GREEK AND ROMAN CHRONOLOGY

CALENDARS AND YEARS IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY

by ALAN E. SAMUEL Department of Classics, University College University of Toronto

C.H. BECK'SCHE VERLAGSBUCHHANDLUNG MUNCHEN CONTENTS

Preface VII

CHAPTER I. THE ASTRONOMICAL BACKGROUND

1. The Sun-Earth-Moon System i The Celestial Sphere I - Years 3 - Months 5 - The Synodic Month 5 2. The Construction of Calendars 10 Lunar Calendars 11 - Solar Calendars 12 3. Natural Units of Time 13 The Day 13 - The Month 14 - The Year 16 - The Week 17

CHAPTER II. GREEK ASTRONOMICAL CALENDARS

1. Early Astronomical Theory 21 Sixth Century Astronomy 22 - The Fifth Century 23 - Pythagorean Numbers 26 2. The Theory of Homocentric Spheres 29 Eudoxus 29 - Callippus 32 3. Astronomical Calendar Cycles 33 Early Cycles 3 3 - The Octaeteris 3 5 - The Nineteen Year Cycle and the Callippic Cycle 42 - Later Cycles 49 4. Astronomical Denomination of Years - 51 5. Astronomical and Civil Calendars 52

CHAPTER III. GREEK CIVIL CALENDARS

1. Athens 57 Calendars and Months Used 57 - Intercalation of Months 58 - The Counting of Days of the Month 59 - The Prytany Calendar 61 - The Count of Days in Prytanies 63 - The Beginning of the Year 64 2. Evidence for the Mycenaean Calendar . 64 XII Contents

3. Boeotia 66 Hesiod 66 - Names and Order of the Months 67 - Kata Theon Dates 69 - The Count of Days 69 4. Phocis 70 Names and Order of the Months 70 - The Count of Days 72 5. Eastern Locris 72

6. Doris 72

7. Delphi 73 Dating Systems 73 - Names and Order of the Months 74 - The Count of Days 74

8. Ozolian Locris 75 Names and Order of the Months in the Federal Calendar 76 - Amphissa, Physkos, Cha- leion, Oianthea, Tritea, Tolophon 76 - The Count of Days 76 9. 76 Names and Order of the Months 76 - The Count of Days 78 10. Acarnania 78

11. Ambracia 79

12. Epirus 79

13. Corcyra 79

14. Epidamnus 79

15. Corcyra Melaina (Issa) 79

16. on the Aous 80

17. Lamia 80 Names and Order of the Months 80 - The Count of Days 80

18. 81 Names and Order of the Months 81 - The Count of Days 81

19. Meliteia 81

20. Pyrasos 82

21. Angeai 82

22. Miscellaneous Calendars of Phthiotis 82 Hypata 82 - Herakleia 82 - Phalika 82 - Oitaia 82 - Phthiotic 83 - Thauma- koi 83 - Near the Village of Kophi 83

23. 83 Names and Order of the Months 83 - Perrhaebia 84 - Magnesia and Pagasae 85 - The Count of Days 85 Contents XIII

24. Skotussa 86 Names and Order of the Months 86 - The Count of Days 87

25. Apollonia in Chalcidice 87

26. Cassandreia (Potidaea) 87

27. 87

28. 88

29. Callatis 89

30. Chersonesus Taurica 89

31. Megara 89

32. Corinth 89

33. Sicyon 89

34. Argos 90 Names and Order of the Months 91 - The Count of Days 91 35. Epidauros 91 Names and Order of the Months 91 - The Count of Days 92 36. Miscellaneous Calendars of the Argohd 92 Calauria 92 - Mycenae 92 - Hermione 92 - Aegina 92 - Troezen 92 37. Laconia 92 Names and Order of the Months 93 - Intercalation 93 - The Count of Days 94

38. Arcadia 94 Names and Order of the Months 94 - The Count of Days 95 39. Messenia 95

40. Elis 95 The Beginning of the Year 95 - Names and Order of the Months 96 41. Achaea 97 Names and Order of the Months 97 - The Count of Days 97

42. Euboea 98 Chalcis 98 - 98 - Histiaea 98 - Carystus 98 43. Peparethos 99

44. Delos 99 Names and Order of the Months 99 - Intercalation 100 - The Count of Days 100 - Ter- mination of the Independent Delian Calendar 101 45. Tenos 101 Names and Order of the Months 101 - The Count of Days 102 XIV Contents

46. Ceos 103 Names and Order of the Months 103 - The Count of Days 103 47. Miscellaneous Cycladic Calendars 104 . Paros - Oliaros 104 - Mykonos 105 - Naxos 105 - Ios 105 - Andros 105 - Siphnos 105 48. Amorgos 105 The Count of Days 106 49. The Doric Sporades 106 107 - Astypalaea 107 50. Rhodes 107 Names and Order of the Months 107 - The Count of Days no 51. Nisyros no

52. Syme in 53. Telos in 54. Cnidos in 55. Cos and Calymna in Names and Order of the Months in - The Count of Days 113 56. Halikarnassos 113 57. 114 58. 114 Names and Order of the Months 115 - The Count of Days 115 - The Colonies of Miletus 118 59. 118 The Count of Days 119 60. Herakleia Under Latmos 120 61. 120 62. Thebes at Mykale 120 63. Samos 120 Names and Order of the Months 120 - The Count of Days 121 64. 121 The Count of Days 122 65. 122 Names and Order of the Months 123 - The Count of Days 124 66. 124 67. 124 Contents XV

68. Chios 124

69. 125

70. 125

71. 125

72. 125

73. Pergamum 125 The Count of Days 127

74. Lesbos 127 Names and Order of the Months 128 - The Count of Days 129 75. The Northern Aegean 130 Thasos 130 - Samothrace 130 - Imbros 130

76. Calchedon 131

77. Zelea (Phrygia) 131

78. Lampsakos 131

79. Ilion 131

80. Skepsis (Troad) 132

81. Gambreion () 132

82. 132 The Count of Days 132

83. Laodikeia epi Lyko 133

84. Stratonikeia (Caria) 133

85. Antiocheia in Pisidia 133

86. 133

87. Antiocheia in Persis 134

88. Crete 134

Names and Order of the Months 135 - The Count of Days 136

89. Tauromenium 136

90. Syracuse 137 91. Acragas 137

92. Gela 137 XVI Contents

93. Rhegium 137

94. 138

95. Heradea- 138

96. Locri 138

CHAPTER IV. CALENDARS OF THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS

1. The Seleucid Calendar 139 Macedonian and Babylonian Months 140 - The Count of Days 144 - Territory of the Seleucid Calendar 144 2. The Macedonian Calendar in Egypt 145 Native Egyptian Calendars 145 - Cyclical Regulation of the Macedonian Calendar in Egypt 146 - Abandonment of the Independent Macedonian Calendar 149 - The Count of Days 150 - Territory of the Egyptian-Macedonian Calendar 151

CHAPTER V. THE ROMAN CALENDAR

1. Introduction 153 The Fasti 153 - Month Names and Day Designations 154 2. The Julian Calendar 155 The Augustan Reform 156 3. The Calendar of the Republic 158 Names and Lengths of the Months 158 - Length of the Year 159 - Method of Inter- calation 160 - Occasions of Intercalation 162 - The Beginning of the Year 164 - In- ception of the Calendar 165 4. The Ten Month Year 167

CHAPTER VI. CALENDARS OP THE EASTERN ROMAN PROVINCES

1. The Hemerologia 171 Calendars with Months Coincident with Julian Months 174 - Calendars with New Year's Day on September 23 174 - Calendars Without a 28 Day Month and without Epagomenal Days 176 - Calendars with 30 Day Months and 5 Epagomenal Days 177 2. Eastern Calendars not Reported by the Hemerologia 178 The Macedonian Calendar at Palmyra 178 - The Macedonian Calendar at Gerasa 180 - The Calendar of the Province of Asia 181 - Cyprus 182 - The Julian Calendar in the East 186 Contents XVII

CHAPTER VII. GREEK CHRONOGRAPHY

1. Olympiad Reckoning 189 The Olympic Victor list 189 - The Year and the Time of the Festival 191 2. The Athenian Archon List 195 The Early Period: To 480 B.C. 195 - The Fifth and Fourth Centuries 206 - After the End of Diodoros' Text 210 - The Roman Period 223 3. Spartan Ephors 238 4. Generational Reckoning 241 5. Eras 245 Seleucid 245 - Types of Eras 246

CHAPTER VIII. ROMAN CHRONOGRAPHY

1. The Varronian System 250 2. The Epoch of 01. 6, 4 251 3. Other Epochs 252 4. The Consular Fasti 253

INDICES

A Note on the Indices 277 1. Index of Subjects 278 2. Index of Months 284 3. Index of Sources 298