Investigating the Orientation of Hafit Tomb Entrances in Wādī Κandām, Oman

Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 44 edited by Robert Hoyland & Sarah Morriss, Archaeopress 2014, pages 139-151 Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 44 (2014): 139–152

Investigating the orientation of Hafit tomb entrances in Wādī ΚAndām, Oman

William M. Deadman

Summary This paper presents the results and analysis of a small research project exploring the orientation of Hafit tomb entrances in Wadi Andam, Oman. Measurements were taken at three sites along the course of the wadi: Fulayj in the northern mountains, Khashbah in the foothills, and ΚUyun on the plains to the south. The clear similarity between the collective tomb entrance orientation data and the annual variation in the position of the sunrise suggests that the path of the sun was of great significance to the Hafit population of Wadi Andam, and that it was recorded in their tomb architecture. Variation in the tomb entrance data between the three sites suggests that the population was nomadic and moved between areas of Wadi Andam according to season. These results are discussed in the context of the distribution of Hafit tombs and the terrain of Wadi Andam in order to explore how, where, and when this seasonal migration could have occurred. Ethnographic studies of the modern nomadic pastoralists of Oman and the UAE are examined to provide potential parallels and to obtain a better understanding of the driving force behind the Hafit seasonal nomadism. The tomb entrance orientation measurements from Wadi Andam are also presented alongside the available published data, revealing a possible east/west regional divide in the Hafit funerary architecture of the northern Oman peninsula. The results of this research suggest that the Hafit population of Wadi Andam was nomadic, and migrated from the southern plains in the summer to the mountains and foothills when the rains came in the winter, moving through the terrain along the major watercourses and building tombs on nearby elevated areas as they were needed, with entrances pointing towards the sunrise.

Keywords: Wadi Andam, Hafit, Early Bronze Age, Oman, tomb

Introduction orientation data was recognized, and a short period of fieldwork was carried out in the winter of 2012. The Hafit period makes up the first half of the Early While the orientation of Hafit tomb entrances are Bronze Age in the northern Oman peninsula (3200– usually stated in excavation reports, or are apparent from 2500 BC). Although only a small number of possible the plans of the structures (e.g. Cleuziou, Pottier & Salles Hafit settlements have been discovered (e.g. Cleuziou 1977; Frifelt 1975), very little research directly examining 1989; Azzara 2009), Hafit tombs have been reported in them has so far been published. While investigating the large numbers across much of the region (Cleuziou & cluster of ‘beehive’ tombs at Bat, Böhme attempted to Tosi 2007: 107). Despite first being investigated more create a chronology for the construction of the tombs, than half a century ago (Glob 1959), only relatively based on the assumption that a significant period of time recently have attempts been made to discover what their would elapse before a new structure was built blocking widespread distribution may reveal about the nature of the line of sight from the entrance of an older tomb (2011: Hafit society (Al-JahwariArchaeopress 2013: 56–64; Deadman 2012a; 28–30). Open The German ArchaeologicalAccess Mission measured Giraud 2010). the orientation of a large number of Hafit tomb entrances This small project examines the orientation of Hafit during a survey of the Shir Plateau, and suggested that tomb entrances at three sites along the course of Wadi the range in the data reflected the natural variation of Andam (Wādī ΚAndām) in al-Šarqyah, Oman (Fig. 1). It the direction of the sunrise throughout the year (Yule was undertaken after several sites boasting well-preserved & Weisgerber 1998: 201). This — so far — somewhat Hafit tombs were noted during the ground-truthing of limited collection of research into Hafit tomb entrance a remote-sensing survey of the area (Deadman 2012a; orientation provided justification for undertaking this 2012b). The potential for collecting good tomb entrance small research project in Wadi Andam.

Copyright Archaeopress and the Author 2014 Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 44 edited by Robert Hoyland & Sarah Morriss, Archaeopress 2014, pages 139-151 140 William M. Deadman

Figure 1. The location of three Hafit tomb sites investigated in Wadi Andam, Oman.

Methodology and the three sites GPS coordinates were taken; the orientation of the tomb Archaeopressentrance Open (if preserved) Accesswas measured as accurately as Three sites that had been visited previously and which possible with a mirror compass, without disturbing the were known to have adequate tomb preservation, were tomb structure; and the presence of any surface finds was selected for investigation (Fig. 2). They all run along the noted but they were left in situ. course of Wadi Andam and are at least 20 km apart, within Fulayj is a village in the mountainous, northern part different environmental zones of the catchment area. of the Wadi Andam catchment area (Al-Jahwari 2013). At each site as many tombs as possible were recorded.1 Hafit tombs are present on the foot, slopes, and summit of the nearer hills on the northern bank of the wadi. The 1 At Fulayj and Khashbah this consisted of all the Hafit tombs; at ΚUyun, structures are difficult to reach and many of them are due to the large number of tombs and a lack of time, over half of the structures were recorded. excellently preserved.

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Figure 2. Hafit tombs at Fulayj, Khashbah, andΚ Uyun.

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Several kilometres to the east of the village of Khashbah (al-Еašibah) — known for its Umm an-Nar archaeology (Al-Jahwari & Kennet 2010) — are two distinctive ridges among the lower foothills of Wadi Andam. Well-preserved Hafit tombs are distributed along the crest and on the upper slopes of these two hills. Approximately 1 km south of the village of ΚUyun (al- ΚUywn) is a series of low gravel hills on the flat plains of the southern catchment of Wadi Andam. A very high number of Hafit tombs are distributed throughout these Figure 3. The number of tombs recorded and the low hills, as well as a number of possible Iron Age entrance survival rate at all three sites. burials. The tombs on the western side of the site are better preserved; judging from the surface pottery, the eastern tombs appear to have been reused during the Iron Age and are more disturbed. Unfortunately the site is also host to a large municipal rubbish dump, which is having a negative impact on the archaeology.

Results

The number of tombs recorded at each site and the proportion with a preserved entrance varied considerably. Fortunately, the sites with a lower entrance survival rate boasted more tombs in total, so a similar number of measurements were made at each site (Fig. 3). The level of disturbance of the tombs correlates with their accessibility. At Fulayj the tombs are very difficult to reach, even in a four-wheel drive, and are protected by the height and steepness of the hills. The two hills near Khashbah are immediately adjacent to the main road from Izki to Sinaw, but are protected to some extent by the difficulty to reach them due to the climb. Unfortunately, the low height and gradient of the gravel hills near ΚUyun do not offer much Figure 4. A comparison between tomb protection, and the use of the site as a rubbish dump has entrance orientation at all sites and the had a strongly negative impact on the Hafit tombs, with annual variation in sunrise azimuth. only a low proportion having a surviving entrance. When the tomb entrance orientation data from all three sites are displayed collectively, a significant pattern When considered individually, the dataset from each ° site is different (Fig. 5). At Fulayj, the northernmost site, emerges (Fig. 4). The distribution centres at around 90 (due east), but ranges from east-north-east to east-south- tomb entrance orientation ranges from east, almost to east. This closelyArchaeopress matches the annual variation in the south-east. Open At Khashbah Access the data distribution is narrower, azimuth of the sunrise for this part of Oman.2 Assuming from east to east-south-east. The ΚUyun tomb entrances that this extremely close match — statistically there is no are markedly different from the two northern sites, significant difference between the two datasets — is not ranging from east to east-north-east. a coincidence, the path of the sun must have had great This variation between the sites is highly informative significance to the Hafit population of Wadi Andam, and because it demonstrates that the Hafit occupation of the was recorded within their tomb architecture. plains, foothills, and mountainous areas of Wadi Andam was seasonal. If a sedentary population lived at, or near, each of these sites, then the tomb entrances at each would 2 This data was calculated automatically for the town of Sinaw for the year 2012 using an online application (Conrad 2012). range — in an identical fashion — from east-south-east to

Figure 5. The varying Hafit tomb entrance orientation at Fulayj, Khashbah, andΚ Uyun. east-north-east.Archaeopress This provides strong evidence for the case OpenDiscussion Access already made by some that Wadi Andam was occupied by nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists (Deadman 2012a: While the tomb entrance data collected at these three 33; Al-Jahwari 2013: 160). sites strongly suggests that the Hafit population in Wadi What is not immediately clear, however, is the temporal Andam was seasonally nomadic, they cannot provide pattern of this seasonal nomadism: which season was direct answers as to when, where, how, and why it moved spent where? This depends on how the Hafit population through the area. recorded the path of the sun in their tomb architecture; The relationship between Hafit tombs and the larger whether they built entrances pointing towards the sunrise watercourses suggests that the Hafit population may have or away from the sunset. used these as natural pathways through the sometimes

Copyright Archaeopress and the Author 2014 Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 44 edited by Robert Hoyland & Sarah Morriss, Archaeopress 2014, pages 139-151 144 William M. Deadman

Figure 6. An example of the pattern of Hafit tomb distribution in Wadi Andam (data from Deadman 2012a). difficult terrainArchaeopress of the Wadi Andam area (Deadman continuously, Open and stopping Access to entomb their dead on the 2012a: 33). On average, Hafit tombs are only 750 m nearest high ground when necessary, before continuing from a sizeable wadi channel, and the vast majority are their migration. within 1 km of one (2012a: 30). The tombs are distributed Whether or not it is appropriate to equate the areas along the larger watercourses, running parallel to them on of high tomb distribution to where the living Hafit nearby hills, banks, and other elevated areas (Fig. 6). This population occupied the landscape is a pertinent question is markedly different to, for example, the discrete clusters (Giraud 2009: 746–747); with so little Hafit settlement that have been reported in Ja’alan (Giraud 2010). This evidence available, however, we have little option but to pattern of distribution evokes the image of a population make use of the Hafit tomb dataset if we want to advance moving up and down the channels of Wadi Andam almost our understanding of the contemporary society. The

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Figure 7. A line of site towards sunrise and sunset among the tombs of Fulayj.

Copyright Archaeopress and the Author 2014 Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 44 edited by Robert Hoyland & Sarah Morriss, Archaeopress 2014, pages 139-151 146 William M. Deadman distribution of Hafit tombs in the Wadi Andam area is thus an excellent resource for understanding nomadism well understood. The three sites are by no means isolated in the Hafit period. clusters of tombs, but rather part of an almost continuous Without exception, the movements of every modern distribution stretching from just south of the village of nomadic group that has been studied are motivated by ΚUyun, well into the northern reaches of the major branch the availability of water, and grazing for their animals. and the Wādī Samad tributary (Al-Jahwari 2013: 56–64; The semi-nomadic tribes in Ras al-Khaimah spent the Deadman 2012a; Weisgerber 1980; Doe 1977: 46). The winter in the dunes — where rain had caused temporary distance between the southern and northern ranges of this grazing to spring up — and the summer in date gardens distribution is c.90 km, a round trip of 180 km, which or villages where there was a permanent source of water, would require a nomadic group to move 3–4 km each food, and grazing (Lancaster & Lancaster 2011). Further week to make the journey in one year. south, in the arid desert of central Oman, the Jiddat-il- To return to the earlier question, it is not possible to say Harasiis spend the winter on the desert plateau where definitively which season was spent in which part of Wadi there is annual grazing following winter rains and dew, Andam — this depends on whether the Hafit population and the summer on the coast where there are brackish constructed tomb entrances relative to the position of wells to water their livestock; historically they drank very sunrise or sunset. The topography of the Fulayj area, little water themselves and relied on camel and goat milk however, provides good circumstantial evidence and (Chatty 1996). In Ja’alan, animal herders move into the a possible solution to this question. The line of site, on jibal when the rains come in the winter and exploit the the ground among the tombs towards sunset, is severely seasonal resources of the annual grazing and pools of inhibited by the range of hills on which the structures fresh water. When these resources dry up they move into are built. In contrast, the view towards the direction of the major wadi channels where the permanent grazing sunrise is much better — an excellent vista of the horizon has been replenished by the rains (Lancaster & Lancaster (Fig. 7). This suggests that Hafit tombs were constructed 2002; 1996; 1992). with entrances orientated towards the sunrise. This general pattern of exploiting temporary seasonal In the northern hemisphere, the sun only rises due east resources — and the closest parallel provided by the at the spring and autumn equinoxes — at midsummer it mountain/wadi herders of Ja’alan — could well explain rises towards the north-east, and at midwinter towards the apparent Hafit migration. Summer was spent in the the south-east. The distribution of entrance orientation south on the plains where there was permanent grazing by readings at Fulayj and Khashbah most closely match the major wadi channels. When the winter rains came they the 2012 sunrise azimuth data for the autumn/winter would move north into the foothills and mountains where months, while the ΚUyun dataset is more comparable to annual grazing would spring up on the slopes, and where the spring/summer months (Fig. 8). This suggests that the water would collect in pools and smaller streams. Moving Hafit population spent the winter months in the hills and away into the mountains would allow the summer grazing mountains of the north, and the summer on the southern to recover and be rejuvenated, ready for the Hafit herders plains. and animals to return when the seasonal resources had This may appear counter-intuitive; it would seem to dried up. In the area of ΚUyun, the distribution of tombs make more sense, and has been suggested as a pattern for is dense but it also marks their southern limit. Just north nomadic pastoralists in an earlier period (Uerpmann & of ΚUyun, the large Samad tributary joins Wadi Andam, Uerpmann 2000: 48), to spend the cooler winter months so this stretch of the watercourse is where groundwater on the plains and the warmer summer months in the hills would be at its most plentiful before sinking away, out and mountains.Archaeopress The critical factor is determining the of reach,Open deeper into the Access alluvial plains.3 Whether or not driving force behind this nomadic movement. the Hafit population dug for groundwater, it is here where Between 8500 and 6000 cal. BP the northern Oman grazing would be most reliable during the dry summer peninsula was within the area dominated by the Indian months. Ocean Monsoon, but at c.6000 cal. BP the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone retreated southwards. This means that the climate during the Hafit period was not much dissimilar to modern conditions (Parker & Goudie 2008). 3 The availability of groundwater is apparent even from modern The wealth of available ethnographic data examining the settlement patterns: ΚUyun and Barzaman —a short distance south —are modern nomadic pastoralists of Oman and the UAE is the last villages located along the course of Wadi Andam.

Figure 8. Comparing tomb entrance orientation at the three sites and seasonal variation in the direction of the sunrise.

The wider context Fulayj, Khashbah, and ΚUyun are amalgamated with tomb entrance orientation data from other sites, an interesting This data analysis and the conclusions drawn from it regional pattern emerges. At sites in the eastern part of the may only apply to the Hafit population living within the peninsula, tomb entrances overwhelmingly range from Wadi Andam area; it has already been noted that tomb north-east to south-east, while in the west tomb entrances distribution hasArchaeopress been described very differently in the point Open in a completely Accessdifferent direction, from south area of coastal Ja’alan (Giraud 2010). It is worthwhile to north-east. This may suggest a difference in belief therefore to contextualize this data within the other systems with regard to the importance or the role of the information available from other sites in the northern sun; this is especially interesting because with regard to Oman peninsula (Fig. 9).44 When the measurements from (Eddisford & Phillips 2009: 111, 112); Ra’s al-Hadd (Salvatori 2001: 4 The source of the data by site: Al-Ayn (Schmidt 2011: fig. 27); Bat 67, 70); Ra’s al-Junayz (Joint Hadd Project 1987: 3); Shariq (Yule & (Böhme 2011: 26; Frifelt 1975: figs 21, 23); Jabal al-Emalah (Benton Weisgerber 1998: 210, 211); Shir (Yule & Weisgerber 1998: 211-237); & Potts 1994: 20, fig. 35); Jabal Buhais (Jasim 2012: 126); Jabal Hafit Tawi Silaim (de Cardi, Doe & Roskams 1977: fig. 2; de Cardi, Bell & (Cleuziou, Vogt & Méry 2011: 16, 18, 23, 28; Frifelt 1971: fig. 8); Kalba Starling 1979: 64, 66, 68).

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Figure 9. Published Hafit tomb entrance orientation data and Wadi Andam data measurements: an east/west divide. architecture and grave-contents, there is little difference palm gardens (Giraud 2010: 83), while in Wadi Andam between a Hafit tomb at Ra’s al-Hadd and another at Jabal the argument has been made for occupation by Hafit Hafit (cf. Salvatori 2001; Cleuziou, Vogt & Méry 2011). nomadic pastoralists (Al-Jahwari 2013: 59; Deadman It is possible that this architectural anomaly is 2012a: 33). It is possible that the Hafit period was more somehow linkedArchaeopress to varying economic strategies being regionalized Open and less uniformAccess than is generally thought, practised within different parts of the northern Oman and that the differences in tomb entrance orientation are peninsula during the Hafit period. Putting aside any an indicator of this. possible problems with dating (e.g. Potts 1997: 66–67) or differences in interpretation, differing Hafit economic Conclusion strategies have been suggested in different parts of the peninsula. At Hili 8 the existence of a large-scale oasis This small project examining the orientation of tomb settlement has been argued for (Cleuziou 1989), in Ja’alan entrances at the sites of Fulayj, Khashbah, and ΚUyun has the Hafit population is said to have practised seasonal yielded several insights into the Hafit population of Wadi fishing (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 93) and cultivated small Andam. The correspondence between the annual variation

Copyright Archaeopress and the Author 2014 Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 44 edited by Robert Hoyland & Sarah Morriss, Archaeopress 2014, pages 139-151 Investigating the orientation of Hafit tomb entrances in WādīΚ Andām, Oman 149 in the azimuth of the sunrise and the tomb entrance data the summer where these resources were permanent and suggests that the Hafit population in Wadi Andam recorded had been rested. Within the context of data from other the path of the sun in their funerary architecture, and that sites in the northern Oman peninsula, the tomb entrance therefore the sun played a role of some significance in measurements from Wadi Andam might indicate regional this Hafit society. The variation in the data between the differences in belief systems during the Hafit period sites suggest that the mountains, foothills, and plains which, along with the diversity in economic strategies, of Wadi Andam were seasonally occupied and that the may suggest that there was greater regionalization in the Hafit population moved between these areas. Hafit tomb Hafit period than is so far apparent from the relatively distribution patterns — on elevated areas, running parallel uniform archaeological evidence. to the major wadi channels — suggest that they followed Undoubtedly much more research has to be done to the watercourses while moving through the landscape. assess the validity of the results and interpretations of The extent of the distribution of Hafit tombs suggests that this small research project. Further investigations into the population ranged from the plains south of ΚUyun to the orientation of Hafit tomb entrances in Wadi Andam the mountainous northern catchment area of Wadi Andam. and at sites across the northern Oman peninsula, may The topography of the site of Fulayj suggests that they well be able to shed more light on the nature of Hafit built tomb entrances oriented towards the sunrise and, society and test the tentative theories suggested in this assuming that this is correct, spent winter in the northern research. elevated areas and summer on the southern plains. Parallels for such a pattern of seasonal nomadism are Acknowledgements apparent in modern ethnographic studies of the herders of Oman and the UAE — moving into the mountains and Many thanks to St John’s College (Durham) for providing hills to exploit seasonal grazing and water when the rains funding for this research, and to Derek Kennet and Tony came, before returning to the southern part of the wadi in Wilkinson for their advice and insightful comments.

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Author’s address

William M. Deadman, Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK. e-mail [email protected]

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