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An Ecological Evaluation of the Sustainability of Bark Harvesting of Medicinal

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An Ecological Evaluation of the Sustainability of Bark Harvesting of Medicinal An ecological evaluation of the sustainability of bark harvesting of medicinal plant species in the Venda region, Limpopo province, South Africa by Milingoni Peter Tshisikhawe Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor In the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences Department of Plant Science University of Pretoria Pretoria Supervisor: Prof. M.W. van Rooyen August 2012 © University of Pretoria Dedication This work is dedicated to my biological parents, Tshamano Sarah and the late Maanda Andries Tshisikhawe. i DECLARATION I declare that the thesis, which I hereby submit for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor (Department of Plant Science) at the University of Pretoria, is my own work and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other tertiary institution. SIGNATURE:…………………………………………………. DATE:…………………………………………………………. ii Table of contents ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………...xix Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Thematic background .........................................................................................1 1.2 Problem statement and rationale for the study ................................................3 1.3 Study aim and objectives ....................................................................................6 1.4 Structure of the dissertation ...............................................................................7 References ............................................................................................................9 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Historical development and current state of medicinal plant use ..................13 2.2 The concept of sustainable use ...........................................................................16 2.3 Size-class distribution .........................................................................................18 2.4 Matrix modeling ..................................................................................................19 2.5 Plant conservation target areas .........................................................................22 References ............................................................................................................24 iii Chapter 3 STUDY AREA, MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.1 Study area ............................................................................................................33 3.2 Description of the species investigated...............................................................40 3.2.1 Elaeodendron transvaalense ............................................................................40 3.2.2 Brackenridgea zanguebarica ............................................................................41 3.3 Methods ................................................................................................................43 3.3.1 Population studies ............................................................................................43 3.3.2 Evaluating reserve adequacy of the Brackenridgea zanguebarica reserve ..47 References ............................................................................................................48 Chapter 4 AN EVALUATION OF THE EXTENT AND THREAT OF BARK HARVESTING IN THE VENDA REGION, LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA Abstract ....................................................................................................................52 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................53 4.2 Study area ..........................................................................................................56 4.3 Materials and methods .....................................................................................56 4.3.1 Overall assessment of species with potential medicinal bark use in the Venda region ...........................................................................................................56 iv 4.3.2 Evaluation of trade in plant bark in the Venda region ..............................57 4.3.3 Vulnerability of 58 species traded most for their medicinal bark properties in the Venda region .................................................................................................58 4.4 Results and discussion ......................................................................................60 4.4.1 Overall assessment of species with potential medicinal bark use in the Venda region ...........................................................................................................60 4.4.2 Evaluation of trade ........................................................................................61 4.4.2.1 Plant parts and species most commonly traded .......................................61 4.4.2.2 Collectors of medicinal plants ....................................................................76 4.4.2.3 Exportation from the region ......................................................................77 4.4.2.4 Conservation and sustainability methods .................................................78 4.3.3 Vulnerability of 58 species traded most for their medicinal bark properties in the Venda region .................................................................................................81 4.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................85 4.6 Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................86 References ..........................................................................................................87 CHAPTER 5 POPULATION BIOLOGY OF ELAEODENDRON TRANSVAALENSE JACQ. IN THE PRESENCE OF HARVESTING Abstract ....................................................................................................................94 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................95 5.2 Study area ..........................................................................................................97 5.3 Materials and methods .....................................................................................99 v 5.4 Results and discussion ………………………………………………………...103 5.4.1 Population structure ...... ................................ ................................................103 5.4.2 Harvesting .......................................................................................................107 5.4.3 Crown health ..................................................................................................111 5.4.4 Regeneration ...................................................................................................113 5.4.5 Stem growth rate ............................................................................................116 5.4.6 Population growth rate ..................................................................................117 5.4.7 Species grain ...................................................................................................118 5.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................120 5.6 Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................121 References ..........................................................................................................122 Chapter 6 POPULATION BIOLOGY OF BRACKENRIDGEA ZANGUEBARICA OLIV. IN THE PRESENCE OF HARVESTING Abstract ....................................................................................................................130 6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................131 6.2. Species and study area .....................................................................................132 6.3 Materials and methods .....................................................................................135 6.4 Results and discussion ......................................................................................137 6.4.1 Population structure ......................................................................................137 6.4.2 Crown health ..................................................................................................142 6.4.3 Bark removal areas ........................................................................................144 6.4.4 Regeneration ...................................................................................................148 vi 6.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................151 6.6 Acknowledgements ................................ ...........................................................152 References...........................................................................................................153 Chapter 7 IS THE PRESENT BRACKENRIDGEA NATURE RESERVE LARGE ENOUGH TO ENSURE THE SURVIVAL OF BRACKENRIDGEA ZANGUEBARICA Oliv.? Abstract ....................................................................................................................158 7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................159
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