A St. Johns II Pottery Assemblage from the Shields Site (8DU12) Vicki L

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2004 Measuring Tradition and Variation: A St. Johns II Pottery Assemblage from the Shields Site (8DU12) Vicki L. Rolland

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

MEASURING TRADITION AND VARIATION:

A ST. JOHNS II POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE FROM THE SHIELDS SITE (8DU12)

VICKI L. ROLLAND

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2004 The members of the committee approve the thesis of Vicki L. Rolland defended on

December 18, 2003.

______Rochelle Marrinan Professor Directing Thesis

______Rebecca A. Saunders Committee Member

______Glen Doran Committee Member

Approved:

______Dean Falk, Chair, Department of Anthropology

The office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

To Jeff and Meaghan Rolland, and Jeff one more time for good measure

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are three women who have been my excellent teachers and my excellent friends. They have always freely shared their time and offered me encouragement. The following pages resonate with their ideas, their knowledge, and their desire to uncover and understand the process of pottery construction, continuity, and change. Thank you to Rebecca Saunders, Rochelle Marrinan, and Ann Cordell. I thank Keith Ashley for his curiosity, patience, and energy, all of which have often provided me with ample inspiration and determination. No one places the bar higher than Dr. Ashley and it has been my honor to participate in the Shields project. Once again I thank Jeff and Meaghan. This has been a very long and winding road and never once did they complain about time spent away on projects near and far—time that could have been spent on activities more pertinent to our family life. But here we are, and we have survived it all. Thank you to my committee, Rochelle Marrinan, Rebecca Saunders, and Glen Doran. All three are fine teachers and motivators who encourage looking at new approaches to analysis and interpretation. Also thank you to Lisa Beverly at the graduate office who guided me through the intricacies of finishing the thesis paperwork. A special and heartfelt thank you goes to Mr. and Mrs. Kinzey Reeves who have protected the property around Shields Mound. An unknown number of sites along the south bank of the St. Johns River have been impacted or destroyed by pothunters or developers, but the integrity of the Shields site was apparent from the first shovel load. The Reeves maintain a beautiful yard and rose garden, yet they allowed gangs of scoundrel archaeologists to return again and again disturbing their yard and their quiet weekends. The Reeves are true patrons of Florida history and Southeastern Archaeology. The Shields excavations were unfunded. Many UNF students, neighborhood folks, and other volunteers participated and helped make the Shields project an outstanding contribution to Florida archaeology. Access to the Shields site and the surrounding iv

properties were greatly aided by Walter Wells. Walter and his fellow members of the Northeastern Florida Archaeological Society, Michael Tarlton, David Bishop, and James Freel were highly instrumental in the excavations and in the guiding of new recruits as to exactly what was and what was not an artifact. Thanks again to Ann Cordell who allowed me to use the Florida Museum of Natural History ceramics lab for the refiring experiment. Thanks also to Greg Heide who guided me through a variety of computer and graphics problems. Finally, I thank my dad, Dale Mortimer, who has throughout his life set an example for hard work and perseverance. All of us have a great deal to live up to.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... ix List of Figures...... xiii Abstract...... xv

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2. COUNTINUITY AND CHANGES IN CERAMIC TRADITIONS, FUNCTIONS AND INFORMATION ...... 8 Shields’ Socio-political Organization...... 9 Theories of Ceramic Change and Continuity...... 10 Non-local Pottery and Mixed Assemblages...... 13 Discard and Scale...... 17 Summary...... 21

3. THE SHIELDS SITE AND ST. JOHNS II CULTURE...... 23 St. Johns II Occupation of the Lower St. Johns River Basin...... 23 The Shields Burial and Ceremonial Center ...... 25 Excavations at the Shields Site ...... 28 Organization of the Site into Ten Subareas ...... 32 Dating the Middens...... 36

4. METHODS AND DEFINITIONS...... 38 Defining Paste Groups: Tempering and Aplastic Agents...... 39 Definitions of Surface Treatments...... 44 Summary...... 57

5. PASTE ANALYSIS...... 58 Paste Groups ...... 58 Spatial Distribution of Paste Groups and Subgroups...... 67

6. VESSEL FORMS, CONSTRUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION...... 75 Forms and Orifice Measurements...... 76 Vessel Forms and Wall Thickness...... 88 Vessel Surface Treatment and Wall Thickness ...... 89 Vessel Thickness Experiment: Smaller and Larger than 2 cm ...... 91 Special Form Modification ...... 92

7. SURFACE TREATMENTS ...... 96 Distribution of Plain Sherds: Spiculate, Sand, and Sand-Grog Tempers . 97 Non-spiculate Vessels Surface Treatments...... 98 St. Johns Vessels Surface Treatments...... 101 St. Johns Check-Stamped...... 104 St. Johns Plain...... 107 Comparing Vessel Sizes and Surface Treatment...... 110

8. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY UTILIZATION OF POTTERY...... 115 Primary Use-Wear ...... 115 Secondary Use-Wear ...... 128 Discussion...... 131

9. REFIRED SHERD STUDY ...... 132 What Refiring Experiments Reveal ...... 132 Refiring Procedure...... 134 Study Sample ...... 135 Results...... 135 Shields Test Units: Stratigraphic Comparisons ...... 145 Discussion...... 146 Conclusion ...... 149

10. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 151

APPENDIX A...... 157 Midden or shovel test group: surface treatment and thickness East Group ...... 158 West Group ...... 159 West Bluff Group...... 160 Kinzey’s Group...... 161 Northwest Group...... 162 Kinzey’s West...... 163 Kinzey’s South...... 164 Reeves Rise...... 165 Bluff Midden...... 164 Kinzey’s Knoll...... 169

APPENDIX B ...... 173 Analysis of appliqué rims, Ocmulgee III

APPENDIX C ...... 176 Refiring data

REFERENCES ...... 184

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 199

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LIST OF TABLES

3.1. Midden and Group designations...... 34

3.2. Radiometric dates representing four Shields and One Grant midden context...... 37

4.1. Standardized size and abundance measurements used in the classification of the Shields paste categories...... 41

5.1. Summary of paste groups: counts and weights...... 58

5.2. Gross paste categories and subgroups...... 59-60

5.3. Summary of St. Johns paste and inclusions...... 62

5.4. Summary of sandy St. Johns paste and inclusions...... 63

5.5. Summary of St. Johns-grog and sandy St. Johns-grog paste and inclusion...... 63

5.6. Summary of Ocmulgee grit-tempered paste and inclusions ...... 65

5.7. Summary of Ocmulgee grit-grog-tempered paste and inclusions...... 65

5.8. Summary of sand-tempered paste and inclusions...... 66

5.9. Summary of sand-grog-tempered paste and inclusions ...... 67

5.10. Distribution of gross paste groups by subsample...... 68

5.11. Distribution of St. Johns sherds...... 69

5.12. Distribution of Papys Bayou and Little Manatee sherds, ...... 69

5.13. Distribution of sandy St. Johns sherds...... 70

5.14. Distribution of St. Johns-grog sherds...... 70

5.15. Distribution of sandy St. Johns sherds...... 70

5.16. Distribution of grit-tempered sherds...... 71

5.17. Distribution of grit-grog-tempered sherds...... 72

5.18. Distribution of sand-tempered and micaceous sand-tempered sherds...... 72

5.19. Distribution of sand-charcoal-tempered sherds...... 72

5.20. Distribution of san-grog-tempered sherds...... 73

6.1. Summary of all spiculate and non-spiculate rim forms...... 76

6.2a. Rim orientation of identified forms from middens...... 78

6.2b. Rim orientation of identified forms from shovel tests...... 79

6.3. Non-spiculate paste subgroups: orifice diameters of globular vessels...... 80

6.4. St. Johns globular vessel diameters by area...... 81

6.5. Sandy St. Johns globular vessels diameters by area...... 82

6.6. St. Johns open vessel diameters by area...... 83

6.7. Sandy St. Johns open vessels by area...... 84

6.8. Non-spiculate simple vessel diameters by area...... 85

6.9. St. Johns simple vessel diameters by area...... 87

6.10. Sandy St. Johns simple vessel diameters by area...... 87

6.11. Comparison of St. Johns and sandy St. Johns: vessel forms, rim, lip thickness...... 89

6.12. Comparison of St. Johns wall thicknesses: median and average measurements for check-stamped and plain surfaces...... 91

6.13. Comparison of sherd thickness measurements for those greater and smaller the 2cm...... 92

6.14. Special form modifications...... 93

7.1. Plain spiculate, sand-and sand-grog-tempered sherds...... 97

7.2. Summary of surface treatment non-spiculate paste subgroups...... 100

7.3. Interior surface compaction: grit- and grit-grog-tempered cordmarked and plain sherds from Kinzey’s Knoll and Bluff Midden...... 101

7.4. Interior surface compaction: sand and sand-grog-tempered cordmarked and plain sherds from Kinzey’s Knoll and Bluff Midden...... 101

7.5. Summary of St. Johns surface treatments...... 103

7.6a. Distribution of check shapes and interior finished from midden contexts...... 106

7.6b. Distribution of check shapes and interior finished from shovel test groups...... 107

7.7. Percentages of plain sherd surfaces from midden contexts and shovel test groups..108

7.8a. Distribution of plain sherds and interior finished from midden contexts...... 109

7.8b. Distribution of plain sherds and interior surfaces from shovel test groups...... 110

7.9. Globular rims: St. Johns and sandy St. Johns pastes, checked and plain surfaces. ..112

7.10. St. Johns and sandy St. Johns open rim diameters: checked and plain surfaces.....113

7.11. St. Johns and sandy St. Johns simple bowls: checked and plain surfaces...... 114

8.1. Count and percentages of sooted exterior and interior surfaces...... 118

8.2. Comparison of sooted vessel form and sizes by subareas...... 119

8.3. Count and percentages of stained surfaces by subareas...... 120

8.4. Count and percentages of sherds bearing red film or ground iron oxide...... 121

8.5. Comparison of abraded surfaces, selected areas...... 125

8.6. Percentages and location of sherds bearing evidence of secondary use: hones, scraper-like or net-fid tools...... 126

9.1. Descriptive terminology expressing Munsell numerical values and chroma ...... 134 notation.

9.2. Counts, frequencies, and locations of refired sample...... 137

9.3. Refired paste categories by hue, value, and chroma color ranges...... 142

9.4. Comparison of Munsell value levels...... 143

9.5. Comparison of St. Johns and Ocmulgee series refired data: Shields Test Unit and other sites...... 147

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.1. Location of Shield site and Ocmulgee III homeland...... 2

1.2. Mounds along the lower St. Johns River Basin, located by C.B. Moore, 1895...... 3

3.1. C.B. Moore’s rendering of the Shield Mound complex, 1896...... 27

3.2. Location of excavation units and designated areas...... 30

3.3. Location of test units...... 31

4.1. St. Johns check-stamped sherds, both exhibit paddle edges...... 50

4.2. Example of Fire Island-like checked sherd...... 50

4.3. Example of St. Johns Incised rim...... 51

4.4. Example of St. Johns Shell Punctate...... 51

4.5. Example of scored St. Johns base...... 52

4.6. Example of haphazard check stamping leaving St. Johns base plain...... 52

4.7. Examples of reduction and oxidized firing techniques: Ocmulgee Cordmarked sherds ...... 53

4.8. Example of woven Ocmulgee III sherd...... 53

4.9. Examples of medium length Ocmulgee appliqué rims...... 54

4.10. Examples of long and double appliqué Ocmulgee rims...... 54

6.1. Examples of St. Johns podal and Ocmulgee grit-tempered podal or node...... 94

6.2. Examples of elaborations of St. Johns rims...... 94

6.3. Profile of canid adorno from Reeves Rise...... 95

xiii

6.4. Incised features of canid adorno...... 95

8.1. Example of spotted stain on the interior of a St. Johns vessel...... 122

8.2. Example of unidentified staining in interior and exterior of St. Johns sherds...... 122

8.3. Example of red filing and carbonized organic material...... 123

8.4. Example of ground iron oxide recovered on the flat base of a partially red filmed St. Johns base...... 123

8.5. Example of heavy abrasion below Ocmulgee III Cordmarked rim...... 127

8.6. Example of heavy areal abrasion on St. Johns vessel. Exterior of heavily carbonized sherd in Figure 8.3...... 127

8.7. Examples of hone scars on St. Johns sherds...... 129

8.8. Examples of a variety of hone techniques and a beveled scraping tool from recycled St. Johns sherds ...... 129

8.9. Examples of scraping or finishing tools, recycled St. Johns sherds ...... 130

8.10. Recycled St. Johns sherd used as small, beveled-edge scraper with oblique lashing scars...... 130

9.1. Location of sites contributing pottery samples for the refiring experiment...... 136

9.2. Distribution of Pottery Types or Pastes within Munsell Hues...... 138

9.3 Examples of refired clay colors from the Shields site...... 144

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ABSTRACT

This thesis presents a detailed analysis of a St. Johns II (A.D. 900-1250) ceramic assemblage recovered from the Shields site in extreme northeastern Florida. The ceramic assemblage was recovered from activity areas immediately north and northwest of the Shields burial mound (8DU12). The study collection is comprised of two pottery types: the St. Johns and Ocmulgee III series. St. Johns ceramics represent the local tradition and Ocmulgee pottery was originally produced in south-central Georgia near the confluences of the Ocmulgee, Oconee, and Altamaha rivers. This mixed assemblage offers the opportunity to explore the maintenance of pottery traditions (i.e., paste construction, formal and stylistic characteristics). The study also examines the possible roles of pottery at this ritual/ceremonial site as well as the roles of St. Johns and Ocmulgee women potters who, through the steadfast recreation of traditional pottery vessels, reinforced and reproduced cultural identity while engaging in long distance and long-term interaction. The construction of traditional vessels was not a fragile concept to the women of this area, for, through 350 years of exchange, trade, probable intermarriage, and alliance, distinct pottery traditions persisted.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This study focuses on the St. Johns II ceramic assemblage recovered from the activity areas adjacent to Shields Mound (8DU12), an early Mississippian period site in extreme northeast Florida (Figure 1.1). The Shields complex of earth and shell constructions lies at the eastern edge of a burial and ceremonial district bounded by Grant Mound (8DU14), 700 meters to the west. The Shields-Grant mortuary and ceremonial center was established on the south bank of the St. Johns River by A.D. 900 and was occupied until ca. A.D. 1250 (Ashley 2002) (Figure 1.2). Locally produced spicule-tempered pottery, associated with the St. Johns culture, dominates the pottery assemblage; however, the remains of Ocmulgee III mineral- and grog-tempered vessels are well represented horizontally and vertically throughout the excavated area. Only recently recognized as a component of St. Johns II assemblages, Ocmulgee cordmarked and plain vessels were originally produced in south-central Georgia (Figure 2) in a region surrounding the confluences of the Ocmulgee, Oconee, and Altamaha rivers (Ashley 2002, 2003b; Snow 1977). This study considers the roles of St. Johns II and Ocmulgee III vessels at Shields as containers for utilitarian and special event use and as visual markers of group social affiliation and group political or economic alliance. I contend that the continuity and conservatism of St. Johns and Ocmulgee pottery at this site implies that pottery style and technical construction was deeply ingrained in cultural identity and this created resistance to ceramic change. In the Shields stratigraphic record we observe the assiduous persistence of two pottery traditions although their respective manufacturers were probably socially interactive, possibly even utilizing each other’s vessels. The maintenance of tempering material and modes of surface treatments (linear carved design vs. cordage wrapped paddles) of these two distinct pottery traditions does not necessarily imply factionalization, but could symbolize successful social assimilation. The recovery of these two dissimilar but well integrated ceramic types may indicate the recognition by St. Johns and Ocmulgee populations that they enjoyed a larger identity characterized by inclusion, cooperation, and alliance along the banks of the St. Johns River. The intent of the thesis is three-fold. First, it offers a descriptive profile of a St. Johns II ceramic assemblage discarded at a special-status ideological, social, and political center. Second, through detailed measurement and observation, the study reports variations or similarities for a series of stylistic and techno-functional attributes including vessel body thickness, vessel shape, and surface finishing. It also describes patterns and frequencies of primary and secondary use-wear. Third, the study examines vessel construction and discard (comparing and contrasting functional classes by vessel size and shape in designated areas across the site) and evaluates evidence that suggests local production of Ocmulgee III vessels. The thesis begins with a review of ceramic studies that examine the theories of change or continuity of ceramic traditions. Researchers analyzing artifact assemblages recovered from large scale group ritual or feast gatherings, such as those occurring at Shields, attempt to interpret the temporal and spatial extent of the regional significance of aggregation sites by recognizing and enumerating local and non-local pottery typologies; the scale of discard; special event ceramic attributes such as unusual forms and size; reconstruct-ability of vessels; modes or methods of production (household or specialization), signatures of use, and public discard (Blitz 1993; Clarke 2001; Deal 1998; DeBoer 2001; DeBoer and Lathrup 1979; Deitler and Hayden 2001; Junker 1999; Kirch 2001; Hagstrum 2001; Longacre and Skibo 1994; Mills 1999; Renfrew 2001; Sassaman 1993; Sears 1973; Sinopoli 1999; Stark 1999a, 1999b; Toll 2001; Vogel 1975; Wills 2001; Wobst 1997, 1999). Chapter 3 presents the recently reconstructed history of the 350-year occupation of the St. Johns II people in extreme northeastern Florida. Researchers in northeast Florida and southeast Georgia (Ashley 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002; Ashley and Thunen 2001; Milanich 1994; Russo 1992; Stephenson 2002, 2003) have begun to reassess the political and social organization of the aboriginal cultures in this area. Russo (1992:121-122) argues that as far

Figure 1.2. Mounds of the lower St. Johns River basin, as located by C.B. Moore, 1895.

back as the Late Archaic populations that inhabited the region falling between the Satilla, St. Marys, and St. Johns rivers were already interactive and “inter-regional” and deserving of “a separate cultural identity.” Focusing on later periods Ashley (2002, 2003a) and Stephenson (2000, 2003) have clarified the terminal dates of Woodland Swift Creek and Colorinda pottery production in this area.. Ashley (2002, 2003b) proposes that evidence of an established interaction that existed between Florida and far reaching Georgian interior and coastal plain populations continues and enlarged to include far reaching Mississippian cultures. Ashley (2002, 2003b) also has determined that the period of St. Johns II occupation of the lower St. Johns River is more condensed than previously thought and that some of the long-accepted interpretations and assumptions regarding the broad-brush adoption of heartland Mississippian culture-traits, including inherited chiefly leadership, kinship based elite statuses, and agriculturally driven political economics are incorrect. Chapter 3 includes a description of the Shields site, references to Moore’s 1895 excavation of the mound, and the recent excavations by Ashley that provided the ceramic collection used in this study. This chapter describes the division of the site into ten subareas that are based on shell and pottery frequency. This division facilitates intra-site comparisons and throughout the thesis, data are presented by means of these ten intra-site proveniences. Chapter 4 describes the methods of analysis and the formal and stylistic attributes that were measured. Definitions are offered for St. Johns and Ocmulgee paste characteristics and the paste subgroups that were identified. Tempering agents are defined by kind and size. The chapter concludes with definitions of the varieties of modified and plain surface treatments recorded during analysis. Chapter 5 reports the results of microscopic paste analysis. Two gross paste categories (spiculate and non-spiculate sherds) were used to organize the collection and their counts and frequencies are presented. The presence of other mineral constituents back as the Late Archaic, populations inhabiting the regions between the Satilla, the St. Marys, and St. Johns rivers were already interactive and “inter-regional” and deserving of “a separate cultural identity.” Focusing on later periods, Ashley (2002, 2003a) and Stephenson

are identified and discussed with regard to local and non-local raw clay resources and natural or incidental inclusions. An uneven distribution of paste subgroups within the ten areas is reported. Building upon paste composition, Chapter 6 begins to present the data generated from the attribute analysis. Both technological and stylistic characteristics are reported with an emphasis on the interplay of vessel forms and sizes and St. Johns and sandy St. Johns body and lip thickness. Comparisons of the distribution in surface treatments are presented in Chapter 7. Emphasis is placed on the frequencies of St. Johns check shape and four levels of compaction coded for plain surfaces. The varieties of incised and punctated modifications are also presented. Chapter 8 reviews the kinds and frequencies of use-related evidence. Primary use- wear includes surface abrasion and attrition and the presence of residues (e.g., sooting, iron oxide pigment, or other stains). Evidence of secondary reuse in the recycling of sherds as processing tools includes the recovery of hones, a beveled scraper, and a collection of completely rounded, worn sherds (possibly used as smoothing implements), low abrasion scrapers or sanders, or net fids. In addition to standardized paste constituent analysis, I conducted a refiring experiment using 146 local and non-local sherds. The methods and results of this experiment are described in Chapter 9. The purpose of the experiment was to identify the variety of clay sources found within each paste group. The study was designed to determine: 1) the range of clay colors found within pottery types, (implied by broadly grouping refired color hues, levels, and chroma) and 2) whether clay color could be used to distinguish local from non- local production of Ocmulgee pottery. The results provide significant data relating to both spicule- and mineral-tempered pottery, and local and non-local pottery types. Chapter 10 presents a discussion of the results and implications from the analysis of the Shields assemblage. The following observations and questions are addressed. 1. The Shields pottery assemblage is comprised of vessels constructed by two geographically distinct populations who interacted but maintained discrete paste construction and stylistic and formal ceramic traditions.

2. What vessel forms and sizes are present and how are they distributed throughout the site?

3. The Shields ceramic assemblage (with a probable ritual component) is tied to feasting and other communal activities. By comparing the data recovered from the ten subareas, can we speculate on the use of pottery in public discard as a method by which participants identified themselves, their membership, and, therefore, their right to attend and participate in the proceedings?

Other research will be presented (Chapter 2) that addresses the use of pottery in domestic and special event contexts. Previous research has shown that the construction, use, and discard of pottery combine to support and reinforce the most seminal of human needs, to be nourished and to acknowledge family or group membership. In Chapter 10, the Shields data are applied to those concepts and the implications of both its practical and symbolic qualities are addressed.

CHAPTER 2

CONTINUITY AND CHANGES IN CERAMIC TRADITIONS, FUNCTION AND INFORMATION

The Shields site provides evidence of the northern expansion of St. Johns II culture during the tenth century A.D. and the long-term interaction between northeastern St. Johns II villagers with people from the eastern Ocmulgee River region in Georgia. Migrating north from central eastern Florida, St. Johns II populations wasted little time imprinting their presence on the landscape of the lower basin. Large sand burial mounds rose along the great waterway and extensive oyster middens containing St. Johns pottery and other subsistence and cultural remains accumulated adjacent to marshes and creek banks. Ocmulgee III ceramics also were discarded in St. Johns II middens but these have been identified only recently. Ashley (2000, 2001, 2002) reexamined St. Johns II collections and, after comparing Florida samples with Ocmulgee vessels housed at South Georgia College (Snow 1977), discovered that Ocmulgee III pottery is broadly distributed from Mt. Royal, in central Florida, northward to Fernandina Beach. Stratigraphic evidence further revealed that Ocmulgee vessels are present from the inception of the Shields occupation until the abandonment of the site 350 years later. This study documents the traits, frequencies, and distribution of St. Johns II and Ocmulgee pottery recovered from an extra-ordinary politico-religious and social-ceremonial site. Throughout the excavated area, Ocmulgee pottery is stratigraphically well integrated with, and easily distinguished from St. Johns spiculate wares. Therefore,

8 the Shields assemblage provides the opportunity to explore the generational maintenance of two dissimilar yet interwoven pottery traditions in use at a vibrant and flourishing St. Johns II ritual/ceremonial center. In the following discussion, the findings of other researchers are presented that are relevant to understanding the continuity of traditional ceramic styles and fabrics observed in the Shields assemblage. Other articles are included that describe the diverse characteristics observed at other large and periodically attended intercommunity events such as occurred at Shields. Research topics addressed in these reports include: • theories of ceramic change and continuity • non-local ceramics and mixed assemblages (local and non-local) • traits of ritual/ceremonial or feasting assemblages including distribution and scale of discard, special event forms or vessel sizes, and reconstruct-ability

Shields’ Socio-political Organization Before presenting illustrations of the various research topics listed above, it will be beneficial to the reader to understand the social and political setting in which the St. Johns and Ocmulgee pottery was produced, utilized and discarded. After close reexamination of C.B. Moore’s publications, Ashley (2002:168-173; 2003b) proposes that the social and political organization of the St. Johns II polities was not based on inherited elite statuses typical of Mississippian heartland chiefdoms but rather was representative of a communal or corporate political structure (Blanton et al. 1996; King 2003). On the basis of Moore’s documents, Ashley was unable to pinpoint evidence of kin-based control of prestige goods or focal political positions. A key characteristic of corporate polities is the lack of wealth accumulation by individuals or kin groups and the emplacement of social and political limitations on the retention of powerful positions. This does not imply that differentiated status levels were not available or positions of influence sought, only that social limits were in place that discouraged the ascension of individuals to permanent positions of power. King (2003:9-15) states that corporate political systems are based on inclusiveness, group solidarity, and “immutable

9 interdependence of subgroups”. Such group- or community-oriented ideals support larger-sized polities that are more stable through time (Blanton et al 1996). The observed maintenance of the two geographically disparate and stylistically distinct pottery traditions recorded in the Shields assemblage correlates well to a communal or group oriented atmosphere as proposed by Ashley. Most obvious is the reproduction of two traditional surface modifications that lack individuality and display group identity. Although domestic middens have not been identified at the site, excavation in the ceremonial sector reveals that both pottery types are found intermingled and that areas of discard are not segregated by type. Variations in these themes — pottery employed to display group identity and membership and group interaction and alliance — are expanded upon in the articles below.

Theories of Ceramic Change and Continuity In ceramic studies, long term continuity or shifts in stylistic or construction traits are used to denote the maintenance of strict or loose social boundaries, changes in subsistence or social organization, migration, and interaction. Continuity of decorative styles and paste compositions is used to indicate cultural identity and affiliation, vessel function, or production areas (Aronson et al., 1994; Arthur 2002; Bernbeck 1999; Boone 2000; Cordell 2001; Crown 1995, 1999; DeBoer 1974; Ferguson 1989, 1992; Garrow and Wheaton 1989; Hagstrum 1995; Hill and Gunn 1977; Rice 1987; Rolland and Ashley 2002; Shepard 1995; Sassaman 1993; Saunders 2002, 2003; Singleton 1998; Stoltman 1991, 1999). At Shields, stratigraphic evidence reveals a very conservative and traditional approach to pottery production by both St. Johns and Ocmulgee potters. Despite long- term interaction, their reliance upon and reproduction of individual traditional stylistic and compositional traits persisted. In this case, faithfulness to ceramic reproduction methodologies may be attributed to reaffirmation of identity and separate heritages while presenting visual statements of social inclusion or alliance. Seemingly, during 350 years of association, adoption or borrowing of the other’s most visible construction techniques was a door not opened. What factors might be relevant as we examine this inflexible utilization of specific tempers and surface modifications?

10 The mechanics of ceramic change are often explained as responses to variation in cultural, environmental, or socio-political conditions. Factors contributing to ceramic change may include: new construction demands regarding vessel function (i.e., adoption of agriculture or other new dietary or processing regimes; or surplus storage); alterations in social behaviors (i.e., access to raw resources; fluctuating population levels; population movement, dispersal, or aggregation; changes in ritual activities or value systems; social or political interaction; stylistic drift; or innovation); and economics (i.e., household level vs. commercial production; trade and market opportunities; distance from or depletion of raw materials; or the emergence of craft specialization or standardization) (Binford 1962; Bowser 2000; Cordell 2001; Deagan 1998; Hagstrum 1995; Hegmon et al. 1995; Hardin and Mills 2000; Hegmon 2000; Longacre 1999; Mills 1999; Rice 1984, 1987, 1991; Saunders 2000, 2001; Steponaitis 1983; Stoltman 1999; Zedeño 1995). Others explore mechanics whereby formal attributes or paste composition resist change (within an accepted range of variability). These discussions center on the role of pottery as a marker of social affiliation or individual identity (Information Theory); the establishment and maintenance of ethnic, social, or status boundaries; the development of shared group technological criteria; common mental templates reinforced by kin or gender-based craft production groups; preservation of religious or ideological symbols; domestic vs. display or prestige containers; and repetition (motor memory) (Arnold 2000, Bender 1990, Bowser 2000; Chilton 1998, 1999; Conkey 1978; Conkey and Hastorf (eds.) 1990; Cordell 2001; Deagan 1978; David et al. 1988; Habicht-Mauche 1995, 2000; Rice 1984, 1987; Schiffer 1999; Wobst 1977, 1999; Zedeño 1995). Ethnographic documentation of the perpetuation of particular forms and specific paste compositions often closely link form to function (i.e., restricted forms and sizes for water jars or ritual containers) and the commercial demand for specialized or standardized forms and sizes (Arnold 1985; Deal 1998; Habicht-Mauche 1991, 1995, 2000; Longacre 1999; Longacre et al. 2000; Rice 1984; Sinopoli 1999; Stark 1995; Stark et al. 2000). The repeated use of both stylistic and technological construction characteristics may reflect adherence to conceptual rules (learned configurations) and cultural

11 constraints (generational standards of the way things ought to be built, or approaches that reject comparably functioning traits), as well as the potter’s concept of his or her own cultural identity. Multigenerational reproduction of particular stylistic elements or motifs may represent the influence of deeply entrenched cosmological symbols (Bowser 2000:241; David et al. 1988; Hutchinson and Aragon 2002; Mahia 1993; Saunders 2000, 2001; Sears 1973; Schiffer 1999; Weissner 1983; Wobst 1977). The underlying reasons prompting the replication of compositional and formal ceramic characteristics, such as is witnessed with the two ceramic typologies at Shields, may be varied. Gosselain (1992, 1994, 2000) proposes that one underlying factor for this phenomenon lies in the learned technological aspects of pottery construction. Although he agrees that pottery-learning and social reinforcement of recreating pottery types is “embedded in broader social networks based on kinship, language affiliation, clans or casts,” he cautions that, given the widespread occurrence of interaction and imitation, enculturation, assimilation, or political alliances throughout time, a simple equation of conspicuous or superficial ceramic attributes with ethnic identity is a slippery slope. He (Gosselain 2000:208-209) proposes that “fashioning techniques” (processing and construction methods) are more resistant to change than decoration, and therefore provide researchers with more accurate information regarding “...social networks built upon cultural or even kin affiliation.” Taking an alternate but not altogether contradictory stance, Pfaffenberger (2001) shifts the emphasis of identification of and affiliation with cultural symbols from the finished product to the process of replication. He acknowledges that social meanings are incorporated into cultural symbols but proposes that communal cultural meanings are the result of shared and exchanged technological activities—figuratively insisting that the cart remain behind the horse. He (Pfaffenberger 2001:84-85) states that “...symbolism is a consequence of activities that produce shared meanings, rather than the cause of such meanings.” The multi-phase construction of prehistoric pottery, probably performed by female task groups comprised of kin or village members, lends itself to this argument. The idea that shared and replicated processes of culturally endorsed behaviors and material constructions are meaningful has been reported in the southwest. After observing

12 vessel construction by Navaho potters—at least as much as they were permitted— Tschopik (1941:48-52)) and Hill (1938:117) reported that Navaho women incorporated rituals that preceeded and accompanied every stage of pottery production. Tschopik and Hill proposed that the integration of shared daily or specific task rituals, often directed toward minute details, acted to regulate and recreate inseparable secular and ideological aspects of their daily activities. In this vein, the presence of two pottery types recovered in the Shields assemblage represent not merely an attempt to achieve Ocmulgee- or St. Johns-appearing pottery, but through each of the steps of clay and temper collection, processing, construction, surface modification, firing and utilization, female task groups of each tradition were actively reinforcing and recreating socio-cultural behaviors and material traditions rather than passively copying vessels traits (also see Conkey 1991; Emberling 1999; Hagstrum 1995; Hendon 1999; Johnson 2000; Neill 2000; Trostel 1994).

Non-local Pottery and Mixed Assemblages The frequency and distribution of non-local pottery types — broadly identified by significantly dissimilar stylistic, tempering, or mineralogical characteristics — recovered within an assemblage or from particular contexts are used to deduce shifting social, political, and economic networks, as well as interaction through time. In prehistoric sites in northeastern Florida, as in other areas, accurate identification of non-local pottery has not always been clear-cut (i.e., Ocmulgee series, St. Marys Cordmarked, Colonoware) (Ashley 2003b; Ashley and Rolland 1997, 2002; Rolland and Ashley 2000; Russo and Heide 2002; also see Lesure and Blake 2002). Therefore, our understanding of the sequence and identification of northeast Florida’s cultural groups and the intensity and breadth of regional interactions has been imprecise. This situation has created interpretive problems regarding social and political complexity or economic activities (i.e., the presence and intensity of long distance trade, mate exchange, small scale or peaceful migration, etc.). In the following section, research of others is presented who were able to decipher and offer explanations for the mixed assemblages found in their study area.

13 Researchers who encounter prehistoric sites that contain mixed pottery components are presented with several interpretive problems. Are non-local potters integrated into a society but retain learned construction methods? Are non-local clays or tempering materials transported or exchanged? Are pots being traded or brought in as tribute or gifts? Researchers may turn for insights to ethnographic or historical studies that report the coexistence, if not the co-production, of two or more separate pottery traditions. Bowser (2000:227-229) found that women of the Ecuadorian Amazon are capable of producing multiple styles and often adopt the techniques of the local tradition when they relocate. During her studies of Pueblo assemblages, Bunzel (1972 [1927]:80-83) found that rapid re-adoption of old forms and decorative styles (revivals of ancient designs and forms recovered during archaeological excavations) were energized by both commercial and aesthetic demand. At the same time, however, she observed that traditional Puebloan vessels (i.e., semi-ceremonial bowls, assemblages produced at more conservative mesas, or household storage vessels of little commercial value) experienced extended production along side the revivalist designs before they too were eventually replaced (also see Habicht-Mauche 2000:217-219).

Native American and Spanish Assemblages in Florida Retention of traditional aboriginal utilitarian forms, used in tandem with newly introduced European wares, has been documented in Spanish colonial sites. In northeastern Florida during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, immigrating Spanish males took Native American women as wives or housekeepers. In the earliest days of the St. Augustine colony, many of these women represented Guale or Yamasee groups who reproduced non-local (i.e., non-St. Johns) construction traditions brought with them from their Georgia homeland. Household middens dating to that period in St. Augustine’s early history, contain evidence that Native American women continued to use their grit-tempered cooking pots alongside imported Spanish- or Mexican-made serving wares (Boyd et al. 1951; Deagan 1978, 1990; Hann 1988; McEwan [ed.] 1993; Otto and Lewis 1974; Saunders 2002.).

14 This assemblage pattern documented at a Spanish urban context (aboriginal utilitarian vessels and Spanish serving wares) is also revealed in Spanish frontier mission sites. In the poorly supplied Florida’s Spanish borderlands, a ceramic hybrid called Colonoware has been recovered in minority numbers amongst aboriginal forms in mission-related trash pits or structures. As the new dominant culture, the Spaniards’ demand for European-inspired tablewares, serving vessels, and altar pieces was met by reproductions manufactured by aboriginal potters utilizing their traditional pastes and construction methods (Cordell 2001; Deagan 1978, 1993; Rolland and Ashley 2000; Saunders 2000a; Toulouse 1949; Vernon and Cordell 1992). Widespread adoption of nontraditional colonoware forms by the Native Americans who produced them and who toiled for the Europeans in frontier territories, has not been demonstrated. Social and economic factors contribute to the persistence of the idea of identity, methods, and activities that maintained the reproduction of certain prehistoric earthenware vessel forms and pastes. Gosselain (1992, 2000:190-192) proposes that, as part of their upbringing, potters become familiar with clay preparation and construction techniques, and therefore, the thermal and impact capabilities of their earthenware pots. Alternate possibilities are that manufacturing their own pottery was probably satisfying; or, for economical reasons, potters may have been obliged to supply many of their own household goods; or, culturally they may have felt it was one of their household duties. Clay and temper could be freely extracted from local creek banks or other sources, and working along side other Native American women (as Pfaffenberger (2001:78-80) suggests) recreated and reinforced traditional and efficient task groups. Native American women may also have produced surplus pots to be sold or traded in markets, thereby achieving a small level of economic independence.

Negotiating Styles and Networking In two communities along the Ecuadorian Amazon, Bowser documented potters’ ability to control and modify designs to their social and political advantage. During her work with two neighboring but discrete linguistic and pottery groups, Bowser (2000:220-

15 223) collected ethnographic and quantitative data that enlarge upon the tenets of Wobst’s (1977, 1999) Information Theory. According to Information Theory, cultural symbols are incorporated into the stylistic attributes of a group’s material culture to communicate social roles, status, and membership to those outside the group. The individual embraces cultural symbols but the message is read at the group level. Cultural symbols reinforce membership and are displayed in public, not in private or domestic arenas. Wobst (1977) states that those already living within a social unit are cognizant of the existing social identity, and the presentation of symbolic communication within the group would be “inefficient.” The result of this is the public reproduction, retention, and communication of symbols that are easily identifiable and reveal social affiliation. Bowser broadens the scope of the Information Theory by proposing that the processes of sensing, integrating, and constructing cultural symbols of identity and membership are complex and are actively employed in many layers of a society, including the private sector (also see Hendon 1999:257-261, 265-269; Johnson 2000:139-141; Lesure 1999). Bowser (2000) interviewed female informants and asked if, by the pottery they constructed or traded for, they equated style with ethnicity. She discovered that the women of both groups not only proclaimed the superiority of their own vessels but felt confident that they could easily identify sample vessels with groups or even potters. When tested, however, Bowser (2000:228-240) learned that ethnic identification was not always successful. Her conversations also revealed that the women in both groups engage in complicated and shifting family-level politics and alliances within their own group and with the neighboring communities. Alliances are made known by clear imitation or in some cases ambiguous painted designs placed specifically on domestic ceramic vessels. Alliances, fictive kin, and political ties were negotiated to better social positions and enable the women to be more influential in guiding community-level activities and in settling disputes within their own group. Exogenous alliances also created secure additional sources for labor pools and establish subsistence or mate exchange networks. Bowser (2000) proposes that in consensus-driven societies, the calculated manipulation of family-promoting and empowering social affiliations and boundaries

16 provided intragroup factions with the opportunity to assert and accomplish their own wishes during controversies or community disruptions. Verbal acknowledgment of alliance by the women would perhaps still accomplish the desired ends of social and political influence; however, the visual communication displayed throughout their villages presents a clear signature of membership in a social and political grouping, female solidarity, and political craft. The construction of successful and independently organized household-level social and political relationships by those women provides “a more reliable strategy” based on clear signification of group membership. These strategies of signification represent active “political processes through which social identity is constructed and negotiated and social boundaries are maintained, despite the passing of people across those boundaries (Bowser 2000:233-244).” Might Bowser’s discovery of women’s politicking shed light on the maintenance and distribution of the two wares found in varying frequencies throughout the site? If the women at Shields sought to influence consensus-driven decisions at the public and domestic levels, perhaps the reproduction or incorporation of locally and non-locally produced Ocmulgee wares might be a sign of family-level political alliances, maneuvering, and influence building. Although household structures or domestic assemblages are not clear in limited testing at Shields, that possession or display of exchanged vessels may have indicated social influence through negotiated alliances at the domestic level.

Discard and Scale Another aspect of the Shields study is the examination of the nature of a St. Johns II ritual/ceremonial assemblage and the comparison of the ceramic contents of five isolated middens with the surrounding low-shell areas. Investigations of ceremonial assemblages from the American southwest and the Mississippian heartland have focused on refuse density, concentrations of unusual forms and size classes, or purposefully constructed special event middens (Blitz 1993a, 1993b; Bunzell 1972; Mills 1999; Pluckhahn 2002; Kelly 1938; Renfrew 2001; Stark 1999; Toll 2001; Walker 2001; Wills 2001; Windes 1987:561-617). Increased scale or density of ceramic and faunal discard

17 recovered in isolated or layered constructions are used to infer large aggregations. That is, periodic large-scale community gatherings will produce lenses or other deposits of increased refuse accumulation, although remnants of prestige goods may or may not be present in the event levels. Focusing on this characteristic, Toll (2001:73) suggests that dense intermittent “event layers” of ceramics and fauna in Chaco Canyon assemblages — deposited along with an array of other cast-off materials — are associated with grand-scale ceremonial gatherings. Event deposits may be seen as individual layers that contain higher percentages of particular bowl forms, pottery types, or vessel sizes. The intervening layers, however, may represent more modest ritual/ceremonial activities or the results of site-wide cleaning. Toll also notes that other changes in the frequency of discard could be used to indicate increasing or decreasing scale to the events or populations shifts in the groups participating in events.

Special Event Assemblages One category of ceremonial ceramic assemblages is characterized by the recovery of unusual vessel forms or styles. Unusual traits may include surface treatment (e.g., design motif or frequency of burnishing), application of paints or pigments, or vessel size classes that are not typical of domestic refuse for that period (Cordell 1984; Moore 1996a, 1996b; Hutchinson and Aragon 2002; Sears 1973). A second category reveals large frequencies of whole or broken vessels lacking labor-intensive modifications (i.e., burnishing or complex incised or punctated designs). In these cases, unusual numbers of common utilitarian vessels that were available throughout the region may indicate intra-community social or ceremonial gatherings. Intermittent levels of increased numbers of common vessels may reflect pottery brought by the participants, increased local production activities preparing to accommodate the subsistence needs of the incoming non-resident populations (part-time or event-driven production), or family members or recruits who take up the responsibility (because of their affiliation with the hosting party) of providing the incoming guests with eating and drinking containers (DeBoer and Lathrup 1979; Deal 1998; Hally 1980; Lesure and Blake

18 2002; Milanich 1994, 2002; Milanich et al. 1984, Mills 1999; Pepper 1996; Renfrew 2001; Senior 1995; Walker 1995, 2001; Wills 2001; Windes 1987; Toll 2001; Vogel 1975; Walker 1995, 2001). Ethnographic studies report increased production by part-time specialists (free market or under obligation to the host) and, in some instances, the purposeful destruction of the vessels at the conclusion of an event (Clarke 2001; Deal 1998; DeBoer 2001; DeBoer and Lathrup 1979; Longacre and Skibo 1994; Mahia 1993; Sipinoli 1999; Toll 2001; Walker 1995). As a result of his inability to reconstruct a single vessel — despite extensive excavations at Pueblo Alto — Wills (2001), like Pepper (1996 [1920]) came to the conclusion that not all of the discard was generated from on-site events. Both propose that a portion of the pottery fragments, possibly vessels that were significant to an individual or family, were broken at outlying villages and a few of its pieces gathered to be deposited in a ceremonially constructed midden rather than with household refuse. Renfrew (2001), Wills (2001), and Toll (2001) suspect that either the act of engaging in group discard or annual cleaning of the village could account for the frequency of isolated fragments. At Shields the non-reconstructable nature of the assemblage is clearly one of the it’s defining characteristics. It was rare to recover even two fragments that could be crossmended even in the four nearly continuous units placed in Kinzey’s Knoll. If the Chaco discard model of curated sherds brought to the site or that cleaning broken fragments was a continuous process and pieces of vessels could be well dispersed within the site. Perhaps multiple discard locations were in use simultaneously across the site.

Vessel Size Greater frequencies (exposed stratigraphically) and differential areal discard of cooking and serving forms have been used to infer domestic or intra-community food preparation. Ranges and concentrations of bowl sizes (small, medium, or large) also contribute the interpretation of domestic or feasting discard. Not only increased numbers of individual serving (open or simple) bowl forms, but also the presence of larger-sized vessels implies aggregations of guests whose collective appetites could be more

19 efficiently allayed by using over-sized cooking pots (Blitz 1993a, 1993b; Deal 1998:192; DeBoer 2001:223-230; Hally 1986; Kelly 2001; Mills 1986, 1999; Steponaitis 1983; Wills 2001; Windes 1987 [These studies also distinguish cooking from water or storage containers and report greater percentages of pottery than are normally recovered from domestic contexts]). Unequal distribution of large-sized vessels has also been used to determine focal gathering spots within the broader site. In these cases it is proposed that the ability of a person, and his or her family, to accommodate the appetites of greater numbers of guests is at once practically and symbolically addressed by the use and display of a large-sized cooking pot. The ability of an individual to prepare a feast (engaging the labor and stores of their extended family members and affiliates in the procedure) or underwrite competitive feasting events both reflects and broadcasts the wealth and prosperity of the host, and by extension, the larger group (Deitler 2001). But without generous amounts of food to offer, what good are ostentatious cooking pots? Ceremonial or seasonal gatherings involving regional populations are intrinsically tied to feasting events. Concerned with the misinterpretation of possible ceremonial remains, Mills (1999:99-100) cautions that ceramic vessel size and frequency of zooarchaeological remains may increase in response to population growth. She found that large-sized cooking and storage vessels recovered in domestic contexts, might, over time, increase in frequency. Although appearing similar to deposits at ceremonial gatherings, she warns that diachronic changes in vessel dimensions, coupled with unusual densities of subsistence remains, might be the reflection of changes in cuisine or population sizes. In regard to competitive feasting events in the southwest, Mills acknowledges that large-sized vessels would have been necessary in the preparations of larger (therefore showier?) cuts of meat recovered in middens.1 She maintains that establishing the nature and reuse of ceremonial contexts — not only the recovery of large-sized vessels and feasting-volume discard— is an important and difficult component of ceremonial and domestic assemblage interpretation (Mills 1999:102- 104,111-114).

1 The presence of symbolic fauna (i.e., carnivores or birds) or concentrations of particular classes or cuts of meat (Blitz 1992a, 1993b; Marrinan 2001; Weissner 2001) have also been used to indicate special event feasting. 20

Summary In this chapter, studies have been presented that reported a conservative approach by potters to ceramic traditions but also flexibility when it was perceived as advantageous. While the conservative nature of St. Johns pottery construction is observed in the Shields assemblage, flexibility in construction of Ocmulgee grit-tempered pottery will be reported only in the eventual use of local clays (Chapter 9). The studies discussed concluded that ceramic containers found in public and private domains could display overt and subtle messages that could be used to identify memberships within the larger community or smaller gender-organized political groups. Reliance upon the reproduction of traditional pastes and finishes connoted social affiliations, membership in ideological groups or political alliances. An aversion to ceramic change may reflect the perception of acceptance or membership within a greater society or that the potter was a member of a minority population living within a dominant culture. Reliance upon a functional, familiar, and time-tested utilitarian forms and fabrics suggests opposition to replacement or change. It is also clear, however, that traditional designs could be altered and styles negotiated by enterprising women who sought to gain or maintain special statuses within their gender cohorts. It will shown that the Shields ceramic assemblage contains identification and membership markers reminiscent of that proposed by the Information Theory, and, to the complex multi-layering of status positions and political affiliation studied by Bowser (2000). Significant numbers of sherd fragments were deposited that reveal that Ocmulgee and St. Johns potters actively sought to maintain differing traditions through their repeated reproduction of vessel fabrics. At Shields, surface designs appear as two distinct group oriented design techniques placed exclusively on particular paste constructions. For these two groups, fired clay color also may have functioned to further discriminate pottery types as the white-firing St. Johns and dark red or reduction-fired Ocmulgee pottery sat by domestic fires or displayed during ceremonies (Chapter 9). The studies mentioned above focused on ceramic assemblages recovered from ritual/ceremonial sites and came to variable conclusions. Depending upon the culture or perhaps the nature of the event, showy, specially executed vessels were constructed in 21 small numbers in response to ritual needs. In the Southeast, Moore’s many publications contain illustrations of unusual vessel forms that were not recovered in the Shields midden collections. Conversely, great numbers of dispensable vessels may be utilized and discarded. The St. Johns assemblage recovered at Shields appears more similar to the second kind of collection that contain a large number of small- and middle-sized, un- reconstructable vessel fragments, which, by various attributes (e.g., burnishing, size, form, and volume) are unevenly distributed throughout center. This discard pattern of highly fragmented and un-reconstructable sherds is repeated within the Ocmulgee series component.

CHAPTER 3 THE SHIELDS SITE AND ST. JOHNS II CULTURE

St. Johns II Occupation of the Lower St. Johns River Basin The history and socio-political characteristics of St. Johns culture in the lower St. Johns River basin are currently undergoing revision. Reconstruction of the St. Johns chronology in extreme northeastern Florida, and a reassessment of its socio-political organization have produced a portrait of a fishing-hunting-gathering people who were aware of but selective in their adoption of various aspects of Mississippian economic, political, and ideological cultural traits (Ashley 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2003b; Ashley and Thunen 2001; Milanich 1994; Russo 1992). Ashley (2002:164, 2003b) has compiled a series of new and recalibrated radiocarbon dates from shell and soot samples associated with St. Johns check-stamped pottery. The radiocarbon data reveal that the St. Johns cultural occupation of the lower river basin did not occur until A.D. 900 and although their population flourished in the rich marine and estuarine environment, they abandoned the area ca. A.D. 1250. Ashley’s new chronology reflects a more compressed timeframe for the St. Johns occupation of the lower river basin than previously had been proposed (Goggin 1998:36; Milanich 1994:246-249). Ashley argues that these dates indicate that St. Johns II people were an immigrant population from the Mount Royal area and did not arise from an antecedent St. Johns I occupation. Rather, they displaced remnants of Swift Creek (A.D. 400-850) and the Colorinda (A.D. 850-900) culture that lingered in the region (Ashley 2003a). As evidence for the adjusted chronology became more secure, Ashley began to closely reexamine Moore’s (1999a, 1999b) excavation reports and observations on St.

23 Johns mound construction, artifact assemblages, burial practices, and grave goods. Ashley (2002, 2003b) concluded that the long held assumption that the St. Johns II culture in this region embraced and participated in heartland-level Mississippian culture might be incorrect. Clearly, St. Johns II people constructed a variety of complex and monumental earthworks and obtained extra-local lithic, mineral, or copper materials, but evidence corroborating the installation of a centralized, hereditary chiefly elite who retained control over and maintained unequal access to exotic, prestige, and surplus goods is lacking. Instead, Ashley (2002:10-12, 2003b) proposes that St. Johns culture participated in “a communal or corporate political strategy” wherein differential statuses and access to exotica existed, but with more fluid and less rigid rules of accessibility. Ashley suggests, “that prestige goods were viewed as communal social entitlements” within the domain of social reproduction, rather than as exclusively the material expression of elite ideologies and power (Ashley 2002b:11 elaborating on Saitta 1997:10)(also see Earle 1997; King 2003; O’Donovan, 2002; Payne 2002; Paynter and McGuire 1991; Saitta 1999; Speth 1991; Spielmann 1991). Another aspect of Mississippian period political economy for which evidence is lacking in northeastern Florida involves the shift to agricultural subsistence based on maize production. In the rich fields in the Mississippian heartland, outlying villages produced corn surpluses that were controlled and redistributed by the elite families and which were used to feed the townsfolk inhabiting large urban/ceremonial centers. Evidence for the production of corn or the replacement of fishing-hunting-gathering subsistence patterns with agriculture has not been demonstrated in St. Johns II contexts in this area, despite excellent preservation of delicate faunal and carbonized seed remains observed in shell middens. In fact, no evidence of corn production is noted until the Spanish colonial period, when charred kernels and cobs are recovered in mission settlements. A third discovery by Ashley further alters perceptions of the St. Johns socioeconomic and political landscape. After reexamination of private and museum pottery collections, Ashley recognized that in northeastern Florida and southeastern Georgia a

24 grit-tempered, cordmarked and plain pottery series is consistently recovered at St. Johns II sites. He traced this series, Ocmulgee III, back to its production area in the eastern Big Bend region of south-central Georgia, near the confluences of the Ocmulgee, Oconee, and Altamaha rivers (Ashley and Rolland 2002; Snow 1977; Stephenson 2003; Stephenson et al. 2002). The wide spatial distribution of Ocmulgee pottery and its frequency throughout St. Johns II deposits (from Mt. Royal in central Florida, north to Fernandina Beach on Amelia Island), suggests that long-distance interaction and exchange between the two areas was vigorous and sustained. Possible common linguistic ties (Hann 1996:2-7) and pre-existing Woodland period social interaction (i.e., Swift Creek) and shell or salt trade may have encouraged the resettlement of St. Johns colonists and Ocmulgee traders into the lower St. Johns region (Ashley 1998, 2002; Milanich 2002:359; Stephenson et al., 2002). It is against this newly refined backdrop of St. Johns culture history in the Shields area that the ritual/ceremonial assemblage is examined.

The Shields Burial and Ceremonial Center Shields and Grant mounds lie at or near the eastern and western boundaries respectively of a large regional burial/ceremonial complex constructed midway between the abrupt easterly bend of the river at the city of Jacksonville and the mouth of the Atlantic Ocean. Bluff erosion, land clearing, and modern construction have impacted the surrounding area that encompasses the two mounds. Access problems have limited the amount of testing and the true extent of the complex is not known at this time. The Shields burial complex is comprised of three sand and at least five shell constructions that lie high above the south bank of the river. Here, on the last leg of its journey to the ocean, the St. Johns River is straight, broad, and blue and opposing bands of shifting tides are often visible. The Native Americans who lived in the vicinity of Shields and Grant mounds enjoyed a magnificent view of the expansive river channel and the low, flat estuarine landscape and tidal creeks that spread for miles beyond the northern bank of the river. The present day bluff ground surface 15 m above the river. The focal point of the Shields complex is the mound, built 137 m (150 yards) south of the bluff edge (Figure 3.1). Moore describes the mound construction as a

25 truncated pyramid with rounded corners. Possibly to take advantage of an existing raised landform, the mound was constructed atop, or perhaps more accurately, the mound base may have been fashioned out of an ancient dune ridge. In 2002 four core samples were removed from the mound (FSU Anthropology Department, directed by Glen Doran) and it appears that what remains after Moore’s destructive efforts in 1895 and other modern leveling, are natural accumulations of clean, wind-blown sand that underlay the mound. 2 The brick red soils and yellow sand lenses containing pockets of shell and charcoal overlaying sterile sand that Moore (1996b:12) observed, were not apparent in the cores. However, the top of the mound was heavily impacted by Moore’s activities and the recent removal of approximately four feet for the construction of a home. A second construction, a hook-shaped ramp, trails away from the south wall, that again, may have taken advantage of an existing dune ridge. The ramp terminated near a freshwater pond. The third component, a slightly raised terrace, lay at the base of the mound’s northern wall. The extent of the spread of Moore’s backfill piles and the displacement of overburden atop adjacent activity areas and the natural living surface is unknown, but most certainly mound fill was redistributed by his crews. Another possible impact to the natural landscape surrounding the mound may have occurred at the inception of construction and the prehistoric sculpting of the dune ridge for mound and ramp construction. The Shields assemblage suggests that participation in ritual events or even access to the site may have been restricted to members of the St. Johns and Ocmulgee traditions. In both midden and non-shell contexts, the presence of pottery types associated with other cultural groups is negligible. Non-local Florida ceramic traditions are represented only by single Weeden Island Red Filmed and Keith Incised sherds. Locally produced fragments of Swift Creek pottery (1 possible complicated stamp, and 2 charcoal tempered

2 Unlike Grant, her sister mound 750 m to the west, which revealed narrow and multiple lenses of pink to deep brown-pigmented sands, the cores from Shields appear as homogeneous, pale yellow sand. During coring none of the “brick red” and charcoal laced soils Moore describes were observed. However, in addition to Moore’s destructive excavation methods, the area has been subject to over one hundred years of looting and recent residential construction. Six cores in all were drilled, and it is possible that redistributed evidence was missed. 26

Figure 3.1. C. B. Moore's rendering of the Shields Mound Complex, 1896.

27 sherds), are also recovered in insignificant numbers. Swift Creek and Colorinda, another local ware, are, however, recovered in substantial numbers in nearby sites. It would appear that a cleaned or purposefully uninhabited site was chosen for the construction of the Shields Mound, and, by ceramic evidence recovered in the adjacent area, utilized exclusively by those folks associated with St. Johns and Ocmulgee pottery.

Excavations at the Shields Site Moore’s Excavations Clarence B. Moore (1999a: 200-213; 1999b:49-119) documented the locations of Shields (8DU12) and Grant (8DU14) mounds in 1894, as well as other sand mounds and shell middens constructed in the lower St. Johns River basin, and returned in 1895 to look for significant artifacts and burials. Within both mounds, his crew unearthed human remains, sometimes in very fragmented condition, as well as a variety of lithic materials, minerals, modified shell and bone, and whole and broken ceramic artifacts. Moore reported that Shields and Grant were constructed with lenses of colored sands including soils purposefully blended with charcoal or ground iron oxide. Moore’s publications include descriptive text and many fine line drawings of the more unusual ceramic and lithic artifacts that were recovered. A detailed description of Moore’s excavations, the artifacts he recovered, St. Johns II culture, and the socio-political significance of the mounds can be found in Ashley (2002a, 2002b, 2003b). A variety of vessel shapes, sizes, and decorations were recovered during Moore’s demolition of Shields (Moore 1999b:59-61). He describes “square and diamond-shaped stamps (most likely St. Johns pottery), as well as fragments of complicated stamped and cordmarked vessels. These may have been Swift Creek and Ocmulgee Cordmarked vessels.3 Some sherds bore “crimson pigment” on either surface. Moore reported that the majority of the vessels recovered were plain. Nine whole vessels were encountered in an area that was not associated with burials; eight of which bore perforated bases. Although the form is not reported, Moore estimated the volume of each to be about one quart. The ninth vessel in this

3 Swift Creek pottery has been recovered in testing along the ridge the rises behind the Shields-Grant complex suggesting that earlier Swift Creek people preferred the higher ground away from the river’s edge. 28 cache was a miniature pot, which Moore referred to as a toy vessel. He also recovered a small bird effigy pot. Two decorated ceramic tobacco pipes were found in the mound fill. Basalt celts and chert projectile points were also recovered. Moore reported that bone pins were found in “considerable number” most frequently in association with the burials.

Modern Testing at the Shields Site It was not until 1986 that formal excavations near the Shields-Grant ceremonial complex were resumed (Ashley and Thunen 2001). In separate salvage projects, Calvin Jones (1986) and later students at University of North Florida, under the direction of Robert Thunen, 1989 gathered in situ and disturbed mound and midden materials from Grant. What remained of Grant Mound lay on two separate property lots and each owner contributed to its further destruction by the construction of a house or a swimming pool. In 1988, Robert Johnson of Florida Archaeological Services (1988), Jacksonville, was engaged to survey portions of the eastern and southern bank of the St. Johns River. Although he designated 13 midden deposits located between the Shields and Grant mounds as new sites, Ashley (Ashley and Thunen 2001:7) interprets the “continuous spread of St. Johns II artifacts” as representing one large and continuous St. Johns II occupation associated with the burial complex and other non-ceremonial activities. In the later 1990s, the local archaeological chapter excavated a series of 1x1-m units on private property that lay between the mounds. They also recovered pottery in dense shell and low shell matrices.

Excavations 1999-2002. The ceramic artifacts studied in this report were recovered during shovel testing and unit excavations led by Keith Ashley (2001), principal investigator. These investigations were initiated as an independent and unfunded study in support of his dissertation research. Ashley directed testing that focused on an area 300 m (E-W) by 250 m (N-S) northwest of the mound (Figures 3.1, 3.2). Blank areas within the shovel test grid shown in Figure 3.2 represent portions of the site that have been impacted by residential buildings. A series of negative shovel tests indicate that the western edge of the Shields ceremonial area had been established. However, due to access problems and limited testing, the eastern edge is of the complex remains undetermined.

Figure 3.2. Location of shovel tests, excavation units, and ten designated areas.

30 N

Figure 3.3. Location of 1x2-m units.

31 Seventy shovel tests (50x50x100 cm) were dug at 25-m intervals (avoiding obvious disturbances). Sixty-six contained prehistoric faunal, ceramic, or lithic discard with the highest frequencies found in the eastern half of the study area. Sixty-four tests contained pottery, some units containing little or no shell. Shovel tests were dug in 20 cm levels terminating at 1 meter below surface. Eight additional excavations units were placed in four areas of dense shell. The eight 1x2-m units were excavated in 10 cm levels (Figure 3.3) During all phases of excavation, the varieties of shell species were identified and level samples were measured (liters). The number and kinds of artifacts were noted and recorded by level. Soil colors, texture, and wetness were also described. The results of the excavations were presented in a SEAC symposium with different authors delivering papers on each of the artifact classes: Marrinan (2001), vertebrate fauna; Penders (2001), bone and shell tool industry; Bland (2001), lithic material; and Rolland (2001), ceramics.

Organization of the Site into Ten Subareas Using a combination of volume of shell (greater or less than 10 liters) and weight of ceramics (greater or less than 70 gms), the study area has been organized into ten sub-areas. By organizing the tests and their constituent artifacts and shell in this manner, ten subassemblages are created that allow for detailed spatial comparisons. The names and contents of the ten sub-areas are listed in Table 3.1, Figures 3.1, 3.2, and Appendix A.

Midden contexts. Based on shell density greater than 10 liters, Ashley designated five discrete areas of shell and artifact concentrations: Kinzey’s Knoll, Kinzey’s West, Kinzey’s South, Reeves Rise, and Bluff Midden (Table 3.1). Of these, Kinzey’s Knoll (0-90 cmbs dense shell), Reeve’s Rise (0-80 cmbs), and Bluff Midden (0-80 cmbs) contained dense concentrations of oyster shell from the surface. Four of the five midden designations are comprised of one to four 1x2-m units and at least one shovel test containing 10 l of shell (Figure 3.2). The shovel test associated with Test Unit 6 is the one exception: 950N 1000E contained 3 liters of shell. The fifth midden, Reeves Rise, lies at the landowner’s front doorstep and was tested with three shovel tests units and no larger unit.

32 Table 3.1. Midden and Group designations. Ceramic counts and weight (all sherds are included).

Middens Units

Kinzey’s South Test Unit 6 Total: n=1290/ 4,835.0 gms 950N 1000E (3-l shell) non-spiculate: 232/ 1,299.9 gms spiculate: 1058/ 3,535.1 gms

Kinzey’s West Test Unit 5 Total: n=570/ 2,455.3 gms 975N 975E (15-l shell) non-spiculate: 76/ 406.1 gms 1000N 975E (18-l shell) spiculate: 494/ 2,049.2 gms

Kinzey’s Knoll Test Units 1-4 Total: n=5,129/ 34,777.9 gms 1000N 1000E (102-l shell) non-spiculate: 1,134/ 9,795.3 gms spiculate: 3,995/ 24,982.9 gms

Reeves Rise 1029N 1000E (29-l shell) Total: n=484/ 3,174.3gms 1032N 1000E (70-l shell) non-spiculate: 53/ 489.8 gms 1031N 1003E (72-l shell) spiculate: 431/ 2,684.5 gms

Bluff Midden Test Units 7-8 Total: n=4,297/ 20,751.7 gms 1075N 975E (32-l shell) 1072N 1025E (20-l shell) non-spiculate: 584/ 4,634.7 gms 1075N 1000E (10-1 shell) 1100N 950E (11-1 shell) spiculate: 3,713/ 16,117.0 1080N 997E (14-l shell)

33 Table 3.1 continued

Shovel Test Groups Units containing > 70gms of pottery Units containing <70 gms of pottery

East Group 1065N 1040E 1025N 1015E 1005N 1040E Total: n=703/ 1,977.2 gms 1050N 1040E 1025N 1065E 980N 1045E non-spiculate:39/ 261.5 gms 1050N 1040E 1000N 1065E spiculate: 664/ 1,715.7gms 1050N 1060E 975N 1065E

Northwest Group 1125N 803E none Total: n=63/ 317.9 gms 1125N 825E non-spiculate:20/181.3 gms 1125N 850E spiculate: 43/ 136.6 gms

West Group 1050N 875E 1000N 875E 1050N 900E 1000N 853E 950N 875E Total: n=187/ 952.8 gms 1025N 876E 1000N 900E 1021N 800E 1000N 913E 890N 875E non-spiculate:50/ 284.1 gms 1010N 875E 975N 875E 1025N 900E 975N 850E 890N 875E spiculate: 137/ 668.7 1000N 825E 975N 900E

West Bluff Group 1100N 900E 1075N 925E 1100N 875E Total: n=237/ 912.3 1100N 925E 1074N 950E 1075N 876E non-spiculate:35/ 176.3 gms 1075N 900E 1046N 946E spiculate: 202/ 736.0 gms

Kinzey’s Group 1000N 950N 950N 1025E 975N 955E 925N 975E Total: n=270/982.2 gms 950N 925E 925N 1000E 950N 955E 900N 995E non-spiculate: 37/ 231.3 gms 950N 975E 900N 975E 925N 955E 892N 995E spiculate: 233/ 751.5 gms 975N 925E 875N 975E

Shovel test groups. The remaining fifty-two shovel tests not associated with a midden area are grouped by the density of ceramic artifacts (greater or less than 70 gms) and areal location: East Group, Kinzey’s Group, West Bluff Group, Northwest Group, and West Group. These tests usually contained 3 liters of shell or less, although three tests contained a greater volume. Three shovel tests contained 8 liters or more but are not included in the five midden designations: 1046N 946E (12 liters), 1050N 1040E (14 liters), and 1100N 925E (8 liters). The shovel tests containing less than 70 gms of pottery, and usually containing only trace shell are incorporated in the nearest shovel test group. For purposes of distinguishing variation in shell and ceramic densities, activity areas, and site use, residual tests appear on the site map lying outside the low shell-moderate to high pottery group boundaries (shaded areas).

Dating the Middens Four of the Shields midden areas have been dated through radiocarbon assays of oyster shell: Kinzey’s Knoll (TU1, lower and upper levels), Bluff Midden (TU7, level 6), Reeves Rise (1032N 1000E, level 4), and Kinzey’s South (TU6, 110 cm below modern surface) (Table 3.2). An additional date from the lower level of a dense midden constructed at the very edge of Grant Mound (Test Unit 1, Feature 1) has also been included. Two nearly identical early dates are generated by the samples from the lower levels Kinzey’s Knoll (TU1-L7-Shields) and the Grant midden (TU1-Feature 1). The composition of the two middens is nearly identical in density of shell and faunal discard. In addition, a variety of non-local lithic materials, utilitarian and aesthetically modified bone, modified shell, and abundant pottery was recovered from both middens. A second date from the upper level of Shields-TU1 suggests that Kinzey’s Knoll was possibly still in use ca. A.D. 1070. The next earliest date from Shields was retrieved from Bluff Midden, which was constructed along the bluff edge and is the densest deposit furthest from the mound. A sample collected from dense shell midden near the base of Test Unit 7 produced an intercept date of A.D. 1170. Reeves Rise and Kinzey’s South, two less dense midden contexts, yielded later dates. An intercept date of A.D. 1220 came from a shell taken from the lowest dense shell level of Reeves Rise, a more shallow midden lying between the two dominant middens mentioned above. The northern portion of Reeves Rise was severely impacted during house construction and its original

dimensions cannot be ascertained. The Reeves Rise intercept date falls near the end of the occupation period that Ashley has suggested for the St. Johns II in the lower St. Johns River basin: A.D. 900-1250. The latest date is associated with a deeply buried black earth and shell midden (110 cm below the modern surface), Kinzey’s South, located nearest the mound. At A.D. 1290, this intercept date is also the latest in the series of St. Johns II dates compiled by Ashley (2002:164).

Table 3.2. Radiometric dates representing four Shields and one Grant midden contexts. Site Unit Calibrated-1 sigma Measured Conventional Beta Reference (A.D.) with intercept 14C (BP) C14 Age (BP) ref. # 8DU12 TU1 – level 7 865 (975) 1035 1080 ± 80 1450 ± 90 137818 Ashley 2002 8DU14 Grant Mound 905 (985) 1025 1060 ± 60 1430 ± 60 131314 Thunen 2001 8DU12 TU1 upper level 990 (1030) 1070 1000 ± 80 1370 ± 60 141594 Ashley 2002 8DU12 TU7- level 6 1070 (1170) 1230 870 ± 60 1250 ± 60 165353 Ashley 2002 8DU12 R. Rise-level 4 1160 (1220) 1270 850 ± 50 1210 ± 60 165354 Ashley 2002 8DU12 TU6-110 cmbs 1240 (1290) 1310 750 ± 60 1120 ± 60 165352 Ashley 2002

CHAPTER 4 METHODS AND DEFINITIONS

The primary goals of the Shields ceramic study are to identify technological attributes and patterns of corresponding stylistic traits and to determine whether these attributes had specific, but contemporaneous distributions within the site or were in use during different periods of occupation. In addition to exploring physical issues of trait stability or change, this study also addresses the theoretical issue of the role of pottery as a medium for cultural identification and, if during what appears to be sustained interaction between St. Johns and Ocmulgee peoples, any blending or borrowing of construction or stylistic techniques are evident. These questions will be explored through metric and non-metric (stylistic) data. Detailed recording of construction traits makes it possible to uncover subtle change or recognize continuity. To facilitate multivariate comparisons of sherd attributes, eleven macroscopic and microscopic observations were recorded for all of the sherds larger than 2 cm. In the following section, I describe the method of ceramic analysis used in the study and define the paste, formal, and stylistic attributes that were recorded.

Laboratory Methods During the later stages of excavation it was observed that stains, exterior sooting, interior carbonized materials, and various forms of iron oxide residues were well preserved in the dense shell environment. Although sherds from Test Units 1, 2, 5, and 6 had been previously washed, evidence of use alterations were still observed. The remainder of the sherds were left to dry in trays, scanned for traces carbon and other residues, and then brushed clean. During the drying period, when all of the sherds from a specific unit were available, cross-mending within and between levels was attempted.

Analysis of paste and other analytical categories follow standardized procedures established by Cordell (e.g., 1984, 1993, 1997), Saunders (2000), and Rice (1987:38, 115-153, 349). A comparative chart produced by Cordell for use in the FLMNH ceramics lab was used to confirm particle sizes at multiple levels of magnification. Vessel form categories and nomenclature were taken from Rice (1987:207-219) and Willey (1998:496-504). Levels of achieved color were recorded comparing surfaces to Munsell soil color charts. Sphericity of grit- sized particles is based on Barraclough’s illustrations (in Orton et al. 1993:239). Metric dimensions were measured using a linear reticule microscope eyepiece, a dial caliper, and OHaus electric balance to record weight (in grams).

Paste analysis and categories. Analysis of each sherd began with the identification of the ceramic fabric. Two gross paste groups were formulated: spiculate and non-spiculate pastes. Subgroups were defined and may contain single or multiple kinds of mineral and/or grog inclusions. Sherd fragments smaller than 2 cm were analyzed only to this level and are presented in the data only by gross paste group, number and weight. For all sherds greater than 2 cm, a fresh break was made on at least one edge and the clean surface viewed at 10X and 45X magnification using a binocular microscope with a linear reticule eyepiece. The lower magnification was necessary for estimating relative frequency and angularity of large temper inclusions such as coarse to granule-sized quartz, iron oxide, and grog, while higher magnification levels were used to detect the presence and frequency of sponge spicules, very fine to medium sand or grog, carbonized materials, mica, and finely ground iron oxide.

Formal analysis. In addition to paste type and aplastic frequencies, a variety of attributes were recorded. These include sherd thickness (mm), exterior and interior modifications or condition (e.g., surface decoration, degree of compaction, use-wear alteration), lip diameter (mm), lip morphology, vessel forms and size (cm), check or cordage width (widest dimension in mm), and weight (gms).

Lip/rim morphology is classified as: simple, smeared or appliqué; wall curvature (direct, globular, open); and lip treatment (ticked, rounded, flattened or beveled). When possible, rim thickness measurements were taken 2 cm below the lip. A standardized 3 cm depth measurement is suggested (Sassaman personal communication, 2000); however, the overall size of rim sherds in this collection is such that more consistency is achieved using a 2 cm depth measurement. Rim measurements on sherds shorter than 2 cm were taken at the wall-failure break below the lip. In a separate experiment, wall thickness measurements were recorded for three levels of the <2cm sherd category. It was thought that perhaps small-sized vessels (10 cm diameters or less) constructed with appropriately thinner walls might lay hidden within the highly fractured residual sherds. This experiment is discussed in the Chapter 7.

Use-related and use-altered characteristics. The presence and density of any accumulations of sooting, finely powdered iron oxide, or red filming (the residue of iron oxide in solution) were recorded. The presence of strap/mend holes, hone scars, and evidence and severity of surface abrasion or attrition was also recorded. Sherds rarely with extreme wear on the edges —suggesting use as a scraping or smoothing tool—were recovered, but these were rare.

Defining Paste Groups: Tempering and Aplastic Agents For an aboriginal potter, ceramic construction combined traditional techniques with knowledge of the properties of local raw clay deposits. Potters may have targeted certain resources, knowing that they contained attributes beneficial in construction or finishing phases, in firing, or for the intended use of the container. Some of these benefits may have been conferred by mineral inclusions naturally present in the clay or were inclusions added by the potter. Knowing whether an inclusion was intentional (temper) or not is important to the study of paste technologies. For today’s researchers, determining which inclusions are naturally present in raw clay or which were purposefully added as tempering agents (reflecting cultural preferences) is a recurring problem (Rice 1987, Rye 1976; Shepard 1995:24-25). In this study, the division of temper and natural inclusions is guided by Shepard’s (1995:25, 166-168) definition of temper (materials that were added to modify raw clay) and her use of the term aplastic (“used in a general sense and for material of indeterminate source”).

Sherd fabrics may include aplastic constituents that are naturally present and could not categorically be labeled as temper. It is recognized that the criteria used in this study to separate temper from aplastic inclusions may be seen as problematical. The presence and frequency of mica, crushed or degraded limestone, iron oxide, shell, and other unidentified crushed or powdered mineral inclusions were recorded but reported as indeterminate (aplastic) constituents. Found in common to abundant densities in St. Johns pottery, spicules are considered temper. However, when observed in rare to occasional frequencies in mineral-tempered sherds, such as the Ocmulgee series, they are considered incidental to the manufacturing environment—perhaps incorporated during the rehydrating phase of production. However, even when observed in negligible numbers, spicules may have been purposefully added. In the same manner, it is possible that the some natural inclusions such as limestone and iron oxide, and particularly the mica, were natural inclusions or that whole sources were processed at the site and fragments added to enhance the visual or technological performance of the raw clay. The label ‘micaceous’ ware refers to mica frequencies that are 5% or greater (Table 4.1, Scale of Relative Abundance). Patterned after the method of paste classification designed by Cordell (1984, 1992,1993, 2001), two gross paste groups (spiculate and non-spiculate) and eight subgroups were formulated. Four paste subgroups are proposed for the spiculate paste group: St. Johns, sandy St. Johns, St. Johns-grog, and sandy St. Johns-grog. Recent studies of local clays and soils suggest that sponge spicules, abundant in St. Johns pastes, are not natural inclusions and for this study common to abundant spicules are considered a cultural additive (Rolland and Bond 2003). Five subgroup categories are delineated for non-spiculate pastes— grit-, grit-grog-, sand-, sand-grog, and unidentified mineral temper. The terms grit and sand are used to distinguish size categories of quartz particles. A thorough description of the paste characteristics is included in Chapter 5 but the following discussion presents a brief description of the temper and aplastic inclusions encountered during analysis. Table 4.1 lists the kinds of temper, their size categories, and the frequency terms that are used throughout this thesis.

Table 4.1. Standardized size and abundance measurements used in the classification of the Shields paste categories (adapted from Arnold 1994:235-242**; Rice 1987: 38*, 349**; Shepard 1956:118*). Wentworth Size Classification* sponge inclusions silt-sized .004 to .0625mm sand inclusions very fine .0625 to .125 mm fine .125 to .25 mm medium .25 to .5 mm grit inclusions coarse .5 to 1.0 mm very coarse 1.0 to 2.0 mm granule granule 2.0 to 4.0 mm Relative Abundance Scale for Aplastic Inclusions** rare less than 1% occasional 1% to 3% frequent 3% to 5% common 5% to 20% abundant 20% to 30%

Tempering Agents Spicules. The conspicuous numbers of spicules observed in St. Johns ceramic pastes represent the biosilicate remains of freshwater sponges (Borremans and Shaak 1986). A recent study by Rolland and Bond (2003) proposes that spicules are not natural constituents of Florida clays but represent tempering material purposefully added by St. Johns potters. Spicules may be observed at 2X-7X magnifications, although during thin-section anaylsis, Cordell noted that some samples or species are visible only at magnifications above 10X. In St. Johns pottery, spicules are present in abundant numbers, comprising 20% of the fabric (Table 4.1). In sandy St. Johns sherds spicule frequencies are lower, usually frequent to common. Spicules are rare constituents in the other pottery types recovered at Shields. Only nineteen sherds within the grit, grit-grog, and sand-grog temper categories contained occasional spicules.

Grit. Grit temper is used to distinguish the presence of coarse to very coarse quartz particle inclusions that are .5-2 mm in diameter (Shepard 1995:118). During analysis it became apparent that the frequencies of grit inclusions were highly variable. In the vast majority of this subgroup, however, grit-sized quartz was common to abundant. If grit inclusions were present in 41

rare to occasional frequencies (lower than 5% of the paste volume), those sherds were classified as sand tempered. The majority of the grit-sized particles are sub-rounded to angular, although well-weathered, rounded quartz inclusions are also present.

Sand. In non-spiculate sherds, sand temper refers to common to abundant quartz inclusions that are very fine to medium (.065 -.5 mm) in size. Quartz inclusions are also present in St. Johns pastes. Very fine to fine sand inclusions are minor constituents (<5%) in St. Johns sherds, and fine to medium quartz particles are common to frequent in sandy St. Johns sherds. The magnification used in this study is not high enough to characterize the overall sphericity of the sand inclusions.

Grog. Grog inclusions represent crushed sherds that were added as the raw clay was kneaded. Grog may prevent warping during the drying and firing processes, and also benefits the thermal properties of cooking pots. In St. Johns and grit-tempered sherds grog inclusions are observed in low frequencies. In sand-tempered fabrics, grog inclusions are generally coarse to very coarse in size and frequent to common in quantity. The abundance of spicule and grit inclusions did not decrease when grog inclusions were present, however, the frequency of sand was significantly lower in Ocmulgee sand-grog sherds than in purely sand-tempered sherds. Only two non-spiculate paste grog-tempered sherds contained spiculate grog (TU8, level 6; TU3, level 2). No non-spiculate grog was observed in St. Johns sherds. In non-spiculate sherds, grog inclusions range in size from fine to very coarse, or very rarely, granule. In grit pastes, grog inclusions are splintered and angular. In sand pastes grog is usually subangular to round. By frequency, spiculate grog inclusions are rare to occasional and bear ground, rounded edges.

Charcoal. Two sand-charcoal tempered sherds were recovered from shovel tests. Charcoal tempered pottery is associated with early Swift Creek Woodland period occupations (A.D. 400-800 in Ashley 2003a). Angular voids are the result of weathering of crushed charcoal particles and are fine to coarse in size and occasional to frequent in occurrence. Preserved charcoal fragments are also observed.

UID stone. Unidentified fragments of fine to very coarse crushed lithic material are rarely encountered. One sample is found in a St. Johns sherd, and another was observed in a calcareous clay fabric bearing a Weeden Island-like surface treatment. More frequently unidentified lithic inclusions were observed in Ocmulgee series pastes. Unidentified lithic material did not react with hydrochloric acid.

Other Aplastic Inclusions Mica. In this collection, mica platelets are commonly observed as occasional to frequent constituents in both paste groups. For this study, micaceous pastes (spiculate or non-spiculate sherds) are designated as those fabrics containing frequent (5% or greater) to common mica inclusions. In St. Johns pastes, mica platelets are observed as fine- to medium-sized inclusions. In non-spiculate subgroups — especially sand-grog sherds —mica occurs in a wider range (fine to coarse-sized) that more frequently includes larger (coarse to very coarse) sized platelets.

Iron oxide. Ferruginous inclusions were observed in the fresh breaks of both spiculate and non-spiculate pastes. When found in St. Johns pastes, frequency is occasional to rare. In non- spiculate pastes frequency is occasional to frequent. In both paste groups, particles were rounded from grinding or erosion, fine to medium in size, and on rare occasions, coarse to very coarse in size. The iron oxide inclusions observed in the Shields pottery are soft textured (thumbnail cuts could be made in the surface) and traces of red pigment came off when Q-tips were rubbed across them.

Limestone. Limestone particles are rarely observed in non-spiculate fabrics. It is recovered in a variety of forms: solid, crushed, and angular granule-sized chunks to pockets of soft white or gray powder. When Cordell (FLMNH ceramics lab, personal communication, 2002) viewed the powdered substance under petrographic magnification, she recognized it as degraded limestone. It is similar in consistency to quicklime used in mortar, which is produced by heating limestone. Limestone produces a fizz when tested with 10% hydrochloric acid.

UID white powdery inclusions. Amorphous pockets of another soft, white, powdery material is observed in grit-, grit-grog-, and sand-tempered fabrics. It is more frequently observed at the surface, although rare interior pockets are seen. Unlike degraded limestone, there was no reaction to hydrochloric acid. Using petrographic magnification, Cordell was unable to classify the material as either Fuller’s Earth or ground or degraded bone. This material remains unidentified.

Shell. A single St. Johns sherd contained a thin fragment of shell. Shell is very rare in St. Johns pottery and almost always occurs in very rare abundances. The author has collected deeply buried local estuarine clays that contained occasional fragments of shell and this is likely an incidental inclusion.

Definitions of Surface Treatments A description of the variety of surface treatments recorded by gross paste group is provided in the following section. The counts, weights, and body thickness measurements for each surface treatment are furnished in Appendix A. A more detailed comparison of the distribution frequencies is provided in Chapter 7 (Tables 7.2, 7.5).

Exterior Surfaces: Spiculate Paste Group Check stamped (n=2575; 30,154.2 gms). The predominant surface modification for all St. Johns paste subgroups is check stamping (Figure 4.1). Check-stamped sherds are coded for check shape (diamond, rectangular, square, unidentified, or multiple sizes or shapes), size (longest dimension), and condition of the impression (crisp, vague, abraded, or mashed). Oblique or parallel check orientation with respect to the rim is also noted. In a minority of cases two check shapes are present or check and plain areas appear on the same sherd. Plain and check stamped sherds are either coded as zoned (purposeful change in design field) or as merely incomplete coverage. When dual treatments (check and plain) are found, the majority surface coverage is coded for but the incidental treatment was also noted. In the Shields assemblage, the vast majority of St. Johns Check-Stamped paddles are carved with narrow lands of equal widths. One unusual paddle stamp, similar to that described

for Fire Island check patterns (Brown 1982: 29, 34, 45) was recovered. This variation contained wider lands carved in right-angle patterns (Figure 4.2).

Plain (n=1399; 10861.7 gms). St. Johns Plain sherds make up a significant component in the Shields assemblage. During analysis, plain exterior and interior surfaces were given a numeric code to reflect degrees of compaction. Plain 1 refers to surfaces that are poorly smoothed or where little effort had been made to compact the surface beyond sealing the coils. Plain 1 surfaces are highly porous, rough and uneven. Plain 2 refers to finger smoothed surfaces where more smoothing is evident but surfaces are still porous. Plain 3 designates well-sealed, hard-tooled surfaces. Plain 4 sherds bear burnished surfaces that retain lustrous, slick surfaces.

Little Manatee Zoned Stamped (n=27; 188.4 gms). This pottery type is recognized by surface treatments that incorporate incised lines and punctation with a dentate tool, possibly a shell edge or a carved bone. Zoned dentate impressions are bounded by single incised line borders (Goggin 1998: 109; Willey 1998:443-444). In this collection, incised lines are straight and some meet at acute angles. It is possible that some of the more fragmentary St. Johns incised or burnished sherds recovered at Shields are portions of Manatee vessels. Little Manatee designs are highly individualistic,

Papys Bayou Punctated (n=2; 12.3 gms). These designs are similar to those on Weeden Island vessels (Goggin 1998: 109; Willey 1998: 443) and bear single point punctations rather than the dentate stylus used for Little Manatee stamping. The surface of one of the two sherds is engraved (shallow, superficial etching after firing) rather than punctated (stylus deeply impressed into wet clay).

UID incised (n=19; 127.6 gms). Incised patterns are fragmentary in this category. It could not be determined whether the incising depicted simple or complex designs. Straight, single line incising is more prevalent and perhaps represents fragments of Little Manatee or Papys Bayou designs (Goggin 1998: 107). Rims were rarely recovered that bore multiple, roughly drawn lines (Figure 4.3).

Incised and Punctated (n=6; 33.8 gms). Sherds placed in this surface category exhibited incised lines and non-dentate stylus punctations. Potentially some of these fragmentary sherds may be portions of Papys Bayou vessels.

Punctated (n=18; 141.7 gms). This surface category contained a wide variety of impressions: round, triangular, or shell edge that were either zoned or covered the entire sherd surface. The Malacology Department (FLMNH) identified one shell edge stylus as a modified shell of the Cardiidae family (cockles), likely Dinocardium (Cordell personal communication, 2002)(Figure 4.4).In several cases the punctations are closely and erratically placed, suggesting texturing rather than aesthetic design. One sherd (TU6, lev.9B, FS379) exhibited a band of 20 somewhat erratic and probably construction related nail punctuations (right thumb?) along the break line. The surrounding surface was plain, finger smoothed, and bore evidence of heavy abrasion and pitting.

Net marked (n=5; 58.1 gms). In this assemblage, net impressions are thin and vague and are observed only on plain surfaces. Netting is distinguished from woven fabric by the openness of the design elements and by knots located at the junctures of lines. The knots are visible under magnification.

Woven (n=28, 328.9 gms). Woven, mat, or fabric impressions display warp/weft elements. In most of the St. Johns cases, the surface impression is eroded or vague and verification required magnification.

Cordmarked (n=12; 102.0 gms). Impressions are the result of a length of processed, twisted fibers wrapped around a paddle and applied to the wet clay. St. Johns cordmarking does not share the same surficial characteristics as its Ocmulgee counterpart (discussed below). St. Johns cordmarked sherds bear impressions that are widely spaced, shallow, and are the result of a single pass (no cross cord impressions) of the paddle or perhaps a single cord was employed.

Simple Stamped (n=26; 391.4 gms). Simple stamped surfaces contain narrow land and groove linear impressions made by a carved paddle (Goggin 1998: 56).

Cross Simple Stamped (n=1; 7.7 gms). A single cross simple stamped sherd was recovered. Its impression was made by a paddle carved with thin, perpendicular land and groove incisions.

Scraped/scored (n=83; 607.0 gms). In contrast to fine, evenly carved simple stamped paddle impressions, scraped or scored surfaces, as defined by Griffin and Smith (1949:348) and Goggin (1998:105), bear “shallow straight to wavy or curved scoring marks.” Scored impressions may be coarse, broad, rounded, almost dowel-shaped parallel impressions or they may appear as though some implement was drawn or dragged over the wet surface. The impressions may be parallel or overlap at acute angles. Near rims, marks are shallower and bear a smeared effect. Usually the pattern involved 3-6 parallel linear impressions (Figure 4.5).

Zoned (n=17; 424.2 gms). Zoned surfaces suggest purposeful differentiation in the use of the design field (i.e., a linear or formal edge to areas bearing check and plain treatment). In other cases when sherds bore two treatments it appears that surface coverage was incomplete or haphazard (Figure 4.6).

Obliterated (n=1; 19.1gms). Obliteration entails the purposeful attempt to replace or erase a dimensional surface treatment. A single sandy St. Johns sherd bore a surface that had been obliterated to a burnished finish.

UID (n=409; 2,679.0 gms). Sherd surfaces were too vague, eroded or worn to evaluate.

Accidental Surfaces: St. Johns Glaze-like surfaces. Two checked and one plain St. Johns sherds exhibited a pearly, pale whitish-gray glaze-like finish partially covering their exterior surface (TU1, lev.3, FS7; TU2, lev.6, FS21; and TU6, Feature 24, FS366). Glazing, or highly sintered glass-like finishes, are not

mentioned in the literature of prehistoric southeastern ceramic assemblages. For this reason those sherds were sent for evaluation to Prudence Rice, Southern Illinois University. She proposed two scenarios to explain the appearance of glazing. Both explanations may be appropriate. Rice (personal communication, 2002) noted that each of the sherd fabrics was of very fine texture. Preparing the vessel exterior (either for check stamping or burnishing) can bring the finest clay particles or other impurities to the surface and compacted them. During firing and subsequent sintering or vitrification the very fine particles may have come in contact with ash (hinted by the milky gray color), which would have acted as a flux (lowering the melting temperature). Rice reports that “ ash glazes” can be produced at fairly low temperatures, such as those present in prehistoric firing events. Ash-glazed pottery (Rice 1987:100, 151) has been recorded in very early pottery producing sites in Egypt and China, and is occasionally used in modern times. The second “or supplementary “ possibility requires that small amounts of very fine iron was present in the clay, which may also act as a flux. As silicate and other organic matter is being brought to the surface (burning off during firing) hit the elevated heat at the surface, it may melt simulating glaze. Certainly St. Johns fine spiculate-laden paste could present just these sort ort of conditions. Rice explaines that “the pot and fireash come into contact in a few spots, probably during cooling, where the two fluxes (the reduced iron and the ash) interact to start the “melting” process. She added that this process could occur during cooking. Two of the Shields examples are near the rim and no soot was present.

Green stain. A single sherd (TU3-lev.5, FS190) bore a small pale green stain that had penetrated into the surface. Advanced testing will be needed to identify the source of the stain although it is surmised that no organic material could have survived this long.

Exterior Surfaces: Non-spiculate Paste Group Cordmarked (n=787; 10,472.2 gms). The dominant surface treatment for non-spiculate paste sherds is cordmarking. A length of processed, twisted fibers was wrapped around a paddle which was later applied to wet clay, compressing and texturing the surface at the same time. With rare exceptions, cordage impressions found on Ocmulgee sherds are closely wrapped. On

few occasions, the cordage appears to have been carefully spaced so that small, uniform square blocks or diamonds were formed. The stamping pattern most often observed at the rim is an initial pass placing the impressions perpendicular to the lip. A second pass places another set of impressions oblique to the lip. Single stamped patterns are also noted. Occasionally, after an Ocmulgee vessel had been cordmarked, an appliqué strip was attached covering the impressed, simple lip. A great variety of appliqué thicknesses, lengths, and widths are recorded (Appendix B). With only one exception, cordmarking is also applied over the appliqué coil. Appliqué cordmarking varies from widely spaced single impressions to tightly spaced, oblique overstamping.

Plain (n=256; 3,657,6 gms). Plain surfaces received no additional dimensional modification. In this study, plain exterior and interior surfaces are given numeric codes reflecting four degrees of compaction. These numeric codes are referenced in the text and tables throughout this report. Plain 1 refers to surfaces that are poorly smoothed or where little effort was made to compact the surface beyond sealing the coils. Plain 1 surfaces are highly porous, rough, and uneven. Plain 2 refers to finger smoothed surfaces where more smoothing and compaction is evident but surfaces are still porous. Plain 3 is used to designate well-sealed, hard-tooled surfaces. Plain 4 sherds bear burnished surfaces. Grit and grit-grog-tempered sherds were not as lustrous as their St. Johns counterparts, deep compaction is rarely observed. In contrast, sand and sand-grog-tempered sherds exhibited reflective, polished surfaces.

Woven (n=49; 584.6 gms). Woven surface modification contains warp/weft elements that are often observed on basal sherds (Figure 4.8). Fabric impressions observed on Ocmulgee sherds are not as uniformly vague as those observed on St. Johns sherds. In one case, a coarser, untwisted impression was found that strongly suggests basketry.

Check Stamped (n=10; 58.4 gms). Only 1 grit-tempered sherd bears a check stamped surface. The other sherds in this category were constructed with sand or sand-grog temper.

Obliterated (n=13; 226.0 gms). These sherds bore plain finishes that were secondary to the surface modification. Obliterated surfaces reveal elimination of an initial dimensional treatment (4 check, 9 uid). In most cases obliteration continued until a streaked burnished surface was achieved.

Complicated stamp (n=1; 2.9gms). One sand-tempered sherd appears to have a concentric curvilinear design similar to those recorded on Swift Creek vessels. The sherd is fragmentary with only a small portion of a design was present.

Punctated (n=2; 7.9 gms). Punctation involves piercing the vessel wall while the clay is still wet. In the Shields assemblage, a shell edge and a round-stylus were used to decorate two sand-tempered vessels.

Zoned (n=1; 11.1 gms). This category described surface modification that employs two different treatments. It appears that the placement of two design fields is purposeful and not haphazard execution. A single sand- tempered zoned (diamond check and plain) sherd was recovered from the Kinzey’s Knoll midden.

UID (n=32; 303.3 gms). Unidentified surfaces are those in which the surface is too worn, eroded, fragmentary, or vague to be evaluated.

Weeden Island-like Incised (n=1; 17.0 gms). One small rim fragment of a red- filmed, globular vessel suggested an incised pattern similar to those drawn on Weeden Island vessels (Goggin 1998:109; Willey 1998:411-425).

Keith Incised (n=1; 4.0 gms). One small sherd bore zoned (diagonal and parallel) incising (Willey 1998: 427).

St. Marys Cordmarked (n=1, 10.3). The shallow cordage impressions observed on a single thin-walled, sand-tempered St. Marys Cordmarked potsherd (Ashley and Rolland 2002) exhibit a narrower gauge than that found on Ocmulgee vessels. In this region St. Marys Cordmarked was previously referred to as Savannah Fine Cord Marked (Goggin 1998:109, among many others). St. Marys Cordmarked pottery replaces St. Johns as the local ware after A.D. 1250. Summary The ceramic assemblage recovered from the Shields site is extensive, and with very few exceptions, the great majority can be categorized into a small number of subgroup variations. St. Johns and Ocmulgee series ceramics are concentrated into two paste subgroups (St. Johns and grit-tempered fabrics) and surface modifications (check stamping and cordmarking). There are, however, a variety of other fabric inclusions observed in the Ocmulgee complex. The ceramic artifacts also reveal that this study is investigating a purely St. Johns II occupation as the recovery of Woodland period, western Florida, or post- occupation pottery types is negligible.

CHAPTER 5 PASTE ANALYSIS

Paste Groups

The study sample contains 13,237 sherds weighting 71,176.7 grams. The Shields assemblage is divided into two gross paste categories based on the presence or absence of common to abundant sponge spicules. Non-spicule tempered sherds account for 17.1 percent by count (n=2,260) and 25.0 percent by weight (17,801.8 gms). The majority of the study sample is comprised of spicule-tempered St. Johns paste: 82.9 percent by count (n=10,977) and 75.0 percent by weight (53,374.9 gms). By weight, sherds smaller than 2 cm make up only 13.1 percent and 12.6 percent of the two paste groups. Their numbers are displayed in Table 5.1 but for the remainder of the chapter, data are generated by the counts and weights of sherds larger than 2 cm: frequency (n=5805) and weight (62,125.7 gms). Table 5.2 provides paste descriptions of the sizes and abundance of temper and aplastic constituents.

Table 5.1. Summary of paste groups: all sherds. Shaded rows: percentages are based on total count and weight (read across). Percentages for > 2cm or <2cm are based on totals reported in the shaded rows above them (read down). non-spiculate #/% spiculate #/% totals sherd count 2260 17.1% 10,977 82.9% n=13,237 – 100% total >2cm 1,155 51.1% 4,650 42.3% 5805– 43.8% total <2cm 1,105 48.9% 6,327 57.7% 7,432 – 56.2% sherd weight-gms 17,801.8 25.0% 53,374.9 75.0% 71,176.7 gms – 100% total >2cm 15,463.1 86.9% 46,662.6 87.4% 62,125.7 – 87.3% total <2cm 2,338.7 13.1% 6,712.3 12.6% 9,053.5 – 12.7%

Table 5.2. Gross paste categories and their subgroups. Counts and weight based on total sherds larger than 2 cm. count percent weight gms percent paste description spiculate pastes 4650 80.1% 46,662.6 75.2% occasional silt-sized quartz particles rare instances of fine to medium quartz inclusions St. Johns 4193 72.3% 41,894 67.5% none to frequent mica; majority rare to occasional mica abundant silt-sized sponge spicules rare instances of rare to occasional ground iron oxide 1 sherd contained crushed shell 1 sherd contained uid inclusion occasional to frequent very fine, fine quartz particles common very fine to medium quartz sandy St. Johns 403 6.9% 4,386.4 7.1% rare to frequent mica, majority rare mica rare instances of rare to occasional iron oxide common silt-sized sponge spicules same as St. Johns St. Johns-grog 20 .3% 117.2 .2% rare to occasional rounded fine to medium spiculate grog sandy St. Johns-grog 5 .09% 60.8 .1% same as sandy St. Johns paste rare to occasional rounded fine to medium spiculate grog Papys Bayou 2 .03% 12.3 .02% same as St. Johns Little Manatee 27 .5% 188.4 .3% same as St. Johns non-spiculate pastes 1155 19.9% 15,463.1 22.8% frequent to common subangular to angular coarse to very coarse grit-sized particles Ocmulgee grit 635 10.9% 8,138.9 13.1% frequent to common fine, medium quartz rare to frequent mica, majority occasional to frequent mica rare instances of limestone inclusions rare instances of sponge spicules

Table 5.2 continued. count percent weight percent paste descriptions same as Ocmulgee grit with Ocmulgee grit-grog 163 2.8% 2,459.6 4.0% occasional to frequent fine to very coarse; angular to sub-angular non-spiculate grog 2 sherds contained spiculate grog common to abundant very fine to medium quartz sand tempered 154 2.7% 1,679.6 2.7% rare instances of occasional grit-sized inclusions none to frequent mica, majority occasional to frequent mica abundant very fine to medium quartz particles sand temper-charcoal 2 .03% 6.1 .01% occasional fine to medium angular voids occasional to frequent crushed charcoal inclusions frequent very fine, fine quarts particles rare to occasional medium, coarse quartz Ocmulgee sand-grog 197 3.4% 3,100.9 5.0% occasional to frequent mica, 32% frequent rare instances of rare to occasional limestone, iron oxide, sponge spicules, 1 sherd uid inclusions Unidentified 1 .02% 5.2 .01% rare fine sand, pale St. Johns color common very fine, fine quartz inclusions St. Marys Cordmarked 1 .02% 10.3 .02% occasional medium quartz occasional to frequent fine mica platelets non-local calcareous clay Weeden Island-like 1 .02% 17.0 .03% frequent very fine, fine sand occasional coarse sand rare uid, coarse, angular inclusions common very fine, fine quartz inclusions Keith Incised 1 .02% 4.0 .01% occasional medium quartz rare mica Totals 5805 100.0% 62,125.7 100.1%

Spicule-tempered sherds: n=4650 (80.1 percent), 46,662.6 gms (75.2 percent) The largest paste category is comprised of sherds containing common to abundant freshwater sponge spicule temper. Throughout this thesis this paste category is termed St. Johns paste (Borreman and Shaak 1986; Cordell 1989; Cordell and Koski 2003; Goggin 1998:99-105; Rolland and Bond 2003). Although earlier Florida archaeologists referred to St. Johns as “temperless,” in addition to the requisite spicules, St. Johns paste contains varying frequencies and sizes of quartz grains (Cordell and Koski 2003). Distinguished solely by surface treatment, three formal St. Johns pottery types were recovered at Shields: St. Johns, Papys Bayou, and Little Manatee. An additional three paste subgroups were identified: sandy St. Johns, St. Johns-grog, and sandy St. Johns-grog. In this collection, St. Johns paste subgroups contain two mineral constituents: mica platelets and ground iron oxide particles. In northeastern Florida, aboriginal pottery often contains varying frequencies of mica flecks. Mica is a natural constituent of clays in this region, however, sheet mica occasionally found in St. Johns burial mounds may have originated in interior Georgia. The presence of iron oxide in St. Johns paste is less rarely reported. Iron oxide is available both in Georgia and Florida. Either of these two minerals may have been deliberately processed and added to raw clay either to enhance aesthetic qualities or for ritual or symbolic purposes. It is also possible that both minerals may have been present in activity areas, as a result of other construction activities, and were inadvertently incorporated into the paste.

St. Johns (n=4193 - 72.3 percent; 41,897.5 gms - 67.5 percent). The St. Johns paste group contains abundant sponge spicules and rare to occasional frequencies of very fine to fine mineralogical inclusions of which quartz is the most easily recognized under non- petrographic magnification. Three St. Johns sherds were randomly chosen for thin-section petrographic analysis performed by Ann Cordell at the ceramics lab in the Florida Museum of Natural History (FLMNH), Gainesville. St. Johns sherd fabric viewed in the three thin sections were comprised of clay minerals (smaller than .004 mm) and abundant (20 percent) silt-sized sponge spicules. Cordell noted that the sherds contained only occasional (3 percent

to 5 percent) silt-sized quartz particles (.004 to .06 mm) and very fine quartz (.0625 to .125 mm). In her final analysis, she classified those sherds in the finest of her three St. Johns paste categories (Cordell and Koski 2003).4 Two St. Johns sherds contained other inclusions (shell and uid) and these are assumed to be incidental to paste processing. The great majority of St. Johns sherds are fired in a reduction atmosphere that resulted in a thin skin of oxidized color (e.g. 7.5YR7-8/1-4, 10YR 7-8/1-4) over thick, dark gray to black cores. Rarely St. Johns sherds rarely exhibited either complete oxidation or complete reduction.

Table 5.3. Summary of St. Johns paste and inclusions. St. Johns and inclusions count/% weight/% St. Johns 4042 – 96.3% 40,177.8 – 95.9% micaceous St. Johns 98– 2.4% 1,262.8 – 3.0% St. Johns-iron oxide 49 – 1.2% 436.1 – 1.1% micaceous St. Johns-iron oxide 2 – .005% 10.3 – .02% St. Johns-shell 1 – .002% 8.1 – .02% St. Johns -uid 1 – .002% 2.4 –.006% Totals 4193 – 99.9% 41,897.5 – 100.0%

Little Manatee (n=27 - .5 percent; 188.4 gms - .3 percent) and Papys Bayou (n=2 - .03 percent; 12.3 gms - .02 percent). Willey (1998:442-444) states that Papys Bayou and Little Manatee pastes are indistinguishable from the “soft, temperless ware of the St. Johns or Biscayne variety” (also Goggin 1998:109-110). Firing techniques mirror those observed for St. Johns.

Sandy St. Johns (n=403– 7.0 percent; 4,386.4 gms – 7.1 percent). Cordell (Cordell and Koski 2003) furnishes a definition for sandy St. Johns paste that distinguishes it both by spicule frequency and quartz particle size and frequency. Sandy St. Johns sherds contain “common sponge spicules (v. abundant) and common to abundant quartz sand primarily fine

4 Other very fine to fine constituents observed were hematite/ferric inclusions, plagioclase, microcline, uid feldspar, muscovite/mica, and epidote. Thin section data are provided in Appendix B. These and other St. Johns paste reports are available at the FLMNH ceramic lab, UF, Gainesville. For a discussion of the heavy minerals found in Florida clays see Bell 1924, McClennan and Eades 1997: 148- 152; Rolland and Bond 2003.

to medium in size” (v. rare to occasional sand, primarily very fine to fine in size) (italics mine). In the Shields assemblage, sandy St. Johns paste was recognized under magnification of the fresh break and verified using the frequency diagrams presented in Rice (1978:348). The increased presence of sand did little to change the poorly oxidized firing color pattern. As with St. Johns, the majority of sandy St. Johns sherds exhibit dark cores covered by thin lenses of pale, oxidized color.

Table 5.4. Summary of sandy St. Johns paste and inclusions. sandy St. Johns and inclusions count/% weight/% sandy St. Johns 361 – 89.6% 3,755.9 – 85.6% micaceous sandy St. Johns 16 – 4.0% 175.4 – 4.0% sandy St. Johns-iron oxide 26 – 6.4% 455.1 – 10.4% Totals 403 – 100.0% 4,386.4 – 100.0%

St. Johns-grog (n=20 - .4 percent; 117.2 gms - .2 percent) and sandy St. Johns-grog (n=5 - .1 percent; 60.8 gms - .1 percent). St. Johns sherds containing grog-temper are minor components in the Shields assemblage. St. Johns grog inclusions are medium to granule in size, and given the soft nature of St. Johns paste, are most often rounded. Low frequencies of micaceous grog pastes and iron oxide inclusions are consistent with the patterns found in St. Johns and sandy St. Johns subgroups. Fired color patterns match those results observed in St. Johns sherds, although twice-fired grog inclusions are often lighter in color (e.g., 7.5YR 8/1-2) and standout against the darker, single-fired, reduced matrix.

Table 5.5. Summary of St. Johns-grog and sandy St. Johns-grog paste and inclusions. St. Johns-grog inclusions count/% weight/% St. Johns-grog 16 – 80.0% 79.7 – 68.0% micaceous St. Johns-grog 2 – 10.0% 5.9 – 5.0% St. Johns-grog-iron oxide 2 – 10.0% 31.6 – 27.0% Total 20 – 100.0% 117.2 – 100.0% sandy St. Johns-grog 5 – 100.0% 60.8 –100.0% total St. Johns-Grog pastes 25 - .4% 178.0 - .3%

Non-spiculate Tempered sherds: n=1155 (19.9 percent), 15,421.6 gms (24.8 percent). Four formal pottery typologies, the Ocmulgee series, Weeden Island-like, Keith Incised, and St. Marys Cordmarked, and three paste subgroups (sand tempered, sand- charcoal, and uid) were recognized in the non-spiculate paste group. Diversity in temper and aplastic inclusions are observed in the Ocmulgee series: grit, grit-grog, and sand-grog.5 Because of the range of sand temper size, frequencies of inclusions, formal construction methods, and surface treatment, broad-brush affiliation of that paste subgroup with the Ocmulgee Series is problematic. More data revealing the ranges of vessel thickness, sizes and forms are needed from central Georgia and other St. Johns II assemblages before this problem can be settled. Overall, the non-spiculate subgroups contain higher and greater frequencies of larger particles of mica and iron oxide inclusions. A higher magnification than was available for this study is necessary before the true range of mica sizes and frequencies can be reported. Limestone and uid white and gray powdery inclusions were also recorded.

Ocmulgee grit-tempered (n=635 – 11.0 percent; 8,180.4 gms – 13.2 percent). Grit- sized particles are present in frequent (5-10 percent) to abundant (20-30 percent) volume and as coarse to very coarse-sized (.5-2 mm), angular to rounded quartz inclusions. Subangular and subrounded dominate, but sharply angular quartz inclusions are frequently observed. From sherd to sherd there can be considerable variety in the volume of grit mixed into the raw clay, while finer-sized quartz is less often observed. The frequency of rounded, medium to coarse-sized iron oxide inclusions also is highly variable: no inclusions are common, frequent inclusions are occasionally seen in sand- and sand-grog-tempered sherds. This may be the result of repeated collection of known iron-rich clay sources (by interior Georgia Ocmulgee potters) or inadvertent or purposeful addition to the paste. Ocmulgee grit and grit- grog pastes are well compacted and thoroughly fired. Most sherds required firm pressure to break, even those that contained relatively large and abundant quartz grains. For the vast majority of Ocmulgee grit and grit-grog sherds, fired clay colors ranged from dark browns to blacks, suggesting a preference for a reduced oxygen environment (e.g., 2.5YR2.5-4/1-4;

5 For a discussion of the Ocmulgee presence in northeastern Florida and the northern St. Johns II culture area, see Ashley 2003b, Ashley and Rolland 2002. 64

10R2.5-4/1-4). Highly oxidized grit and grit-grog-tempered sherds are rare (10R5-6/6-8). Thin lenses of reddish brown colors are frequently seen, especially on exterior surfaces.

Table 5.6. Summary of Ocmulgee grit-tempered paste and inclusions. Ocmulgee grit-temper and inclusions count/% weight/% Ocmulgee grit 588 – 92.6% 7,580.5 – 92.6% micaceous Ocmulgee grit 32 – 5.0% 397.2 – 4.9% Ocmulgee grit-spicules 5 – .8% 35.9 – .4% micaceous Ocmulgee grit-spicules 5 – .8% 66.9 – .8% Ocmulgee grit-iron oxide 1 – .2% 11.5 –.1% Ocmulgee grit-limestone/uid 4 – .6% 88.4 – 1.1% Total 635 – 100.0% 8,180.4 – 99.9%

Ocmulgee grit-grog tempered (n=163 – 2.8 percent; 2,459.6 gms – 4.0 percent). With the addition of fine to coarse-sized, usually angular, crushed prefired clay, the paste characteristics of grit-grog tempered sherds are identical of those reported for the grit subgroup. The majority of grog inclusions are often not obvious and recognized only during magnification of the fresh break. Fine and medium-sized grog inclusions predominate in grit- grog pastes. Fine sand inclusions are again occasionally present. Two sherds contained spiculate grog inclusions.

Table 5.7. Summary of Ocmulgee grit-grog tempered paste and inclusions. Ocmulgee grit-grog and inclusions count/% weight/% Ocmulgee grit-grog 124 – 76.1% 1,833.3 – 74.5% micaceous Ocmulgee grit-grog 33– 20.2% 549.9 – 22.4% Ocmulgee grit-grog-spicules 4 – 2.5% 55.1 – 2.2% micaceous Ocmulgee grit-grog-spicules 1 - .6% 11.2 - .5% Ocmulgee grit-iron oxide 1 - .6% 10.1 - .4% Total 163– 100.0% 2,459.6 –100.0%

Sand tempered (n=154 – 2.7 percent, 1,679.6 – 2.7percent). The sand-temper subgroup is characterized by very fine to medium quartz particles in common to abundant frequencies. For this collection the presence of grit in rare to occasional frequencies is considered part of the natural and normal size range of quartz inclusions present in any source. Plain, burnished sand-tempered sherds consistently evince a finer paste texture while

sand-tempered cordmarked sherds contain more particle-size variation (including rare to occasional grit) and are coarser in texture. Both plain and cordmarked sand-tempered sherds reveal higher frequencies of fine to very coarse mica platelets with fine to medium sizes dominating. In this collection, sand-tempered sherds were more often fired in an open oxygen atmosphere; the majority achieving medium to bright orange and golden brown colors. Oxidized color profiles were complete and only rarely are thin grayish cores observed (e.g., 2.5YR4-6/6-8, 10R4-6/6-8).

Table 5.8. Summary of sand-tempered paste and inclusions. sand tempered and inclusions count/% weight/% sand tempered 109 – 70.8% 949.7 – 56.5% micaceous sand temper 25– 16.3% 354.8 – 21.1% sand temper- iron oxide 7 – 4.5% 71.7 – 4.3% sand temper and limestone 3 – 1.9% 51.7 – 3.0% sand tempers-uid powder 9 – 5.8% 246.2 – 14.7% sand temper-iron oxide-uid 1 - .6% 5.5 - .3% Total 154– 99.9% 1,679.6 – 99.9%

Sand-charcoal-temper (n=2, .03 percent; 6.1 gms - .01 percent). The Shields assemblage contains two sand-tempered sherds that contain frequent to common, crushed, angular charcoal fragments that are fine to medium, and occasionally, coarse to very coarse in size. Angular voids left by dissolved charcoal are present in the surface and the sherd interior. Sand-charcoal temper is associated with Early Swift Creek occupations (Ashley 2003a). These sherds were present in the area but not constructed by Shields period potters.

Sand-grog tempered (n=197 – 3.4 percent; 3,100.9 gms – 5.0 percent. Sand-grog tempered sherds are the second most frequent non-spiculate paste subgroup recovered at Shields. The volume of grog and very fine to medium quartz inclusions is highly variable. Grit-sized particles are rarely observed in the clay fabrics of this subgroup. Sand-grog sherds are more often micaceous (36.6 percent by subgroup weight). Bright, completely oxidized vessel fabrics is the norm, although deeper oranges are present (e.g., 2.5YR 4-6/6-8, 5YR5- 6/6-8, 10YR 4-6/6-8). 66

Table 5.9. Summary of sand-grog tempered paste and inclusions. Sand-grog tempered and inclusions count weight sand-grog 130 – 66.0% 1,758.6 – 56.7% micaceous sand-grog 58– 29.4% 1,126.0 – 36.3% micaceous sand-grog-iron oxide 1 – .5% 6 – .2% sand-grog limestone 1– .5% 6.5 – .2% sand –grog iron oxide 2 – 1.0% 56.1 – 1.8% micaceous sand-grog-spicules 1 -.5% 3.5 - .1% sand-grog spicules 3 – 1.5% 122.3 – 3.9% sand-grog-iron oxide-uid 1 - .5% 21.9 - .7% Total 197– 99.9% 3,100.9 – 99.9%

St. Marys Cordmarked (n=1; 10.3 gms). The single St. Marys sherd is tempered with very fine to fine quartz particles (Ashley and Rolland 2002). Locally produced after A.D. 1250, this thin-walled sherd was fired in a reduced environment.

Keith Incised (n=1; 4.0 gms). This non-local pottery type is tempered with fine to medium sand. It was fired in a reduced oxygen environment.

Weeden Island-like (n=1; 17.0gms). This single example represents a vessel of non- local construction. The sherd was constructed with a calcareous clay and angular, medium to coarse crushed rock inclusions. The entire of the surface of the sherd was covered with white carbonate patination, the result from post-depositional leaching of the calcareous clay minerals in the shell midden environment. Large unidentified crushed inclusions did not react to hydrochloric acid when removed from the paste.

Spatial Distribution of Paste Groups and Subgroups

Table 5.10 reveals the distribution by weight of the two paste groups. Frequencies reveal the proportions of spiculate and non-spiculate pastes within each of the ten designated areas. In four of the ten areas, St. Johns pastes comprised 80 percent or higher of the subsample: middens Kinzey’s West (85.4 percent) and Reeves Rise (84.2 percent), and shovel test groups East (85.2 percent) and West Bluff (81.1percent). The two densest ceramic

samples, Kinzey’s Knoll (74.4 percent) and Bluff Midden (77.0 percent), contained somewhat higher percentages of non-spiculate sherds. The two groups furthest from the mound, West Group (70.1 percent) and Northwest Group (36.6 percent), contain the lowest weights of St. Johns sherds. In the following section, the distribution of paste subgroups is examined. Percentages are based on weight.

Table 5.10. Distribution of gross paste groups by subsample. Areas are ranked by highest to lowest percentages of St. Johns sherd weight. Bold percentages are based on unit totals (read across) and percentages by site are based on sample totals (read down). spiculate >2cm non-spiculate>2cm totals>2cm gms % % site gms % % site gms % area % site area area Kinzey’s West 1697.1 85.4% 2.7% 289.5 14.6% .5% 1,986.6 100.0% 3.2% East Group 1368.4 85.2% 2.2% 238.6 14.8% .4% 1,607.0 100.0% 2.6%

Reeves Rise 2467.6 84.2% 4.0% 463.3 15.8% .7% 2,930.9 100.0% 4.7% West Bluff 643.1 81.1% 1.0% 149.5 18.9% .2 % 792.6 100.0% 1.3% Group Bluff Midden 13,420.6 77.0% 21.6% 4,007.8 23.0% 6.5% 17,428.5 100.0% 28.1% Kinzey’s Group 655.4 76.0% 1.1% 206.5 24.0% .3% 861.9 100.0% 1.4% Kinzey’s Knoll 22,825.9 74.4% 36.7% 8,628.3 25.6% 13.9% 31,454.2 100.0% 50.6% Kinzey’s South 2871.5 73.3% 4.6% 1,044.8 26.7% 1.7% 3,916.3 100.0% 6.3% West Group 614.5 70.1% 1.0% 262.1 29.9% .4% 876.6 100.0% 1.4% Northwest 98.5 36.3% .2% 172.7 63.7% .3% 271.2 100.0% .4% Group totals 46,662.6 75.1% 15,463.1 24.9% 62,125.7 100.0%

St. Johns. The greatest concentrations of St. Johns sherds are recovered from the two densest middens (Table 5.11). St. Johns pottery also is well represented in the low-shell shovel test groups. The highest percentage is recovered from the East Group (1126.1 gms or 2.7 percent). Kinzey’s Group, which bounds the area with three designated middens, contains only 1.3 percent of the St. Johns collection. That percentage is equal to the weight of St. Johns sherds recovered from the West Group. The highest frequencies of micaceous St. Johns sherds are recovered from Reeves Rise (5.6 percent of that midden and 9.0 percent of total micaceous St. Johns sherds) and Kinzey’s Knoll (4.0 percent of that midden and 66.2 percent of total St. Johns sherds). Kinzey’s Knoll holds the highest weight percentage of St. Johns sherds with iron oxide inclusions (190.5 gms-42.7 percent iron oxide subsample); followed by Bluff Midden (17.5

percent), and Kinzey’s South (12.7 percent). The highest percentage for a single area is Reeves Rise (6.9 percent of the total St. Johns sample)

Table 5.11. Distribution of St. Johns sherds. Percentages by total weight 41,897.5 gms (Table 5.2). West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden 543.6 63.9 505.0 537.7 1126.1 1588.2 2715.6 21295.7 2025.7 11496.0 100.0% 1.3% .2% 1.2% 1.3% 2.7% 3.8% 6.5% 50.8% 4.8% 27.4%

Papys Bayou and Little Manatee. Papys Bayou (.02 percent) and Little Manatee (.3 percent) are minority wares in the Shields assemblage (Table 5.12). None was recovered within the low-shell shovel test groups. Kinzey’s Knoll contained the greater frequency of both types.

Table 5.12. Distribution of Papys Bayou (12.3 gms) and Little Manatee (188.4 gms) sherds. Percentages based on weight of the individual type. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden Papys

Bayou 4.9 7.4 100.0% 39.8% 60.2% Little

Manatee 119.7 35.5 33.2 99.9% 63.5% 18.8% 17.6%

Sandy St. Johns. Sandy St Johns sherds are found in marginal frequencies throughout the site (by weight 7.1 percent of the total collection)(Table 5.13). The greatest concentration is found in the Bluff Midden subsample (42.1 percent) and then far lower frequencies are recorded for the Bluff West Group (3.0 percent) and East Group (5.5 percent). The two lowest percentages are found in the extreme western portion of the site, West Group (1.3 percent) and Northwest Group (.6 percent). These two samples also held the two lowest frequencies of St. Johns. It seems that while mineral-tempered pots were more the standard farther from the mound, sandy St. Johns vessels did not perform similarly enough to be integrated into those deposits. Sandy St. Johns with iron oxide inclusions are found most

frequently in the Knoll, and the highest frequencies of micaceous sandy St. Johns are recovered in Reeves Rise and the Bluff Midden.

Table 5.13. Distribution of sandy St. Johns: percentages based on total weight 4,386.4 gms. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden gms 59.1 24.5 132.7 110.9 239.4 104.0 155.9 1368.5 346.6 1845.1 100.1% 1.3% .6% 3.0% 2.5% 5.5% 2.4% 3.6% 31.2% 7.9% 42.1%

St. Johns-grog and sandy St. Johns-grog. St. Johns pastes with grog inclusions make up a very low percentage of the Shields assemblage: St. Johns-grog (.2 percent), sandy St. Johns-grog (.1 percent)(Tables 5.14, 5.15). Based on only 48.6 gms, the highest frequency of St. Johns-grog sherds is found in Reeves Rise (41.5 percent). Similar low weight percentage are found in the West Group and Knoll subsamples. Sandy St. Johns-grog comprised a somewhat higher portion of the Knoll and Bluff Middens subsamples. Micaceous St. Johns-grog sherds are negligible in the study sample, constituting only 5.9 gms of the St. Johns assemblage. St. Johns-grog with iron oxide is only found in Reeves Rise.

Table 5.14. Distribution of St. Johns-grog: percentages based on total weight 117.2 gms. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden gms 11.8 5.4 6.8 2.9 12 48.6 29.7 100.0% 10.1% 4.6% 5.8% 2.5% 10.2% 41.5% 25.3%

Table 5.15. Sandy St. Johns-grog: percentages based on total weight of 60.8 gms. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden gms 10.1 22.6 11.5 16.6 100.0% 16.6% 37.2% 18.9% 27.3%

Non-spiculate Paste Subgroups Grit tempered. Frequency of grit-tempered sherds is diverse across the site (Table 5.16). The majority is discarded in the Knoll midden (64.9 percent). In contrast, other

subassemblages nearest the Knoll (East Group and Kinzey’s West) contained the lowest percentages of grit tempered sherd weight. The second highest frequency of grit-tempered sherds is found in the Bluff Midden although it contained less than two-thirds of the Knoll grit sherd weight. At 6.1 percent there is an even more significant drop in the third highest frequency for Kinzey’s South. The greatest weight of micaceous grit-tempered sherds is found in Kinzey’s Knoll (301.9 gms, 5.7 percent of the Knoll’s grit sample). Ten sherds from the Knoll contain occasional spicules or are micaceous with occasional spicules. Micaceous grit-tempered sherds less often found in the Bluff Midden (2.9 percent) and are only minor constituents of Northwest and East groups, and Kinzey’s South and Reeves Rise middens. Grit with uid mineral inclusions are found more frequently in the Knoll and Bluff middens.

Table 5.16. Distribution of grit-tempered sherds: Percentages by weight 8,138.9 gms. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden gms 108.3 81.8 82.8 141.5 46.1 60.8 492.5 5278.8 172.7 1683.6 100.0% 1.3% 1.0% .9% 1.7% .6% .7% 6.1% 64.9% 2.1% 20.7%

Grit-grog tempered. 64.8 percent of the grit-grog paste subgroup are found in Kinzey’s Knoll while nearby Kinzey’s West midden contained a low 1.1 percent (Table 5.17). The next two highest weight frequencies are considerably lower: Bluff Midden (19.7 percent) and Kinzey’s South (9.2 percent). This paste subgroup is somewhat better represented in the western shovel test groups: West (1.8 percent) and West Bluff (1.7 percent) although none were recovered in the Northwest Group. Grit-grog sherds are very poorly represented with the central and eastern areas: Kinzey’s (.3 percent) and East (.5 percent) groups, and Reeves Rise (2.1 percent) midden. The highest frequency of micaceous grit-grog sherds is found in Kinzey’s Knoll; far lower weights are recovered in Bluff Midden, Kinzey’s South, and West Group. A single sherd containing iron oxide inclusions was found in Kinzey’s South. Grit-grog sherds containing occasional spicules are recovered only in Kinzey’s Knoll.

Table 5.17. Distribution of grit-grog tempered sherds: Percentages by weight 2459.6 gms. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden gms 45.5 42.4 6.9 12.0 27.3 226.1 1593.4 21.2 484.8 100.0% 1.8% 1.7% .3% .5% 1.1% 9.2% 64.8% .9% 19.7%

Sand tempered. The highest weight of sand-tempered sherds is found in Bluff Midden (50.6 percent)(Table 5.18). The second highest weight/percentage is found in Kinzey’s Knoll (27.3 percent). The next two highest frequencies, Reeve’s Rise (7.7 percent) and Kinzey’s South (4.7 percent), reveal significantly lower rates. Sand tempered sherds are somewhat better represented in the western shovel tests. Micaceous sand-tempered sherds are more concentrated in Bluff Midden, well represented in Kinzey’s Knoll, but much smaller within the Reeves Rise subsample. Once again, sand- and micaceous sand-tempered sherds are negligible in the East and West Bluff groups that are immediately adjacent to Bluff Midden.

Table 5.18. Distribution of sand-tempered and micaceous sand-tempered sherds. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden sand-tempered: % by subgroup weight of 1,679.6 gms. gms 41.8 21.8 15.9 30.0 11.7 38.9 79.7 459.3 129.8 850.7 100.0% 2.5% 1.3% .9% 1.8% .7% 2.3% 4.7% 27.3% 7.7% 50.6% subsample: micaceous sand-tempered: 21.1% within sand subgroup, % by weight 354.8 gms gms 4.2 7.9 3.3 110.7 40.9 187.8 99.9% 1.2% 2.2% .9% 31.2% 11.5% 52.9%

Sand-charcoal tempered. Late Woodland sand and charcoal tempered sherds are recovered only within shovel test groups and are likely not affiliated with those deposits that accumulated during the St. Johns II occupation of Shields (Table 5.19). Evidence of a denser Woodland Deptford and Swift Creek occupations have been found in the vicinity (Ashley 2001, 2003a).

Table 5.19. Distribution of sand-charcoal tempered sherds: percentages by subgroup weight of 6.1 gms. West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden gms .4 5.7 100.0% 6.6% 93.4%

Sand-grog tempered. In contrast to the unequal distribution of the other non- spiculate subgroups, sand-grog tempered sherds are somewhat evenly distributed between the Kinzey’s Knoll (39.6 percent) and Bluff Midden (31.9 percent). Sand-grog sherds were rarely discarded in the Reeves Rise midden, which lies between the two locations of highest discard. Kinzey’s South (7.9 percent) contained the third highest frequency of this temper subgroup, but again, the frequency is substantially lower. Sand-grog tempered sherds are equally recovered in the two most western groups; poorly represented in the West Bluff Group (.6 percent) that lies immediately west of Bluff Midden; and Kinzey’s Group (.7 percent), immediately west of the Knoll. Micaceous sand-grog sherds comprise nearly 37 percent of the sand-grog subgroup. While distribution of sand-grog paste is relatively equal between the Knoll and Bluff middens, a much higher percentage of micaceous sand-grog-tempered sherds is recovered in the Knoll (51.7 percent) vs. Bluff Midden (36.7 percent). Other sand-grog paste variations (limestone, iron oxide, micaceous with occasional spicules, and sand-grog with occasional spicules) are concentrated in Kinzey’s Knoll.

Table 5.20. Distribution of sand-grog-tempered (Percentages by total weight of 3,100.9 gms) and micaceous sand-tempered sherds (Percentages by weight 1126.0 gms). West N’west West Kinzey’s East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Bluff Group Group Bluff Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden sand-grog tempered: % based on subgroup weight of 3,100.9 gms gms 66.1 69.1 18.4 22.4 158.5 162.5 246.5 1229.1 139.6 988.7 99.8% 2.1% 2.2% .6% .7% 5.1% 5.2% 7.9% 39.6% 4.5% 31.9% subsample: micaceous sand-grog: 36.3% within sand subgroup, % by weight 1126.0 gms gms 22.4 82.2 582.7 24.9 413.8 99.9% 2.0% 7.3% 51.7% 2.2% 36.7%

St. Marys Cordmarked. Fine sand-tempered St. Marys Cordmarked was locally produced and becomes the dominate ware of the lower St. Johns River basin after the St. Johns II occupation of Shields (A.D. 1250) (Ashley and Rolland 2002). The single example recovered during the Shields excavations came from the second level of a shovel test in the East Group.

Weeden Island-like and Keith Incised. The red-filmed Weeden Island-like incised globular rim sherd was recovered from the Knoll (Test Unit 1). One sand-tempered Keith Incised body sherd was recovered in a shovel test associated with the Knoll midden. Keith Incised is associated with the northwest Florida coast and Weeden Island pottery (Willey 1998:427).

Sand-tempered - possible Swift Creek. One sand-tempered sherd resembles Swift Creek complicated stamped pottery associated with the local Woodland period Swift Creek occupation. This small sherd was recovered in the Bluff Midden. A newly assembled series of calibrated radiocarbon dates reveal that the Swift Creek occupation of the lower St. Johns River basin continued much later that previously thought (Ashley 2003a; Stephenson 2003).

CHAPTER 6

VESSEL FORMS: CONSTRUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION

Techno-functional analysis of ceramic assemblages couples paste composition with vessel form and size. The underlying premise of techno-functional analysis is that for very practical reasons, prehistoric potters manipulated construction on the basis of a pots intended function. Through training, observation, and experience, aboriginal potters, like earthenware potters of today, possessed a clear understanding of the drying, firing, and use-related characteristics of local raw clay and aplastic constituents. Thus, researchers propose that the physical attributes of paste, vessel shape, thickness, and size contribute to our understanding of prehistoric container needs and functions. Formal and stylistic attributes imply efficiency or ineffectiveness regarding use as storage, processing, cooking, and serving vessels (Arnold 1999; Blitz 1993a; Cordell 2001; Costin 1999; Deal 1998; Hally 1984, 1986; Mills 1999; Sassaman 1993; Skibo 1992; Steponaitis 1983; Stoltman 1999). For example, globular vessels are constructed with a restricted orifice that is highly effective in containing material but restricts access. Therefore, globular vessels function more efficiently in storing or transporting of either liquid or dry goods. Food processing and cooking are better conducted using simple, straight-walled vessels where ingredients can be easily added, stirred, and removed. Simple direct or slightly excurvate lip/wall orientation also allows control for pouring. To facilitate food consumption or presentation, where ease of visual or physical access is primary, serving containers are better constructed with open (expanding) or simple forms. It would be prudent, however, to assume that expedient need might result in ad hoc use of any vessel no matter its form. In the following section data from the three most frequently recovered vessel forms are discussed. Attributes under discussion are vessel shape and body and rim thickness. 75

Forms and Orifice Measurements

No whole vessels were recovered and no sherds of either paste group could be crossmended to the extent that bowl and jar forms could be distinguished. The term ‘bowl’ is used generically to refer to all of the study sample’s ceramic containers. The majority of the study collection is assigned to three shape categories as defined by Willey (1998:496). Rim orientation is used to broadly categorize vessel shapes: flattened globular, open or expanding walls, and simple or hemispherical. Irregular and unidentified form categories were added but data gleaned from these latter shapes are limited. The frequencies of all wall form categories are shown in Table 6.1. Tables 6.2a (shovel test groups form) and 6.2b (midden form) data provide the breakdown of the three vessel shapes by the sub-areas and temper subgroups. In Tables 6.2a and 6.2b, the first column of each area provides the total number of rims for that form shape; the second column reveals the number of rims within the area total for which orifice diameters could be measured, then the range and median diameter measurements.

Table 6.1 Summary of all spiculate and non-spiculate rim forms combining midden or shovel test group numbers (percentages read across). % read across globular open simple uid/<2cm irregular totals middens spiculate 177– 20.8% 66– 7.8% 421– 49.6% 179– 21.1% 6- .7% 849- 100.0% non spiculate 11- 9.3% 3- 2.5% 81- 68.6% 23- 19.5% 118 – 99.9% #/% based on identified shapes 188- 69- 502- 202- 6- 967- 19.4% 7.1% 51.9% 20.9% .7% 100.0% shovel test groups spiculate 24- 28.2% 21-24.7% 36-42.4% 4-4.7% 85-100.0% non-spiculate 2- 13.3% 2- 13.3% 6- 40.0% 5- 33.3% 15-99.9% #/% shovel test group subtotals 26-26.0% 23- 23.0% 42- 42.0% 9- 9.0% 100-100.0% #- % based on total rims 214- 92- 544- 211- 6- 1067- 20.1% 8.6% 51.0% 19.8% .6% 100.1%

A far lower percentage of rim sherds was recovered from the shovel tests than dense midden contexts. Shovel test numbers may simply reflect normal residential or casual loss vs. intensive discard from ritual/feasting events. The two shovel test groups closest to the mound, Kinzey’s and East, contained the highest percentages of rims (Table 6.2b) and conceivably, these areas may have been more actively associated with the ceremonial events taking place at the site. Although Table 6.1 reveals higher percentages of open bowl forms 76

recovered from the shovel test groups than those realized in the midden subassemblages, this discrepancy is somewhat skewed because of unequal distribution of open forms within the five midden subsamples. Open bowl forms were more prevalent in the Kinzey’s South and Kinzey’s Knoll samples and rare in the other middens (Table 6.2b). Open bowls comprised greater than 20% of the West, West Bluff, and Kinzey’s group subsamples.

Globular Vessel Forms (n=214, 20.1 percent)

Rim/wall orientation of globular vessels is significantly in-turned toward the orifice. Willey refers to this form as flattened-globular bowls. He commented that wide variation in the angle of inward curvature would be found. The globular vessels recovered at Shields exhibit that variety both in vessel size and incurving angle. Several St. Johns globular rims were nearly horizontal in orientation, but no reconstructed evidence for carinated forms (sharply shouldered walls) was recovered. Finished lips are most often rounded or beveled. Rounded thickened and flattened lips are also recorded.

Mineral-tempered. At Shields, globular forms are rarely recorded in mineral temper subgroups for either midden and shovel test areas. The greatest frequency of mineral tempered globular containers is recorded in the sand- and sand-grog-tempered rims found in the Bluff Midden assemblage. Non-spiculate globular orifice diameters are confined to medium-sized vessels (range 12 to 32 cm). Of twenty-six globular rims only eleven provided an orifice measurement. The single Weeden Island-like red-filmed vessel was globular with an orifice diameter of 14 cm (Table 6.3).

St. Johns. Globular St. Johns and sandy St. Johns rims represent the second most frequent shape category for both midden and shovel test subgroups. The range of orifice measurements is 5 to 66 cm. The smallest globular bowl was recovered from Kinsey’s Knoll

Table 6.2a. Shovel test group rim forms: comparison of frequency, size ranges and median by temper subgroups. Percentages (read down) are calculated within shovel test group. #-cm column reveal numbers of measurable rims and ranges. total forms West Group Northwest Group West Bluff Group Kinzey’s Group East Group Form #/% #/% #-cm #/% #-cm #/% #-cm #/% #-cm #/% #-cm Temper groups median median median median median Globular n=26 28.6% sand tempered 1-1.1% 1-16.7% sand-charcoal 1-1.1% 1-4.8% 12 St. Johns 18-19.8% 1-7.1% 1=14 2-10.5% 2=19,26 4-19.0% 3=20-32 11-35.5% 7=10-52 med=22 med=18 sandy St. Johns 6-6.6% 1-5.3% 1=18 5-16.1% 2=26,33 Open n=23 25.2% sand tempered 2-2.2% 1-16.7% 1-3.2% St. Johns 19-20.9% 3-21.4% 22-24 1-16.7% 1=22 6-31.6% 4=12-38 5-23.8% 4=24-30 4-12.9% 2=25,32 med=22 med=22 med=24 sandy St. Johns 2-2.2% 1-5.3% 1=43 1-4.8% 30 Simple n=42 46.2% grit, grit-grog 2-2.2% 2-14.3% sand tempered 1-1.1% 1-5.3% sand-grog 3-3.3% 1-7.1% 2-33.3% St. Johns 30-33.0% 5-35.7% 20-51 1-16.7% 1=34 8-42.1% 7=10-55 10-47.6% 8=5-53 6-19.4% 5=6-40 med=38 med=16 med=22 med=23 sandy St. Johns 6-6.6% 2-14.3% 1=36 4-12.9% 9-44 med=19 Totals 91-100.1% 14-99.9% 6-100.1% 19-100.1% 21-100.0% 31-100.0% identified forms

Table 6.2b. Midden rim forms. Percentages (read down) are calculated within middens. # Bluff Midden Reeve’s Rise Kinzey’s West Kinzey’s South Kinzey’s Knoll Form #/% size (cm) #/% size (cm) #/% size (cm) #/% size (cm) #/% size (cm) Temper group median median median median median Globular n=188 24.8% grit 1-.0% 1-.4% 1=25 grit-grog 1-.1% 1-1.6% 1=20 sand tempered 3-.4% 3-1.2% 12-32 med=31 sand-grog 5-.7% 3-1.2% 3=19-26 2-.5% 1=18 med=22 Weeden Island-like 1-.1% 1-.3% 14 St. Johns 157- 59-22.7% 51=8-66 11-28.9% 6=7-32 3-10.4% 1=32 17-27.4% 12=6-48 67-18.1% 58=5-62 20.7% med=26 med=28 med=12 med=18 sandy St. Johns 18- 10-3.8% 5=12-35 3-7.9% 1=30 1-1.6% 1=26 4-1.1% 9-28 2.4% med=16 med=25 Little Manatee 2-.2% 2-.8% 1=14 Open n=69 9.1% grit 1-.1% 1-.3% 1=23 sand tempered 2-.3% 1-.4% 1=12 1-1.6% 1=40 St. Johns 60- 11-4.2% 9=13-26 2-5.3% 1=20 1-3.4% 1=24 7-11.4% 6=20-38 39-10.5% 31=6-44 7.9% med=20 med=30 med=25 sandy St. Johns 5-.7% 3-1.2% 24-44 1-2.7% med=30 Little Manatee 1-.1% 1-.3% 1=6 Simple n=502 66.1% grit tempered 52-6.8% 12-4.6% 5=14-32 1—.4% 3-4.8% 36-9.7% 9=16-48 med = 20 med=28 grit-grog tempered 12-1.8% 3-1.2% 2=19, 27 2-3.2% 2=13,30 7-1.9% 3=24-46 med=23 med=23 sand tempered 9-1.1% 5- 1.8% 4=22-44 3-4.8% 3=14-40 1-.3% 1=19 med=42 med=23 sand-grog 8-1.0% 2- .8% 20,22 6-1.6% 5=10-44 med=24 St. Johns 372- 119-45.8% 96=6-53 14-36.8% 9=10-38 21-72.4% 14=5-51 26-41.9% 21=12-46 192-519% 149=5-68 49.0% med=22 med=28 med=30 med=23 med=28 sandy St. Johns 44-5.8% 24-9.2% 18=8-45 6-15.8% 4=18-27 3-10.4% 1-1.6% 10-2.7% 8=15-52 med=20 med=24 med=29 St. Johns-grog 1-.1% 1-.4% 1=24 Little Manatee 4-.5% 1-.4% 1=9 1-2.7% 1=16 2-.5% 28,32 Midden totals 759 260- 38- 29- 62- 370- % read down 100.0% 100.1% 100.1% 100.0% 99.9% 100.0% 79

Table 6.3. Non-spiculate paste subgroups: orifice diameters globular vessels. Percentages are based on 11 measurable rims. orifice diameter 0-10cm 11-20cm 21-30cm 31-40cm 41-50cm >51cm totals all middens grit/grog 1 9.1% 1 2 18.2% sand 1 9.1% 1 1 3-27.3% 3 27.3% sand-grog 2 19.2% 2 4 36.4% Weeden Is. 1 9.1% 1 9.1% all groups sand-charcoal 1 9.1% 1 9.1% total rims 6 54.5% 4 36.4% 1 11-100.0% 11 100.0%

midden (5 cm) and the largest from Bluff Midden (66 cm). Median size ranges vary between the ten areas and paste subgroups. St. Johns median diameters hover around 18 to 24 cm. The Reeves Rise subsample contained the highest percentage of globular forms (n=11, 26.2 percent, median 25 cm) within the midden areas, although with the exception of Kinzey’s South, this form is relatively well represented (by percentage) within the midden assemblages. In the shovel test subsamples, the two groups closest to the mound, Kinzey’s and East, contained the greatest numbers of globular bowls (medians of 22 cm and 18 cm respectively) (Table 6.4). Two globular Little Manatee rims were recovered for which orifice diameters could be recorded. One from the Bluff Midden was built with a 14 cm diameter and the second from Reeves Rise measured at 16 cm. The most frequently recovered diameters are recorded for medium- to large-sized globular vessels: 11 to 20 cm (33.3 percent), 21 to 30 cm (24.2 percent), and 31 to 40cm (15.6 percent). Globular vessels with diameters larger than 41 cm were found in greater numbers in the Knoll and Bluff Midden samples. St. Johns globular bowls are poorly represented in the shovel test groups (90.8 percent recovered from midden contexts). Globular rims are rarely recovered in the western shovel test groups. In the five midden subsamples, Kinzey’s Knoll (41.8 percent) contained the greatest number and the highest percentage of the smallest size categories (0 to 20 cm at 22.0 percent) and the highest number of large-sized vessels (41 to greater than 60 cm, 6.3 percent). Bluff Midden (36.2 percent) contained the greater number of medium-sized globular bowls (21 to 40 cm –18.4 percent vs. 12.8 percent in the Knoll).

Table 6.4. St. Johns globular vessel diameters by area. Percentages are based on 141 measured rims. 0-10cm 11-20cm 21-30cm 31-40cm 41-50cm 51-60cm >60cm total # % # % # % # % # % # % # % #/% midden groups Kinzey’s 4 2.8% 4 2.8% 2 1.4% 2 1.4% 12 – South 8.5% Kinzey’s 1 .7% 1 – West .7% Kinzey’s 9 6.4% 22 15.6% 10 7.1% 8 5.7% 4 2.8% 4 2.8% 1 .7% 58 – Knoll 41.1% Reeves’ Rise 1 .7% 1 .7% 3 2.1% 1 .7% 6 – 4.3% Bluff Midden 3 2.1% 15 10.6% 16 11.3% 10 7.1% 4 2.8% 2 1.4% 1 .7% 51 – 36.2% subtotals 17 12.1% 42 29.8% 31 22.0% 20 14.2% 10 7.1% 6 4.3% 2 1.4% 128 – 90.8% shovel test groups West 1 .7% 1– .7% Northwest ` West Bluff 1 .7% 1 .7% 2 – 1.4% Kinzey’s 1 7% 1 .7% 1 .7% 3 – 2.1% East 2 1.4% 2 1.4% 1 .7% 1 .7% 1 .7% 7 – 5.0% subtotals 2 1.4% 5 3.5% 3 2.1% 2 1.4% 1 .7% 13 – 9.2% globular 19 13.5% 47 33.3% 34 24.1% 22 15.6% 10 7.1% 7 5.0% 2 1.4% 141- totals 100%

Sandy St. Johns. Globular sandy St. Johns vessels were recovered in very low frequencies and with a more restricted size range (9 to 35cm). Globular sandy St. Johns rims also were concentrated in the medium vessel range (11 to 30 cm diameters at 64.0 percent). Small globular bowls (20.0 percent) were better represented in this paste subgroup than larger construction bowls (31 cm or greater, 16 percent). Kinzey’s South midden contained the greatest number of sandy St. Johns globular bowls. Bowls of this paste and form combination were rarely recovered from the shovel test groups, but those found are of medium size range. The distribution of globular sandy St. Johns rims is presented in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5. Sandy St. Johns globular vessel diameters by provenience. Percentages based on 25 measured rims. 0-10cm 11-20cm 21-30cm 31-40cm 41-50cm 51-60cm >60cm total # % # % # % # % # % # % # % #/% midden groups Kinzey’s South 4 16.0% 4 16.0% 2 8.0% 1 4.0% 1 4.0% 12-48.0% Kinzey’s West Kinzey’s Knoll 1 4.0% 3 12.0% 4-16.0% Reeves’ Rise 1 4.0% 1-4.0% Bluff Midden 3 12.0% 1 4.0% 1 4.0% 5-20.0% subtotals 5 20.0% 7 28.0% 7 28.0% 2 8.0% 1 4.0% 22-88.0% shovel test groups West Northwest West Bluff 1 4.0% 1-4.0% Kinzey’s East 1 4.0% 1 4.0% 2-8.0% subtotals 1 4.0% 1 4.0% 1 4.0% 3-12.0% form totals 5 20.0% 8 32.0% 8 32.0% 3 12.0% 1 4.0% 25-100.0%

Open Vessel Forms (n=88-9.0 percent) Open vessels are constructed with rims that are out-slanting or expanding away from the base. In this collection, like the globular form, a wide range of wall angularity was observed. None resembled the extremely flat plate form reported in heartland Mississippian sites.

Mineral-tempered. Only one grit-tempered open form (Kinzey’s Knoll) was recovered. Four sand-tempered open forms were widely distributed: Bluff Midden, Kinzey’s South, and Northwest and East Groups. Orifice diameters of the open sand-tempered vessels provided a range of rim diameters (12 cm, 23 cm, and 40 cm).

St. Johns. Seventy-nine open-form spiculate vessels were recorded with St. Johns paste and are represented in all ten subsamples. Orifice diameter measurements could be read for 62 rims (Table 6.6). The majority of the St. Johns open bowls are in the medium-size range: 21 to 30cm (48.7 percent) and 11 to 20 cm (29.0 percent). The majority of 11 to 20cm open bowls are found in the midden contexts but this is a rare size range in the five shovel test group subsamples. Larger-sized open bowls are found in the midden subsamples: Kinzey’s Knoll (n=8 or 12.9 percent 31 to 50 cm) and Kinzey’s South (n=3 or 4.8 percent). Within the group subsamples, only one, from the East Group, was larger than 31cm.

Within the ten designated areas, the highest percentages of open St. Johns vessels are found in Kinzey’s Knoll (total n=39, 10.5 percent of that subsample) and Kinzey’s South (n=7, 11.4 percent of that subsample). A wide range of measurements is recorded for this form: Knoll (31 rims at 6 to 44 cm, median= 25cm), Kinzey’s South (6 rims at 20 to 38cm, median=30), and Bluff Midden (9 rims at 13 to 26cm, median=20). Open bowls are represented in all shovel test groups with the highest rates in the West Bluff (31.6 percent of that sample), and Kinzey’s (23.8%) group subsamples.

Table 6.6. St. Johns open vessel diameters by provenience. Percentages based on 62 measured rims. 0-10cm 11-20cm 21-30cm 31-40cm 41-50cm 51-60cm >60cm total # % # % # % # % # % # % # % #/% midden groups Kinzey’s South 1 1.6% 2 3.2% 3 4.8% 6-9.7% Kinzey’s West 1 1.6% 1-1.6% Kinzey’s Knoll 2 3.2% 9 14.5% 12 19.4% 6 9.7% 2 3.2% 31-50.0% Reeves’ Rise 1 1.6% 1-1.6% Bluff Midden 5 8.1% 4 6.5% 9-14.5% subtotals 2 3.2% 16 25.8% 19 30.7% 9 14.5% 2 3.2% 48-77.4 shovel test groups West 3 4.8% 3-4.8% Northwest 1 1.6% 1-1.6% West Bluff 2 3.2% 2 3.2% 4-6.5% Kinzey’s 4 6.5% 4-6.5% East 1 1.6% 1 1.6% 2-3.2% subtotals 2 3.2% 11 17.7% 1 1.6% 14-22.6% form totals 2 3.2% 18 29.0% 30 48.4% 10 16.1% 2 3.2% 62-100.0%

Sandy St. Johns. Open bowl forms were rarely constructed of sandy St. Johns paste. Sandy St. Johns open vessels were found clustered in two size ranges: 21 to 30 cm and 41 to 50 cm. Table 6.7 presents the distribution of sandy St. Johns open vessels.

Simple Vessel Forms (n=521-53.1 percent). Simple vessels are constructed with direct, vertical walls and comprise the most frequently recovered shape category for both midden (n=479 or 54.4 percent) and shovel test groups (n=42, 52.0 percent). And, although simple are the most frequently recovered shape for non-spiculate paste subgroups, rim fragments were rarely large enough to secure diameter measurement. A wide variety of orifice sizes were also recorded for this vessel shape: non- spiculate bowls sizes ranged from 13 to 48 cm and spiculate bowls from 5 to 60 cm.

Table 6.7. Sandy St. Johns open vessel diameters by provenience. Percentages based on 6 measured rims. cm/ % by 0-10cm 11-20cm 21-30cm 31-40cm 41-50cm 51-60cm >60cm total total form # % # % # % # % # % # % # % #/% middens Kinzey’s South Kinzey’s West Kinzey’s Knoll 1 16.6% 1-16.6% Reeves’ Rise Bluff Midden 2 33.3% 1 16.6% 3-50.0% subtotals 3 50.0% 1 16.6% 4-66.6% shovel test groups West Northwest West Bluff 1 16.6% 1-16.6% Kinzey’s 1 16.6% 1-16.6% East subtotals 1 16.6% 1 16.6% 2-33.3 form totals 4 66.6% 2 33.3% 6-99.9%

Mineral-tempered. Small to medium bowl sizes are the most frequently recorded vessel diameters for both grit/grit-grog and sand/sand-grog simple bowls (Table 6.8). Sand and sand- grog paste categories also contain large-sized simple bowls (41 to 50 cm-12.5 percent). A variety of bowl diameters are recorded for simple grit-tempered simple forms: Bluff Midden, range 14 to 32 cm, median 20 cm; and Kinzey’s Knoll, 16 to 48 cm, median of 28 cm. The median measurement for grit-grog tempered simple rims is 23 cm. Ocmulgee grit- and grit-grog simple rimmed bowls bore three variations in the final lip coil: direct; a slight pull producing a weak flair; and very rarely, a slight pull to the interior producing a weak incurvature. The slight incurvature was distinguished from the more prominently restricted and flattened globular rim shape. Ocmulgee lip surfaces are rarely stamped or ticked with the greater majority left unmodified. Two variations of modified rim finishes are recorded in low frequencies: an irregular and only slightly dimensional smear to the exterior or an appliqué strip. The smeared lip and appliqué coil are executed after the vessel exterior was cordmarked. Of 74 Ocmulgee lip fragments, 20 (28 percent) were finished with: a bold smear or incipient fold to the exterior (n=4), a smear over an appliqué (n=1), or a single (n=14) or double appliqué (n=1) strips. The majority of lips are flat or rounded; less often lips were beveled or thinned. One slightly flanged lip was recovered. Of the 20 modified rims only one was sand tempered, the remainder were grit- or grit-grog

tempered. Each of the 20 appliqué or smear rims is individualistic and represent 20 different vessels. Three separate measurements (lip thickness, appliqué length and thickness above vessel wall) are recorded and these data reveal more variety than similarity in the modified rim construction (Appendix B). Appliqué length measurements ranged from 5.6 to 20.8 mm (n= 19 rims). Average appliqué length is 12.6 mm and median length is 13.5 mm. In four instances coil breaks had occurred and only minimal lengths were recorded. Appliqué thicknesses ranged from .8 mm to 6.7 mm (n=11, average 2.5 mm; median 3.0 mm). An additional five are too fragmentary for any measurements. In five cases appliqué coils had been flattened and were flush with the exterior vessel wall. A thin gap demarking appliqué from vessel wall had not been obliterated. Only 3 of the appliqué lips were ticked or impressed with now-eroded cordage. Only one appliqué coil was left plain; all others were cordmarked but often with different cord spacing, angle of impression, or with a cord width that did not match that of the vessel exterior.

Table 6.8. Non-spiculate simple vessel diameters from middens. Percentages based on 32 measured rims. cm / % by 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60 total total form # % # % # % # % # % # % # % #/% middens: grit and grit-grog Kinzey's South 1 3.1% 1 3.1% 2-6.3% Kinzey's West Kinzey's Knoll 2 6.3% 5 15.6% 2 6.3% 3 9.4% 12-37.5% Reeves Rise Bluff Midden 3 9.4% 2 6.3% 1 3.1% 6-18.8% subtotals 6 18.8% 7 21.9% 4 12.5% 3 9.4% 20-62.5% middens: sand and sand-grog Kinzey's South Kinzey's West Kinzey's Knoll 1 3.1% 2 6.3% 1 3.1% 2 6.3% 6-18.8% Reeves Rise Bluff Midden 4 12.5% 2 6.3% 6-18.8% subtotals 1 3.1% 2 6.3% 5 15.6% 4 12.5% 12-37.5% total simple bowls paste 1 3.1% 8 25.0% 12 37.5% 4 12.5% 7 21.9% 32-100.0%

St. Johns. Simple St. Johns rims (n=440 or 84.4 percent of the total form) are the most common vessel form recovered in this collection. Simple bowls are well distributed in each of the 10 subsamples (Table 6.9). With the exception of Reeves Rise, wide ranges of orifice measurement are the norm. Smaller median diameters are recorded for Bluff Midden (22 cm) and Kinzey’s

South middens (23 cm). Larger median diameters are recorded from Kinzey’s Knoll (27 cm), Reeves’ Rise (28 cm), and Kinzey’s West (30 cm) middens. The Knoll contained the largest simple vessels as well as the highest percentage of simple bowls smaller than 10 cm diameters. One simple Little Manatee bowl was recovered in the Bluff Midden. It was constructed with an orifice diameter of 9 cm. Within the five shovel test assemblages, somewhat higher percentages of simple forms were found in the Kinzey’s (47.6 percent of that subassemblage), West Bluff (42.1 percent), and West (35.7 percent) Groups. Only one simple St. Johns bowl rim was recovered from the Northwestern shovel test group. The most frequently recovered simple bowl size categories are 11 to 20 cm (n=97or 30.8 percent)—somewhat more prevalent in the shovel test subsamples — and 21 to 30 cm (n=93, 29.5 percent). In the midden samples, Bluff Midden contained the highest percentage of 11 to 20 cm vessels (n=38, 12.1 percent) and West Bluff (n=5, 1.6 percent) contained the greatest number in the shovel test groups. The subsample of simple bowls recovered from the Knoll is distinguished by containing the greatest numbers of measurable rims, the greatest frequencies of small and large-sized bowls, and the highest percentage of the middle-sized categories 21to 40 cm. Similar distributions of small and medium simple bowl forms are recorded for shovel test groups Kinsey’s and East. Large-sized simple bowls were present in the West, West Bluff, and Kinzey’s groups.

Sandy St. Johns. The majority of sandy St. Johns simple bowls are constructed as medium-sized vessels 11 to 30 cm (Table 6.10). Once again the largest bowls in this paste/form category were recovered in Kinzey’s Knoll, although the Bluff Midden and East Group each contained single rims larger than 41 cm. Small-sized bowls were also recovered from Bluff Midden and East Group.

Table 6.9. St. Johns simple vessel diameters by provenience. Percentages based on 315 measured rims. cm / % by 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60 total total form # % # % # % # % # % # % # % #/% midden groups Kinzey's South 9 2.9% 6 1.9% 4 1.3% 2 .6% 21-6.7% Kinzey's West 2 .6% 2 .6% 3 1.0% 3 1.0% 2 .6% 2 .6% 14-4.4% Kinzey's Knoll 9 2.9% 36 11.4% 51 16.2% 33 10.5% 11 3.5% 4 1.3% 4 1.3% 148-47.0% Reeves Rise 1 .3% 2 .6% 4 1.3% 2 .6% 9-2.9% Bluff Midden 3 1.0% 38 12.1% 24 7.6% 17 5.4% 10 3.2% 4 1.3% 96-30.5% subtotals 15 4.8% 87 27.6% 88 27.9% 59 18.7% 25 7.9% 10 3.2% 4 1.3% 288-91.4% shovel test groups West 2 .6% 1 .3% 1 .3% 1 .3% 5-1.6% Northwest 1 .3% 1-.3% West Bluff 1 .3% 5 1.6% 1 .3% 1 .3% 8-2.5% Kinzey's 1 .3% 2 .6% 2 .6% 1 .3% 1 .3% 1 .3% 8-2.5% East 1 .3% 1 .3% 2 .6% 1 .3% 5-1.6% subtotals 3 1.0% 10 3.2% 5 1.6% 5 1.6% 1 .3% 3 1.0% 27-8.7% 315- totals 18 5.7% 97 30.8% 93 29.5% 64 20.3% 26 8.3% 13 4.1% 4 1.3% 100.1%

Table 6.10. Comparison of sandy St. Johns simple bowl form diameters by provenience. cms 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60 total #/% % by total form # % # % # % # % # % # % # % midden groups Kinzey's South Kinzey's West Kinzey's Knoll 2 5.7% 3 8.6% 1 2.9% 2 5.7% 8-22.9% Reeves Rise 1 2.9% 3 8.6% 4-11.4% Bluff Midden 1 2.9% 8 22.9% 5 14.3% 3 8.6% 1 2.9% 18-51.4% subtotals 1 2.9% 11 31.4% 11 31.4% 4 11.4% 1 2.9% 2 5.7% 30-85.7% shovel test groups West 1 2.9% 1-2.9% Northwest West Bluff Kinzey's East 2 5.7% 1 2.9% 1 2.9% 4-11.4% subtotals 2 5.7% 1 2.9% 1 2.9% 1 2.9% 5-14.3% totals 3 8.6% 11 31.4% 12 34.3% 5 14.3% 2 5.7% 2 5.7% 35-100.0%

Unidentified Forms (n=162, 16.5 percent) Lip/wall orientation could not be determined for the rims placed in the UID category. The recovery of St. Johns and Ocmulgee rim sherds often meant finding only the final finishing lip coil fragment, often not large enough in length to determine vessel diameter. The results of this analysis suggest that very large vessels (little arc) are placed in the unidentified category. Medium-sized rims were most often the only lips that allowed secure diameter measurement in these cases. The highest number of UID rims were recovered from Kinzey’s Knoll.

Irregular (n=6, 9.0 percent) Irregular rims appeared to be simple or open vessels but were not clearly circular. They are too fragmentary to define as either square-ish or oval.

Vessel Forms and Wall Thickness

Thus far, I have described the recovery and frequencies of vessel forms, corresponding orifice sizes, and where within the ten designated areas they are most common or rare. In the following section, I will examine vessel wall and lip thickness for St. Johns and sandy St. Johns rims (also see Appendix A).

Table 6.11 reveals that St. Johns rim and lip thicknesses are very similar for all three forms in both paste subgroups, and that sandy St. Johns measurements are slightly thicker in open and simple form categories. Given the large range of vessel sizes presented above, this very restricted thickness data for both paste groups was unexpected. Logically, larger-sized vessels would require thick walls to support the weight of the walls during construction. However, for all three forms, the ranges of St. Johns wall-to-lip average and median thickness are very similar — only .3 to .6 mm differences. The rim/lip data for the vessels built from sandy St. Johns paste are not as closely repetitive when the three forms are compared: thickest wall form (open – median 6.6 to 6.1 mm) and thinnest wall form (globular – median 5.9 to 5.8 mm). However, the data generated by overall average and median measurements reveals very similar wall thicknesses for St. Johns (all three forms) and globular sandy St. Johns. Open and simple forms built of sandy St. Johns paste are somewhat thicker.

Table 6.11. Comparison of St. Johns (SJ) and sandy St. Johns (sSJ) vessel forms rim and lip thicknesses. globular open simple average thickness SJ rim/ sSJ rim/ SJ rim/ sSJ rim/ SJ rim/ sSJ rim/ # lip mm # lip mm # lip mm # lip mm # lip mm # lip mm Kinzey’s South 16 5.3 1 5.2 7 6.0 26 5.5 4.6 6.1 5.7 5.6 Kinzey’s West 6 5.8 1 4.6 21 5.9 3 5.0 5.5 3.1 5.5 4.7 Kinzey’s Knoll 67 5.3 4 5.2 39 5.4 1 6.6 192 5.6 10 6.6 4.9 5.5 5.7 5.2 5.8 6.2 Reeves Rise 11 5.7 3 6.3 2 5.8 14 5.5 6 6.6 5.1 5.8 4.9 5.0 6.0 Bluff Midden 59 5.5 10 5.9 11 5.5 3 5.6 119 5.9 24 6.4 5.2 5.8 4.8 6.8 5.2 6.0 Northwest Group 1 5.5 1 5.1 9.8 4.1 West Group 1 4.5 3 6.5 5 5.8 2 5.3 6.1 5.2 6.0 5.3 West Bluff Group 2 5.7 1 4.3 6 6.1 1 6.5 8 5.5 5.2 4.2 4.8 7.4 4.8 Kinzey’s Group 4 5.9 5 5.6 1 7.1 10 5.6 4.7 4.4 5.4 4.8 East Group 11 5.6 5 7.1 4 5.7 6 5.5 4 5.8 5.5 6.2 5.2 4.7 5.7 ranges rims 4.5-5.8 4.3-7.1 4.6-6.5 5.6-7.1 5.1-5.9 5.0-6.6 lips 4.6-6.1 4.2-6.2 3.1-9.8 5.2-7.4 4.1-6.0 4.7-6.0 average rim/median 177 5.5/5.6 24 5.6/5.9 79 5.7/5.7 6 6.5/6.6 402 5.6/5.6 49 6.0/6.1 average lip/ median 5.2/5.2 5.6/5.8 5.4/5.1 6.2/6.1 5.2/5.1 5.7/5.9

Vessel Surface Treatment and Wall Thickness In Table 6.12, the focus of wall thickness comparison shifts from vessel form to surface treatment. In this table median wall thicknesses are displayed for St. Johns check stamped (square only) and plain. A listing of all surface treatments, their thickness ranges, averages, and median measurements are provided in Appendix A.

Check-Stamped Sherds Wall thickness ranges found for check-stamped sherds are 5.6 mm (Northwest Group) to 6.9 mm (Kinzey’s West), which produces a surface treatment category measurement (average and median) of 6.4 mm (Table 6.12). The range of average shovel test group medians is somewhat thinner at 6.1 mm to 6.6 mm. Median calculated for all shovel test groups is 6.3 mm. Average for the median measurements of the midden samples. Median for all middens is 6.5 mm).

Plain Sherds In Table 6.12 wall thickness measurements taken from plain sherds are displayed by four degrees of surface compaction. The data reveal a correlation between increasing surface compaction and increasing wall thinness. The data derived from checked sherds reveals that thinner check-stamped sherds were recovered in the shovel test groups, and with the exception of plain-rough sherds, this trend is also found for plain vessels.

Plain rough. Median sherd thickness for roughly finished plain sherds is 6.0 mm from midden contexts and 6.8 mm from the shovel test groups. That median thickness (6.8 mm) is almost two-thirds greater than the median thickness of plain-burnished sherds (4.3 mm) found in the shovel test areas. The range of wall thicknesses is 5.1 mm (Kinzey’s South) to 7.8 mm in Kinzey’s Knoll. If roughly finished sherds represent containers for storage or transport of dry goods (porosity and leakage into or through the walls), then discard in Kinzey’s Knoll may not have been restricted to strictly ritual/ceremonial vessels. In modern times poorly compacted vessel walls are used to cool water through evaporation at the exterior surface. Average wall thickness for all plain rough sherds is 6.3 mm, median 6.4 mm.

Plain finger-smoothed. Although these vessels exhibit increased surface compaction, their use for liquid materials is problematic. The median wall thickness of level 2 compaction (6.1 mm) from the middens is nearly equal to compaction level 1 (6.0 mm); there is, however, a greater difference between the median measurements from the shovel tests (5.5 mm) and middens (6.8 mm). Wall thicknesses range from 4.3 mm (Northwest Group) to 6.2 mm (Bluff Midden). Average wall thickness for all plain finger smoothed surfaces is 5.7 mm, median 6.1 mm. Plain hard-tooled. Median wall thickness once again decreases. However, the difference between shovel test (5.4 mm) and midden (5.6 mm) measurements is much less dramatic. The range of wall thicknesses is 5.1 mm (Kinzey’s Group) to 6.8 (Kinzey’s West). The range of median measurements is greater for the midden groups (5.5 mm to 6.8 mm). Average and median wall thickness for all hard-tooled sherds is 5.6 mm.

Plain burnished. There is a significant drop in the range of wall thicknesses in the burnished surface category: 3.2 mm (Northwest Group) to 5.8 mm (Kinzey’s West). The difference between midden thicknesses (median 5.1 mm) and the samples from the shovel tests (median 4.3 mm) is more pronounced. Average thickness of all burnished sherds is 4.8 mm, median 5.0 mm.

Table 6.12. Comparison of St. Johns wall thicknesses: median and average measurements for check-stamped and plain surfaces. check plain plain plain plain square rough finger-smoothed hard-tooled burnished # mm # mm # mm # mm # mm middens Kinzey’s South 117 6.5 2 5.1 49 6.1 18 5.6 21 5.1 Kinzey’s West 56 6.9 5 5.3 24 5.6 9 6.8 7 5.8 Kinzey’s Knoll 723 6.3 27 7.8 217 6.1 146 5.5 134 5.0 Reeves Rise 59 6.9 9 6.0 29 6.0 8 5.9 18 4.7 Bluff Midden 440 6.3 44 6.4 154 6.2 78 5.5 66 5.3 shovel tests Northwest Group 6 5.6 2 4.3 3 5.4 West Group 30 6.4 1 5.2 7 5.5 2 5.7 1 3.2 West Bluff Group 29 6.3 6 6.9 9 6.3 4 4.5 2 3.9 Kinzey’s Group 24 5.8 3 7.1 19 5.2 3 5.1 6 4.7 East Group 41 6.5 6 6.7 33 6.1 9 6.1 8 5.2

middens #/median mm 1395 6.5 87 6.0 473 6.1 259 5.6 246 5.1 middens median ranges 6.3-6.9 5.1-7.8 5.6-6.2 5.5-6.8 4.7-5.8 shovel tests #/ median mm 130 6.3 16 6.8 70 5.5 21 5.4 17 4.3 shovel tests median ranges 5.6-6.5 5.2-7.1 4.3-6.1 5.1-6.1 3.2-5.2

total #/ average mm 1525 6.4 103 6.3 543 5.7 280 5.6 263 4.8 median mm 6.4 6.4 6.1 5.6 5.0

Vessel Thickness Experiment: Smaller and Larger than 2 cm

An experiment was conducted during analysis that provides more detailed comparative data regarding sherd thickness. As residual sherds (<2 cm and sorted by spiculate and non- spiculate gross paste groups) were segregated for counts and weight, it was noted that many of the St. Johns sherds were very thin. To ascertain if the remains of small-sized vessels were hidden within the small-size category, wall thickness data were collected from three residual St. Johns groups and two non-spiculate groups. Average and median measurements were calculated and these data compared with the thickness measurements generated by level sherds larger than 2

cm. These data are reported in Table 6.13, and despite the admittedly small sample, the results are intriguing.

Table 6.13. Comparison of sherd thickness measurements for those greater and smaller than 2 cm. TU6-lev. 6 TU6-lev. 5 TU6-lev.5 TU5-lev.4 TU5-lev.4 spiculate non-spiculate spiculate non-spiculate spiculate # mm # mm # mm # mm # mm less than 2 cm average 27 4.3 9 7.4 27 5.1 7 7.3 37 4.3 median 27 4.4 9 6.8 27 5.0 7 6.9 37 4.3 greater than 2cm average 27 5.3 8 7.6 33 6.4 5 7.5 15 6.5 median 27 5.1 8 6.5 33 6.1 5 8.0 15 6.0

Interpretation of these data rests on the assumption that the scale of vessel wall thickness construction is somewhat proportional to the size of the finished bowl. That is, small-sized vessel (under 10 cm orifice diameter) will require and therefore be built with thinner walls than a 40 cm diameter bowl. Just three levels were sampled in this experiment; however, the inspiration was only to test the waters. The thickness data gleaned from the non-spiculate samples are similar not only between the two size categories (greater or less and 2 cm) but also between the two units. In contrast, the average and median thicknesses recorded for the residual St. Johns sherd categories are consistently smaller (between 66% to 80%) than those thicknesses recorded for the greater than 2 cm sample. I have already noted that large-sized vessels (> 50 cm) are underrepresented, especially in the Kinzey’s Knoll subsample. Small rim fragments (less than 5% of the circumference and little depth) evincing very little arc were placed in the UID (form and diameter) rim category. This experiment suggests that the frequency of small vessels, which are likewise fragmentary, are unrecognized and under-represented in the data. Obviously a larger sample is necessary before stronger evidence can be presented.

Special Form Modification

Recovery of special appendages or more elaborate lip finishing is extremely rare in Shields collection. All recovered were from midden contests. The forms are described below and the locations are listed in Table 6.14. 92

Table 6.14. Special form modifications. form and paste area designation FS, Test Unit, level podal, St. Johns Plain Bluff Midden FS411, TU7. level 2 podal or node, grit-tempered Kinzey’s Knoll FS196. TU3, level 7 rim projection St. Johns Checked-stamp Bluff Midden FS410, TU8, level 2 rim projection St. Johns Incised Kinzey’s South FS367, TU6, level 6 Canid adorno, St. Johns Reeve’s Rise FS396, ST1032N 1000E, FS396, level 3

St. Johns podal appendage. This fragment is flattish, conical, and finger smoothed on one side. The reverse side shows attrition; however, the basal tip of the foot shows little abrasion. The interior of the pot is finger smoothed and achieved only slight oxidation. There is staining on the podal portion of the fragment (Figure 6.1, left).

Ocmulgee grit-tempered podal or node. Evidence of burnishing is present but the there is significant attrition about the protrusion. The interior is hard tooled and reveals linear attrition and two stain droplets are present. This Ocmulgee fragment is well oxidized (Figure 6.1, right).

Check-Stamped rim protrusion. This thin flat fragment terminates in a rounded tip. The check-stamped and reverse sides are highly eroded. The fragment is poorly oxidized (Figure 6.2, left).

Incised rim protrusion, possible scalloped rim. The body area just below the lip is incised with an irregular, simple fine line design. On the protrusion itself, the incising shifts and continues only on the lip. The exterior and interior surfaces of the rim fragment are roughly finished and poorly oxidized (Figure 6.2, right).

Canid adorno. A somewhat primitive, pinched canid adorno was recovered Reeves Rise midden. The head is well smoothed with incised eyes and mouth. The adorno crossmended to a reduced, burnished rim fragment. The head faces the interior of the vessel (Figures 6.3 and 6.4).

CHAPTER 7

SURFACE TREATMENTS

Data presented in this chapter permit the examination of the kinds and distributions of surface treatments. Not all of the surface treatments reported represent formal types (e.g., St. Johns Check-Stamped, Ocmulgee Cordmarked). Some surfaces vary from formal types and require description. Variation may be aesthetic, functional, or technological modifications (e.g., burnishing, obliteration, scraped, or scored). Following a summary of the variety of surface treatments applied by St. Johns and Ocmulgee potters, a detailed examination is offered regarding the distribution of 1) check shapes (e.g., diamond, rectangular, square) and their corresponding interior surface finishes; 2) levels of surface compaction observed on St. Johns plain sherds; and, 3) the distribution of plain St. Johns, sand, and sand-grog paste subgroups. Frequencies of unidentified surface data are excluded from the tables but are provided in Appendix A. Four general observations regarding surface treatment and paste from the Shields assemblages can be made. 1. There is a strong correlation between the modes of dimensional surface modification and temper: cord-wrapped paddles with grit- and grit-grog tempered sherds; carved check stamp paddles with St. Johns subgroups; and plain, well compacted, or obliterated surfaces with sand-grog temper. These correspondences remain consistent chronologically and spatially within the excavated area. In the Shields assemblage, it is rare to recover sherds of one temper group bearing the dimensional modification of the other (Tables 7.1, 7.4). Cordmarking, for instance, is a minor treatment within sand, sand-grog, and St. Johns subgroups. Sand-tempered sherds contained more kinds of treatments than the other non- spiculate subgroups.

2. St. Johns Incised or Punctated sherds are, for the most part, recovered from dense midden contexts. This holds true for the two other formal St. Johns paste types, Little Manatee and Papys Bayou. Woven or net impressions, which may be associated with construction methods, are concentrated in low shell shovel tested groups.

3. The frequencies of St. Johns check shapes (diamond, rectangular, square, and multiple shape or sizes) vary by area (Tables 7.5a, 7.5b).

4. There is a stronger correlation of burnished interiors to area than with check style. St. Johns burnished sherds are concentrated near Kinzey’s Knoll, Kinzey’s South, and Reeves Rise (Tables 7.7, 7.8, 7.9)middens. The frequencies of hard tooled and burnished sand- and sand-grog-temper are more widely distributed.

Distribution of Plain Sherds: Spiculate, Sand, and Sand-Grog Tempers High percentages of St. Johns Plain and sandy St. Johns Plain are found in the East Group (combined - 45.6 percent of its spiculate sample), Kinzey’s Group (46.7 percent), Kinzey’s West (34.8 percent), Kinzey’s South (35.1 percent), and Reeves Rise (34.2 percent), areas surrounding but not including the dense centralized midden of Kinzey’s Knoll (Table 7.1). High percentages of plain sand- and sand-grog tempered sherds are found in three of those areas: East Group (combined 45.4% non-spiculate paste subsample), Reeves Rise (38.6 percent), and Kinzey’s Group (31.7 percent), and two western groups: West Group (33.5 percent), Northwest Group (33.4 percent). These aggregations of plain discard, regardless of temper, suggest that particular activities that were better served by plain surfaced vessels were concentrated in selected areas. Alternately, refuse from such activities was not discarded in Kinzey’s Knoll or the western portion of the site.

Table 7.1. Plain spiculate, sand-, and sand-grog-tempered sherds. Percentages represent frequencies within spiculate and non-spiculate samples.

West N’West W. Bluff Bluff East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Group Group Group Midden Group Group West South Knoll Rise spiculate 25.0% 26.7% 29.8% 32.2% 45.6% 46.7% 34.8% 35.1% 32.2% 34.2%

sand, 33.5% 33.4% 14.3% 26.0% 45.4% 31.7% 30.0% 23.0% 9.3% 38.6% sand-grog

Non-spiculate Surface Treatments

Table 7.2 reveals the kinds of surface treatments recorded within the non-spiculate paste subgroups. In this collection, potters manufacturing grit-, grit-grog-, and sand-grog- tempered vessels applied far fewer kinds of surface modification than sand tempered or St. Johns potters. This implies a conservative, traditional approach to surface decoration. An alternative explanation may be that the cordmarked vessels discarded at Shields represent one particular type of utilitarian container — those initially constructed for long-distance transportation of goods. The heavy walls and larger sized grit-temper would be shock and impact resistant. These characteristics favor water transport from the Ocmulgee region as their weight would make overland transport more challenging. Processed fiber impressions (cordmarked: combined paste subgroups 70.2 percent and woven: 4.5 percent) are the signature surface treatment of Ocmulgee vessels recovered at the site. Although cordmarking dominates grit- and grit-grog-tempered sherds, it is found on fewer than half of the sand and sand-grog surfaces. The distribution of grit- and grit-grog- tempered cordmarked sherds reveals the highest frequencies in the midden at Kinzey’s Knoll (75.7 percent) and nearby shovel test area, Kinzey’s Group (59.9 percent). Grit-tempered cordmarked sherds also are well represented along the central bluff edge. The lowest percentages of cordmarked sherds are found near the mound, the East Group (32.2 percent), and most distant from the mound, Northwest (20.7 percent) Group. Other kinds of dimensional surface treatments placed on mineral-tempered sherds are extremely rare: check stamped (.4 percent), incised/punctated (.2 percent - Kinzey’s Knoll) and punctated (.2 percent - western shovel test groups West and Northwest). Plain sherds are minor components in grit and grit-grog paste subgroups (combined 3.6 percent), but the principal surface treatment of sand and sand-grog paste subgroups (19.9 percent). Combined, plain sherds make up 25.7 percent of the non-spiculate sample. Purposeful obliteration of the initial dimensional surface treatment (i.e., check-stamping) is encountered more often in the sand-grog subgroup. Two of the ten sand-grog obliterated sherds were check stamped (large-size checks) but the other original surfaces were unidentifiable. All sand-grog obliterated exterior surfaces were rigorously, although

somewhat haphazardly, re-smoothed often to a burnished surface. Obliteration to a burnished surface may reflect an aesthetic or utilitarian (tightly sealing exterior) function. The discard pattern of plain sand-tempered and sand-grog tempered sherds deserves further note. Sand-tempered sherds are found in greater frequency in low-shell shovel tested areas along the south and northwest boundaries of the site: West Group (15.2 percent of that non-spiculate sample), Kinzey’s Group (22.7 percent), and Northwest Group (26.7 percent). In midden contexts, the frequency of plain sand-tempered sherds is significant only in Reeve’s Rise (25.0 percent of that non-spiculate sample). The lowest percentages of sand- tempered sherds are found in the Kinzey’s Knoll (4.0 percent) and Kinzey’s South (7.3 percent) middens. A different discard pattern is revealed in the distribution of sand-grog sherds. These sturdy utilitarian vessels are poorly represented in the Northwest (6.7%), West Bluff (4.8%), and Kinzey’s Group (9.0%), but constitute a significant portion of the East Group’s (36.4%) non-spiculate subsample. Plain sand-grog sherds were rarely discarded in the Knoll (5.3%) although grit and grit-grog sherds are well represented. The frequency of plain sand-grog sherds is highest in the Bluff Midden (18.2%), and Kinzey’s West (20.0%).

Interior Surfaces: Non-spiculate Sherds Tables 7.3 and 7.4 compare interior compaction levels recorded for cordmarked and plain sherds within the two largest subsamples, Kinzey’s Knoll and the Bluff Midden. Grit- and grit-grog tempered sherds are more frequently finished with finger smoothed (compaction level 2) or hard tooled (compaction level 3) surfaces. In Kinzey’s Knoll, nearly twice as many grit-tempered cordmarked sherds bear finger-smoothed interiors than hard tooled surfaces. In all other categories hard-tooled surfaces are either equal to or more frequent. Identification of burnished surfaces (compaction level 4) is a rare occurrence on grit and grit-grog sherds. Corresponding samples of cordmarked sand and sand-grog paste subgroups are small and comparisons are not informative.

Table 7.2. Non-spiculate paste subgroups: summary of surface treatments. Percentages (read down) based on subareas.

West N-west W. Bluff Bluff East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Totals Group Group Group Midden Group Group West South Knoll Rise #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% grit tempered cordmarked 12-36.4% 2-13.3% 10-47.6% 132-43.0% 6- 27.7% 12-54.5% 7-35.0% 45-46.9% 330-60.3% 18-40.9% 574-50.9% plain 2-13.3% 4-1.3% 1- 4.5% 3-3.1% 9-1.6% 19-1.7% check stamped 1-1.0% 1-.1% fabric 2-6.0% 1-6.7% 1-4.8% 10-3.3% 1-4.5% 2-2.1% 13-2.4% 30-2.7% obliterated 2-.4% 2-.2% grit-grog tempered cordmarked 3-9.0% 3-14.2% 23-7.5% 1-4.5% 1-4.5% 3-15.0% 8-8.3% 84-15.4% 1-2.3% 127-11.3% plain 1-3.0% 1-4.8% 5-1.6% 1-4.5% 7-7.3% 6-1.1% 21-1.9% fabric 1-3.0% 1-.3% 5-.9% 7-.6% obliterated 5-.9% 5-.4% sand tempered cordmarked 1-6.7% 1-4.8% 30-9.8% 1-4.5% 2-2.1% 5-.9% 40-3.5% plain 5-15.2% 4-26.7% 2-9.5% 24-7.8% 2-9.0% 5-22.7% 2-10.0% 7-7.3% 22-4.0% 11-25.0% 84-7.4% check stamped 1-4.5% 5-.9% 6-.5% punctate 1-3.0% 1-6.7% 2-.2% incised/punctate 1-.2% 1-.1% fabric 1-6.7% 1-.3% 1-1.0% 1-.2% 1-2.3% 5-.4% obliterated 1-.3% 1-.1% zoned pln-ck diam 1.2% 1-.1% sand-limestone 3-6.8% 3-.3% sand-grog tempered cordmarked 1-3.0% 1-4.8% 15-4.9% 1-4.5% 3-15.0% 3-3.1% 24-4.4% 3-6.8% 51-4.5% plain 6-18.3% 1-6.7% 1-4.8% 56-18.2 8-36.4% 2-9.0% 4-20.0% 15-15.7% 29-5.3% 6-13.6% 128-11.4% check stamped 1-4.5% 1-.1% fabric 1-3.0% 1-5.0% 1-1.0% 4-.7% 1-2.3% 8-.8% obliterated 2-13.3% 1-4.8% 5-1.6% 1-1.0% 1-.2% 10-.9% area totals 33-99.9% 15-100.0% 21-100.1% 307-99.9% 22-100.1% 22-99.7% 20-100.0% 96-99.9% 547-100.0% 44-100.0% 1127-100.1 % total site 33-2.9% 15-1.3% 21-1.9% 307-27.2% 22-2.0% 22-2.0% 20-1.8% 96-8.5% 547-48.5% 44-3.9% 100.0%

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Table 7.3. Interior surface compaction levels 1-4: grit- and grit-grog tempered cordmarked and plain sherds from Kinzey’s Knoll and Bluff Midden. Percentages calculated within individual temper subgroups. cordmarked plain #/% #/% #/% #/% grit grit-grog grit grit-grog Kinzey’s Knoll 1 13 4.0% 1 1.2% 2 204 62.2% 34 40.5% 1 12.5% 1 20.0% 3 103 31.4% 36 46.4% 7 87.5% 4 80.0% 4 8 2.4% 10 11.9% totals 328-100.0% 84-100.0% 8-100.0% 5-100.0% Bluff Midden 1 2 59 44.4% 7 35.0% 1 25.0% 2 40.0% 3 59 44.4% 13 65.0% 3 75.0% 4 15 11.2% 3 60.0% totals 133-100.0% 20-100.0% 4-100.0% 5-100.0%

Finger-smoothed interior surfaces are more frequently recorded for cordmarked sherds; hard tooled and burnished interiors are more prevalent on plain sherds. This suggests that tightly sealed surfaces were perhaps easier to accomplish on those pastes (finer textured), that their functions required less porous surfaces; or, that a visual effect of reflective, brighter colored vessels was desired.

Table 7.4. Interior surface compaction levels 1-4: Sand and sand-grog tempered cordmarked and plain sherds from Kinzey’s Knoll and Bluff Midden. cordmarked plain #/% #/% #/% #/% sand sand-grog sand sand-grog Kinzey’s Knoll 1 2 2 40.0% 31 64.6% 4 17.4% 3 11.6% 3 3 60.0% 12 25.0% 13 56.5% 14 53.8% 4 5 10.4% 6 26.1% 9 34.6% totals 5-100.0% 48-100.0% 23-100.0% 26-100.0% Bluff Midden 1 1 3.2% 2 24 77.4% 5 55.6% 5 22.7% 8 14.5% 3 5 16.1% 2 22.2% 11 50.0% 28 50.9% 4 1 3.2% 1 11.1% 6 27.3% 19 34.5% totals 31-99.9% 9-99.9% 22-100.0% 55-99.9%

St. Johns Surface Treatments

The frequencies and distribution of St. Johns surface treatments are provided in Table 7.5. Although one surface treatment dominates — check stamping appears on 62.0 percent of all St. Johns subgroups — a wider variety of surface modifications are recorded. Plain surfaces were 101

recovered in high frequencies (33.3 percent combined spiculate subgroups). The ratios of St. Johns checked to plain surfaces range from 3:1 in the West Group to nearly 1:0.9 in the East and Kinzey’s shovel test groups. Sherds bearing incomplete coverage of check or plain surfaces were occasionally observed. Those recorded as “zoned” show deliberate placement of design fields (plain and check stamping). Other carved paddle treatments are rare: simple stamped (.6 percent) and cross simple stamped (.02 percent). Incised and punctated sherds are better represented in St. Johns than sandy St. Johns pastes. Sherds placed in these categories, as well as some burnished plain, may include fragments of Little Manatee or Papys Bayou vessels. Design and application of incised and punctation patterns are highly varied in field of coverage, density of the punctation, and shape of the stylus. Round or oval punctations were most numerous but triangular and shell edge impressions were also recorded. Some designs appear to be carefully executed, but in others, lines and punctations are crowded, erratic, or deep suggesting that texturing rather than aesthetics is the desired effect. Processed fiber impressions were rarely observed. Recovered in low frequency, St. Johns Cordmarked sherds (.2 percent) do not resemble the tightly spaced, deep impressions of its Ocmulgee counterpart. The majority of St. Johns cordmarked sherds were found in the Bluff Midden. Net impressions (.1 percent) are vague and recovered in two western shovel test groups (West and West Bluff), and the central midden, Kinzey’s Knoll. Woven impressions (.6 percent) were recovered in all subsamples except Kinzey’s West and Kinzey’s South middens. The majority were basal fragments, which may be evidence for use of woven supports during coil construction or drying. Goggin (1998: 105) defined St. Johns scored or scraped surfaces as “ marked by shallow straight to wavy or scored scoring marks.” Both parallel and converging impressions are observed in the Shields collection. Less frequently, scores are deeper and the land edges rounded suggesting rolling with a dowel-like implement. This version is more often observed near the basal portions of vessels. Goggin noted that scoring — like the finer linear impressions of simple stamping — dates to St. Johns IIb and IIc, and while not commonly recovered, scored sherds are found throughout the St. Johns region. Scored sherds (2.0 percent) were recovered in eight of the

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Table 7.5. St. Johns summary of surface treatments. Percentages (read down) calculated within subareas.. West N’west W. Bluff Bluff East Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Reeves Totals Group Group Group Midden Group Group West South Knoll Rise #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% #/% St. Johns check stamp 41-60.3% 6-40.0% 47-56.0% 686-53.8% 72-42.1% 38-42.2% 83-60.1% 172-61.0% 1113-60.7% 118-49.8% 2376-56.7% plain 13-19.1% 3-20.0% 22-26.2% 36-28.3% 66-38.6% 37-38.9% 45-32.6% 92-32.6% 554-30.2% 69-29.1% 1260-30.0% incised 5-.4% 1-1.1% 1-.7% 1-.4% 9-.5% 1-.4% 18-.4% incised/punctate 2-.2% 1-1.1% 2-.1% 5-.1% punctated 11-.9% 1-.4% 5-.3% 17-.4% scraped/scored 3-4.4% 31-2.4% 1-.6% 1-1.1% 1-.7% 3-1.1% 34-1.9% 3-1.3% 77-1.8% simple stamp 1-1.2% 3-.2% 2-1.2% 1-1.1% 3-1.1% 7-.4% 3-1.3% 20-.5% Cross ss 1-.1% 1-.02% cordmarked 4-.3% 2-.8% 6-.1% net 1-1.5% 1-1.2% 3-.2% 5-.1% woven 1-1.5% 2-13.3% 1-1.2% 7-.5% 1-.6% 3-3.3% 4-1.7% 19-.5% zoned 1-.1% 16-.9% 17-.4% sandy St. Johns check stamp 2-2.9% 1-6.7% 5-6.0% 96-7.5% 16-9.4% 2-2.2% 4-2.9% 3-1.1% 45-2.5% 18-7.6% 192-4.6% plain 4-5.9% 1-6.7% 3-3.6% 50-3.9% 12-7.0% 7-7.8% 3-2.2% 7-2.5% 36-2.0% 11-5.1% 135-3.2% cordmarked 3-.2% 1-.1% 1-.4% 5-.1% incised 1-.1% 1-.1% 2-.05% punctate 1-1.2% 1-.1% 2-.05% scraped/scored 5-.4% 1-.7% 1-.1% 1-.4% 8-.19% simple stamp 1-1.5% 1-1.2% 1-.1% 1-.1% 1-.4% 5-.12% woven 1-6.7% 1-1.2% 1-.6% 1-.1% 1-.4% 5-.12% St. Johns-grog check stamp 2-2.9% 1-.1% 2-.1% 2-.8% 7-.2% plain 1-1.2% 3-.2% 1-.1% 1-.4% 6-.1% scraped/scored 1-1.1% 1-.02% cordmarked 1-.1% 1-.02% s. St. Johns-grog check stamp 1-6.7% 1-.1% 2-.05% cordmarked 1-.1% 1-.02% woven 1-.1% 1-.02% area totals 68-100.0% 15-100.0% 84-100.0% 1275-100.0% 171-100.0% 90-100.0% 138-100.0% 282-100.0% 1834-100.0% 237-100.0% 4194-100.0% % total site 68-1.6% 15-.4% 84-2.0% 1275-30.4% 171-4.1% 90-2.1% 138-3.3% 282-6.7% 1834-43.7% 237-5.7% 4194-100.0%

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ten subsamples but were better represented in the Bluff Midden (combined paste groups 2.8 percent) and Kinzey’s Knoll (3.0 percent) subsamples. In the following sections the frequencies of check shapes and the variation in the degrees of interior compaction are examined. The data from two micaceous subsamples have been added in order to compare frequencies of hard tooled and burnished surfaces recorded for frequent vs. lower mica-bearing St. Johns pastes (Tables 7.5a, Table 7.6a).

St. Johns Check-stamped

Varieties and Distribution of Check Shapes Diamond check-stamped sherds comprise 10.7 percent of the checked surfaces from the middens. This total is boosted largely by the high frequencies recovered from Kinzey’s Knoll (13.5 percent St. Johns and 13.6 percent micaceous St. Johns)(Tables 7.5a-b). Diamond checked surfaces were found in lower frequencies (4.9 percent) in the low-shell density shovel tests. In that context, the highest percentage of diamond check sherds was found in the West Bluff Group (10.0 percent) while the adjacent dense midden, Bluff Midden, contained fewer (7.1 percent). The Northwest and the East groups contained no diamond check sherds. Higher frequencies of rectangular check sherds were recovered in the shovel test groups (15.9 percent) than in the dense middens (8.7 percent). Rectangular check sherds were found in greater numbers in the middens Reeve’s Rise (19.0 percent), Kinzey’s West (11.1 percent), and Bluff Midden (10.1 percent). The percentages of St. Johns square check sherds were virtually equal for both shell contexts (80.1 percent middens, 79.3 percent shovel test groups). Higher percentages of square check sherds are found in the individual samples for the West Group (88.2 percent), Kinzey’s South (83.6 percent), Bluff Midden (82.6 percent), and East Group (80.4 percent).

Check-stamped Sherds: Interior Surfaces

The recovery areas of finger smoothed interior surfaces (56.1 percent shovel test groups vs. 45.8 percent middens) and hard tooled (31.1 percent groups vs. 42.8 percent middens) surfaces differed based on the presence of burnished sherds. Percentages for burnished interiors

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of check-stamped sherds are higher in midden areas (10.2 percent) than the shovel test (7.3 percent) subassemblages. Meaningful comparison of diamond and rectangular checked interior finishes is difficult due to the small sample recovered in the shovel test groups. The sample of diamond check sherds contained higher percentages of hard tooled (44.7 percent middens, 62.5 percent groups) and burnished (14.7 percent middens, 25.0 percent groups) interiors. The interior surfaces of rectangular-checked sherds are better represented by lower levels of surface compaction. No interior burnished surfaces were recorded for rectangular check sherds from the shovel test groups. Burnished interiors also are poorly represented in the midden samples (5.2 percent). Square checked sherd interiors reveal similar patterns for both midden and low shell contexts. The most frequently recorded interior surface for square checked sherds is finger smoothed (shovel test groups 59.2 percent v. middens 45.5 percent). The second most observed interior surface interior is hard tooled (shovel test groups 27.7 percent and middens 43.4 percent). Turning to the breakdown of interior surface treatments found within the ten areas, higher percentages of hard tooled and burnished interiors are found on diamond-checked sherds in middens at Kinzey’s South (2.1 percent) and Kinzey’s Knoll (2.1 percent St. Johns low mica, 4.5 percent micaceous St. Johns). With the exception of Kinzey’s Group, the interior surfaces of rectangle-checked sherds are more apt to be finished with finger-smoothed surfaces. Reeves Rise contains the highest frequency of burnished interior rectangular checked sherds. The highest percentages of burnished interiors on square check stamped sherds are recorded for the middens nearest the mound, Kinzey’s South (15.0%) and Kinzey’s Knoll (8.9%, 13.6% micaceous). Excluding the single burnished sherd in the Northwest Group, the highest percentages of interior burnished surface for the shovel test areas are recorded nearest the mound: Kinzey’s Group (9.1%) and East Group (7.8%). Micaceous square-check sherds are more apt to bear burnished interior surfaces than low to occasional mica St. Johns sherds for both Bluff Midden (25.5% micaceous vs. 4.5% low mica) and Kinzey’s Knoll (13.6% micaceous vs. 8.9% low mica).

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Table 7.6a. Distribution of check shapes and interior finishes from midden contexts. Interior percents describe degree of surface compaction: 1= roughly smoothed. 2=finger smoothed, 3=hard tooled, 4=burnished. Percentages of check shapes are calculated within midden samples (read down). Bluff micaceous Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s micaceous Reeves Totals Midden Bluff Midden West South Knoll Kinzey’s Knoll Rise #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% diamond 38-7.1% 8-11.1% 10-7.1% 123-13.5% 3-13.6% 8-9.5% 190-10.7% interiors 1 1-.01% 1-.5% 2 17-3.2% 3-4.2% 3-2.1% 51-5.6% 2-2.4% 76-40.0% 3 17-3.2% 5-6.9% 4-2.9% 52-5.7% 2-9.1% 5-6.0% 85-44.7% 4 4-0.8% 3-2.1% 19-2.1% 1-4.5% 1-1.2% 28-14.7% rectangular 54-10.1% 1-12.5% 8-11.1% 13-9.3% 60-6.6% 2-9.1% 16-19.0% 154-8.7% interiors 1 1-0.2% 1-0.1% 2-1.3% 2 36-6.8% 5-6.9% 10-7.1% 29-3.2% 2-9.1% 8-9.5% 90-58.4% 3 15-2.8% 1-12.5% 2-2.8% 3-21.% 27-3.0% 4-4.8% 52-33.8% 4 1-0.2% 3-0.3% 4-4.8% 8-5.2% uid 1-0.2% 1-1.4% 2-1.3% square 440-82.6% 7-87.5% 56-77.8% 117-83.6% 723-79.2% 17-77.3% 59-70.2% 1419-80.1% interiors 1 6-1.1% 1-0.7% 3-0.3% 10-.7% 2 237-44.5% 2-25.0% 24-33.3% 49-35.0% 304-33.3% 2-9.1% 27-32.1% 645-45.5% 3 172-32.3% 3-37.5% 25-34.7% 46-32.9% 332-36.4% 12-54.5% 26-31.0% 616-43.4% 4 24-4.5% 2-25.0% 6-8.3% 21-15.0% 81-8.9% 3-13.6% 6-7.1% 143-10.1% uid 1-0.2% 1-1.4% 3-0.3% 5-.4% multiple checks 1-0.2% 7-0.8% 1-1.2% 9-.5% interiors 1 2 1-0.1 1-1.2% 2-22.2% 3 1-0.2% 4-.04% 5-55.5% 4 2-0.2% 2-22.2% uid total/% by area 533-100.0% 8-100.0% 72-100.0% 140-100.0% 913-100.0% 22-100.0% 84-100.0% 1772-100.0% 1=13-.7% 2=813-45.8% 3=758-42.8% 4=181-10.2% uid-7-.4% total/% sample 533-30.1% 8-.5% 72-4.1% 140-7.9% 913-51.5% 22-1.2% 84-4.7% 1772-100.0% (% read across)

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Table 7.6b. Distribution of check shapes and interior finishes from shovel test groups. Interior percents describe degree of surface compaction:1= roughly smoothed. 2=finger smoothed, 3=hard tooled, 4=burnished. Percentages are calculated within group samples (read down). West Northwest West Bluff Kinzey’s East Totals Group Group Group Group Group #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% diamond 2-5.9% 4-10.0% 2-6.1% 8-4.9% interiors 1 2 1-2.9% 1-12.5% 3 1-2.9% 2-5.0% 2-6.1% 5-62.5% 4 2-5.0% 2-25.0% rectangular 2-5.9% 7-17.2% 7-21.2% 10-19.6% 26-15.9% interiors 1 1-2.5% 1-2.0% 2-4.5% 2 1-2.9% 3-7.5% 3-9.1% 7-13.7% 14-31.8% 3 1-2.9% 3-7.5% 4-12.1% 2-3.9% 10-22.7% 4 square 30-88.2% 6-100.0% 29-72.5% 24-72.7% 41-80.4% 130-79.3% interiors 1 2-5.9% 2-5.0% 3-5.9% 7-5.4% 2 21-61.8% 4-66.7% 12-30.0% 15-45.5% 25-49.0% 77-59.2% 3 7-20.6% 1-16.7% 13-32.5% 6-18.2% 9-17.6% 36-27.7% 4 1-16.7% 2-5.0% 3-9.1% 4-7.8% 10-7.7% total/% by area 34-100.0% 6-100.0% 40-100.0% 33-100.0% 51-100.0% 164 – 100.1% 1=9-5.4% 2=92-56.1% 3=51-31.1 4=12-7.3% total/% sample 34-20.7% 6-3.7% 40-24.4% 33-20.1% 51-31.1% 164-100.0% (%read across)

St. Johns Plain

The degrees of surface compaction are reported in Tables 7.6a, 7.6b (all St. Johns paste subgroups), and Table 7.7 (St. Johns, sandy St. Johns, UID not included). These tables reveal that finger-smoothed surfaces (compaction level plain 2), both interior and exterior, are the most frequently recovered surface compaction in the shovel test samples. Roughly or poorly compacted exteriors (plain 1) represent the least recorded surface treatment for both contexts and are almost negligible in midden deposits. In the midden samples, hard tooled (plain 3) exterior and interior surfaces are better represented. Although burnished surfaces (plain 4) are the third most frequently recorded surface finish, they are recovered twice as often in the midden samples as in group areas.

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Table 7.7. Percentages of plain sherd surfaces from midden contexts (n=1101) and shovel test groups (n=122). Percentages read across. rough finger hard tooled finished smoothed burnished uid totals plain exteriors midden contexts 8.2% 43.8% 24.3% 23.8% 100.1% shovel test groups 13.1% 57.4% 15.6% 13.9% 100.0% interior midden contexts 1.0% 34.6% 36.6% 27.2% 0.6% 100.0% shovel test groups 4.9% 60.7% 20.5% 13.9% 100.0%

St. Johns Burnished Surfaces

Excluding the small St. Johns sample recovered from the Northwest Group, the highest frequencies of burnished St. Johns plain are found in dense middens near the mound: Kinzey’s Knoll (26.3 percent of that sample), Reeves Rise (26.3 percent), and Kinzey’s South (22.2 percent). These percentages, however, do not reflect a core area of burnished sherds centered about the mound since the nearby East Group (13.0 percent) contained the third lowest percentage. Low frequencies also are recorded for the adjacent areas of Kinzey’s West midden and Kinzey’s Group — both at 14.6 percent. In the western portion of the site, the Northwest Group contained no burnished St. Johns sherds and West Bluff Group sample held only 7.7 percent. This pattern also is broken by a high frequency in the West Group (17.6 percent).

Interior Surfaces: St. Johns Plain

Tables 7.8a and 7.8b summarize the frequencies of four degrees of surface compaction relative to exterior plain surfaces. The most frequently recorded surface finish for plain sherds is finger smoothed (plain 2 - 57.4 percent groups; 43.8 percent middens). The least labor intensive surface finishes (plain 1 and 2) are more often recovered from deposited in the shovel test groups’ areas (combined 70.5 percent). In contrast, high and low surface compaction is nearly even in the middens (plain 1 and 2, 52.0 percent; plain 3 and 4, 48.1 percent). The most labor intensive surface, burnishing, is less evident in the shovel test samples (n=17, 13.9 percent) than the midden contexts (n=299, 27.2 percent). In individual areas, Kinzey’s South (22.2 percent), Kinzey’s Knoll (17.2 percent), and Reeves Rise (17.2

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Table 7.8a. Distribution of plain sherds and interior finishes from midden contexts. Interior degrees of surface compaction: 1= roughly smoothed. 2=finger smoothed, 3=hard tooled, 4=burnished. Percentages are calculated within midden samples (read down). Bluff micaceous Kinzey’s Kinzey’s Kinzey’s micaceous Reeves Totals Midden Bluff Midden West South Knoll Kinzey’s Knoll Rise exteriors #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% rough 44-12.9% 2-14.3% 5-11.1% 2-2.2% 27-5.2% 1-4.5% 9-14.1% 90-8.2% interior 1 2-0.6% 2-2.2% 1-0.2% 1-1.6% 6-6.7% 2 26-7.6% 3-6.7% 10-1.9% 1-4.5% 6-9.4% 46-51.1% 3 15-4.4% 2-14.3% 14-2.7% 1-1.6% 32-35.6% 4 1-0.3% 2-4.4% 2-0.4% 1-1.6% 6-6.7% finger smoothed 154-45.0% 3-21.4% 24-53.3% 49-54.4% 217-41.4% 6-27.3% 29-45.3% 482-43.8% interior 1 1-0.3% 1-2.2% 1-1.1% 2-0.4% 5-1.0% 2 88-25.7% 1-7.1% 13-28.9% 23-25.6% 112-21.4% 2-9.1% 18-28.1% 257-53.3% 3 57-16.7% 1-7.1% 8-17.8% 23-25.6% 71-13.5% 1-4.5% 10-15.6% 171-35.5% 4 7-2.0% 1-7.1% 2-4.4% 2-2.2% 29-5.5% 3-13.6% 1-1.6% 45-9.3% uid 1-0.3% 3-0.6% 4-0.8% hard tooled 78-22.8% 2-14.3% 9-20.0% 18-20.0% 146-27.9% 6-27.3% 8-12.5% 267-24.3% interior 1 2 18-5.3% 1-7.1% 3-6.7% 7-7.8% 27-5.2% 1-4.5% 4-6.3% 61-22.8% 3 39-11.4% 3-6.7% 7-7.8% 80-15.3% 3-13.6% 1-1.6% 133-49.8% 4 21-6.1% 1-7.1% 3-6.7% 4-4.4% 37-7.1% 2-9.1% 3-4.7% 71-26.6% uid 2-0.4% 2-0.7% burnished 66-19.3% 7-50.0% 7-15.6% 21-23.3% 134-25.6% 9-40.9% 18-28.1% 262-23.8% interior 1 2 5-1.5% 1-2.2% 8-1.5% 3-4.7% 17-6.5% 3 24-7.0% 2-14.3% 1-1.1% 36-6.9% 1-4.5% 3-4.7% 67-25.6% 4 37-10.8% 5-35.7% 6-13.3% 20-22.2% 90-17.2% 8-36.4% 11-17.2% 177-67.6% uid 1-1.6% 1-0.4% total/% by area 342-100.0% 14-100.0% 45-100.0% 90-100.0% 524-100.0% 22-100.0% 64-100.0% 1101-100.1% 1=11-1.0% 2=381-34.6% 3=403-36.6% 4=299-27.2% uid=7-.6% total/% sample 342-31.1% 14-1.3% 45-4.1% 90-8.2% 524-47.6% 22-2.0% 64-5.8% 1101-100.1% (% read across)

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Table 7.8b. Distribution of plain sherds and interior finishes from shovel test groups. Interior percents describe degree of surface compaction: 1= roughly smoothed. 2=finger smoothed, 3=hard tooled, 4=burnished. Percentages are calculated within shovel test group samples (read down). West Northwest West Bluff Kinzey’s East Totals Group Group Group Group Group #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% rough exterior 1-9.1% 6-28.6% 3-9.7% 6-10.7% 16-13.1% interior 1 2-9.5% 2-12.5% 2 2-9.5% 3-9.7% 5-8.9% 10-62.5% 3 2-9.5% 1-1.8% 3-18.8% 4 1-9.1% 1-6.3% finger smoothed 7-63.6% 2-66.7% 9-42.9% 19-61.3% 33-58.9% 70-57.4% exterior interior 1 4-7.1% 4-5.7% 2 4-36.4% 2-66.7% 6-28.6% 17-54.8% 26-46.4% 54-77.1% 3 2-18.2% 3-14.3% 1-3.2% 3-5.4% 10-14.3% 4 1-9.1% 1-3.2% 2-2.9% hard tooled 2-18.2% 1-33.3% 4-19.0% 3-9.7% 9-16.1% 19-15.6% exterior interior 1 2 2-9.5% 2-6.5% 4-7.1% 8-42.0% 3 2-18.2% 1-33..3% 1-3.2% 5-8.9% 9-47.4% 4 2-9.5% 2-10.5% burnished 1-9.1% 2-9.5% 6-19.4% 8-14.3% 17-13.9% exterior interior 1 2 2-3.6% 2-11.8% 3 1-9.1% 2-3.6% 3-17.6% 4 2-9.5% 6-19.4% 4-7.1% 12-70.6% total/% by area 11-100.0% 3-100.0% 21-100.0% 31-100.0% 56-100.0% 122-100.0% 1=6-4.9% 2=74-60.7% 3=25-20.5% 17=13.9% total/% sample 11-9.0% 3-2.5% 21-17.2% 31-25.4% 56-45.9% 122-100.0%

percent) contained the highest frequency of burnished interior surfaces. In low shell areas, higher frequencies of burnished sherds were found in the centrally located groups: Kinzey’s (19.4%) and West Bluff (9.5%).

Comparing Vessel Sizes and Surface Treatment The following discussion examines the differences in St. Johns and sandy St. Johns check and plain rim fragments by vessel shape and size. Only those sherds for which surface treatment, shape, and orifice measurement are recorded are included. Sherd frequencies and percentages are reported by surfaces, forms, and subarea.

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Globular Vessels St. Johns check-stamped globular rims recovered from midden contexts (median 28 cm) are larger and are found in a wider range of sizes than those recovered from the low shell, shovel test groups (median 21cm)(Table 7.9). In addition, midden context checked rims are nearly 70% larger than midden plain globular rims (median 16 cm). The size ranges of plain vessels contain more rims smaller than 10 cm in diameter. The difference between sandy St. Johns Checked (median 26 cm) and plain (median 22 cm) rim diameters is more modest and the sizes ranges are more congruent. The largest globular check-stamped bowls were recovered in Kinzey’s Knoll (median 30 cm, range 9 to 62cm), Bluff Midden (median 27 cm, range 12-66 cm), and East Group (median 18 cm, average 29 cm, range 16-52cm). The smallest size ranges of checked globular bowls are recorded for Reeves Rise (median 28 cm, range 18-28 cm) and Bluff West Group (average 23, range 19-26 cm). Although large diameter plain rims were also recovered from Kinzey’s Knoll and Bluff middens, the overall average of plain midden vessel diameters is significantly smaller. Similarly, plain globular bowls constructed of sandy St. Johns pastes recovered from midden contexts are smaller. Checked vessels from the shovel test groups are similar in average and median diameter. St. Johns Plain rims from group contexts match the midden pattern of smaller orifice construction.

Open Vessels Overall, average and median measurements of St. Johns open bowls are not as great as those recorded for globular bowls. Open bowl size ranges also are somewhat more restricted (Table 7.10). Open check-stamped bowls recovered in the midden samples (median 28 cm) were larger than shovel tested areas (median 22 cm). In contrast, group area open plain bowls (median 25 cm) are a bit larger than midden open plain bowls (median 20 cm). The Knoll contained the largest-sized orifice measurements and size range (median 28 cm, 6 to 44 cm). The recovery of sandy St. Johns tempered open bowl forms is infrequent; however, checked rim diameters (median 36 cm) continue to be greater than plain rims (median 28 cm). Large diameter sandy St. Johns rims are recorded in adjacent areas of Bluff midden

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(median 30 cm, range 22 to 44 cm) and Bluff West (43 cm). The orifice size ranges of sandy St. Johns, both checked and plain bowls are more restricted.

Table 7.9. Globular rims: St. Johns and sandy St. Johns pastes, checked and plain surfaces. globular rim forms St. Johns St. Johns sandy St. Johns sandy St. Johns check plain check plain # range cm # range cm # range cm # range cm median average median average median average median average cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm Kinzey’s South 7 12-48 cm 5 6-12cm 1 26cm 23 cm 24 cm 8cm 9cm Kinzey’s West 1 32cm

Bluff Midden 32 12-66 17 8-50cm 3 16-35 2 12-16cm 27cm 28cm 24cm 25cm 21cm 24cm 14cm Reeves Rise 3 18-28cm 2 7-27cm 1 30cm 28cm 24cm 17cm Kinzey’s Knoll 32 9-62cm 23 5-52cm 3 9-28cm 30cm 30cm 14cm 16cm 22cm 20cm midden subtotals 75 9-62cm 47 5-52cm 4 16-35cm 6 9-28cm 28cm 28cm 16cm 16cm 26cm 27cm 22cm 20cm East Group 3 16-52cm 2 10-26cm 1 26cm 1 33cm 18cm 29cm 18cm Kinzey’s Group 1 32cm 2 20-22cm 1 30cm 21cm Bluff West 2 19-26 1 18cm 23cm West Group 1 14cm

Northwest Group

group subtotals 7 16-32cm 4 10-26cm 1 26cm 3 18-33cm 21cm 25cm 20cm 20cm 30cm 27cm globular summary 82 9-66cm 51 5-52cm 5 16-35cm 9 9-33cm 27cm 26cm 18cm 18cm 26cm 27cm 24cm 24cm

Simple Vessels St. Johns Plain simple bowls present the smallest median (22 cm) and average (23 cm) orifice measurements. St. Johns Check-Stamped (median 29 cm; average 30 cm) and sandy St. Johns plain bowls (median 29 cm; average 27 cm) were constructed in somewhat larger sizes. The size ranges of the shovel test group samples are smaller than the ranges found in the midden samples (Table 7.11).

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Table 7.10. Open rim diameters: St. Johns and sandy St. Johns checked and plain surfaces. open rim forms St. Johns St. Johns sandy St. Johns sandy St. Johns check plain check plain # range cm # range cm # range cm # range cm median average median average median average median average cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm Kinzey’s South 3 26-38cm 4 20-32cm 38cm 34cm 27cm 26cm Kinzey’s West 1 24cm

Bluff Midden 7 13-23cm 1 20cm 3 24-44cm 20cm 19cm 30cm 33cm Reeves Rise 1 20cm

Kinzey’s Knoll 15 6-44cm 13 10-32 1 26cm 28cm 27cm 25cm 24cm midden subtotals 25 6-44cm 20 10-32cm 3 24-44 1 26cm 28cm 27cm 24cm 23cm 30cm 33cm East Group 2 25-32cm 1 26cm Kinzey’s Group 1 24cm 3 24-30cm 1 30cm 24cm 26cm Bluff West 2 16-27cm 2 12-38cm 1 43cm 22cm 25cm West Group 3 22-24 22cm 23cm Northwest Group 1 22cm

group subtotals 9 16-32cm 5 12-38cm 1 43cm 1 30cm 22cm 24cm 25cm 26cm open form totals 34 6-44 25 10-38 4 24-44cm 2 26-30cm 23cm 25cm 25cm 24cm 36cm 38cm 28cm 28cm

The largest St. Johns Checked-Stamped (median 28 cm, range 10 to 62 cm), St. Johns Plain (median 24 cm, range 5 to 68 cm), and sandy St. Johns Plain (median 40 cm, range 24 to 52cm ) simple vessels are recorded in the Kinzey’s Knoll sample. Reeve’s Rise contained the largest average sized simple St. Johns check-stamped (median 32 cm, range 24 to 38 cm) and smallest St. Johns plain (median 18 cm, range 10 to 28 cm) bowls. In low-shell samples, large-sized vessels are recorded from the small sample from Kinzey’s Group (median 31 cm, range 11 to 53 cm) and West Group (median 32 cm, range 20 to 51 cm). The East Group contained the largest St. Johns check-stamped simple bowl (average 34 cm – range 11 to 44 cm) and the smallest average St. Johns plain (average 13 cm) bowl. Sandy St. Johns simple bowls are concentrated in the three central middens and most eastern shovel test group: Bluff Midden (median 20 cm, range 6 to 42 cm), Reeves Rise

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(median 23 cm, range 18 to 27 cm), Kinzey’s Knoll (median 29 cm, 17 to 34 cm), and East Group (median 27 cm, range 9 to 44 cm).

Table 7.11. Simple rim diameters: St. Johns and sandy St. Johns checked and plain surfaces simple rim forms St. Johns St. Johns sandy St. Johns sandy St. Johns check plain check plain # range cm # range cm # range cm # range cm median average median average median average median average cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm Kinzey’s South 14 12-46cm 6 14-36cm 24cm 26cm 26cm 24cm Kinzey’s West 9 5-51cm 9 10-51cm 29cm 30cm 30cm 30cm Bluff Midden 57 12-53cm 34 6-42cm 9 11-45cm 12 8-35cm 29cm 30cm 19cm 20cm 18cm 24cm 22cm 21cm Reeves Rise 4 24-38 5 10-28 3 18-27 32cm 32cm 18cm 18cm 23cm 22cm Kinzey’s Knoll 79 10-62cm 51 5-68cm 3 17-34cm 4 24-52cm 28cm 29cm 24cm 25cm 29cm 27cm 40cm 39cm midden subtotals 162 5-62cm 105 5-68 15 11-45cm 16 8-52cm 29cm 29cm 24cm 23cm 23cm 24cm 31cm 30cm East Group 2 28-40cm 2 3-23cm 3 9-44cm 1 10cm 34cm 13cm 27cm 27cm Kinzey’s Group 5 11-53cm 2 5-22cm 31cm 30cm 14cm Bluff West 5 10-40cm 2 14-55 16cm 20cm 35cm West Group 4 20-51cm 1 20cm 1 36cm 32cm 34cm Northwest Group 1 34cm

group subtotals 16 10-53 8 3-55cm 3 9-44cm 2 10-36 32cm 30cm 20cm 23cm 27cm 27cm 23 23cm simple form totals 178 10-62cm 113 5-68cm 18 9-45cm 18 8-52cm 29cm 30cm 22cm 23cm 25cm 25cm 29cm 27cm

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CHAPTER 8 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY UTILIZATION OF POTTERY

During analysis, physical characteristics were recorded that reflect evidence of primary use and use-wear. Evidence of primary use includes additive (sooting, staining, iron oxide as ground powder or in solution [red filming]) and subtractive (abrasions, attrition, and pitting) data. Evidence of sherd recycling or secondary use as tools is seen in hone scarring and beveled or rounded edge use-wear. In the following section the presence of residues and use-wear scars or modification are discussed.

Primary Use Wear Sooting Noted in combination, vessel shape (rounded wall profiles), surface treatment (textured and non-burnished), and soot are often used to distinguish cooking from serving vessels (Blitz 1993; Crown and Wills 1995; Hally 1983; Kobayashi 1994; Sassaman 1993; Steponaitis 1983). Sassaman (1993:141-144) points out, however, that the amount of soot captured on exterior vessel walls is governed by the stage at which smoking or flaming material has been combusted. That is, pots set into a fire that has burned down to glowing embers will not accumulate soot. Second, all sooted pots are not necessarily cooking containers. As a ceremonial and mortuary center, the Shields assemblage may also include sooted vessels used for healing rituals or other wet or dry processing may have required the heating or drying of organic or inorganic materials.

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Two densities of exterior soot are observed on the Shields collection. The most commonly observed density is best described as ephemeral. These sherds may represent vessels used infrequently over fire or those containers placed over embers. Ephemeral sooting was observed occasionally as thin, vague, or partial accumulations often caught in checked surfaces. In contrast, thick, dense, and at times, glossy accumulations built up near rim areas are rare. Thick accumulations probably represent multiple heating events over a smoking, flaming fire. The data developed from this level of accumulation are presented in Table 8.1. A second indication of vessel use over fire is observed by the presence of thin carbonized materials adhering to the interior surfaces of sherds. In some cases corresponding soot accumulation on the exterior of the sherd is not present. These likely represent vessel contents heated over coals. Table 8.1 reveals the frequencies of the more substantially sooted exterior walls and the interior surfaces that retained evidence of carbonized liquid materials. The percentages presented in Table 8.1 are based on the number of sooted sherds noted within the total sherds in a particular paste subgroup at each of the ten proveniences (Appendix A). For instance, of the 70 St. Johns sherds recovered in the West Group, only 3, or 4.5 percent from the sherds from that location revealed heavily-sooted exterior surfaces. Percentages found in the ‘Totals’ rows and columns are based on final tallies. St. Johns and Ocmulgee grit-tempered sherds contained the highest percentages of sooted exterior and interiors surfaces. In this assemblage, it appears that sand tempered and Little Manatee sherds were least likely to be used for processing activities involving heating. Also, a discrepancy is noted in the percentage of similarly constructed grit and grit-grog- tempered sherds that were utilized over fire. Although thick-walled, large-sized mineral- or grog-tempered pottery is able to ameliorate thermal stress (as well as impact stress), it appears that far fewer grit-grog and sand-grog vessels were employed as cooking or heated processing containers. Bluff Midden (38 percent), Kinzey’s Knoll (38 percent), and Kinzey’s South (10 percent) contained the highest frequencies of sooted exterior surfaces. Kinzey’s Knoll (46 percent) and Bluff Midden (34 percent) also contained the greatest percentages of interior carbonized material.

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To ascertain if there is a correlation between the variety of vessel shapes and sizes used over fire, all St. Johns sooted rims were compared by sub-area. The sixty-six sooted rim sherds shown in Table 8.2 reveal that a variety of shapes and sizes were utilized over fire across the site. Sooted simple bowls (n=44), the classic cooking pot, comprise the most frequently observed form category. However, sooted globular (n=14) and open (n=8) forms, which present access or non-spillage use-related problems, also are well represented. A median orifice diameter of 29 cm (range 13 to 68 cm) and average 31 cm is found for sooted simple bowls. Sooted globular (range 12 to 52 cm) and open (range 14 to 33 cm) bowls share a median orifice diameter of 28 cm. Although this sample of sooted rims represents a very small portion of the total rim sample recovered during excavations, the variety of shapes and sizes is indicative of the ratio of vessel shapes and sizes found in the greater assemblage. This diversity of size ranges and forms suggests that although median size ranges are consistent cooking or ritual vessels used over heat were not restricted to one specific form or size.

Stained and Red Filmed Surfaces In this study, stains differ from soot residues by lacking above-surface dimension and texture. Carbonized remains are three dimensional and exhibit a rough, fractured and uneven texture. Unlike carbonized materials, stains appear as smooth and homogeneous dark brown or black color residues that permeated the vessel wall (Table 8.3). Stain patterns are observed as droplets (Figure 8.1); areas marked with a linear boundary (sometimes parallel with the lip); overall coverage; or in pour streaks. In rare cases an unusual and unidentified dark brown stain was found that covered both exterior and interior surfaces (Figure 8.3). In other cultures, resins or other organic materials are sometimes applied over freshly fired pots, but the origins of these unidentified stains is unknown. Red filmed remains (Table 8.4, Figure 8.3), likely remnants of iron oxide solutions, are smooth, homogeneous, and appear as droplets, partial or whole wall coverage, or in pouring patterns.

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Table 8.1. Count and percentages of sooted exterior (ext) and interior (int) surfaces: % based on total number within that paste group at that subarea. Percentages in Totals based on final tallies. sooted West Northwest West Bluff Kinzey's East Kinzey's Kinzey's Kinzey's Reeves Bluff Totals (% surface Group Group Group Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden read down) #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% grit 6 11 13 8 7 51 360 18 146 620 11% ext 3 27% 1 8% 1 13% 3 6% 7 2% 17 12% 32* 11% int 1 17% 1 9% 1 8% 1 14% 1 2% 18 5% 4 22% 12 8% 39** 13% grit- grog 1 3 15 101 1 31 152 3% ext 1 7% 2 2% 1 3% 4* 1% int 1 100% 1 33% 3 3% 1 100% 5 16% 11** 4% sand 6 6 10 15 63 100 2% ext 1 17% 1 10% 2 3% 4* 1% int 1 17% 1 17% 2 13% 4 6% 8** 3% sand- grog 2 20 63 11 69 165 3% ext 1 1% 1 5% 2 3% 8 12% 12* 4% int 1 2% 2 18% 9 13% 12** 4% ST.

JOHNS 70 89 94 174 147 297 1858 228 1227 4184 74% ext 3 4.5% 4 4% 2 21% 8 5%. 10 7% 23 8% 91 5% 72 6% 213* 73% int 2 2.9% 1 1% 2 21% 1 .6% 16 5% 109 6% 19 8% 64 5% 214** 71% s. St. Johns 12 13 29 11 93 35 186 379 7% ext 6 50% 1 8% 1 3% 1 9% 8 9% 10 5% 27* 9% int 1 8% 1 9% 5 5% 8 23% 8 4% 15** 5% Little Manatee 12 12 .2% ext 1 8% 1* .3% int 2 17% 2** .7% Totals

% Æ 76 1% 6 .1% 112 2% 129 2% 211 4% 168 3% 393 7% 2487 45% 308 5% 1722 31% 5612 100.1% exterior % *Æ 3 1% 13 4% 6 2% 10 3% 11 4% 29 10% 111 38% 110 38% 293* 100.0% interior % **Æ 3 1% 1 .3% 2 .7% 6 2% 1 .3% 3 1% 17 6% 138 46% 28 9% 102 34% 301** 100.3%

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Stains. Kinzey’s Knoll and Bluff Midden subsamples generated nearly identical percentages of stained sherds (Figures 8.1, 8.2). The highest percentage of stained St. Johns and sandy St. Johns sherds was recovered in the Reeve’s Rise midden (13% and 6% respectively). Although three of the shovel test groups are well represented by sherd counts, the percentages of stained sherds within those areas is generally very low. The exception is the relatively high St. Johns (12%) and sandy St. Johns (17%) percentages for the West Bluff

Table 8.2. Comparison of sooted vessel forms and sizes by sub-area.

Sooted Shape Size or size Median Surface range (cm) WEST GROUP exterior 1 simple 38 interior 1 simple 20 Northwest Group none West Bluff Group exterior 1 simple 40 Kinzey’s Group none East Group exterior 1 open 32 interior 1 simple 40 Kinzey’s West exterior 1 simple 29 Kinzey’s South exterior 4 globular 23-48 28 (n=3) 1 open 26 1 simple - interior 1 simple - Kinzey’s Knoll exterior 3 globular 15-52 27 (n=3) 3 open 14, 31 (n=2) 13 simple 15-54 30 (n=10) interior 1 globular 43 3 open 20, 33 (n=2) 10 simple 13-68 28 (n=10) Reeve’s Rise interior 2 simple - Bluff Midden exterior 3 globular 14, 28, 38 28 (n=3) 11 simple 20-44 29 (n=9) interior 3 globular 12-32 24 (n=3) 1 simple 19

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Table 8.3. Count and percentages of stained surfaces. Total percentages based on final tallies. Other percentages (read down) are based on sherds found within sample of paste subgroup and sub-area.

West Northwest W. Bluff Kinzey's East Kinzey's Kinzey's Kinzey's Reeves Bluff Totals (% Group Group Group Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden read down) #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% grit 6 51 18 146 221 5% 1 17% 1 2% 1 5% 3 2% 6* 2% grit- grog sand 15 15 .3% 2 13% 2* .6% sand- grog 2 11 69 82 2% 1 50% 1 9% 5 7% 7* 2% ST. JOHNS 70 89 94 174 147 297 1858 228 1227 4184 86% 3 4% 11 12% 7 7% 6 3% 3 2% 16 5% 112 6% 30 13% 93 8% 281* 88% s. St. Johns 12 13 29 93 35 186 368 8% 3 17% 1 7% 3 10% 3 3% 2 6% 8* 4% 20* 6% Little Manatee 12 12 .2% 2 17% 2* .6% Totals % Æ 70 1% 6 .1% 101 2% 109 2% 203 4% 147 3% 348 8% 1951 40% 307 6% 1640 34% 4882 100.1% stained sherds 3 1% 1 .3% 14 4% 9 3% 9 3% 3 1% 17 5% 115 37% 36 11% 111 35% 318* 100.3%

*Majority is comprised of micaceous sandy St. Johns paste.

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Table 8.4. Count and percentages of sherds bearing red film or ground iron oxide. Total percentages based on final tallies. Other percentages are based on number of sherds within paste group and sub-area samples. West Totals (% West Northwest Bluff Kinzey's East Kinzey's Kinzey's Kinzey's Reeves Bluff read down) Group Group Group Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% grit 13 51 146 210 5% red film 1 8% 4 3% 4* 4% ground 1 2% 1 1% 3** 11% grit- grog 15 31 46 1% red film 1 7% 1 3% 2* 2% ground sand 3 3 1% red film ground 1 33% 1** 4% sand- grog 2 20 69 91 2% red film 1 50% 2 1% 3 4% 6* 5% ground 1 1% 1** 4% St. Johns 70 11 89 94 174 147 297 1858 228 1227 4195 85% red film 1 1% 3 3% 1 .6% 1 .1% 1 .3% 81 4% 2 1% 13 1% 103* 86% ground 2 18% 1 1% 1 .6% 1 .3% 8 .4% 6 3% 3 .2% 21** 71% s. St. Johns 12 29 93 35* 186 355 7% red film 1 3% 2 2% 1 3% 4* 3% ground 1 8% 1 .5% 2** 7% Little Manatee 12 12 .2% red film 1 8% 1* 4% ground Totals %Æ 70 1% 11 .2% 101 2% 109 4% 203 4% 150 3% 383 8% 1963 40% 263 5% 1659 34% 4912 100.2% red film % *Æ 1 1% 2 1% 2 2% 1 1% 4 3% 84 70% 3 3% 21 18% 120* 100.0% ground % **Æ 2 7% 2 7% 1 3% 1 3% 1 4% 2 7% 8 31% 6 20% 6 17% 29** 100.0% 121

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Group. Generally grit and all mineral-tempered sherds were finished with less compacted surfaces that might be expected to more easily absorb liquid contents and therefore, leave stains; however, mineral-tempered sherds revealed a paucity of staining evidence. The greatest concentration of stained grit- and sand-grog-tempered sherds is found in the Bluff Midden and Reeve’s Rise subassemblages.

Red Filming. By far, the highest concentration of red-filmed sherds (site total n=120) is found in the Kinzey’s Knoll assemblage (n=84, 70 percent for site). The next highest frequency is recorded for the Bluff Midden (n=21, 18 percent). Red-filmed sherds are found in nine areas— the exception being the Northwest Group. Red filming is occasionally observed accompanying black, carbonized material or black staining suggesting reuse of the vessel (Table 8.4, Figures 8.3, 8.4).

Ground Iron Oxide Far fewer sherds were recovered on which a finely powered form of iron oxide still clung (Table 8.4, Figure 8.4). Ground iron oxide is observed on exterior, interior, old break edge surfaces, and tightly packed in pitted surfaces. Iron oxide dust is recovered in higher numbers on St. Johns sherds but Kinzey’s West, Kinzey’s South and Bluff Midden contain mineral-tempered sherds bearing the powder. Kinzey’s Knoll (n=8 or 31 percent of the site total) contains the highest frequency of red powder, followed in descending frequencies by Reeve’s Rise (20 percent) and the Bluff Midden (17 percent) subassemblages. Only the West Group sample contained no sherds bearing ground iron oxide. Grit tempered and sandy St. Johns paste subgroups from the Bluff Midden revealed the highest frequencies of ground iron oxide after St. Johns.

Abrasion, Attrition, and Pitting Three kinds of surface use alteration were recorded. Abrasion is characterized by fine to coarse linear scarring. Sherds coded for attrition have lost the areas of finished walls surfaces. These are either circular or amorphous. Pitting refers to deep, confined indentations into the surface. The majority of the sherds of both gross paste groups bore minimal evidence of heavy surface degradation. This is especially true for all of the grit- and

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grit-grog tempered paste subgroups. Grit and grit-grog cordmarking appear in pristine condition but sand and sand-grog plain sherds occasionally exhibit small areas of circular or linear abrasion. Rarely, Interior surfaces of either paste group contain evidence of more extensive superficial or limited cut-marks, pitting, abrasion, or attrition. Surface degradation observed on the soft paste surfaces of St. Johns check-stamped sherds often appear to be the result of post-depositional erosion. Very rarely check lands had been completely worn to their base. Figures 8.5 and 8.6 offer illustrations of more severe levels of abrasion. An ethnographic study of the Gamo in Ethiopia revealed that interior surface attrition might also be the result of fermenting activities. Arthur (2002) was able to observe particular types of use alteration (e.g., cooking, communal eating, fermenting, and ritual vessels) that represented differential socio-economic statuses. The data presented in Table 8.6, produced from the two largest subassemblages, reveals the percentages of surfaces bearing significant, although usually areally restricted abrasion. The table reveals that, in Kinzey’s Knoll, only 5 percent (n=86) of the St. Johns sherds revealed significant surface damage. Of those only six surfaces exhibited abrasions over a somewhat larger area and attrition below the surface plain. Of the 93 sandy St. Johns sherds recovered in the Knoll assemblage, 10 or 11.1 percent suffered significant surface damage. The frequencies of abraded surfaces are greater in the Bluff Midden assemblage, but most significantly in the St. Johns (16.3 percent, 200 of 1227 sherds), sandy St. Johns (16.1 percent, 30 of 186 sherds), and sand tempered (15.9 percent, 10 of 63 sherds) paste subgroups.

Table 8.5. Comparison of abraded surfaces, selected middens. paste subgroup Kinzey’s Knoll Bluff Midden St. Johns 5% (heavy abrasion .3%) 16.3% (heavy abrasion 1.9%) sandy St. Johns 10.1% 16.1% (heavy abrasion .5%) grit, grit-grog 3% 4% sand 10.3% 15.9% sand-grog 11.1% 11.8%

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Table 8.6. Percentages and location of sherds baring evidence of secondary use: hones, scraper-like or net-fid tools. Total percentages based on final tallies. Other percentages are based on individual counts by paste and sub-area. West Northwest W. Bluff Kinzey's East Kinzey's Kinzey's Kinzey's Reeves Bluff Totals (% Group Group Group Group Group West South Knoll Rise Midden read down) #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% #-% grit 51 51 1% hone tool 1 2% 1** 6% grit- grog 15 15 .3% hone tool 1 7% 1** 6% St. Johns 89 94 174 147 297 1858 228 1227 4114 96% hone 3 3% 1 1% 1 1% 2 1% 11 .6% 1 .4% 6 .5% 25* 96% tool 1 1% 1 1% 2 1% 4 .2% 1 .4% 6 .5% 15** 83% s. St. Johns 29 93 122 3% hone 1 3% 1* 4% tool 1 1** 6% Totals % Æ 89 2% 94 2% 203 5% 147 3% 363 8% 1951 45% 228 5% 1227 29% 4302 100.0% hone*Æ 3 11% 2 8% 1 4% 2 8% 11 42% 1 4% 6 23% 26* 100.0% tool 1 6% 1 6% 4 22% 5 27% 1 6% 6 33% 18** 100.0%

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Secondary Use-Wear Hones Of the 54 sherds displaying secondary usage, the majority (n=26) bore hone scars (Figures 8.7, 8.8). Perhaps used in bone pin construction, thin, even, linear hone scars are found singly or in groups. More rarely, honing techniques developed deeper, more restricted scars. Scars are observed on the exterior surfaces of sherds or as perpendicular abrasions on break edges. Hone scars only appeared on St. Johns and sandy St. Johns pastes the fine textures of these pastes may have replicated today’s finest grain sandpaper. Greater frequencies of discarded hone sherds are recovered in the samples from Kinzey’s Knoll (42 percent), Bluff Midden (23 percent), Kinzey’s South (8 percent) and the East Group (8 percent).

Scraping or Smoothing Tools Eighteen spiculate (n=16) and non-spiculate (n=2) sherds bore at least one rounded (n=16) or beveled edge (n=2). The majority bore multiple rounded edges and corners (Figure 8.9). These recycled sherds could have been used as net fids or a variety of yielding scraping or finishing needs. Northeastern Florida lacks smooth or medium grained lithic material and aboriginal craftsmen and women have long adapted shell and bone to supply raw materials for their tools. The highest frequencies of ceramic tools are found on St. Johns pastes and in the Bluff Midden (33 percent), Kinzey’s Knoll (27 percent), and Kinzey’s South (22 percent). Only one of these highly modified sherds was recovered from the shovel test groups (Kinzey’s Group, n=1 or 6 percent). Neither hones nor scraping tools were frequently discarded in Reeves Rise or Kinzey’s West middens. Two mineral-tempered ceramic scrapers were discarded in the Kinzey’s South midden. Two linear-shaped pottery tools bear one beveled edge and had sides well smoothed from handling (Figures 8.8, 8.10). Fine cordage scars were visible on the smaller of the beveled tools.

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Discussion The presence of exterior sooting and stains or carbonized remains on vessel interiors is used to indicate vessel function with heating, cooking, or serving vessels. At Shields, sooted vessels were not limited to unrestricted vessel forms that offer easy access. Simple bowls were the most frequently sooted, but perhaps the presence of soot on the exterior of open bowls, usually considered serving or presentation wares, and is somewhat unexpected. Globular vessels, with their restricted orifices, would have made recovery of the heated contents (liquid or dry) difficult, yet these forms also exhibited soot. It was also observed that thin lenses of carbonized materials on the interior of sherds (without exterior sooting) could be used to infer that some vessels were used over smokeless fires The data further revealed that a very low frequency of exterior-sooted sherds were recovered from Kinzey’s West, Kinzey’s South, and Reeves Rise middens. Cooking, processing, or ritual activities that required heat either did not occur as readily in those areas of the site, or sooted discard was relegated to other areas. Exterior soot was rare in the Reeves Rise sample, and it contained the highest percentage of stained, or serving-ware evidence. Kinzey’s Knoll contained the highest percentage of open bowls, but they were apparently used to hold non- stain producing contents such as clear liquids or other non-wall permeating contents. The presence of iron oxide may indicate healing or other ritualistic activities (Ashley 2003b; Jordan 1963; Milanich 1994:269-270). Iron oxide was found in two processed forms (ground and mixed in solution) although small iron oxide pellets were recovered in low frequencies throughout the middens. Both forms of iron oxide were observed most often on St. Johns sherds and in the possible ritual discard area of Kinzey’s Knoll. Within the Knoll assemblage, ground iron oxide also was found infused into incised designs of two ornately carved bone objects. Its concentration in one area, as well as its presence across the site, may provide evidence regarding activity areas for ceremonial production or ritual discard. Ceramic tools were concentrated in the larger middens of Kinzey’s Knoll and Bluff Midden. The variety of surface and edge wear noted on these recycled sherds suggests fine grain finishing of either ritual or utilitarian objects.

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CHAPTER 9

REFIRED SHERD STUDY

Two issues explored in this study are the maintenance of St. Johns and Ocmulgee pottery traditions and what attributes, if any, were altered as a result of long-term interaction or resettlement. In this chapter, clay resources are examined by correlating temper categories with refired clay-color analysis. A study sample of 146 sherds was selected that included locally produced Orange period; Woodland period (sand-charcoal-tempered, Swift Creek, and Colorinda); St. Johns, and St. Marys Cordmarked. The area of production for another spiculate- paste type tested in this study, Little Manatee, is unknown. Local and Georgia samples of Ocmulgee series pottery (grit, grit-grog, sand-grog, and micaceous sand) are included. Sherds from diverse sites and time periods were selected so that the refiring data could be examined from two perspectives. First, the data will be used to provide a kind of color base line for locally produced wares. The sherds collected from the Ocmulgee heartland provide color data that will be compared with their locally recovered counterparts. Second, by examining color data stratigraphically, this study can address resource use from different points in time. Therefore, St. Johns and Ocmulgee sherds were chosen from the lower, middle and upper levels of three Shields test units.

What Refiring Experiments Reveal

The degree of color development and body hardness achieved during prehistoric open pit firings were the result of four interrelated conditions: 1) the mineralogical, aplastic, and organic constituents present in raw clay material; 2) the highest firing temperature attained and length of time that temperature was sustained; 3) the duration of the firing event; and 4) the amount of oxygen available during and immediately after firing (Orton et al. 1993; Rice 1987). In one firing

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event, slight or even significant variations in individual vessel color and hardness could be expected. Vessel color (measured by Munsell soil color hues) is dependent upon the kind of clay resource utilized (i.e., kaolinites fire white, smectites fire cream to light brown); its mineralogical composition (especially the quantity of weathered iron); and the amount of organic impurities incorporated into the deposit (Rice 1987:40-44, 335-337; Shepard 1995:16-19). In addition, the percentage of clay-sized particles, (<.004 µ, lean implies a low percentage of clay minerals, high frequency is described as rich), clay texture (fine to coarse), and the frequency, size, and kinds of naturally occurring aplastic impurities influence clay selection, processing, vessel construction, and drying and firing properties (Rice 1987:36-51; Shepard 1995:12-15; Sinopoli 1991:15-20). Proportions and choices of temper (purposefully added aplastic inclusions) may be guided by tradition, intended use, or size of the pot (Deal 1998; Gosselain 1994; Habicht-Mauche 1991; Hegmon et al. 1995; Rye 1976). Higher firing temperatures sustained for an extended period will result in more vitrified (harder, fused fabrics achieved above 800º C) walls bearing brighter color (Shepard 1995:19-31). However, if the flow of oxygen circulating around the pots during firing is controlled so that little oxygen is available (reduced environment), the result will be low or dusky color development (Munsell soil color ranges: values less than 5, chromas less than 4 [Table 9.1 reproduced from Rice 1987:339-345]). If the covering that restricts the circulation of oxygen (e.g., hide or matting) is removed, a thin lens of highly oxidized surficial color will be accompanied by thick dark cores (Sassaman, personal communication 2000). One commonality suggested by this study and observation of other collections, is that at some point near the end of the firing event, St. Johns, Ocmulgee (grit- and grit-grog-tempered series), and St. Marys potters restricted the flow of oxygen, thus temporarily creating a reduced atmosphere. The consistency with which those potters used techniques that produced thick coring and thin skins in St. Johns pottery and very thin dusky lenses of exterior color on Ocmulgee grit- and grit-grog sherds seems, to this author, purposeful. St. Mary Cordmarked pottery also consistently exhibits reduced dusky tones with one (or no) surface bearing a slightly oxidized color. In contrast, Ocmulgee sand- and sand-grog-tempered sherds bear thick lenses of or completely oxidized walls with medium to light gray coring. Alternatives to temporary reduction atmosphere have been suggested: pots were pulled from the fire just as oxidation 133

began, or the deep color values represent consistently incomplete firing events (Cordell and Saunders, personal communications, 2003). Better understanding of the firing techniques utilized by St. Johns, Ocmulgee, and St. Marys potters can be gained through employment of replication studies using open firing pits.

Refiring Procedure A refiring procedure devised by Rice (1987:344-347) and Cordell (2001) enables researchers to standardize clay-color evidence by controlling refiring time, temperature, and environment (see also Shepard 1995:102-107). The procedure produces comparable visual evidence by overcoming the purposeful reduction or incidental variations of color values and chroma resulting from aboriginal open pit firings. In this procedure, a portion of a sherd is removed and Munsell (1998) colors recorded from the fresh break. Sherds are placed in a cool electric kiln and the temperature is gradually raised allowing the test fragments to soak at ten minute intervals at 275° C and 600° C , and then 800° C for15 minutes. Munsell readings are retaken after final firing from the same interior surfaces. In this paper, refired color results are reported by Munsell notation and by the descriptive terms shown in Table A. This table (Rice 1987:342; Shepard 1995: 107-110) offers standardized terms that will be used to describe the clarity, strength, and vividness of refired clay colors of the study sample.

Table 9.1. Descriptive terminology expressing Munsell numerical values and chroma notation.

8/ Very pale Very light Very brilliant 7/ 6/ Pale Light brilliant 5/ Weak Moderate Strong ↑ 4/ increasing 3/ Dusky Dark Deep 2/ value Very dusky Very dark Very deep 1/ /2 /5 /9

increasing chroma →

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Study Sample Under the supervision of Cordell, 146 sherds were refired at the ceramic lab at the Florida Museum of Natural History at Gainesville (FLMNH). Sample selection was based on local and non-local recovery and type and included three broad paste groups: fiber-, mineral-, and spicule- tempered. Rims or other differentiating characteristics were used in the selection process to avoid refiring same-vessel sherds (Figure 9.1). Table 9.2 provides the list of sites and pottery types sampled in this experiment. The samples from northeastern Florida include pottery associated with Archaic, Woodland, and Mississippian periods.

Results Five color hues were recorded for the refired sample: 10R (n=2, 1.4 percent), 2.5YR (n=5, 3.4 percent), 5YR (n=23, 15.8 percent), 7.5YR (n=87, 59.6 percent), and 10YR (n=29, 19.9 percent). With the exception of 10R, at least two hue categories were represented within each of the three gross paste groups. However, the ranges of clay-color values and chroma achieved within mineral or spiculate paste groups rarely overlap. For example, 7.5YR 7/4-6 marks the lowest recorded color values in the spiculate pastes but mark the highest value levels for most of the mineral-temper subgroups. In the following paste summaries, decreasing percentages of the iron-poor (i.e., very pale 8/-7/) color values/chroma and increasing iron- enriched (pale or moderate 6/-5/) values are presented. The reader will note an expanded list of mineral-temper subgroups from those reported in the general study. After the refiring process, in addition to optimal color clarity, previously unrecognized paste constituents were discerned in the mineral-tempered sherds. These inclusions were observed at a higher magnification (7X) in the FLMNH ceramics lab than for the general study (4.5X). The frequency of finely crushed, degraded, or powdery gray to white limestone became easier to distinguish from angular and subangular quartz particles. Limestone was also recognized by its reaction to HCL (10 percent solution). Two other sherds contained white inclusions that neither reacted to the acid or were unrecognizable to Cordell. Angular red

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Table 9.2. Counts, frequencies, and locations of refired sample. Percentages based on sample total 146 sherds.

Orange sand- Swift Weeden sandy Little mineral St. totals Period charcoal Creek Colorinda Island St. Johns St. Manatee tempers Marys Johns Guana River 3-2.0% 3-2.1% 1-.6% 7-4.8% Shell Ring 37- 14- 48- 102- Shields Site 3-2.0% 25.3% 9.6% 32.9% 69.9% Queen’s Harbour 1-.7% 4-2.7% 5-3.4% Cockfight Site 1 - .7% 1 - .7% Cedar Point 1- .7% 1 - .7% Mayport Mound 1-.7% 1 - .7% 2– 1-.7% 4 – Dent Mound 1- .7% 1.4% 2.7% 3 – Mount Royal 3–2.0% 2.0% various Georgia 14- 1- .7% 13-8.9% sites 9.6% NE Florida 4-2.7% 4-2.7% private collections Talbot Island 1 - .7% 1- .7% 2-1.4% 4- 2.7% 3- 1-.7% 2 – 1-.7% 1-.7% 41- 17- 70- 146- totals 6-4.1% 4-2.7% 2.0% 1.4% 28.1% 11.6% 47.9% 99.9%

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100.0%

80.0%

60.0%

40.0%

20.0% 0.0% % .4 L. 1 s. M 0R St St a 1 % n .4 O . . a 3 Jo J St ra o te R n h h e 5Y % O . g n n 2. 8 c Marys (sand)e s s 5. O m (f 1 c R Ocm grit-grogm-uid sa s ib 5Y 6% O and-grog e 9. c r) 5 Colo m grit R W 5Y % S e ri n 7. .9 e n d 9 c wi d d 1 harco ft e a R Cr n 0Y I 1 e s. a e l k

Figure 9.2. Distribution of pottery types or paste subgroups within Munsell hues. Percentages based on 146 sherds.

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sandstone-like inclusions, whose color was perhaps heightened during refiring, were also observed. Limestone and the sandstone-like inclusions are not natural constituents in extreme northeastern Florida’s clays.

Paste subgroups with sherds bearing color values in levels 8/ or 7/ Little Manatee (n=6). 100% of this type is classified as very pale to very light (8/3-4 – 50 percent and 7/4-6 – 50 percent).

Colorinda (n=1). The single Colorinda sherd tested refired to very pale 7/4.

St. Johns (n=41). 90.2 percent fell into the highest iron-poor color levels of very pale through very light with value 8 dominants (82.9 percent - 8/2-8 and 7.3 percent - 7/ 3-8). A low 9.8 percent of the clays utilized by St. Johns potters achieved pale to light color values (6/4-6).

Sandy St. Johns (n=17), micaceous s. St. Johns (n=2), s. St. Johns with iron oxide (n=2). 82.5 percent are classified as very pale through the highest levels of iron-poor clay colors-values (41.1 percent - 8/2-6, and 41.1 percent - 7/4-8). These percentages reveal a noteworthy decrease in the use of resources able to achieve the value 8/. 17.6 percent, a slightly higher percentage than paler St. Johns, refired to values in the light range (6/6-8).

Ocmulgee sand-grog (n=8), micaceous sand-grog (n=3). In a significant drop, 36.4 percent fell into very pale (9.1 percent - 8/4) or very light (27.2 percent - 7/6) value ranges. 63.6 percent revealed pale or moderate (6/4-8 and 5/6) clay-color values.

Orange Period (n=3). This pottery type was locally produced during the Archaic period. However, the highest refired value level recorded for this small sample is a very light value 7/6 (33.3 percent) with 66.6 percent revealing deeper color value 6/6.

Ocmulgee grit-grog (n=11), micaceous grit-grog (n=1), and micaceous grit-grog- limestone (n=1): This paste subgroup shares similar clay-color values with Ocmulgee sand- grog. 30.8 percent are classified as iron-poor, very light clay sources (23.1 percent - 8/3-5; 7.7 percent - 7/4). The majority, 69.2 percent, were manufactured from clay deposits producing moderate and light color values (5- 6/6-8).

Ocmulgee grit (n=29), micaceous grit (n=3), grit-iron oxide (n=1), grit-red-sandstone (n=3), grit-limestone (1). 29.7 percent of this temper group is classified as very pale to very light (10.8 percent - 8/3-5 and 18.9 percent - 7/3-8). The majority of Ocmulgee grit-tempered pottery, 67.6 percent, reveals utilization of ferruginous clay deposits capable of producing strong or light refired color values (5-6/6-9).

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St. Marys Cordmarked (n=4). The local type produced after A.D. 1250,with presumed access to the same clay resources as St. Johns potters, however, only 25 percent achieved very light color-values (7/6 and 75 percent were constructed from more ferruginous clays capable of values (5-6/6-8).

Ocmulgee sand (n=3), Ocmulgee sand-limestone (n=2), Ocmulgee-sand-UID white powder (1). 16.3 percent fell into the very pale value (7/4) and 83.7 percent revealed iron- enriched pale (6/6-8) or strong to light clay-color values (5/6-8).

Paste Subgroups bearing only color value categories 6/ or 5/ Sand (n=3). 100 percent of the unaffiliated plain or vague surfaces refired to (6/6-8).

Sand-charcoal-grog (n=1). The single sand-charcoal sherd refired to moderate 5/6.

Swift Creek (n=2). These two Woodland period sherds refired to a pale 6/4 and moderate 5/6 color values.

Weeden Island (n=1). This single sand-tempered Weeden Island sherd refired to a pale 6/6 clay color.

The following tables provide two perspectives for the interpretation of the refired data. Table 9.3, organized by the three broad temper groups, reveals hues, values, and chroma ranges recorded within each paste subgroup or formal pottery type. Table 9.4 offers comparisons of counts and percentages of achieved clay-colors only by value. Although Table 9.4 does not differentiate hue categories, this presentation is meaningful for this particular collection. First, in this sample, white-firing or ferruginous hue and value categories strongly correlate with pottery type. Second, the value/chroma notations at middle range value levels may be generally similar within 2 hue groups: 10R, 2.5YR, 5YR and 5YR, 7.5YR, 10YR. In actuality, any secondary clay deposit can produce a variety of similar color values. Thus it would be incorrect to propose that the light red chroma of 2.5YR 6/6 came from an entirely different source than reddish-yellow chroma 5YR 6/6. Within this particular refired sample, the similarities of iron-derived color values and the overall differences observed between St. Johns and Ocmulgee clay colors are significant. Those differences will be discussed below.

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Hue and Temper/Aplastic Categories Table 9.3 is organized by the three temper groups: mineral (n=79), fiber (n=3), and spiculate (n=64). Throughout the mineral-tempered groups, 5YR and 7.5YR are the most frequently recorded hue categories. The greatest diversity of color hues, values, and chroma is recorded in the Ocmulgee grit-tempered series. Notably, the 10YR hue category in the grit subgroup is represented by three sherds: 1 Double Firebreak Site 9WE36 (8/3) and 2 Mount Royal, both 6/6). 9WE36, Double Firebreak Site also contained one of the Little Manatee sherd refired in this study. The 10YR grit-grog sherd also came from the Mount Royal site. The reddest refired colors (10R and 2.5YR) are most often found in the mineral tempered paste subgroups, except for one St. Johns recovered from Shields. Less ferruginous 5YR and 7.5YR hues predominate in several samples including four local types: the fiber-tempered Orange period sample recovered from the Guana River Shell Ring, 60 miles south of the Shields site; Swift Creek; St. Marys Cordmarked, recovered less than 10 miles east of the Shields site; and, sandy St. Johns. The test samples of Ocmulgee grit-grog-tempered sherds also are dominated by deeper 5YR and 7.5YR hues. In the spiculate paste groups the two most frequently recorded color-hue categories shift to the least ferruginous clay colors 7.5YR and 10YR. Two exceptions are the single 2.5YR St. Johns sherd recovered from a lower level of Shields Test Unit 7 and the 5YR sandy St. Johns sherd recovered from excavations at Queens Harbour. The 5YR sherd was recovered in a mixed-component level containing later St. Marys Cordmarked and San Pedro types as well as other St. Johns.

Value and Temper/Aplastic Categories Table 9.4 reveals the correlation of color-values by paste subgroup and pottery types. Color patterns based on the frequency of sand and the decrease or paucity of spicules are evident within those types listed in the ‘local types’ column. The vast majority of the spiculate pastes (St. Johns and sandy St. Johns) are constructed of non-iron bearing clays achieving value 8/. In value 7/ (still iron poor content) and 6/(increasing color), the

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Table 9.3. Refired paste categories and hue, value, and chroma color ranges. Mineral temper (n=76) # Refired Munsell colors (#) = multiple sherds at that notation, (m) = micaceous paste, feo=iron oxide particles in paste Ocmulgee grit (n=33) 2 10R: 5/8 (m), 8/4 1 2.5YR: 7/6 9 5YR: 5/6 (2), 5/8 (2-1m), 6/8, 7/4, 7/6 (2), 7/8 18 7.5YR: 5/6(5), 6/6(8), 7/6(3-1m), 8/4(2) 3 10YR: 6/6(feo), 6/6, 8/3 Ocmulgee grit- possible red sandstone (n=3) 3 5YR: 5/8 Ocmulgee grit-limestone (n=1) 1 7.5YR: 5/6 Ocmulgee grit-grog (n=11) 2 5YR: 5/8, 6/6 7 7.5YR: 5/6 (2-1m), 6/6(4), 7/4 2 10YR:8/3 (2) Ocmulgee grit-grog-mica-limestone (n=2) 1 2.5YR: 5/8 1 7.5YR: 6/6 Ocmulgee sand (n=3) 1 2.5YR 5/8 (m) 1 7.5YR: 6/8 1 10YR: 7/4(m) Ocmulgee sand-limestone (n=1) 1 5YR: 6/6 Ocmulgee sand-uid white inclusions (n=2) 1 5YR: 5/6 1 7.5YR: 5/6 Ocmulgee sand-grog (n=11) 3 2.5YR: 6/6, 6/7 (m), 6/8 8 7.5YR: 5/6 (2-1m), 6/4, 6/6(3-1m), 7/6, 8/4 Colorinda 1 7.5YR: 7/4 sand-charcoal-grog (n=1) 1 7.5YR: 5/6 Swift Creek – sand (n=1) 1 7.5: 6/4 - sand-grog (n=1) 1 5YR: 5/6 Weeden Island Red-Filmed –sand (n=1) 1 7.5YR:6/6 St. Marys Cordmarked (n=4) 1 5YR: 5/6 2 7.5YR: 5/6, 6/6 1 10YR: 7/6 unaffiliated sand (n=3) 1 5YR: 6/6 (m) 2 7.5YR: 6/6, 6/8(m) Fiber temper (n=3) Orange 3 5YR: 6/6 7.5YR: 6/6, 7/6 Spiculate temper (n=60) St. Johns (n=37) 1 2.5YR: 6/6 20 7.5YR: 6/4, 6/6, 7/6, 8/4(8), 8/6(9) 16 10YR: 7/4, 7/6, 8/2, 8/3(4), 8/4(9) sandy St. Johns (n=17) 1 5YR: 6/8 15 7.5YR: 6/6, 6/8, 7/4(3), 7/6(4-1m), 8/2(feo), 8/4(2-1feo, 1m), 8/6(3) 1 10YR: 8/4 Little Manatee (n=6) 3 7.5YR: 7/6(2), 8/4 3 10YR: 7/4, 8/3 (2-1 sandy)

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Table 9.4. Comparison of Munsell value levels. locally produced mineral temper or constituent unknown affiliation types or production area Munsell value St. Johns – 83.8% Ocmulgee grit – 12.1% Little Manatee – 50% 8/ s. St. Johns – 41.2% Ocmulgee grit-grog – 18.2% Ocmulgee sand-grog – 9.1% Munsell value Orange – 33.3% Ocmulgee grit – 24.2% Little Manatee – 50% 7/ Colorinda – 100% Ocmulgee grit-grog – 9.1% St. Johns – 8.1% Ocmulgee sand-mica – 33.3% s. St. Johns – 41.2% Ocmulgee sand-grog – 9.1% St. Marys CM – 25% Munsell value Orange – 66.6% Ocmulgee grit – 33.3% sand tempered 100% 6/ St. Johns – 8.1% Ocmulgee grit-grog – 45.5% s. St. Johns 17.6% Ocmulgee grit-grog-limestone –50% St. Marys CM – 25% Ocmulgee sand- 33.3% % Ocmulgee sand-grog – 63.6% Ocmulgee sand-limestone-100% Swift Creek sand – 100% Weeden Island sand – 100% Munsell value St. Marys CM – 50% Ocmulgee grit – 30.3% sand-uid inclusions 5/ Ocmulgee grit-limestone - 100% 100% Ocmulgee grit-grog – 27.3% Ocmulgee grit-grog-limestone-50% Ocmulgee sand-mica – 33.3% Ocmulgee sand-grog – 18.2% Ocmulgee grit-red sandstone – 100% sand-charcoal-grog – 100% Swift Creek sand-grog – 100% percentages of St. Johns diminish. The percentage of sandy St. Johns sherds at level 7/ is equal to 8/, but that percentage is halved in value level 6/. Spiculate Little Manatee sherds (“unknown production” column), recovered in St. Johns II mound sites, and Colorinda, whose production precedes St. Johns, also refired to iron-poor color values of 8/ and 7/. The concentration of very pale value colors found in the spiculate subgroups is not shared by the other locally produced types, Orange, sand-charcoal-grog, Swift Creek, and St. Marys Cordmarked. The majority of the non-spiculate tempered pastes refired to deeper color, lower value/chroma categories of 5-7/6-8. As mentioned above two of the 10YR grit- and one 10YR grit-grog-tempered Ocmulgee sherds were recovered from the Mount Royal site.

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Shields Test Units: Stratigraphic Comparisons During the original selection process for the refiring experiment, St. Johns and Ocmulgee series sherds were chosen from the upper, middle, and lower levels of Shields Test Units 1, 6, and 7 (Table 9.7). By testing sherds of both temper groups discarded at three points in time, this study can address questions regarding resource continuity or diversity. Two additional Ocmulgee datasets (Table 9.7 bottom rows) are included; these report refired colors from 3 other local sites and 16 Georgia sites. The Georgia samples include sites from the Ocmulgee homeland. These samples are added to give perspective to the range of color values recorded within the Shields Ocmulgee assemblage.

Shields St. Johns series. Three hue categories were recorded (7.5YR, 10YR, 2.5YR; however, 2.5YR is represented by a single sherd recovered from the middle level (4B) in Test Unit 7. Of 37 St. Johns sherds, only 3 (8 percent) refired to colors lower than value level 7/ with the majority placed in 7.5YR or 10YR8/3-6. Two moderately colored St. Johns (more similar to sandy St. Johns values) sherds were recovered: TU7 - level 4B and TU1 - level 2.

Shields Ocmulgee Series. The Ocmulgee refired color assemblage evinces a wide range of hue, value, and chroma categories—most evident in the lowest level of Test Unit 1. Test Unit 1 in Kinzey’s Knoll, includes a single grit-tempered sherd of clay-color associated with St. Johns pastes (10YR8/3). The range of darker, iron-derived hues is consistent throughout the three levels, although there is a greater frequency of 5YR and 7.5YR at value levels 7/ and 8/ in the middle and upper levels of Test Units 1 and 7 (Bluff Midden). In contrast, Test Unit 6 (Kinzey’s South), the latest dated unit, conforms strictly to the pattern of very pale colors for St. Johns and deeper, redder tones for Ocmulgee.

Ocmulgee from Georgia, local collection, and Mt. Royal. Five hue and nine wide- ranging value-chroma categories are recorded for this disparately collected sample. The reddest of the clay hues recorded for this study sample, 10R, characterized the clay fabric of 2 sherds one of which was located in Georgia. In hue categories 10R, 5YR, and 7.5YR, color values are recorded at opposing ends of the possible color sets (e.g., 10R 5/8 and 8/4) This study was not designed to quantify the number of hypothetical clay resources represented in 145

the study collection, but certainly these 16 sherds represent a great variety of sources. Local production is suggested by the five 10YR sherds, two of which were recovered in Georgia.

Discussion This study begins to examine St. Johns and Ocmulgee clay-color and temper data to uncover evidence of commonality, continuity, and diversification in clay resources. Refiring data demonstrate commonality and generational continuity in the construction of St. Johns sherds. The results strongly suggest long-term access to white-firing clay resources or the consistent employment of a process that reproduced traditional very pale-colored St. Johns vessels with only very fine to fine quartz inclusions. Quite likely, these two options were used in concert. At the same time, color data from sherds containing fiber, spicule-sand, mineral or mineral-grog temper inclusions more commonly revealed higher frequencies of iron-derived color values. This suggests either different techniques in raw clay processing and/or consistent avoidance of iron-poor raw clay deposits. Brown or golden hues characterize other local and Ocmulgee types. Color data also imply that a few Ocmulgee potters experimented with local clays while strictly retaining traditional tempering materials and surface modification. Although this study sample is relatively small, the following patterns are evident.

Local Pottery Types In the Shields sample, St. Johns (and perhaps Little Manatee) provide the most profound evidence for a multi-generational tradition of a system of raw clay processing and/or the utilization of very similarly constituted clay resources. The Shields collection cannot resolve whether this uniformity is the result of a ritually prescribed process required for ceremonial events or if processing was restricted to a small number of potters who repeatedly dealt with raw clay in the same manner, thereby “standardizing” vessel fabric. St. Johns sherds recovered at the Late Archaic Guana River Shell Ring site, a non-ceremonial site during the St. Johns period, also fired to very pale color values. Evidence for raw clay manipulation is suggested by: 1) the frequency of sand inclusions observed in raw local clay samples (Rolland and Bond 2001), which do not appear 146

(microscopically) in the Shields St. Johns assemblage; 2) the overwhelming percentage of St. Johns sherds that white-fired to color value level 8, a rate that is not shared by sandy St. Johns or other local types; and 3) the wider range of stronger clay colors recorded for the locally produced types – Orange, Swift Creek, sandy St. Johns, and St. Marys.

Table 9.5. Comparison of St. Johns and Ocmulgee series refired data: Shields Test Units and other sites. St. Johns series Ocmulgee Series Kinzey’s Knoll 5YR: 5/8, 7/4 Test Unit 1 - level 2 7.5YR: 6/6, (2)8/4 7.5YR: 6/6, (2) 7/6 10YR:8/3, 8/4 - level 5 5YR: 5/8 7.5YR: 8/4 7.5YR: 5/6, (2) 6/6, 8/4 10YR: (2)8/3, (2)8/4 - level 9 2.5YR: 7/6 5YR: 5/8 7.5YR:8/4, 8/6 7.5YR: 5/6, 6/4 10YR:8/2, (2) 8/4 10YR: 8/3 Kinzey’s South 2.5YR: 5/8 Test Unit 6 – level 3 5YR: 6/8 7.5YR: 8/4 7.5YR: (2) 5/6, 6/6 10YR: 8/3, 8/4 - level 10b’ 7.5YR: 8/4, 8/6 7.5YR: 5/6, 6/6 Bluff Midden 5YR: 7/6 Test Unit 7 – level 2 7.5YR:(2)8/4, 8/6 7.5YR:(5) 6/6, 7/6 10YR: 8/4 - level 4B 2.5YR: 6/6 5YR: 7/6 7.5YR:6/4, (2)8/6 7.5YR: (2) 5/6 ,6/8, 10YR: 8/4 7/4, 7/6, 8/4, 8/6 - level 7C 5YR: (2) 5/6, 6/6 7.5YR:(3)8/6 7.5YR: 5/6, (2) 6/6, 6/8 10YR: 7/6, 8/3, 8/4 Ocmulgee - local recovery 10R: 5/8 private collections 5YR: 5/6 7.5YR: 6/6 (2) Ocmulgee – Mt. Royal 10YR: 6/6(2), 8/3 Ocmulgee – 10R:8/4 non-local recovery 5YR: 5/8 (3), 8/8 7.5YR: 5/6 (3), 6/6 (2), 8/4 10YR: 7/4, 8/3

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Mineral-tempered Sample Although controversial at this time, this author believes that one commonality shared by potters producing St. Johns II, Ocmulgee (grit-and grit-grog-tempered), and St. Marys Cordmarked vessels is the tradition of firing in a reduced oxygen atmosphere. I believe given the numbers of sherds examined in the larger Shields study, previous work (Ashley and Rolland 2002), and the conformity to a deep core- thin oxidized lens, if these types were not subjected to a reduction atmosphere at some point near the end of the firing event, a greater variety of oxidation would be observed. Other explanations have been offered, but more data are needed from the Ocmulgee heartland before this will be better understood. Recreating open pit firing events utilizing possible oxygen dampers (e.g., hides or mats) could be used to explore the interaction of heat, time, and environment. At this time I still suggest that the firing process of those three types included a step that temporarily created a reduced oxygen atmospheres. 6 This reduced firing procedure has masked the use of local clays and contributed to the misunderstanding of the Ocmulgee and St. Marys occupations in this region. Although the development of brighter clay-colors was an option to Ocmulgee and St. Marys potters, achieving those tones was of little interest or value to those traditions. This might imply that Ocmulgee or St. Marys potters did not care what color the raw clay was or what color it was capable of producing, for all clays—all vessels— completed the firing event bearing dark or dusky colors. Vessel hardness and strength were the main objectives and as Rice (1987:228) has noted “...in general, vessels that are fired to higher temperatures, or that have a period of reducing atmosphere during firing, will he harder. “ In the refired samples, Ocmulgee vessels recovered from the lower levels of the three units were more consistently constructed from a range of deeper and stronger colored, more iron-bearing clay deposits (2.5YR5/8 to 7.5YR6/8). The information found in Appendix 3 reveals that this is also true for the majority of the Georgia sherds. Within the Georgia sample, however, low-iron color pastes were recovered at Double Firebreak, Lewis Island,

6 The firing of St. Johns vessels, also in reduction environments, was handled in such a way as to permit pale well-oxidized surfaces to develop. Perhaps oxygen was permitted at the very end of the event when the vessels were still at peak fire temperature. The skin of pale color stands in stark contrast to the wide black cores thinly hidden by vessel surfaces. 148

and Abbeville Midden #1. These Georgia sherds, along with the 10YR8/3 sherd from Shields TU1-level 9, may represent the use of lower St. Johns River clays by either Ocmulgee or St. Johns potters in the reproduction of grit-tempered cordmarked vessels. Ocmulgee potters certainly utilized a wide variety of tempering agents; perhaps they were not averse to experimenting with new clays. Although kaolin clays are available in the Macon, Georgia area, perhaps St. Johns clays were a novelty and were traded along the Altamaha River. More evidence at Shields of Ocmulgee vessel construction using lower St. Johns River clays is seen found in level 4B of Test Unit 7 (Bluff Midden), the midden furthest from the mound and dating to a somewhat later time than Test Unit 1 (Kinzey’s Knoll). Fifty percent (50 percent) of the refired Ocmulgee sherds register clay-colors similar to those achieved in St. Johns pottery. In contrast, in the middle level from Test Unit 1, the unit nearest the mound and perhaps a primary focal point for ceremonial discard, a single Ocmulgee sand-grog cordmarked sherd was constructed from a pale color-value clay. In the upper levels of Test Units 1 and 7, the reverse is true. More TU1-level 2 Ocmulgee sherds refired to paler color values while only one of the sherds in TU7- level 2 achieved very pale color.

Conclusion The broader focus of the Shields study is prehistoric pottery production, composition, function and style, and the maintenance of those traditions. The Shields ceramic assemblage contains stratigraphic evidence of a long term, dual presence at a ceremonial site and therefore offers evidence of ceramic change and continuity. At the Shields site, two geographically disparate groups, one from interior Georgia and the other from interior and coastal Florida, came together, produced, utilized, and discarded vessels that bear very different and easily distinguishable compositional, formal, and stylistic traits. As a result of the refiring experiment, stratigraphic and spatial evidence of the resilience of St. Johns pottery production is uncovered, including the implication of complex processing of raw clay. Refiring further reveals evidence that suggests local production of the Ocmulgee series, especially in grit-tempered vessels. Ocmulgee potters may have made concessions in the use

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of the iron-poor, lean local clays, but clearly other technical and stylistic choices steadfastly continued that represented and reproduced Ocmulgee homeland traditions.

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CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Two of the goals of this study were to present the physical characteristics of a St. Johns II ceramic assemblage and to report the frequencies and discovered uneven distribution of paste and formal traits at the Shields burial and ceremonial site. Detailed analyses have been offered entailing the measurement, variability, and inter-relatedness of a series of formal, stylistic, and functional characteristics. However, before the variety of physical data presented in the preceding pages can be properly interpreted, assemblages from purely domestic occupations other ceremonial assemblages such as those recovered from Grant Mound and Mt. Royal must be re-evaluated. Although this study has focused on identifying the distribution of vessel traits, such as similar and dissimilar vessel forms and size ranges within ten areas adjacent to Shields Mound, the larger picture of the Shields assemblage reveals that a very wide variety of St. Johns vessels were constructed to satisfy social, functional, or ceremonial needs. The diversity in form is less apparent in the Ocmulgee pottery complex as simple, medium sized vessels are more the norm for grit- and grit-grog rims. A greater variety of forms was observed for Ocmulgee sand- and sand-grog-tempered vessels. Although unclear at this time, it seems likely that different sets of practical, social, or sacred requirements were in play that guided the production, use, and discard of diversely sized globular, open, and simple vessels. Requirements that guided production may have included: private or mundane vs. public ritual or display; simple vs. ostentatious or aggrandizing presentation; and personal or family vs. large communal group cooking and serving. It is also feasible that the gathering of villagers may have provided potters (and other crafts folk) the opportunity to show off their potting or crafts skills. 151

Comparisons of the ten subareas revealed that each contained its own inventory of vessel characteristics. The Shields data reveal uneven distribution of the two less frequently recorded forms (globular and open) and of small, medium, and large sized containers in all three forms. Globular containers have been equated with mobility in lowland coastal Mesoamerica (Phillips 1995), and perhaps people attending the gatherings at Shields found this multi-use form best suited their traveling and visiting needs. Globular vessels were, however, recovered in very low frequencies in the ceremonial midden at Kinzey’s Knoll (median diameter 18cm) and in high frequencies in the Bluff Midden (median diameter 26 cm) and Reeves Rise (median diameter 28 cm). St. Johns open serving vessels—some bearing very large diameters (30 to 44 cm) — were more apt to be recovered in Kinzey’s Knoll (median diameter 25 cm). Open bowls built of sandy St. Johns paste were rarely recovered in the shovel test group assemblages. While both globular and open forms are of smaller average and median sizes in the group collections, the average size of simple bowls is greater. The largest sized bowls greatest range of simple bowl diameters is found in Kinzey’s Knoll. Large-sized bowls are also recorded in Kinzey’s West and Bluff middens. Kinzey’s Group, discard recovered near the activity centers at the mound contains the largest vessels in the shovel test groups. Plain burnished sherds and red-filmed sherds were likewise discarded in different frequencies throughout the site, and again the greatest densities were recovered from Kinzey’s Knoll. St. Johns Plain vessels are consistently smaller than check-stamped vessels and constructed with thinner walls. The average wall thickness of plain containers recovered from shovel test groups was thinner than their midden counterparts. Analysis also showed that within the Ocmulgee pottery complex, there is a high correlation of surface finishing (plain, burnished, or cordmarked) with paste composition and that these characteristics too, were differentially recovered within the site, although burnished sand and sand-grog vessels were not concentrated near the mound. At other ceremonial/aggregation sites burnishing has been associated with presentation, display, and surface sealing for liquid contents (Blitz 1993a, 1993b; Steponaitis 1983). Can these physical data offer relevant insight into the possible social causes for the conservative reproduction of traditional forms and fabric? The multi-generational

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construction of St. Johns and Ocmulgee pottery suggests that they functioned as one of the signals of group identification, cultural preferences, cooperative status, and alliance. The significant absence of surface or paste change through time may also reflect the durability of traditional crafts production (teaching as well as construction) or the continuity of ideology and the accoutrements required for ritual. During the occupation of Shields, a variety of pottery vessels were present attesting to the functional and symbolic knowledge of the potters who produced them. Spicule-tempered St. Johns checked-stamped pottery and mineral- and grog-tempered Ocmulgee Cordmarked vessels were an integral part of the material culture at the site: a part that relayed dual messages of function and identity, and heritage and alliance. The lack of reconstructable sherds is another characteristic of the assemblage. The answer may lay in discard patterns (only a few of the larger sherds were carried to a midden or sherds representative of a household were brought into the area during gatherings.) This pattern requires data from other contexts. Other research has been presented (Chapter 2) that addresses the faithful reproduction or manipulation (sometimes based on intra-community status maneuvering or commercial incentives) of a variety of ceramic traits or traditions by women potters who withstood or embraced influences for change. The Shields assemblage reveals that through time St. Johns and Ocmulgee potters clearly demonstrated their reliance upon two disparate yet group- oriented design motifs and tempering agents. (A small repertoire of minor design motifs is also recorded for both series.) And, although use of local and nonlocal clays was found through the refiring experiment, construction and stylistic traits were maintained spatially and vertically (substantiated by radiocarbon dates) across the site. Surface finishing paddles were not exchanged.7 Ashley (2003b) has argued that the long-term and long-distance interaction enjoyed by the St. Johns and Ocmulgee people was sustained through social (mate exchange, push- pull dynamics), political (fission-fusion, communal organization, alliance building), and

7 Perhaps the only obvious evidences of individual expression are found in the appliquéd strips of a few Ocmulgee rims and the surface designs observed on incised and punctuated sherds. In this collection appliqué strips varied by length, depth, and subsequent decoration that allowed the rare opportunity to identify individual vessels in the grit- and grit-grog-temper paste subgroups. St. Johns Punctate, Little Manatee, and Papys Bayou sherds display a variety of unique designs.

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economic factors (Ocmulgee people as middlemen in the shell trade, and possibly salt or other coastal commodities). Certainly the breadth and richness of terrestrial and aquatic fauna inhabiting in the lower St. Johns region could have supported a large and growing population. Ashley’s model goes on to suggest a gradual migration of south-central Georgia hunters and gathers to this area — an area with which they were familiar — in order to maintain their own traditional and highly successful lifestyle that shunned the Mississippian agricultural and hierarchical socio-political lifeways, and perhaps, ideologies. His explanation of regional population dynamics and movements eventually leads to the permanent migration of a large faction of Ocmulgee people who replaced St. John people (and their pottery); their arrival was signaled by the emergence of sand-tempered St. Marys Cordmarked pottery. Ashley’s arguments provide answers to the questions of who was responsible for the gradual incursion of non-spiculate pottery and other non-local lithic and mineral materials recovered at St. Johns II sites. His research, however, poses two new questions. First, overtime, who is responsible for the production of Ocmulgee pottery recovered at the site? After several generations of interaction or relocation, in what numbers were the Ocmulgee people present, especially pottery-producing women, as either occasional or full- time residents in the area? Excavations revealed that Ocmulgee sherds were present during the initial occupation of the site and frequencies remained steady until site abandonment. Refiring data from the upper and lower levels of the Shields units strongly implies that use of local clays in Ocmulgee vessels increased over time, yet additional Ocmulgee vessels were still entering the area from the homeland. It would seem that to some extent the members of two vital and healthy cultures felt unimpeded in the maintenance and sharing of traditional ways of life, which included the generational re-creation of separate conventional and time- honored pottery complexes. A second, and related question, rising from the mixed assemblage at Shields, regards the status of Ocmulgee brides living within the socially dominant St. Johns cultural. If, in Ocmulgee tradition, daughters were instructed in pottery construction by kin-based or village task groups, and Ocmulgee brides shared tasks with the female members of the groom’s family, to which potting tradition did their daughters adhere? Certainly guidance was

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available for both traditions. Evidence for generational transmission came to light with the refiring experiment, but was Ocmulgee identity and heritage lost to the second and succeeding generations of Georgia women? Are the Ocmulgee vessels construction of St. Johns pastes built by Ocmulgee or St. Johns women? The results of this study suggest that for both St. Johns and Ocmulgee potters, the motives most often posited for ceramic change were overridden by senses of ethnic identity and functional partiality. While both reproduced traditional clay fabrics, as well as formal and stylistic characteristics, those who utilized or viewed each of the types also affirmed and supported the traditions and symbols inherent in temper and design. Along the banks of the lower St. Johns estuary, the community-oriented sociopolitical climate, as posited by Ashley, was such that ceramic and ethnic diversity, interaction, integration, and perhaps interdependence were not only tolerated but highly acceptable. Basic signals of identity and diversity were not subsumed among the local populations’ practices, but diversity itself signaled the maintenance of a successful trade/exchange system. The daily encounters with each other’s vessels signaled the regular, reliable, and complementary exchange of mundane durable and organic goods, mates, exotic materials, and information—exchange that benefited both groups. Yet, in the non-hierarchical, communally oriented, socio-political organization, differentiated statuses still would have existed between gender and the two ethnic groups. Such statuses would have been bestowed upon individuals or households on the basis on achievement and not inherited ascription. At Shields, these statuses, as well as the political and economic partnership, were possibly built and maintained through the consensus of two discrete cultures in alliance. The Shields assemblage provides us with the opportunity not only to ponder the roles of pottery in a ritual/ceremonial meeting ground and in the greater St. Johns/Ocmulgee interaction, but also to consider its role in gender based domestic-level alliances constructed by St. Johns and Ocmulgee women. With the multi-generational reproduction of a very visible kind of domestic material cultural, we should also reflect on the economic and socio- political actions of women as they engaged in family- or village-level competitive or diplomatic activities. Regional congregation brought populations together, thereby providing

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a new theatre and new opportunities for a variety of promotional or solidifying exchanges by women. In this study I have presented other research that infers that prehistoric and historic aboriginal potters were aware of their ability to maintain or alter their identity or status by employing traditional or modified construction techniques. One aspect of the Shields analysis has been the measurement and observation of St. Johns and Ocmulgee ceramic construction techniques. These measurements have revealed that the assemblage contains patterns of similarity in form and style within each type but that Ocmulgee clay sources varied over time. Thus, the Shields ceramic data suggest that at this site, in spite of long-term interaction between two cultures of disparate heritages, there persisted an idea of traditional ceramic styles and social identity that should be presented and preserved.

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APPENDIX A

Midden and Shovel Test Tables: Surface treatments and sherd thickness by paste subgroup

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East Group Shovel Tests: 703 sherds, 1977.2 grams

non-spiculate: 39/ 261.5 gms spiculate: 664/ 1715.7 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

St. Marys 1/10.3 1 cordmarked 4.3 4.3

Ocmulgee grit tempered 6/42.9 6.6 6.6 4 cordmarked 6.4-9.8 6.9 7.5 1 plain 2 4.7 1 uid 5.5 micaceous grit 2/3.2 2 cordmarked 5.6-9.3 7.5

Ocmulgee grit-grog 2/12.0 1 cordmarked 7.9 7.7 1 plain 3 7.5 sand tempered 3/11.7 1 check uid 5.6 6.7 1 plain 2 8.6 1 plain 3 6

Ocmulgee sand-grog 11/158.5 1 check s 5.8 8.1 1 cordmarked 5.1 5 plain 2 6.9-11 9.3 9.3 3 plain 3 7.4-9.4 7.8 8.2 1 uid 6.9 <2cm 14/22.9

St. Johns 156/963.7 5.6 6.0 66 check 10 rectangular 4.5-10.6 6.7 7.0 41 square 4.2-10.4 6.7 6.5 14 uid 4.8-8.2 6.1 6.4 57 plain 6 plain 1 5.6-7.5 6.7 6.7 33 plain 2 3.6-9.8 5.6 6.1 9 plain 3 3.4-9.3 5.5 6.1 8 plain 4 3.4-7.0 5.1 5.2 1 plain uid 5.0 1 scraped/ check square 7.5 2 simple stamp 4.8 2 fabric 4.7-5.7 5.2 29 uid 3.4-9.6 5.5 5.9 micaceous St. Johns 10/138.0 5.5 5.7 5 check 5 square 4.6-8.6 5.6 6.0 2 plain 1 plain 1 5.1 5.0 1 plain 4 4.9 3 uid 4.1-6.4 5.8 5.4 St. Johns-Fe2O3 8/ 24.4 5.5 5.6 1 check 1 square 2.5 7 plain 2 plain 1 4.5-7.2 5.9 2 plain 2 5.0-6.0 5.5 3 plain 3 5.0-8.9 6.0 6.6 micaceous St. Johns-grog 1/ 2.9 1 uid 3.3 sandy St. Johns 23/199.0 6.1 6.3 13 check 2 rectangular 5.1-9.2 7.2 8 square 5.4-7.3 7.1 6.4 2 uid 4.3-5.7 5

158

1 obliterated to 4 5.4 1 fabric 5.1 9 plain 1 plain 1 6.2 7 plain 2 5.5-8.8 6.4 6.6 1 plain 4 6.2 sandy St. Johns-Fe2O3 4/26.5 5.1 5.2 1 check rectangular 4.3 2 check square 5.6-6.2 5.9 1 plain 2 4.5 micaceous sandy St. Johns 2/ 13.9 2 plain 2 6.8-8.4 7.4

<2cm 460/ 347.3

West Group Shovel Tests: 187 sherds, 952.8 grams

non-spiculate: 50/ 284.1 gms spiculate: 137/ 668.7 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 15/ 108.3 8.1 8.1 12 cordmarked 5.5-10.3 8.7 8.3 2 fabric 7.4-8.5 8.0 1 uid 5.9

Ocmulgee grit-grog 4/ 39.7 6.7 6.9 3 cordmarked 6.0-8.3 7.4 7.2 1 fabric 6 micaceous grit-grog 1/ 5.8 1 plain 3 7.4 sand tempered 6/ 41.8 5 plain 1 plain 1 6.7 1 plain 2 7.2 3 plain 3 6.1-9.1 6.6 7.3 1 zoned punctate 5.7 sand-charcoal 1/ .4 1 plain 1 5.8

Ocmulgee sand-grog 8/ 66.1 7.4 7.2 1 cordmarked 9.1 6 plain 4 plain 2 5.6-6.5 6.4 6.2 2 plain 3 7.8-9.2 8.5 1 fabric 6.9 <2cm 15/ 22.0

St. Johns 63/ 506.4 5.9 6.4 39 check 2 diamond 5.8-5.9 5.9 2 rectangular 5.8-9.0 7.4 30 square 4.3-10.5 6.2 6.4 5 check uid 5.7-9.0 7.3 7.3 11 plain 1 plain 1 5.2 7 plain 2 5.2-6.8 5.3 5.5 2 plain 3 4.8-6.5 5.7 1 plain 4 3.2 1 fabric 8.8 3 scored/ stamped 5-10.7 5.5 7.1 9 uid 4.8-10.4 5.7 6.7 micaceous St. Johns 1/ 7.6 1 plain 4 4.8 159

St. Johns-Fe2O3 3/ 27.2 2 check square 4.3-7.0 6.2 5.8 1 net 4.3 St. Johns- uid inclusions 1/ 2.4 1 plain 1 5.0

St. Johns-grog 2/ 11.8 1 rectangular 5.9 1 check square 7.9 sandy St. Johns 5/ 21.6 5.0 5.5 1 check rectangular 6.4 3 plain 2 plain 2 4.4-6.5 5.5 1 plain 3 5.0 6.7 1 uid 5.4 sandy St. Johns + Fe2O3 4/ 37.5 7.9 7.4 1 check square 7.9 1 plain 4 7.9 1 simple stamp + ch square 8.1 1 uid 5.5 <2cm 58/ 54.2

West Bluff Shovel Tests: 240 sherds, 917.8 grams

non-spiculate: 35/ 176.3 gms spiculate: 205/ 741.5 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 11/72.8 7.9 7.8 10 cordmarked 4.4-11.5 7.5 7.6 1 fabric 6.6 Ocmulgee grit-grog 4/ 42.4 8.5 9.3 3 cordmarked 7.0-9.0 8.1 8.1 1 plain 3 12.9 sand tempered 2/ 8.0 1 cordmarked 6.3 6.7 1 plain 3 5.0 micaceous sand 1/ 7.9 1 plain 4 5.1

Ocmulgee sand-grog 3/ 18.4 7.4 7.4 1 cordmarked 7.4 1 plain 3 7.5 1 uid-obliterated 7.2

<2cm non-spiculate 14/26.8

St. Johns 86/ 499.0 5.9 6.0 46 check 4 diamond 5.0-6.2 5.5 5.5 7 rectangular 5.1-7.8 5.8 6.1 29 square 2.8-13.5 6.0 6.3 6 uid 5.5-7.5 6.5 6.6 1 fabric 5.1 1 net 4.9 21 plain 6 plain 1 4.9-8.1 7.1 6.9 9 plain 2 3.4-8.6 6.3 6.3 4 plain 3 3.6-5.6 4.4 4.5 2 plain 4 3.8-3.9 3.9 1 simple stamped 6.1 16 uid 3.1-8.1 5.7 5.8 micaceous St. Johns 2/ 6.0 1 check uid 5.4 160

1 plain 2 4.8

St. Johns-grog 1/ 5.4 1 plain 2 6.4 sandy St. Johns 12/ 132.7 5 checks 1 rectangular 5.1 4 square 5.1-8.9 6.7 6.9 1 fabric 4.5 3 plain 1 plain 1 6.2 2 plain 3 4.3-9 6.7 1 punctate/drag 6.2 1 simple stamped 5.4 1 uid 11.3

<2cm spiculate 104/ 98.4

Kinzey’s Group Shovel Tests: 262 sherds, 974.9 grams

non-spiculate: 37/ 231.3 gms spiculate: 225/ 743.6 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 13/ 141.5 7.7 7.7 12 cordmarked 5.4-10.1 7.5 7.6 1 fabric 8.2 Ocmulgee grit-grog 1/ 6.9 1 cordmarked 6.1 sand tempered 5/ 26.7 1 cordmarked 9 2 plain 2 5.5-5.7 1 plain 3 10.1 1 plain 4 4.3 micaceous sand 1/ 3.3 1 plain 3 6 sand-charcoal 1/ 5.7 1 plain 2 5.3 micaceous Ocmulgee sand-grog 2/ 22.4 1 plain 2 6.8 1 plain 3 6.2

<2cm 14/24.8

St. Johns 91/ 514.3 5.6 5.7 37 check 2 diamond 3.5-4.2 5.5 5.5 7 rectangular 3.5-9.2 5.7 6.7 24 square 3.7-9.2 5.7 5.8 4 uid 4.5-6.8 5.7 5.8 2 fabric 5.9-7.9 6.9 1 incised 5.0 1 incised/punctate 9.0 34 plain 3 plain 1 6.1-8.4 6.9 7.1 19 plain 2 2.7-6.9 5.5 5.2 3 plain 3 3.6-6.9 5.1 5.1 6 plain 4 3.3-6.9 4.2 4.7 3 plain uid/eroded 5.7-8.1 7.7 7.1 1 scraped/scored 6.0 1 simple stamped 6.4 14 uid 3.1-7.5 6.1 5.7 micaceous St. Johns 1/ 1.8 1 fabric 6.1 St. Johns + Fe2O3 1/ 16.2 1 diamond check 7.1 161

micaceous St. Johns + Fe2O3 1/5.4 1 plain 3 5.7

St. Johns + grog 1/ 6.8 1 scraped 7.2 sandy St. Johns 13/ 110.9 2 checks 1 square 8.4 1 uid 8.5 7 plain 3 plain 1 6.6-7.8 7.1 7.2 2 plain 2 5.8-7.6 6.7 2 plain 3 4.3-6.7 5.5 4 uid 5.3-7.7 6.4 6.3

<2cm 117/ 88.2

Northwest Group Shovel Tests: 63 sherds, 317.9 grams

non-spiculate: 20/ 181.3 gms spiculate: 43/ 136.6 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 5/ 60.0 2 cordmarked 7.5-8.0 7.8 2 plain-3 6.2-7.9 7.1 1 uid 5.7 micaceous grit 1/ 21.8 1 fabric 10.7 sand tempered 6/ 17.6 1 cordmarked 3.8 4 plain 2 plain 2 3.1-4.3 3.7 1 plain 3 8.1 1 plain 4 6.6 1 shell edge punctate 4.2 micaceous sand 1/ 4.2 1 fabric 5.3

Ocmulgee sand-grog 3/ 69.1 1 plain 3 6.6 2 uid obliterated 7.8-8.5 8.2 (1 San Pedro?) <2cm 4/ 8.6

St. Johns 10/ 59.0 6 check square 3.9-10.3 4.9 5.6 3 plain 2 plain 2 3.4-5.1 4.3 1 plain 3 5.4 1 uid poss. fabric 9.6 micaceous St. Johns + Fe2O3 1/ 4.9 1 fabric 5.6 sandy St. Johns 2/ 19.5 5.9 1 check square 5.9 1 plain 2 5.8 micaceous sandy St. Johns 1/ 5.0 1 woven 5.3 sandy St. Johns + grog 1/ 10.1 1 check square 7.5

<2cm 28/ 38.1

162

Kinzey’s West midden: 570 sherds, 2455.3 grams

non-spiculate: 76/406.1 gms spiculate: 494/ 2049.2 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 7/60.8 7 cordmarked 5.4-8.7 6.2 6.6

Ocmulgee grit-grog 3/27.3 3 cordmarked 6.1-8.1 8.0 7.4 sand tempered 3/38.9 5.2 7.4 7.0 1 plain 2 5.2 1 plain 3 8.4 1 uid 7.4

Ocmulgee sand-grog 8/162.5 5.5-14.6 7.0 7.8 3 cordmarked 5.9-14.6 7.5 9.3 1 plain 1 5.5 1 plain 2 6.1 2 plain 3 7.0 both 1 woven 6.9

<2cm non-spiculate 55/116.6

Papys Bayou 1/ 4.9 6.9

St. Johns 146/1576.6 3.0-14.4 6.4 6.6 83 check 3.8-14.4 6.9 8 diamond 3.8-9.5 6.4 6.6 8 rectangular 5.2-10.6 8.2 8.1 56 square 4.2-11.3 6.5 6.9 11 uid 4.5-14.4 5.3 6.3 45 plain 3.0-10.2 5.7 5.9 5 plain 1 4.8-5.8 5.2 5.3 24 plain 2 3.0-8.4 5.3 5.6 9 plain 3 4.7-10.2 7.0 6.8 7 plain 4 3.0-9.5 6.1 5.8 1 scraped 5.4 17 uid 5.0-11.2 6.4 6.9

St. Johns + Fe2O3 1/11.6 incised 5.4 sandy St. Johns 11/104.0 4.2-6.9 5.4 5.6 4 check 4.2-6.7 5.5 5.5 2 square 4.2-5.3 4.8 2 uid 5.8-6.7 6.3 3 plain 5.3-6.6 5.7 5.8 1 plain 1 5.3 2 plain 2 5.4-6.6 6.0 1 scraped 4.4 3 uid 4.5-6.9 6.3 5.9

<2cm 335/ 352.1

163

Kinzey’s South midden: 1290 sherds, 4835.0 grams

non-spiculate: 232/ 1299.9 gms spiculate: 1058/ 3535.1 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 50/ 479.6 5.1-11.9 7.4 7.6 1 check 9.2 44 cordmarked 5.1-11.9 7.4 7.6 3 plain 6.1-8.2 6.5 6.9 2 woven 8.0-9.5 8.8 micaceous grit 1/12.9 1 cordmarked 9.3

Ocmulgee grit-grog 11/ 177.3 5.0-9.3 7.2 7.2 8 cordmarked 6.7-9.3 7.5 7.7 3 plain 7.5-8.5 7.8 7.9 micaceous grit-grog 3/ 38.7 3 plain 6.1-7.2 6.8 6.7 grit-grog-Fe2O3 1/ 10.1 plain 3 5.0 sand-tempered 9/ 53.2 4.1-9.3 7.5 6.8 2 cordmarked 7.5-8.5 6 plain 3 plain 2 6.3-9.3 5.5 7.8 3 plain 4 4.1-5.0 4.4 4.5 1 woven 8.5 sand tempered-Fe2O3 1/ 26.5 1 plain 3 7.6

Ocmulgee sand-grog 13/ 164.3 4.8-9.6 7.3 7.1 3 cordmarked 7.3-9.6 6.8 7.9 9 plain 2 plain 2 5.8-8.2 7.0 3 plain 3 7.5-7.9 7.7 7.7 4 plain 4 6.1-7.5 6.2 6.5 1 fabric 7.4 micaceous sand-grog 7/ 82.2 6 plain 3 plain 3 6.4-8.0 7.6 7.3 3 plain 4 4.8-7.4 7.0 6.4 1 uid obliterated to 4 6.6

<2cm 136/ 255.1

St. Johns 294/ 2655.2 2.7-12.0 5.8 6.1 172 check 2.7-11.7 6.1 6.4 10 diamond 3.8-8.6 5.0 5.6 13 rectangular 3.9-9.0 6.1 6.3 117 square 2.7-11.7 6.1 6.5 32 uid 2.4-9.4 5.9 6.1 90 plain 2.7-12.0 5.1 5.7 2 plain 1 3.8-6.4 5.1 49 plain 2 2.7-12.0 5.5 6.1 18 plain 3 3.1-10.5 5.0 5.6 21plain 4 3.1-8.4 4.9 5.1 1 incised 2.9 1 punctate 7.9 3 scraped/scored 4.8-9.3 5.9 6.5 3 simple stamped 5.5-8.4 6.1 6.6 24 uid 3.2-10.0 5.2 5.5 micaceous St. Johns 1/ 3.7 1 plain 4 5.9 164

St. Johns + Fe2O3 2/56.7 1 plain 2 10.1 1 uid 7.3

sandy St. Johns 12/ 145.4 5.2-8.0 6.2 6.8 3 check 3 square 5.7-7.3 6.1 6.4 7 plain 4.4-14.5 7.7 1 plain 1-4,check 6.8 4 plain 2 5.2-14.5 5.8* 5.8* 2 plain 3 5.4-8.0 6.7 2 uid 4.4-6.2 5.3 sandy St. Johns + Fe2O3 1/ 10.5 1 uid 6.7

<2cm 748/ 663.6

* excludes 14.5 mm base

Reeves Rise midden: 484 sherds, 3171.8 grams

non-spiculate: 53/ 489.8 gms spiculate: 426/ 2682.0 gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 17/164.9 17 cordmarked 4.6-10.9 7.4 7.4 micaceous grit 1/ 2.8 1 cordmarked 6.5

Ocmulgee grit-grog 1/ 21.2 1 cordmarked 8.4 sand-crushed limestone 3/ 51.7 3 plain 4 6.7-7.1 6.8 6.9 2 micaceous sand tempered 7/ 29.1 3.2-8.7 5.2 5.4 7 plain 5 plain 2 3.9-5.6 5.2 5.0 1 plain 4 8.7 1 uid 5.3 micaceous sand tempered 3/ 40.9 1 plain 3 6.9 2 plain 4 5.2-6.0 5.6 sand tempered-Fe2O3 2/ 8.1 1 plain 2 3.2 1 woven 4.9

Ocmulgee sand-grog 8/ 114.7 5.2-10.9 7.7 8.0 3 cordmarked 5.2-10.9 7.7 7.9 2 plain 3 7.5-8.2 7.9 1 plain 4 7.7 1 woven 9.5 1 uid 6.9 micaceous sand-grog 3/ 24.9 2 plain 3 6.4 both 1plain 4 4.8

<2cm non-spiculate 8/26.5

Little Manatee 3/ 35.5 5.9-9.5 1 spalled 7.7

St. Johns 209/ 1881.4 106 check 8 diamond 4.2-6.8 5.0 5.5 1 diamond/square 8.2 165

16 rectangular 4.2-10.5 6.5 6.5 59 square 3.8-12.0 6.5 6.9 22 uid 4.1-9.9 6.3 6.3 66 plain 9 plain 1 3.9-9.8 5.5 6.0 29 plain 2 2.5-9.3 6.1 6.0 8 plain 3 4.4-7.3 5.9 5.9 18 plain 4 2.4-6.6 4.5 4.7 1 adorno plain 4 6.1

1 incised 5.8 2 cordmarked 7.5-7.7 7.6 4 woven 4.2-7.9 5.8 5.9 3 scraped/scored 4.8-10.3 9.5 8.2 2 simple stamped 5.9-6.2 6.0 30 uid 4.2-10.9 6.9 6.9 micaceous St. Johns 11/ 113.3 6 check 1 diamond 6.7 2 rectangular 4.8-6.6 5.7 3 square 5.5-6.6 6.2 6.1 3 plain 1 plain 2 5.0 1 plain 4 6.5 1 plain uid utilized 5.6 1 simple stamp 6.2 1 uid 9.0

St. Johns+ Fe2O3 4/ 31.0 2 check 1 rectangular 4.6 1 square 6.3 2 uid 5.4-8.1 6.8 sandy St. Johns 24/ 197.4 12 check 2 rectangular 4.4-6.3 5.4 8 square 4.6-8.8 7.1 6.8 2 uid 7.5-9.7 8.6 10 plain 2 plain 1 3.9-5.2 4.6 5 plain 2 4.1-8.8 7.4 6.6 2 plain 3 4.5-5.6 5.1 1 plain 4 4.3 1 cordmarked 8.1 1 woven 7.1 micaceous sandy St. Johns 3/ 42.6 2 check 2 rectangular 6.5-7.9 7.2 1 plain 3 4.5 sandy St. Johns-Fe2O3 7/ 100.6 3 check 1 rectangular* 12.6 2 square 5.8-6.1 6.0 1 plain 3 5.7 1 scraped over woven 11.2 1 simple stamp 6.8 1 uid 6.0 sandy St. Johns-grog 1/ 11.5 1 check square 5.3 St. Johns-grog 2/ 14.0 2 uid 5.1-6.1 5.6 micaceous St. Johns-grog 1/ 3.0 1 plain 2 4.2 micaceous St. Johns-grog+ Fe2O3 2/ 31.6 2 check square 6.2-6.5 6.4 166

<2cm 159/214.4

*micaceous

Bluff Midden: 4306 sherds, 20751.7 grams

non-spiculate: 593/ 4634.7gms spiculate: 3713/ 16117.0gms

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average

Ocmulgee grit tempered 138/1591.0 4.6-11.0 7.5 7.5 126 cordmarked 4.6-10.0 7.4 7.4 3 plain 3 5.5-10.3 7.5 7.8 9 woven 4.6-11.0 9.0 8.7 micaceous grit tempered 4/ 49.6 6.2-7.3 6.9 6.8 3 cordmarked 6.2-7.1 6.8 6.7 1 plain 7.3 grit-tempered Fe2O3 1/ 11.5 1 cordmarked 9.2 grit-uid/powdery inclusion 3/31.5 2 cordmarked 6.2-8.6 7.4 1 woven 9.2

Ocmulgee grit-grog 29/ 432.9 5.5-9.8 7.7 7.7 22 cordmarked 5.5-9.2 8.0 7.7 4 plain 3 6.4-7.4 6.8 6.8 2 uid 6.4-9.8 8.1 1 woven 9.8 micaceous grit-grog 2/ 51.9 1 cordmarked 7.6 1 plain 4 10.4 sand tempered 40/ 411.2 4.5-10.9 7.1 7.1 1 check/obliterated to 4 4.5 21 cordmarked 4.6-7.9 7.0 7.0 1 complicated stamp* 5.0 4 plain 2 7.3-10.9 8.7 8.9 4 plain 3 5.2-8.0 6.9 6.8 3 plain 4 4.5-6.5 5.1 5.3 5 uid 5.5-8.4 6.9 6.9 1 woven 8.0 micaceous sand tempered 12/ 187.8 1 cordmarked 8.9 8 plain 3 5.0-8.1 6.7 6.4 3 plain 4 5.0-7.6 5.2 5.9 sand tempered with uid or soft powdery inclusions 9/ 246.2 8 cordmarked 8.4-9.5 8.8 8.7 1 plain 3 8.6 sand-tempered-uid powder-Fe2O3 1/ 5.5 1 plain 3 5.7

Ocmulgee sand-grog 36/ 547.0 5.4-12.2 7.9 7.4 1 obliterated check 6.1 6 cordmarked 5.4-9.2 8.2 7.9 7 plain 2 6.6-8.7 6.8 7.4 12 plain 3 6.3-11.2 8.3 8.1 6 plain 4 5.6-10.8 7.2 7.6 4 uid/obliterated 7.5-12.2 9.1 9.5 micaceous sand-grog 39/ 413.8 4.8-9.0 7.0 6.8 167

8 cordmarked 6.5-9.5 8.1 7.9 1 plain 1 8.6 1 plain 2 7.1 11 plain 3 ** 4.8-8.9 7.0 6.9 17 plain 4 4.8-9.0 6.8 6.6 1 uid 8.1 sand-grog-uid soft powder-Fe2O3 1/ 21.9 1 cordmarked 7.5 micaceous sand-grog-Fe2O3 1/ 6.0 1 plain 4 7.1

<2cm non-spiculate 277/ 626.9

Little Manatee 12/ 33.2 3.9-5.5 4.6 4.7

St. Johns 1195/ 11,266.8 671 check 38 diamond 4.2-10.8 6.9 7.1 54 rectangular 3.1-9.6 6.1 6.4 440 square 2.3-15.6 6.0 6.3 139 uid 2.8-11.5 6.1 6.2 344 plain 44 plain 1 3.2-11.5 6.1 6.4 154 plain 2 2.3-15.4 5.9 6.2 78 plain 3 2.9-10.8 5.5 5.5 66 plain 4 2.5-10.8 5.1 5.3 2 plain uid 5.3-7.5 6.4 5 incised 3.8-6.8 5.0 5.2 2 incised-punctated 4.5-5.0 4.7 10 punctated-stylus 3.0-7.3 5.2 5.3 1 shell edge punctated 6.5 31 scraped/scored 4.9-10.6 6.5 6.8 3 simple stamped 5.8-7.3 7.2 6.8 116 uid 2.2-11.1 6.0 6.0 4 cordmarked 4.5-6.6 5.8 5.7 7 woven 3.9-8.3 5.8 5.7 1 zoned 7.3 micaceous St. Johns 24/ 156.3 10 check 1rectangular 5.8 7 square 4.3-7.5 5.5 5.5 2 uid 6.8-7.2 7.0 14 plain 2 plain 1 5.7-6.8 6.3 3 plain 2 4.8-5.9 5.5 5.4 2 plain 3 4.6-8.4 6.5 7 plain 4 3.2-7.3 5.5 5.2 St. Johns-Fe2O3 7/ 78.5 5 check 3 rectangular 5.0-8.1 7.1 2 square 4.6-5.1 4.9 2 plain 2 5.1-10.7 7.9 sandy St. Johns 175/ 1726.2 2.3-12.4 6.5 6.6 91 check 3 diamond 6.2-8.9 6.7 7.3 7 rectangular 5.6-9.2 6.7 7.0 56 square 4.0-12.4 6.7 6.8 25 uid 4.4-8.0 6.5 6.4 47 plain 4 plain 1 5.7-8.8 7.1 7.2 27 plain 2 4.6-10.1 6.5 6.7 11 plain 3 3.3-8.0 6.2 6.0 5 plain 4 4.2-7.5 4.7 5.7 3 cordmarked 4.4-7.3 5.1 5.6 1 punctate 6.6 168

1 incised 4.7 5 scraped/scored 4.1-8.3 6.6 6.7 27 uid 4.4-12.4 6.2 6.8 sandy St. Johns-Fe2O3 4/ 30.2 1 check square 5.1 1 check uid 8.0 1 plain 2 4.0 uid 7.2

micaceous sandy St. Johns 7/ 88.7 3 check square 6.1-8.1 7.1 7.1 1 plain 3 4.7 1 plain 4 5.1 1 simple stamp 9.8 1 uid 7.1

St. Johns-grog 7/ 29.7 1 check 3.8 1 cordmarked 4.9 2 plain 2 5.5-8.0 6.8 2 uid 4.2-8.3 6.3 sandy St. Johns-grog 2/ 16.6 1 check square 6.5 1 cordmarked 6.7

<2cm spiculate 2280/2699.3

* possible Swift Creek ** one contained uid soft powder

Kinzey’s Knoll midden: 5129 sherds, 34,777.9 grams

non-spiculate 1134/ 9,795.3 gms spiculate: 3995/ 24,982.9

Type or paste #/gms exterior thickness range median average sand and uid -Weeden Island 1/ 17.0 incised 5.3 micaceous sand-Keith Incised 1/ 4.0 incised 4.3

Ocmulgee grit tempered 326/ 4858.7 3.2-12.8 7.8 7.8 307 cordmarked 3.2-12.8 7.8 7.9 7 plain 4 plain 2 6.0-9.8 7.6 7.8 2 plain 3 7.3-7.7 7.5 1 plain 4 7.5 9 woven 4.8-10.4 5.6 6.7 3 uid 7.5-8.3 micaceous grit tempered 23/ 301.9 4.8-12.5 7.2 7.4 17 cordmarked 5.1-12.5 7.5 7.8 2 plain 2 plain 3 6.8-6.9 6.9 4 woven 4.8-7.9 5.7 6.1 micaceous-spicules 5/ 66.9 6.2-11.9 7.0 8.3 2 uid obliterated to 4 6.2-6.3 6.3 2 cordmarked 7.0-10.3 8.7 1 uid 11.9 169

grit tempered-spicules 5/35.9 5 cordmarked 6.2-9.8 6.5 7.4 grit tempered-uid 1/ 56.9 cordmarked 7.2

Ocmulgee grit-grog 69/1073.6 4.7-10.9 8.2 8.1 63 cordmarked 1 uid obliterated to 4 6.8 2 plain 2 plain 2 5.5-6.7 6.1 3 woven 7.4-10.7 8.1 8.7 micaceous grit-grog 27/ 453.5 6.0-10.1 7.9 7.7 18 cordmarked 6.1-10.1 8.3 7.9 1 woven 6.0 3 plain 1 plain 2 8.1 1 plain 3 9.5 1 plain 4 7.2 1 obliterated check 9.4 1 uid obliterated to 3 6.0 2 uid obliterated to 4 6.0-6.6 6.3 1 uid 6.1 micaceous grit-grog-spicules 1/ 11.2 1 plain 2 8.7 grit-grog-spicules 4/ 55.1 3 cordmarked 6.1-9.8 8.4 8.1 1 woven 6.7

sand tempered 28/ 311.5 3 cordmarked 6.1-8.0 7.1 7.1 5 check 4 check square 4.8-7.1 5.2 5.6 1 check uid 3.5 1 woven 4.3 1 incised/punctate 6.8 15 plain 3 plain 2 4.5-7.9 7.7 6.7 8 plain 3 5.7-9.5 6.4 6.9 2 plain 4 2.4-5.9 5.4 4.8 2 uid 6.8-7.6 1 zoned pl-ch diamond 4.7 micaceous sand tempered 7/ 110.7 2 cordmarked* 6.1-6.1 6.3 4 plain 3 plain 3 6.1-11.1 7.7 8.6 1 plain 4 8.8 1 uid 7.0 sand-Fe2O3 4/37.1 3 plain 3 7.3-9.0 8.2 8.2 1 uid – scraped 6.1

Ocmulgee sand-grog 40/ 458.0 21 cordmarked 5.8-10.1 7.1 7.3 11 plain 5 plain 2 4.7-8.9 6.0 6.5 6 plain 3 6.3-6.8 6.8 6.9 3 woven 8.1-12.9 9.3 10.1 5 uid 5.5-11.6 8.4 8.5 sand-grog-limestone 1/ 6.5 pl 2/uid 6.4 sand-grog- Fe2O3 2/ 56.1 2 plain 1 plain 3 8.7 1 plain 4 7.0 micaceous sand-grog 16/ 582.7 170

2 cordmarked 7.3-7.4 7.4 12 plain 1 plain 2 5.3 4 plain 3 7.5-9.3 8.0 8.2 7 plain 4 5.8-8.4 6.7 6.8 1 uid obliterated 7.5 1 woven 6.8 micaceous sand-grog-spicules 1/ 3.5 1 plain 3 6.0 sand-grog-spicules 3/ 122.3 1 cordmarked 7.4 2 plain 4 6.3-9.9 8.1 uid temper 1/5.2 1 check-uid 6.7

<2cm non-spiculate 568/ 1208.5

Papys Bayou 1/ 7.4 7.7

Little Manatee 12/ 119.7 2.5-7.2 5.0 5.1

St. Johns 1787/ 20,261.3 1.9-19.7 5.9 6.2 7 multiple check shape/size 4.6-10.0 7.4 7.2 1072 check 123 diamond 2.5-10.6 6.2 6.3 60 rectangular 3.5-9.5 5.9 6.0 723 square 2.8-15.1 6.2 6.3 166 uid 2.8-11.1 5.8 6.0 525 plain 27 plain 1 3.6-15.0 7.5 7.8 217 plain 2 2.8-17.3 5.7 6.1 146 plain 3 2.1-16.3 5.2 5.5 134 plain 4 1 plain uid 4.8 9 incised 3.5-7.3 5.0 5.4 2 incised/punctate 5.1-5.7 5.4 4 punctate 1.9-6.2 5.8 4.9 32 scraped/scored 3.9-12.6 6.3 6.7 1 cross simple stamp 2.9 7 simple stamp 5.3-11.7 5.9 7.0 3 net 4.6-6.1 5.9 5.5 6 woven 5.1-8.6 7.3 6.9 14 zoned 4.3-19.7 8.0 8.5 105 uid 2.0-13.0 6.3 6.6 micaceous St. Johns 48/ 835.8 3.1-10.2 6.4 6.3 24 check 3 diamond 5.4-6.8 5.8 6.0 2 rectangular 5.6-10.2 7.9 17 square 3.8-8.6 6.5 6.2 2 uid 4.4-7.5 6.0

22 plain 1 plain 1 7.6 6 plain 2 4.0-10.1 7.3 7.3 6 plain 3 3.1-8.9 5.7 5.6 9 plain 4 3.8-8.1 6.2 6.1 1 scraped/scored 7.2 1 uid 5.7

St. Johns- Fe2O3 23/ 190.5 4.1-11.3 6.0 6.2 10 check 1 diamond 9.4 1 rectangular 5.2 8 square 5.5-8.0 6.3 6.6 7 plain 1 plain 2 7.6 3 plain 3 4.6-5.9 5.3 5.3 171

2 plain 4 4.1-6.7 5.4 1 plain uid 5.0 1 punctate 6.1 1 scraped/scored 7.0 2 zoned 7.9-11.3 9.6 2 uid uid-5.0

St. Johns-shell 1/ 8.1 check diamond 4.1

St. Johns-grog 3/ 12.0 1 check rectangular 5.5 1 check uid 4.4 1 plain 3 7.6 sandy St. Johns-grog 1/ 22.6 1 woven 7.3 sandy St. Johns 84/ 1093.5 3.2-15.0 6.2 6.6 1 cordmarked 4.8 40 check 4 diamond 4.0-6.5 5.3 5.2 1 rectangular 13.9 32 square 5.0-15.0 6.3 7.4 3 uid 5.2-8.7 5.7 6.5 33 plain 1 plain 1 4.4 15 plain 2 4.0-12.3 6.7 7.0 6 plain 3 3.7-6.8 5.7 5.5 10 plain 4 3.2-6.8 5.0 4.9 2 plain uid 5.6 1 incised 7.0 1 scraped/scored 5.5 1 simple stamp 5.5 1 woven 6.8 6 uid 3.6-9.5 5.9 6.2 sandy St. Johns-Fe2O3 6/ 249.8 4.8-15.0 7.4 7.9 3 check square 5.8-15.0 7.5 9.4 2 plain 2 4.8-7.5 6.2 1 plain 4 6.6 micaceous sandy St. Johns 3/25.2 2 check square 4.9-8.0 6.5 1 uid 4.4

<2cm 2026/ 2156.7 * 1 contained uid soft, white, powdery mineral

172

APPENDIX B

Analysis of Appliqué Rims Ocmulgee III

173

broken base of appliqué FS thick thick paste paste grams grams length length sooted sooted interior lip diam appliqué appliqué appliqué vess size rim form rim form comments comments 185 7.8 coarse gt 3 4.9 app/sltexcu/rd 42 6.7/17.0 2.5 18.8 Double appliqué 9.1 6.1 coarse gt 2 2.3 smear/sltexc/bev T 22 5.8 flat 16 beveled, ticked lip 9.2 6.1 coarse gt 3 7.2 app/direct/fl 9.5 2.6 9.5 29/33 6 medium gt 3 6.2 simp/sltexc/bev T 23 6.4 bev flat 7.8 iron oxide dust lip/ext/breaks not int 5.1 9.1 x coarse gt 3 6.7 app/direct/rd 12.1 2.5 9.1 5.2 9.5 coarse gt 3 4.3 app/sltexcu/rd 20.8 2.8 18.1 x soot app/oxid lip &ex,fine ||| finishing scrapes 183 7.7 coarse gt 3 7.1 smear,direct/rd T - - 10.1 193 7.2 gt gg 3 3.5 app/sltexcu/thn 18.9 2 15.4 94 9.1 coarse gt 3 5.9 app/ - thinned 18.1 - 8.6 1075N 900E ST/broken bs appliqué 11 5.7 coarse gt 3 6.1 app/sltexc/rd 18.4 4.4 9.7 x soot lip/oxidized int stops below lip 17.1 7.8 coarse gt 3 5.4 plange/sltexc/fl - - 6.9 x sooted ext - thin planged extrusion 17.2 7.3 coarse gt 3 5.5 app/sltecx/rd 9.6 2.5 8.6 x oxid. ext/soot bs app& sm grooves 190 6.6 coarse gt 3 5.9 smear/sltopen/rd >55 6.2 0.8 19.5 x soot all ext,lip 196 6.9 x coarse gt 3 4.1 app/sltexc/rd 9.3 - 2.5 light soot ext/?small vessel? 187 7.8 x coarse gt 3 5 smear+?app/rd 18 sm7.5/ - 4.7 x soot ext/smear over app?, at least 17mm ap 17 419 8.5 coarse gt 3 6 app,sltexcu,bevint 14.3 4.5 wide spacing app face, perp to lip 418 9 coarse gt 3+a 8 app,sltexc,rd,plain 20 14 2.4 no cm app, plain ext/lip 449 9.3 sn/gt 2+a 5.3 app,sltexc,fl,plain 22 16.4 flat flush, no dimension app, reduced

174

broken base of appliqué FS thick thick paste paste grams grams length length sooted sooted interior lip diam appliqué appliqué appliqué vess size rim form rim form comments comments 421 6.9 coarse gt 2 6.4 app,sltexcu,bevint 5.9 flat flush to ext, plain lip 445 8.9 x sand 1 - app, base only 16 ~13.5 2.5 lip missing, only app,hvy int attrition +a/c 445 7.9 coarse gt 3 5.6 smear,sltexc,rd,inci 16 sm 5.6 flush different cm on smear

int=interior 1=roughly gt=grit app=appliqué att=attrition smoothed 2=better gtgg= T = ticked/CM lip c=carbonized material compaction grit-grog 3=hard sn=sand thn = thinned tooled 4=burnished bev=beveled to ext app depth taken with rod slide on caliper sm=smeared to ext rd=round fl=flat sltexc=slightly excurvate

175

APPENDIX C

Refiring Data

176 sherd # level paste thick - mm exterior interior lip diam-mm lip form vess shape vess size cm gms soot/hone Munsell ext Munsell int refired TU1-lev 2 3.4 TU1-l 2 gt 8.5 uid ?woven 2 stain 7.6 2.5yr 6/6 7.5yr 7/2 5yr 7/4 3.3 TU1-l 2 gt 11.8 cm 1 hvy attrition rd bs 18.8 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 6/6 3.2 TU1-l 2 gt+m+ 8.6 cm 3 24 2.5yr 4/2 2.5yr 3/2 5yr 5/8 3.5 TU1-l 2 gt+m+ 8.3 cm 2 ?stain 11.7 5yr 3/1 5yr 6/3 7.5yr 7/6 3.1 TU1-l 2 sngg 8.2 pl-3 2 attrition 11.1 5yr 4/2 5yr 4/2 7.5rs 7/6

3.10 TU1-l 2 sj 5.6 ch-s 2 scrapes 21.8 sint 7.5yr 6/2 7.5yr 7/2 10yr 8/3 3.8 TU1-l 2 sj 4.3 ch-s 3 6.9 5yr 8/4 5yr 4/1st? 10yr 8/4 3.9 TU1-l 2 sj 6.5 ch-s 2 8.7 7.5yr 7/4 7.5yr 6/2 7.5yr 6/6 3.6 TU1-l 2 sj 7 uid mashed 2 attrition 11.5 5yr 6/3 5yr 6/3 7.5yr 8/4 3.7 TU1-l 2 sj 6.5 uid vague 3/4 stain 10.5 5yr 8/4 5ye 8/4 7.5yr 8/4

TU1-lev 5 15.8 TU1- l 5 gtgg 6.9 cm 3 attrition 24.2 2.5yr 4/8 2.5yr 2.5/0 5yr 5/8 15.6 TU1- l 5 gtgg 8.7 cm 3 28.7 5yr 4/2 5yr 4/3 7.5yr 5/6 15.9 TU1- l 5 gtgg 6.7 cm 3 16 sext 2.5yr 4/2 2.5yr 5/4 7.5yr 6/6 15.10 TU1- l 5 gtgg 6.1 cm 3 7.3 2.5yr 5/4 2.5yr 5/4 7.5yr 6/6 15.7 TU1- l 5 sngg 7.4 cm 3 15.4 sint 5yr 6/2 5yr 5/1 7.5yr 8/4

15.3 TU1- l 5 sj 8.4 ch-d ?s 3 attrition 30.3 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 5/2 10yr 8/3 15.5 TU1- l 5 sj 5 ch-s 3 brd scr 25.5 5yr 5/2 5yr 5/2 10yr 8/3 15.1 TU1- l 5 sj 4.7 ch-s ?smokey 3 stn attrition 51.4 5yr 6/2 5yr 6/2 10yr 8/4 15.2 TU1- l 5 sj 5.9 ch-r 3 6.9 incipfld,x,rd globular? 40 9.6 sext 5yr 5/1 5yr 6/3 10yr 8/4 15.4 TU1- l 5 sj 5.3 ch-s 3 cmat attrition 18.6 2.5yr 6/6 2.5yr 3/0 7.5yr 8/4

TU1-lev 9 31.4 TU1 l 9 gt 9 cm 2 rf 28.2 5yr 4/2 5yr 4/2 2.5yr 7/6

177 31.2 TU1 l 9 gt 7.3 cm 2 12.7 2.5yr 4/8 2.5yr 2.5/0 5yr 5/8 31.3 TU1 l 9 gt 7.5 cm 2 stain 10.8 se-I 5yr 4/2 5yr 4/2 7.5yr 5/6 31.5 TU1 l 9 gtgg 8.3 cm 3 shl scr 51.9 5yr 6/3 2.5yr5/6 10yr 8/3 31.1 TU1 l 9 sngg 11 cm ?woven 3 rd bs 60.1 sext 7.5yr 4/2 7.5yr 2/0 7.5yr 6/4

31.8 TU1 l 9 sj 6.1 ch-d ?s 3 abrasion 14.9 5yr 7/3 5yr 7/3 10yr 8/2 31.7 TU1 l 9 sj 8.9 ch-s 3 25.3 5yr 6/4 5yr 5/2 10yr 8/4 31.9 TU1 l 9 sj 6.8 ch-s 3 stn rf 31.8 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 6/2 10yr 8/4 31.10 TU1 l 9 sj 6.8 znd ch-s ?ss 4 stain 11.1 5yr 3/1 5yr 5/2 7.5yr 8/4 31.6 TU1 l 9 ssj 8.3 ch-s || to lip 2 9.8 s,d,slt bevext simple 34 18.9 10r 5/8 10r 5/8 7.5yr 8/6

TU6 L10b' 373.1 TU6 L10b' gtgg 7.2 cm 3 18.1 sint 5yr 4/3 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 6/6 373.2 TU6 L10b' sngg +m+ 6.2 pl-4 4 abrasions 10 10r 5/8 10r 5/8 7.5yr 5/6

373.4 TU6 L10b' sj 8.9 ch-s vague 4 fl bs 13.9 5yr 7/8 5yr 5/1 7.5yr 8/4 373.3 TU6 L10b' sj 5.4 ch-s abrasion 3 3.6 s,d,rd simple 26 23.9 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 8/2 7.5yr 8/6

TU6-lev 3 355.5 TU6 l 3 gt 7.7 cm 2 10.4 5yr 5/4 5yr 4/3 5yr 6/8 355.4 TU6 l 3 gt 8 woven 3 rd bs 26.7 5yr 4/2 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 5/6 355.6 TU6 l 3 gt 9.7 cm 2 5.1 s,sltexcu,fl 16.5 5yr 5/4 5yr 4/3 7.5yr 6/6 l 355.7 TU6 l 3 gtgg +lmst+m 7.2 pl-2 abrasions 3 ?slip 19.5 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 5/8 355.8 TU6 l 3 sngg 5.8 pl-2 abrasions 2 17.6 2.5yr 4/8 2.5yr 4/8 7.5yr 5/6

355.1 TU6 l 3 sj 5.4 pl-2 pitting abra 3 pitting abras 13.8 5yr 6/3 5yr 5/3 10yr 8/3 355.3 TU6 l 3 sj 6.4 ch-d ?s 2 stn attrition ps bs 10.3 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 7/2 10yr 8/4 355.2 TU6 l 3 sj 6.1 ch-s worn 2 eroded 9.4 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 8/4

Reeves Rise 402.1 RR l 9 lmst 6.7 pl-4 +obliterate 4 17.9 2.5yr 5/8 2.5yr 4/2 5yr 6/6 393.1 RR ssj +feo 8.1 cm 2 12.2 5yr 6/6 5yr 5/4 7.5yr 8/4

178

TU7-lev 2 411.14 TU7 l 2 gt 8.1 pl3 +uid ?nails 2 attrition 6.9 5yr 6/4 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 6.5/6 411.12 TU7 l 2 gt 6.4 cm 2 8.4 7.5yr 6/4 5yr 8/1 7.5yr 6.6 411.11 TU7 l 2 gt 5.8 3 8.8 5yr 2.5/1 5yr 3/1 7.5yr 6/6 411.13 TU7 l 2 gt 10.3 uid ext eroded 3 cmat 12.3 s-int 5yr 5/6 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 6/6 411.15 TU7 l 2 sn 6.9 uid vague 2 6.8 7.5yr 7/4 7.5yr 7/4 7.5yr 6/6 411.16 TU7 l 2 sngg 8.4 cm-woven 2 feo attrition ?bs 40.7 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 3/2 5yr 7/6 411.17 TU7 l 2 sngg 8.6 cm mashed 3 19.8 2.5yr 5/8 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 7/6

411.8 TU7 l 2 sj 7.4 ch-s 2 11.4 5yr 8/1 5yr 8/1 10yr 8/4 411.7 TU7 l 2 sj 9.6 ch-d ?s 2 attrition 9 s,sltincu,rd globular 26 23.4 5yr 6/3 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 8/4 411.10 TU7 l 2 sj 6.9 pl-2 3 7.3 5yr 5/3 5yr 3/1 7.5yr 8/4 411.6 TU7 l 2 sj 7.4 scraped 2 abrasion 22.7 5yr 5/4 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 8/6 411.9 TU7 l 2 sj 6.2 ch-s vague 2 16.7 5yr 6/3 5yr 6/3 7.5yr 8/6

411.1 TU7 l 2 ssj 7.5 pl3/4 abrasion 3 cmat attrition 4.6 s,incu,rd-bevin globular 22 25.3 s-int 5yr 5/2 5yr 4/2 10yr 8/4 411.2 TU7 l 2 ssj 7.4 ch-s 2 bdscr cmat 32.4 se-i 2.5yr 5/8 2.5yr 6/4 7.5 8/6 411.4 TU7 l 2 ssj 6.4 ch-uid oblt-vag 3 6.1 5yr3/2 5yr 4/3 7.5yr 6/8 411.5 TU7 l 2 ssj 6.9 uid ch +?+inci 2 attrition 8.1 2.5yr 6/8 2.5yr 3/2 7.5yr 7/6 411.3 TU7 l 2 ssj 8.9 uid vague 2 15.9 2.5yr 6/6 5yr 4/4 7.5yr 8/6

TU7-lev 4B 419.12 TU7 l 4B gt 8.6 cm 3 13.3 7.5yr 4/6 5yr 5/4 5yr 7/6 419.14 TU7 l 4B gt 8.9 cm 2 7.3 5yr 2.5/2 5yr 2.5/2 7.5yr 5/6 419.15 TU7 l 4B gt 8.5 cm 3 attrition 18.4 5yr 4/2 5yr 4/2 7.5yr 7/6 419.13 TU7 l 4B gt 6.6 cm 4 attrition 11.3 7.5yr 4/6 5yr 5/4 7.5yr 8/4 419.17 TU7 l 4B gtgg 8.5 cm 3 8.5 5yr 5/4 5yr 5/4 7.5yr 7/4 419.18 TU7 l 4B gtgg +m+ 7.6 cm 3 attrition 39.5 5ye 6/6 5yr 4/1st? 7.5yr 5/6 419.16 TU7 l 4B gt-lmst-gg 6.2 cm 3 fnscr attrit 9.4 2.5yr 5/4 2.5yr 5/4 7.5yr 8/6 419.19 TU7 l 4B sn +m+ 6.6 pl-3 3/4 stn fnscr 21.4 s-ext 2.5yr 5/4 5yr 4/8 7.5yr 6/8

179 419.5 TU7 l 4B sj 5.1 ch-s 2 attriti+?nails 6.5 s,d,fl simple 16 7.5yr 8/2 7.5yr 8/4 10yr 8/4 419.2 TU7 l 4B sj 5.3 pl-2 2 5.4 s,sltincu,rd glob 29 6.2 7.5yr 8/4 5yr 6/3 2.5yr 6/6 419.1 TU7 l 4B sj 5.6 pl2 hvy abras 2 4.6 s,op,rd open 20 17 2.5yr 5/2 2.5yr 5/2 7.5yr 6/4 419.3 TU7 l 4B sj 3 ch-uid 3 4.6 s,sltincu, fl glob 32 12 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 8/6 419.4 TU7 l 4B sj 4.4 ch-s revse obl 3 4.4 s,d,fl simple 32 7.2 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 8/6

419.6 TU7 l 4B ssj 6.2 pl 3/4 abras 3/4 abras 4.9 scal?d,bevint simple 21 12.8 7.5yr 8/2 7.5yr 8/2 7.5yr 7/4 419.8 TU7 l 4B ssj 10.1 pl-3 attrition 3 attrition 17.4 sext? 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 6/6 7.5yr 7/6 419.11 TU7 l 4B ssj 6.7 ch-uid-pl?oblit 3 cmat abras 19.1 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 7/6 419.7 TU7 l 4B ssj +feo 6.7 ch-s vague 3 stn abras 19 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 8/2 419.9 TU7 l 4B ssj +m+ 6.1 ch-s obliterate 3 stn abras 14 7.5yr 4/2 7.5yr 8/4 7.5yr 7/6 419.10 TU7 l 4B ssj +m+ 9.8 ss? overstamp 3 abrasion 34.7 7.5yr 7/4 7.5yr 5/2 7.5yr 8/4 TU7-lev 7C 438.12 TU7 l 7C gt 5.8 cm 3 feo 4.6 smerext,d,fl simple 29 13.9 2.5yr 5/8 2.5yr 5/4 5yr 5/6 438.14 TU7 l 7C gtgg 9.8 woven 2 cmat 68.7 sint 2.5yr 6/8 2.5yr 5/4 5yr 6/6 438.13 TU7 l 7C sn 6.6 cm 2 20.7 7.5yr 7/6 7.5yr 2/0 7.5yr 6/8 438.9 TU7 l 7C sn +uid wht 7.8 cm 2 32.1 2.5yr 4/6 2.5yr 4/6 5yr 5/6 438.8 TU7 l 7C sn+uid wht 7.6 cm 2 stn 5.2 s,sltexcu,fl simple 42 17.6 7.5yr 6/6 7.5yr 6/6 7.5yr 5/6 438.11 TU7 l 7C sngg 9.8 pl-3 attrition 3 cmat 46.4 sint 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 6/6 7.5yr 6/6 438.10 TU7 l 7C sngg +m+ 7.5 uid oblit topl3/4 3 34.1 2.5yr 6/8 2.5yr 5/6 7.5yr 6/6

438.4 TU7 l 7C sj 5.9 pl-2 +uid 2 cmat 6.5 s,incu,fl globular 32 11.8 s-int 5yr 6/4 5yr 6/4 10yr 7/6 438.6 TU7 l 7C sj 5.5 znd pl2/4-punc 3 19 smoke? 5yr 4/2 5yr 7/3 10yr 8/3 438.5 TU7 l 7C sj 3.9 pl-2 ?vague ch 3 5 s,d,rd simple 13 8.5 7.5yr 7/2 5yr 6/2 10yr 8/4 438.1 TU7 l 7C sj 3.8 pl-3 3 abrasion 5 s,hemis,fl simple 32 40.9 5yr 6/4 5yr 3/1 7.5yr 8/6 438.2 TU7 l 7C sj 5.1 ch-d +cm? 2 attrition 5.1 s,hemis,fl simple 34 11.1 sext 5yr 6/3 5yr 6/4 7.5yr 8/6 438.3 TU7 l 7C sj 4.3 ch-d vague 3 3.2 s,d,rd simple 30 4.3 5yr 7/3 5yr 5/2 7.5yr 8/6

438.7 TU7 l 7C ssj 8.9 ch-d 2 attrition 22.2 sext 5yr 5/3 5yr 2.5/1 7.5yr 6/6 TU3-lev9 a-A 204-xrd 1 TU3 l9 sj 7.4 ch-uid+smear 4 attrition 7 7yr 7/3 7yr 7/3 7.5 8/4 204 xrd 2 TU3 l10 gt 9.7 cm 3 7.1 sext 5yr 3/1 5yr 3/1 7.5yr 7/6

180

1075n 975e 108 xrd 10 1075n 975e sj 4.5 pl-3 slt abras 3 attrtion 4.6 10yr 7/3 10yr 7/3 10yr 8/4 108 xrd 11 1075n 975e gt 9.1 cm 3 5.5 sext 5yr 4/1 5yr 3/1 5yr 7/6 108 xrd 12 1075n 975e sn + m+ 6.2 pl-4 4 8.5 black 5yr 6/6 TIMU 130 surf xrd 13 Cockfight sj 8.6 ch-s oblit/scrap 2 eroded 17.2 5yr 5/6 black 5yr6/8+ 8DU81 CdrPt FS 8DU81 col (2 grog typ) 9.7 uid-pl-3 2 9.2 sext? bl-5yr 5/3c black 7.5yr 7/4 8PU35A A-3337 Mt. Royal x1 gtgg (occ gt) 8.1 cm 3 7.7 10yr 6/3 10yr 6/3 10yr 8/3 A-3337 Mt. Royal x2 gt 7.6 cm 2 6.7 10yr 6/4 7.5yr 7/2 10yr 6/6 A-3337 Mt. Royal x3 gt +feo? 8.1 cm 2 6.1 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 7/2 10yr 6/6 Dent Md TU4B-l2 dent md SC sn 6.2 comp stp 2 3.3 s,slrincu,rd 12 8.5 sext 5yr 5/6 5yr 5/6 5yr 5/6 TU4F-l4 dent md SC sn 5.5 comp stp-pl-4 4 3.5 fld?,restr,thnnd restricted 10 8 10yr 5/2 black 7.5yr 6/4 tu6Fl? dent md lm-sj 6.2 1. manatee/4 4 5.1 s,restric,fl restricted 10 6.1 sext 10yr 7/4 10yr 6/3 10yr 8/3 TY6H-l1 dent md-Wirf sn 5.4 pl-4 pl-4 RF 8.4 fld?,restr,fl globular 10 5.8 7.5yr 6/2 7.5yr 6/2 7.5yr 6/6 Mayport Md 1c5196-355 maypt md DU96 char-sngg 5.4 uid-comp stp? 3 5.1 10yr 6/1 10yr 5/3 7.5yr 5/6 Ashley Oc3 ?David gt 7.6 cm 2 5 appl,sltexc,bev 21 5.1 5yr 6/5 5yr 4/2 5yr 5/6 kha073 gp2 8du14 david gt 7.5 cm 2 21.9 2.5yr 4/8 2.5yr 5/4 7.5yr 6/6 96685-2/2b McCorm trn* gt+m+ 7.6 woven-fn cord 3/4 scr rd bs? 39.1 0.7 10r 4/8 blk 10r 5/8 kha090 gp2 8du14 morris gtgg 8.8 cm rd bs 19.3 0.4 7.5yr 5/6 7.5yr 4/2 7.5yr 6/6 paraprk-gr1 steed collect gt 7.4 cm 2 4.1 s,sltexc,rd simple 50 26.5 5yr 6/4 5yr 6/4 10r 8/4 9we36-2cun dbl frbreak gt 6.1 cm 2 eroded 48.6 7.5yr 6/6 7.5yr 7/2 10yr 8/3 kha075-gp1 wms cr#4 gt 8.9 cm 3 11.8 2.5ye 2.5/2 2.5yr 2.5/2 5yr 7/8 9tf8-wgp1 c. laurel 1 gt 5.9 cm 2 4.1 app,slex,bevin simple 53? 14 17.3/.6 2.5yr 4/6 2.5yr 4/6 7.5yr 5/6 w/ kha082 ind flds a7688b gt 7.3 cm 3 attrition 19.9 5yr 3/2 blk 7.5yr 5/6 a7547-wg4 couperfldfs93 gt 7.2 cm 3 29.5 0.8 2.5yr 6/8 2.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 6/6

181 lws is-wgp2 lewis island gt 8.1 cm 3 39.7 sext 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 2.5/0 7.5yr 8/4 river bnd ng site b gt lmst? 6.2 cm 2 28.7 2.5yr 4/6 2.5yr 2.5/2 7.5yr 5/6 9ap15-w1 davis old fld1 gt rdsnst 8.2 cm 3 11.1 10r 3/2 10r 6/4 5yr 5/8 up.eason bl applingco ng gt rdsnst 7 cm wide impr 3 34.2 6-10mm 2.5yr 5/6 2.5yr 2.5/2 5yr 5/8 9wy3-w1b s.savilla e br gtm rdsnst 5.8 cm 2 14.2 10r 4/6 10r 4/6 5yr 5/8 9dg8-unas abbev'e md1 sn+m+ 5.1 cm 3 6.5 app,sltopen,fl simple 24 11.8 1.45/1.8 7.5yr 6/6 7.5yr 2/0 10yr 7/4 kha082 g2c ind flds a7688a sngg 7.3 cm diamond 3 ?uid film 18.6 1.1 2.5yr 4/2 2.5yr 5/6 7.5yr 6/6 also manatee 99.202.46b 8du80 sn +m+ 7.6 cm 4 stn abras 12.3 0.9 5ye 6/6 blk 2.5yr 5/8 99.202.46a 8du80 sngg +m+ 7.5 cm 2 19.1 1.4 10r 4/4 blk 2.5yr 6/8 q. harbor bg ssj 6.8 scr erratic 2 bd fnscr cm 38 sint 2.5yr 6/6 2.5yr 6/6 5yr 6/8 99.202.94.4 8du80 ssj 7.2 pl4 +obl ch abr 3 attrition 18.4 blk 5yr 5/3 7.5yr 7/4 99.202.71.1 8du80 lm-ssj 7.9 l. manatee 3 stn abras 17.3 se/I 7.5yr 5/6 7.5yr 5/6 7.5yr 8/4

Ashley SMcm savan bag qh77 sn 6.5 cm hvy oblit 3 4.6 s,sltexc,fl simple 14.9 1.3 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 6/4 10yr 7/6 savan bag qh187 sn 3.2 cm 3 bd scr 2.1 s,d,rd simple 23 10.4 slip - 0.5 5yr 5/4 5yr 5/4 5yr 5/6 savan bag qh275 sn 6.1 cm oblit 3 attrition 2.5 s,sltop,thinnd,fl simple 19 17.7 sext - 1 5yr 4/2 5yr 4/2 7.5yr 5/6 savan bag qh107 sn 5.3 cm 4 fne fnscr 24.9 1.4 7.5yr 5/2 blk 7.5yr 6/6 L. Manatee 217.1 TU1 l10 lm-sj 6.9 l. manatee/3 3 9.2 7.5yr 5/2 7.5yr 6/4 7.5yr 7/6 208.1 tu3 l9 lm-sj 6.2 l. manatee/ 4 4 cmat feo s+e/-I 5yr 4/1 5yr 4/2 10yr 7/4 216.1 tu3 l10 lm-sj 6.1 l. manatee/3 3 abrasion 8.6 s,d,rd simple 32 15.8 5yr 5/4 5yr 5/4 7.5yr 7/6 9we36-w1b dbl frbreak lm-ssj 5.5 l. manatee 2 eroded 32 7.5yr 7/2 7.5yr 7/2 10yr 8/3

Guana Ring 102.7c guana tu1 l 3 fiber 11.9* plain* 3 6.5 10r 5/8 10r 5/8 5yr 6/6 110.5b guana tui l 10 fiber 10.4 pl-3 3 11 cu,nd,rd rd 36 39.5 5yr 5/2 5yr 5/2 7.5yr 6/6 110.5a guana tu1 l 10 fiber 10.4 pl-3 2 12.8 10r 5/8 blk 7.5yr 7/6

101.2a guana tu1 l 2 sj 8.9 ch-s 2 5.8 s.d.rd simple >50 19.9 5yr 6/4 5yr 6/4 10yr 7/4 101.2b guana tu1 l 2 sj 5.1 uid ?woven 2 9.4 2.5yr 6/6 2.5yr 5/2 7.5yr 7/6

182 102.7a guana tu1 l 3 sj 7.9 uid 2 pitted 17 5yr 7/4 5yr 4/2 7.5yr 8/6 102.7b guana tu1 l 3 ssj 12 mat? 3 rd bs? 45.5 5yr 6/8 blk 7.5yr 7/4

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Vicki L. Rolland was born in Wisconsin. She, her husband Jeff, and daughter Meaghan, moved from Michigan to Jacksonville, Florida in 1984. She was a member of the first field school conducted by the University of North Florida (1986) and with that field school she began what would turn out to be four years of excavations at the missions at Harrison Homestead, Amelia Island. She enrolled in the graduate program at Florida State University after working for several years in contract archaeology.

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