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Fate and Effects of Parasiticides in the Pasture Environment Louise Jay

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Fate and Effects of Parasiticides in the Pasture Environment Louise Jay Fate and Effects of Parasiticides in the Pasture Environment Louise Jay Pope PhD The University of York Environment November 2009 Abstract Abstract Parasiticides are used in the treatment of livestock animals. Following use, they may be excreted to the environment where they can impact non-target organisms. European regulations require an environmental risk assessment (ERA) for parasiticides before they are authorised for use, and guidance exists on how risks should be assessed. The methods employed are simple and conservative so it would be beneficial if approaches could be developed that more accurately assess the risks. The aim of this study was therefore to develop, through a combination of field and modelling investigations, an improved understanding of those factors and processes determining the risks of parasiticides in the pasture environment. The study focused on the avermectin compound, ivermectin (IVM). Following administration to cattle, IVM was found in manure at levels up to 1.3 mg/kg (dry weight); this is an order of magnitude greater than the No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) for IVM to dung flies. Once released into the field, residues persisted in dung. Small amounts of IVM were transported into soil, probably as a result of the activity of soil and dung fauna. Mesocosm studies showed that in surface waters IVM will rapidly dissipate from the water column through photodegradation and partitioning to the sediment. In sediment, the IVM is highly persistent. Matrix population modelling was used to extrapolate the results of excretion, persistence and ecotoxicity data to the wider environment. The modelling predicted only a small impact of IVM on the abundance of a fast- breeding fly, a finding supported by the results of published monitoring studies. The study has demonstrated that population modelling approaches provide a valuable tool for use in ERAs for parasiticides. The study has also highlighted a number of areas, including a rigorous consideration of analytical method performance that should be considered when assessing the fate and effects of parasiticides in the environment. 2 List of Contents List of Contents Abstract _________________________________________________________2 List of Contents___________________________________________________3 List of Tables ____________________________________________________6 List of Figures ____________________________________________________8 Acknowledgements_______________________________________________10 Author’s Declaration______________________________________________11 1 Introduction_________________________________________________12 1.1 Veterinary Medicines in the Environment _____________________12 1.2 Use of Veterinary Medicinal Products in the Terrestrial Environment16 1.3 Inputs to the Terrestrial Environment _________________________18 1.3.1 Pastured Livestock ___________________________________18 1.3.2 Intensively Reared Livestock___________________________21 1.4 Fate in the Terrestrial Environment __________________________26 1.4.1 Occurrence in Soil____________________________________26 1.4.2 Fate Processes in Soil _________________________________28 1.4.3 Transport ___________________________________________33 1.5 Effects in the Terrestrial Environment ________________________35 1.5.1 Dung Fauna_________________________________________36 1.5.2 Soil Fauna__________________________________________41 1.5.3 Implications of Reduced Dung Fauna_____________________45 1.5.4 Field Scale Impacts ___________________________________46 1.6 Regulatory Assessment of the Environmental Risks of Parasiticides_47 1.7 Overall Aim of the Project _________________________________50 1.8 Introduction to the Case Study Compound: Ivermectin ___________52 2 Analytical Methods___________________________________________58 2.1 Introduction_____________________________________________58 2.1.1 Separation and Detection Methods _______________________59 2.1.2 Extraction __________________________________________63 2.1.3 Sample Clean-up_____________________________________65 2.1.4 Literature Methods Conclusion__________________________66 2.2 Analytical Methods_______________________________________69 2.2.1 Method Development _________________________________69 2.2.2 Preparation of Standards_______________________________69 2.2.3 Manure Sample Extraction and Clean-up __________________69 2.2.4 Sediment Sample Extraction and Clean-up_________________71 2.2.5 Soil Sample Extraction and Clean-up _____________________71 2.2.6 HPLC Method_______________________________________73 2.3 Method Validation_______________________________________73 2.3.1 Spiking of Samples ___________________________________73 2.3.2 Linearity of Calibration________________________________74 2.3.3 Stability ____________________________________________75 2.3.4 Accuracy ___________________________________________77 2.3.5 Precision ___________________________________________79 2.3.6 Limits of Detection and Quantitation _____________________79 2.4 Conclusion _____________________________________________81 3 Fate of Parasiticides in the Pasture _______________________________82 3.1 Introduction_____________________________________________82 3 List of Contents 3.1.1 Inputs of Ivermectin to the Field_________________________83 3.1.2 Persistence in Manure and Soil__________________________85 3.1.3 Transport and/or Mobility______________________________88 3.1.4 Dissipation in Aquatic Systems _________________________90 3.2 Aims and Hypotheses of the field studies______________________91 3.3 Methods________________________________________________92 3.3.1 UK Study Site and Cattle Treatment______________________92 3.3.2 Excretion Rate_______________________________________94 3.3.3 Metabolite Identification_______________________________94 3.3.4 Dissipation of Manure Residues _________________________97 3.3.5 Dissipation in Water and Sediment: Mesocosms ____________99 3.4 Results________________________________________________101 3.4.1 Excretion Rate______________________________________101 3.4.2 Metabolite Identification______________________________102 3.4.3 Dissipation of Manure Residues ________________________108 3.4.4 Transport of Residues from Manure to Soil _______________111 3.4.5 Dissipation in Water and Sediment: Mesocosms ___________112 3.5 Effect of Moisture Content ________________________________115 3.5.1 Hypotheses ________________________________________115 3.5.2 Methods___________________________________________115 3.5.3 Results____________________________________________117 3.6 Discussion _____________________________________________120 3.6.1 Excretion of Ivermectin_______________________________120 3.6.2 Dissipation and the Effect of Water Content ______________121 3.6.3 Dissipation in Aquatic Mesocosms______________________125 3.7 Conclusions____________________________________________126 4 Modelling the Impact of Parasiticides on Pasture Non-target Organisms 129 4.1 Introduction____________________________________________129 4.1.1 Field-based toxicity studies____________________________131 4.2 Field Monitoring Studies _________________________________133 4.2.1 Population modelling________________________________135 4.2.2 Selection of Modelling Approach _______________________139 4.2.3 Aims and Objectives _________________________________141 4.2.4 Ecological Aspects__________________________________142 4.2.5 Exposure Aspects___________________________________147 4.3 Case-Study: Ivermectin___________________________________148 4.4 Methods_______________________________________________148 4.5 Model Development _____________________________________148 4.5.1 Insect Parameterisation _______________________________151 4.5.2 Case-Study: Ivermectin_______________________________157 4.5.3 Analysis of Model Output_____________________________163 4.5.4 Sensitivity Analysis of Ecological Parameters _____________165 4.5.5 Model Exploration__________________________________165 4.6 Results________________________________________________166 4.6.1 Model Output______________________________________166 4.6.2 Sensitivity Analysis of Ecological Parameters _____________168 4.6.3 Case-Study Scenario_________________________________172 4.7 Discussion _____________________________________________175 4.7.1 Population Modelling to Refine Parasiticide Risk Assessment 175 4 List of Contents 4.7.2 Case-Study Scenario: Response of Population of Scatophaga Stercoraria to Ivermectin _____________________________________176 4.7.3 Model Evaluation___________________________________176 4.7.4 Incorporating Stochasticity____________________________178 4.7.5 Inclusion of Density Dependence _______________________179 4.7.6 Recommendations___________________________________181 4.8 Conclusions____________________________________________184 5 Discussion _________________________________________________187 5.1 Risks from Ivermectin in the Terrestrial Environment ___________187 5.2 Fate of Ivermectin in the Aquatic Environment ________________193 5.3 Implications for Environmental Risk Assessment of Parasiticides _194 5.4 Analytical Considerations _________________________________194 5.4.1 Terrestrial Fate Studies _______________________________195 5.4.2 Assessment of Impact on Terrestrial Fauna _______________196 5.4.3 Suggested Methodology for the Assessment of the Risks Posed to Dung Fauna by Parasiticides___________________________________198 5.5 Recommendations for Future Work _________________________198 Appendix A – Model Code in
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