Mountain Research and Development Vol 23 No 3 August 2003: 234–237

Ruchi Badola S. A. Hussain Conflict in Paradise Women and Protected Areas in the Indian Himalayas 234

The unique assemblages of flora and fauna resources. When resource use in PAs is pro- in the Himalayan region make it one of the hibited, the implications of the conflict are most important biodiversity hotspots on the more severe for local women, who bear the Indian subcontinent. Seventy-five protected burden of day-to-day survival. Initiatives to areas (PAs) encompassing 9.48% of the empower women are hampered by women’s region have been created to conserve this lack of education and skills and by low self- biodiversity and the fragile Himalayan land- esteem resulting from their marginalization scape (Figure 1). However, this has engen- by sociocultural taboos. Incentives are dered conflicts between PA management needed to promote meaningful participation and local communities that suffer from by women in biodiversity conservation initia- restrictions on access to biomass tives.

of India’s population). Nevertheless, the region has a low population density com- pared with the rest of India. The region is underdeveloped: the mean Center for Monitoring of Indian Economy (CMIE) index of development is as low as 82 (100 being the index for the whole of India). In general, the region is characterized by rugged, undulating terrain, small isolated villages, an agropastoral economy, small landholdings, and dry farming with little irrigation.

Women of the Himalayas Women of the Himalayas have woven an indelible and colorful pattern of cultures and lifestyles that is part of the fascinating mystique of this rugged and economically marginalized region. In parts of the east- ern Himalayas where some tribes prac-

FIGURE 1 PAs in the different ticed shifting agriculture, women enjoyed biogeographic zones of the The Indian Himalayas higher social status because there was no Indian Himalaya. (Map from: clear-cut division of labor or specific land Rodgers WA, Panwar HS, Mathur VB. 2002. Wildlife The Indian Himalayas cover approximate- rights. The adoption of settled agriculture Protected Area Network in India: ly 18% of India’s land surface and encom- in recent times has led to the emergence A Review. Dehra Dun, India: pass a range of topographical structures, of a well-defined division of labor and all Wildlife Institute of India.) elevations, and locations, resulting in con- the inequalities associated with it. More- trasting climates from region to region. over, settled agriculture is based on pri- Situated at the junction of 3 biogeograph- vate ownership, nearly always involving ic realms—the Palaearctic, the Africotrop- males, thus denying women access to and ical, and the Indo-Malayan—the control over one of the most important Himalayan region is a biodiversity hotspot means of food production. Farming that harbors rare assemblages of flora and remains subsistence-oriented. However, fauna with a high degree of endemism. cereal output is no longer sufficient to About 2100 bird species and 5800 plant ensure subsistence. The hardship of species (26% of which are endemic) are women’s daily lives is reflected in their ill found here, and of India’s 372 mam- health and untimely deaths, often caused malian species, as many as 241 (65%) have by poor nutrition, lack of access to med- been recorded in the Himalayas. ical care, and prolonged exposure to The Indian Himalayas are inhabited indoor air pollution from badly designed by approximately 51 million people (6% cooking and heating stoves. Himalayan vil- Development

235 lages are thus characterized by high sex ratio imbalances, evident in the recent census. Female literacy rates remain low throughout most of the Himalayan region. Young girls, like their mothers, work, assuming full responsibilities for grass and firewood collection, cattle grazing, and assistance in other farm tasks. In a study conducted in the Rajaji and Corbett National Parks, women accounted for 70.3–97% of the head loaders bringing in biomass resources from the forests (Figure 2). Factors contributing to the marginal- FIGURE 2 Women travel over ization of women include their workload, al mechanisms such as religion, folklore, treacherous terrain to fetch fodder, here in a village near barriers against land ownership, cultural and traditions. When the government Gangotri National Park, roles, secondary status, and division of assumed control of the forests, these Western Himalaya. (Photo by labor. Besides the noncompetitive nature mechanisms became defunct, and a radi- Anjaji Awasthi) of female labor, lack of skills, entrepre- cal reorientation of existing patterns of neurship, and credit facilities have further resource use took place, including a tran- hampered the advancement of women. sition from collective to individual use of forests. The result was protests, social Women and protected areas in the movements, and violation of forest laws, Indian Himalayas along with an erosion of social bonds that formerly regulated the customary use of India has one of the world’s most exten- forests. The closure of large areas for con- sive networks of protected areas (PAs). servation has put additional strain on This network has helped conserve signifi- women, who carry the burden of securing cant portions of India’s biodiversity. But it fuelwood and fodder. has also engendered severe conflicts between local communities and PA man- Lack of governmental information and agement because of the dependence of collaboration “You first took our fin- local inhabitants on resources and Women living in villages adjacent to PAs gers, then our hands, because of poverty. PA management is are the ones most affected by the designa- based on the philosophy of “preservation” tion of PAs. Most of these women are and now you have come or “protection”: the role of the govern- aware of the existence of the PAs because to catch us by the ment is to safeguard natural resources they come into day-to-day conflict with the throat. You want to through strict enforcement of legislation, forest patrols. However, they are generally create walls around the patrols to prevent illegal activities, and not aware of the reasons for these PAs. WLS and put up barbed maintenance of infrastructure. Although They perceive them as an infringement on wire. You want to bribe the last decade has seen a shift toward their basic right to survival. Although local involving local people in and around PAs people generally have a positive attitude us and take away our in biodiversity conservation, successful toward conservation, they have negative rights by getting our examples of PAs where local people’s feelings about PAs. In fact, the area signatures.” (A woman development needs have been effectively adjoining the Nanda Devi Biosphere attending a village reconciled with conservation concerns Reserve (NDBR) is the region that gave meeting on the fringe of remain difficult to find. birth to the famous chipko movement in Around 75 PAs have been created with the early 1970s, when women foiled the the Binsar Wildlife the aim of conserving biodiversity and the attempts of contractors to fell trees by Sanctuary) fragile Himalayan landscape (see Figure hugging the trees and ultimately succeed- 1). However, the Himalayas are a region ed in bringing about a ban on commercial where people depend most on natural felling in the area. But with the declara- resources, particularly for fuel, fodder, tion of the region as National Park some and thatch. In the past, hill people’s 10 years after the chipko movement, the dependence on forests was institutional- women seem to have become totally indif- ized through a variety of social and cultur- ferent to the condition of these forests, Ruchi Badola and S. A. Hussain

FIGURE 3 An ecodevelopment committee meeting in progress in a village adjoining the Rajaji National Park. Women generally do not participate, as is the case here. (Photo by Anil 236 Bhardwaj)

states, the government mandates the for- mation of forest protection committees or ecodevelopment committees stipulating joint membership for each household: if the husband becomes a member, the wife automatically becomes a member as well, and vice versa. Thus, either of the 2 can represent the household at any annual gen- eral meeting. Nevertheless, in the villages around the Rajaji National Park only 45–50% of the women knew that village ecodevelopment committees (VECs) exist- ed, and most came to know of them through talk in the village (68%). Only 11% had attended meetings, and none were aware of the required quota of women members in the executive commit- tee of the VECs (Figure 3). At a village meeting on the fringe of the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary in the western Himalaya, for example, the village plan for ecodevelopment was being discussed. The which they now perceive as sarkari jungle, forest department was curious to know “government forests” that are the cause of whether the draft plan was acceptable to their hardships. the villagers. The women villagers in partic- The locals’ inability to access forest ular knew nothing about the plan. This resources, their lack of understanding of resulted from the failure to consult women, the reasons for PA declaration, and the the primary stakeholders, at the planning absence of any positive interaction with stage, although the major objective of PA management have led to hostility ecodevelopment is to elicit participation of toward management. A survey conducted local people in biodiversity conservation. “We will ensure the in villages in the buffer zone of the NDBR Furthermore, even though most state involvement and consent revealed that 90% of the women were pre- circulars specify that one third to one half of the women of our pared to steal biomass resources from the of the executive committee members in region at all levels of PA. A similar sentiment was echoed by such bodies should be women, there is no 70% of the women in villages adjoining mandatory quorum for women, either in decision making, while the Rajaji National Park. Although most the general body or in the executive com- developing and imple- were aware of the park’s existence, over mittee meetings. Even when they attend, menting conservation 80% were not aware of the reasons for it. the presence of women does not necessari- and tourism plans.” They perceive the PA as the main cause of ly imply their active and meaningful partic- (Statement in the Nan- their hardship and maintain that the gov- ipation. And even as members of decision- ernment designates PAs to earn money making forums, they generally do not feel da Devi Biodiversity from foreigners at the cost of local rights free to express their needs and concerns Conservation and Eco- to collect biomass. This alienation of local because they are often not in a position to tourism Declaration) communities has been further intensified challenge male colleagues who may be by incidents of humans being killed by their husbands, brothers, or fathers. predators in the hill areas. Approximately two thirds of the victims were females. Meaningful involvement by women In recent years, there has been recogni- Lack of women’s participation in tion of the importance of involvement by community programs women in conservation initiatives. Most Most participatory community programs PA managers are consciously trying to focusing on biodiversity conservation are develop programs that empower rural based on an undifferentiated view of the women and ensure that their voices are community that ignores women. In most heard in decision-making processes.

Mountain Research and Development Vol 23 No 3 August 2003 Development

FIGURE 4 A Bhotiya woman spinning yarn in Lata village, near the NDBR. Women’s activities are multifarious and allow them to adapt and survive under difficult and changing conditions. (Photo by Ruchi Badola) 237

These initiatives include sensitizing the PA staff and the communities to gender issues, skill-related training programs for women, capacity building among poor women by actively involving them in alter- native income-generation activities and services at the village level, and building and strengthening institutions that would ensure women’s entitlements. In the case (Figure 4), their opinions and suggestions of the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary discussed go largely unheard, undermining the above, once the forest department real- development and implementation of ized its shortcomings and ensured that appropriate management strategies. Gen- women were involved in planning ecode- der dimensions in biodiversity conserva- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS velopment and ecotourism initiatives, the tion have hitherto been a neglected area We greatly appreciate thought-provok- women took pride in the process. They apart from a few notable efforts by some ing discussions with our colleagues, Mr Rajeev Bhartari, Ms Bitapi Sinha, Dr(s) are now instrumental in implementing the PA management. S. Sathyakumar, and B.K. Mishra. We plan. In the Rajaji National Park, training However, the little research that has are indebted to Dr Leslie Taylor for programs for the staff and communities been carried out in relation to gender and encouraging us to write this article. and skill enhancement and income-gener- biodiversity is mostly confined to an exam- AUTHORS ating activities have been undertaken in ination of gender roles and how they have Ruchi Badola addition to initiation of efforts to organize changed over time. There is still an enor- Department of Ecodevelopment Plan- women into self-help groups. The PA man- mous gap between the fields of gender ning and Participatory Management, agement of the Great Himalayan National studies and biodiversity, resulting in igno- Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18, Dehra Dun 248001, India. Park has also taken an initiative to organ- rance of gender issues and approaches in [email protected] ize poor women in women’s savings and agricultural and forestry institutions. Plan- Ruchi Badola is a faculty member of the Wildlife Institute of India. She works credit groups (WSCGs). The members of ning to involve women in biodiversity on issues related to the interface of these WSCGs are being involved in management, at both the grassroots and people and protected areas, community income-generating activities. There has institutional levels, cannot proceed with- involvement in biodiversity conservation, been a perceptible change in attitude out more extensive research—not only to and natural resource economics. among men in households where women document gender aspects of biodiversity SA Hussain bring in money, including a willingness to conservation but also to document the Department of Landscape Level Planning and Management, Wildlife share household work and facilitate culturally held perceptions of women and Institute of India, PO Box 18, Dehra women’s attendance at meetings. The compare them with those of men. Access Dun 248 001, India. [email protected] WSCGs also function as forums for discus- to education, credit, technical knowledge, S. A. Hussain is a faculty member of sion and propagation of ideas, such as on- entrepreneurship development programs, the Wildlife Institute of India. He is an farm biodiversity conservation, besides and employment opportunities for hill ecologist with an interest in conserva- tion planning at the landscape level. He being centers for social change where lit- women is important to reduce their also conducts research on free-ranging eracy, women and childcare programs, dependence on forests and resulting con- forms of wildlife and their habitats. and veterinary care programs are under- flicts of interest between livelihood and FURTHER READING taken. Although these are isolated initia- biodiversity conservation. Internal reori- tives, they show how participation by entation at the institutional level, to make Badola R. 1998. Attitudes of local people towards conservation and women in biodiversity conservation can be organizations gender-responsive, is neces- alternatives to forest resources: A promoted through empowerment and sary to bridge the gap between gender case study from the lower Himalayas. Biodiversity and Conservation attention to concerns about livelihood. issues and the scientific management of 7:1245–1259. natural resources. This requires not only Badola R. 1999. People and protected recruiting more women staff and allowing areas in India. Unasylva 50(4):12–14. Conclusions Badola R, Silori C. 1999. Nanda Devi their voices to be heard in senior-level Biosphere Reserve: A Study on Although local mountain women have the decision-making forums but also integrat- Socio-Economic Aspects for Sustainable sophistication to manage a multiplicity of ing the needs and perspectives of local Development of Dependent Population. Study Report. Dehra Dun, India: roles and small production systems to women from the earliest stage of design Wildlife Institute of India. adapt and survive in a fragile environment and declaration of PAs. Guha R. 1989. The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Himalaya. Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. Sarin M. 1995. Regenerating India’s forests: Reconciling gender equity with joint forest management. Institute of Development Studies Bulletin 26(1):83–91.