GREEK AND ROMAN CHRONOLOGY CALENDARS AND YEARS IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY by ALAN E. SAMUEL Department of Classics, University College University of Toronto C.H. BECK'SCHE VERLAGSBUCHHANDLUNG MUNCHEN CONTENTS Preface VII CHAPTER I. THE ASTRONOMICAL BACKGROUND 1. The Sun-Earth-Moon System i The Celestial Sphere I - Years 3 - Months 5 - The Synodic Month 5 2. The Construction of Calendars 10 Lunar Calendars 11 - Solar Calendars 12 3. Natural Units of Time 13 The Day 13 - The Month 14 - The Year 16 - The Week 17 CHAPTER II. GREEK ASTRONOMICAL CALENDARS 1. Early Astronomical Theory 21 Sixth Century Astronomy 22 - The Fifth Century 23 - Pythagorean Numbers 26 2. The Theory of Homocentric Spheres 29 Eudoxus 29 - Callippus 32 3. Astronomical Calendar Cycles 33 Early Cycles 3 3 - The Octaeteris 3 5 - The Nineteen Year Cycle and the Callippic Cycle 42 - Later Cycles 49 4. Astronomical Denomination of Years - 51 5. Astronomical and Civil Calendars 52 CHAPTER III. GREEK CIVIL CALENDARS 1. Athens 57 Calendars and Months Used 57 - Intercalation of Months 58 - The Counting of Days of the Month 59 - The Prytany Calendar 61 - The Count of Days in Prytanies 63 - The Beginning of the Year 64 2. Evidence for the Mycenaean Calendar . 64 XII Contents 3. Boeotia 66 Hesiod 66 - Names and Order of the Months 67 - Kata Theon Dates 69 - The Count of Days 69 4. Phocis 70 Names and Order of the Months 70 - The Count of Days 72 5. Eastern Locris 72 6. Doris 72 7. Delphi 73 Dating Systems 73 - Names and Order of the Months 74 - The Count of Days 74 8. Ozolian Locris 75 Names and Order of the Months in the Federal Calendar 76 - Amphissa, Physkos, Cha- leion, Oianthea, Tritea, Tolophon 76 - The Count of Days 76 9. Aetolia 76 Names and Order of the Months 76 - The Count of Days 78 10. Acarnania 78 11. Ambracia 79 12. Epirus 79 13. Corcyra 79 14. Epidamnus 79 15. Corcyra Melaina (Issa) 79 16. Apollonia on the Aous 80 17. Lamia 80 Names and Order of the Months 80 - The Count of Days 80 18. Halos 81 Names and Order of the Months 81 - The Count of Days 81 19. Meliteia 81 20. Pyrasos 82 21. Angeai 82 22. Miscellaneous Calendars of Phthiotis 82 Hypata 82 - Herakleia 82 - Phalika 82 - Oitaia 82 - Phthiotic Thebes 83 - Thauma- koi 83 - Near the Village of Kophi 83 23.Thessaly 83 Names and Order of the Months 83 - Perrhaebia 84 - Magnesia and Pagasae 85 - The Count of Days 85 Contents XIII 24. Skotussa 86 Names and Order of the Months 86 - The Count of Days 87 25. Apollonia in Chalcidice 87 26. Cassandreia (Potidaea) 87 27. Byzantium 87 28. Perinthus 88 29. Callatis 89 30. Chersonesus Taurica 89 31. Megara 89 32. Corinth 89 33. Sicyon 89 34. Argos 90 Names and Order of the Months 91 - The Count of Days 91 35. Epidauros 91 Names and Order of the Months 91 - The Count of Days 92 36. Miscellaneous Calendars of the Argohd 92 Calauria 92 - Mycenae 92 - Hermione 92 - Aegina 92 - Troezen 92 37. Laconia 92 Names and Order of the Months 93 - Intercalation 93 - The Count of Days 94 38. Arcadia 94 Names and Order of the Months 94 - The Count of Days 95 39. Messenia 95 40. Elis 95 The Beginning of the Year 95 - Names and Order of the Months 96 41. Achaea 97 Names and Order of the Months 97 - The Count of Days 97 42. Euboea 98 Chalcis 98 - Eretria 98 - Histiaea 98 - Carystus 98 43. Peparethos 99 44. Delos 99 Names and Order of the Months 99 - Intercalation 100 - The Count of Days 100 - Ter- mination of the Independent Delian Calendar 101 45. Tenos 101 Names and Order of the Months 101 - The Count of Days 102 XIV Contents 46. Ceos 103 Names and Order of the Months 103 - The Count of Days 103 47. Miscellaneous Cycladic Calendars 104 . Paros - Oliaros 104 - Mykonos 105 - Naxos 105 - Ios 105 - Andros 105 - Siphnos 105 48. Amorgos 105 The Count of Days 106 49. The Doric Sporades 106 Thera 107 - Astypalaea 107 50. Rhodes 107 Names and Order of the Months 107 - The Count of Days no 51. Nisyros no 52. Syme in 53. Telos in 54. Cnidos in 55. Cos and Calymna in Names and Order of the Months in - The Count of Days 113 56. Halikarnassos 113 57. Iasos 114 58. Miletus 114 Names and Order of the Months 115 - The Count of Days 115 - The Colonies of Miletus 118 59. Priene 118 The Count of Days 119 60. Herakleia Under Latmos 120 61. Amyzon 120 62. Thebes at Mykale 120 63. Samos 120 Names and Order of the Months 120 - The Count of Days 121 64. Magnesia on The Maeander 121 The Count of Days 122 65. Ephesus 122 Names and Order of the Months 123 - The Count of Days 124 66. Notion 124 67. Teos 124 Contents XV 68. Chios 124 69. Erythrae 125 70. Phocaea 125 71. Temnos 125 72. Cyme 125 73. Pergamum 125 The Count of Days 127 74. Lesbos 127 Names and Order of the Months 128 - The Count of Days 129 75. The Northern Aegean 130 Thasos 130 - Samothrace 130 - Imbros 130 76. Calchedon 131 77. Zelea (Phrygia) 131 78. Lampsakos 131 79. Ilion 131 80. Skepsis (Troad) 132 81. Gambreion (Mysia) 132 82. Sardis 132 The Count of Days 132 83. Laodikeia epi Lyko 133 84. Stratonikeia (Caria) 133 85. Antiocheia in Pisidia 133 86. Termessos 133 87. Antiocheia in Persis 134 88. Crete 134 Names and Order of the Months 135 - The Count of Days 136 89. Tauromenium 136 90. Syracuse 137 91. Acragas 137 92. Gela 137 XVI Contents 93. Rhegium 137 94. Neapolis 138 95. Heradea- 138 96. Locri 138 CHAPTER IV. CALENDARS OF THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS 1. The Seleucid Calendar 139 Macedonian and Babylonian Months 140 - The Count of Days 144 - Territory of the Seleucid Calendar 144 2. The Macedonian Calendar in Egypt 145 Native Egyptian Calendars 145 - Cyclical Regulation of the Macedonian Calendar in Egypt 146 - Abandonment of the Independent Macedonian Calendar 149 - The Count of Days 150 - Territory of the Egyptian-Macedonian Calendar 151 CHAPTER V. THE ROMAN CALENDAR 1. Introduction 153 The Fasti 153 - Month Names and Day Designations 154 2. The Julian Calendar 155 The Augustan Reform 156 3. The Calendar of the Republic 158 Names and Lengths of the Months 158 - Length of the Year 159 - Method of Inter- calation 160 - Occasions of Intercalation 162 - The Beginning of the Year 164 - In- ception of the Calendar 165 4. The Ten Month Year 167 CHAPTER VI. CALENDARS OP THE EASTERN ROMAN PROVINCES 1. The Hemerologia 171 Calendars with Months Coincident with Julian Months 174 - Calendars with New Year's Day on September 23 174 - Calendars Without a 28 Day Month and without Epagomenal Days 176 - Calendars with 30 Day Months and 5 Epagomenal Days 177 2. Eastern Calendars not Reported by the Hemerologia 178 The Macedonian Calendar at Palmyra 178 - The Macedonian Calendar at Gerasa 180 - The Calendar of the Province of Asia 181 - Cyprus 182 - The Julian Calendar in the East 186 Contents XVII CHAPTER VII. GREEK CHRONOGRAPHY 1. Olympiad Reckoning 189 The Olympic Victor list 189 - The Year and the Time of the Festival 191 2. The Athenian Archon List 195 The Early Period: To 480 B.C. 195 - The Fifth and Fourth Centuries 206 - After the End of Diodoros' Text 210 - The Roman Period 223 3. Spartan Ephors 238 4. Generational Reckoning 241 5. Eras 245 Seleucid 245 - Types of Eras 246 CHAPTER VIII. ROMAN CHRONOGRAPHY 1. The Varronian System 250 2. The Epoch of 01. 6, 4 251 3. Other Epochs 252 4. The Consular Fasti 253 INDICES A Note on the Indices 277 1. Index of Subjects 278 2. Index of Months 284 3. Index of Sources 298.