van Es 2010). The BCI was GMS Program’s sector and economic corridor established to mitigate the potential impacts of strategies, the development corridors (Tordoff et al. 2012).

● Institutionalise environmental performance The BCI, administered by ADB (Asian assessment practices, and Development Bank 2011), seeks to counter possible habitat fragmentation and the loss ● Carry out the Biodiversity Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and Corridors Initiative (BCI; Asian Development to preserve biodiversity corridors between Bank 2012b). protected areas. Since 2011, the BCI has focused on engaging local communities in sustainable management of important biodiversity rich forest landscapes with Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia having approved grants and loans worth US$69 million to fund the work (GMS- EOC 2014b). Regional cooperation on wildlife trade The countries in the GMB increasingly cooperate Since Lao PDR ratified CITES in 2004, all GMB on tackling illegal wildlife trade, often supported countries are now parties to the convention, by international donors. For example the which provides a basis for improved regional Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC), cooperation. There also exist bilateral agreements Freeland, and the Wildlife Conservation Society between countries regulating wildlife, for (WCS) help monitor the trade of wildlife. Asia’s example China-Lao PDR on tigers, Lao PDR- Regional Response to Endangered Species Thailand on catfish and Lao PDR-Cambodia on 82 Trafficking (ARREST), a USAID funded program dolphins. (2011-2015), develops activities to strengthen law Foreign governments are also directly assisting enforcement - including training and large-scale the control of illegal trade. For example, the anti-trafficking operations, awareness raising United States have reportedly offered US$1 and education throughout Southeast Asia. It also million reward for information resulting in works to strengthen regional cooperation and the capture of a particularly infamous Asian anti-trafficking networks, such as the ASEAN- smuggling gang. Wildlife Enforcement Network.

7.4 CIVIL SOCIETY Civil society organisations (CSOs) in However, according to Tordoff et al. (2012), environmental conservation in the GMB are high-impact developments such as mines, dams dominated by international players. For example, and large-scale agricultural developments in the many of the organisations involved in the region tend to be financed by private funding, monitoring of hydropower development and its which restricts the opportunities for influence by potential impacts are international NGOs such civil society or donors. Bilaterally or multilaterally as WWF and International Rivers, although funded projects tend to be more transparent and there are a few networks of local CSOs active as adhere to at least the donor’s own regulations well. The few national and local conservation and safeguards. Most international donors such organisations have limited human and financial as the World Bank and ADB impose social and resources. Tordoff et al. (2012) provide a environmental safeguards on projects that they comprehensive overview of civil society capacity fund (Tordoff et al. 2012). and the context within which it operates. It is clear that conservation strategies by CSOs in Directly addressing the impacts of commodity the region need to go beyond pure conservation development projects such as mining and and involve integrated approaches that include agricultural concessions is not always possible for support to poverty reduction and economic CSOs in the region (in Myanmar and Lao PDR development, as these are a major policy and in particular), but opportunities have increased decision-making focus in all countries. in most other countries. CSOs, in particular National academic institutions play an important international conservation actors, are starting role in applied research to help answer questions to engage with industry players and support related to biodiversity and development, but as them to meet their social and environmental with local CSOs they have little political power responsibility commitments and raise their (Tordoff et al. 2012). standards. International private sector companies (e.g. mining companies) have also recently entered into partnerships with conservation organisations to help them address biodiversity impacts. 7.5 DATA AND INFORMATION GAPS Adequate and reliable data and information- As EIAs seem to be generally lacking, there is sharing are essential to support responses such little hard evidence on some of the expected as the prevention, mitigation or off-setting of the impacts of developments such as mainstream adverse impacts from commodity developments dams. The main gap in this regard is the lack on biodiversity and ecosystem services. of knowledge on the impacts of damming on downstream biodiversity, food and livelihood Information required to construct trends in security (Avern 2012). There is also a lack of hard commodities often have large data gaps, knowledge on methods for offsetting of the especially with regard to exports. However, these 83 impacts of dams on, for example, fisheries. data gaps are not distributed evenly across the region. For example, Thailand has reasonable In the fisheries sector, a significant proportion of amounts of information from 1992 onwards that trade between nations is unregistered, leading is readily available, while Lao PDR has virtually to underestimates of official statistics (Sverdrup- no data on exports within the UN COMTRADE Jensen 2002). In particular, no statistics are database (UN Comtrade 2014). In addition, routinely collected to quantify catches from the estimated large proportion of informal and small-scale family fishing, even though they are undocumented mining in most GMB countries, likely responsible for most of the total catch of leads to potential inaccuracy of overall country the GMB (Mekong River Commission 2010b). statistics (Mélanie et al. 2005). The MRC also Baran et al. (2007) estimated underreporting of noted that relatively little information is available about 250-360% in all countries in the GMB. on mineral exploitation in the region (Mekong In the forestry sector, little quantitative River Commission 2010b). information exists on commercial and industrial A number of programmes and schemes have consumption of wood energy, despite increasing been started to increase transparency. For research on timber flows from EIAs, and example, Publish What You Pay, designed to assessments undertaken by TRAFFIC (FAO increase the transparency of deals between 2006b). Such information would help plantation mining industries and state governments, is and production planning. beginning to make progress in the GMS. The For all sectors, it was found that there is a lack Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative is of and difficulties in valuation of ecosystem also gaining momentum in the region. services, in particular for wetlands. Such There is a general lack of data on the freshwater valuation would support a more informed fisheries sector, including fish inventory surveys, balancing of trade-offs among different uses of population trends etc. (Coates 2002; Coates et resources, in particular in the context of large- al. 2003; Segnestam & Nilsson 2001). There are scale agricultural and hydropower development. difficulties surrounding data collection, such as The ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity maintains different sampling methods to estimate capture a Biodiversity Information Sharing Service for data, and a general lack of baseline information regional biodiversity data, including online making sustainability of harvests difficult databases and policy briefs. However, there is to assess (Gartrell 1997). Errors in estimates generally a lack of surveying, data and capacity to are sometimes introduced intentionally. For analyse the data to inform conservation planning example, fish exports in Cambodia registered by at the national and regional levels. the Department of Fisheries were found to be deliberately underreported when measured by officials (Baran et al. 2007). 84 8. Conclusions

The exceptional economic growth of most Regional economic integration and infrastructure countries in the GMB is largely driven by strong development have helped support economic 85 economic growth policies fuelling investment in growth but also led to increased exploitation natural resource exploitation, often leading to of natural resources. Illegal timber and wildlife the trading of long-term environmental benefits trade in particular is a major concern in the for shorter term economic benefits. Because of region. this, the immensely important services provided The number of protected areas is increasing but by the Greater Mekong and its headwaters to the they are often not able to withstand the pressure people and economies of the region are under from commodity developments driven by strong pressure. economic interests. Market-oriented agricultural development The environmental planning and management policies lead to continued natural forest loss, processes in all GMB countries are largely unable whilst the reforestation efforts of some countries to address or respond to the enormous pressure do not seem able to keep up with the demand generated by the rapid economic development for wood and timber products. Attempts to in the region. In particular, laws regarding the reduce pressure on forests by banning shifting requirements for EIAs are almost systematically cultivation have often led to more permanent broken or their findings ignored. agriculture being developed in sensitive upland areas that cannot support such intensive land- Opportunities for improvement are, however, use. increasing, driven by political and institutional changes in the region as most countries become Hydropower development is a major factor more open and integrated into the global affecting the natural functioning of the economy. Local and national-level projects by enormous and complex natural system of the various conservation organisations and bilateral Mekong River, its tributaries and their associated and multilateral donors already address some ecosystems. By disrupting the natural flow of the of the pressures identified here, working on river, the whole system is affected with increasing developing capacity for law enforcement, repercussions on its ability to provide the services monitoring, strengthening local institutions, that millions of people depend on. supporting community-based conservation and specific species conservation (Tordoff et al. 2012). Such initiatives need to be expanded but, ● Support enforcement agencies to implement importantly, need to be coordinated within the the improved legal frameworks in the GMB wider GMB region. Building on the needs already countries, including the strengthening of the identified by the CEPF (Tordoff et al. 2012), the legal status of protected areas. following actions to better address the impacts ● Further support the combatting of illegal of commodity developments in the GMB are wildlife and timber trade as well as independent proposed: courts that deal with forest and wildlife crime. ● Support the integrated assessment and ● Support market-based approaches to combat valuation of ecosystem services throughout the 86 illegal resource exploitation and trade, such as whole GMB to inform sustainable watershed requirements by raw materials processors in level and transboundary land-use planning. response to demands from their end-markets. ● Increase knowledge on the impacts of dams on ● Strengthen the capacity for the implementation downstream biodiversity, food and livelihood of REDD+ and other PES schemes, especially at security and raise awareness among decision the local level. makers on these interlinkages. National governments are responsible for higher- ● Develop better methods for avoiding or level environmental policy and legal frameworks, offsetting negative impacts. including those surrounding watershed planning, ● Strengthen the MRC’s capacity to conduct improving transboundary collaboration, EIAs basin-wide and integrated assessments and monitoring, and MEA implementation. and support the implementation of their Civil society organisations, although sometimes recommendations. limited in their ability to influence decision- making, can still play a role in promoting ● Foster constructive dialogue in the polarized environmentally sustainable policies and debate on hydropower development. government or investor accountability. Donors ● Support governments to develop the are still the main funders of conservation in the mechanisms for the implementation region. Therefore, national and international of recommendations to improve the civil society organisations and donors should environmental performance of hydropower work together to support and strengthen developments. government processes and capacity to address the adverse impacts of commodity development ● Generally strengthen national and regional on biodiversity and ecosystem services within the environmental policy and legal frameworks region. and processes, including EIAs to better include downstream and longer term impacts.

● Increase the environmental standards for investment and strengthen control mechanisms.

● Influence the policies of donors, investors, operators and other key actors to adopt higher standards regarding environmental and social impacts of development activities. 9. References

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