Component-I (A) – Personal details:
Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy & Dr. K. Muniratnam Director i/c, Epigraphy, ASI, Mysore
Dr. Subrata Kumar Acharya Ravenshaw University, Cuttack.
Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Component-I (B) – Description of module:
Subject Name Indian Culture
Paper Name Indian Epigraphy
Module Name/Title Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela
Module Id IC / I Epi / 28
Pre requisites The inscription is considered to be the earliest eulogy of a king of ancient India. It narrates the career and achievements of king Kharavela up to his thirteenth regnal year.
Objectives The importance of the inscription and its age is ascertained. The information gleaned from the inscription reveals the political and religious history of ancient Kalinga as well as India in the first century BCE
Keywords Hathigumpha, Inscription, Kharavela, Kalinganagara
E-text (Quadrant-I) :
1. Introduction
The Hathigumpha inscription is the most important record regarding the history and achievements of king Kharavela. This inscription together with many others belonging to his chief queen, son and grandson as well as some high officials are found engraved in many caves of the Udayagiri hill. The Udayagiri hill is one of the twin hillocks near Bhubaneswar which formed an important seat of Jainism in ancient period. The other hillock is called as Khandagiri. Udayagiri and Khandagiri are also called locally as Kumari and Kumara Parvata (hill) respectively.
2. The Hathigumpha inscription
The Hathigumpha or Elephant Cave inscription is engraved on the ceiling of the cave. It is heavily damaged and some of the letters are completely defaced. It contains seventeen lines of writing. The inscription was first discovered by A. Sterling in 1820 and was copied by Colonel Mackenzi. But credit goes to James Prinsep who succeeded for the first time in deciphering the inscription from a fresh facsimile prepared by Lieutenant Kittoe in 1837. The result was published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. One important fact about the inscription is that since it is unfortunately completely defaced at places, it has drawn attention of many scholars and has been reedited several times. It is precisely for this reason; the record has given rise to many unnecessary speculations and controversies. In the 19th century several scholars like Alexander Cunningham, Bhagwanlal Indraji, Rajendra Lal Mitra, J.F. Fleet, G. Buhler and others edited the inscription and offered their respective views. In the 20th century the inscription was again revisited by epigraphists like Sten Konow, Luders, R.D. Banerji, K.P. Jayaswal, B.M. Barua, D.C. Sircar and others.
3. Importance of the record
The Hathigumpha inscription contains detailed account of Kharavela from his childhood to the thirteenth year of his reign in perfect chronological order. No epigraphical record so far discovered in India maintains such chronological sequence about a ruler and his achievements. Besides, the most important aspect of the record is that it refers to a number of kings and dynasties of both earlier and contemporary period which throw lights on the history of early India. The inscription is the earliest to refer to Bharatavarsa and mentions many places of importance such as Gorathagiri, Rajagriha, Mathura, Pithunda and so on. It seems that the composer of the record had a remarkable sense of history, topography and chronology. In a sense the record has often been christened as an eulogy of the king.
4. Language and script
The language of the inscription is Prakrit. But it is distinct from Magadhi Prakrit that was current in Magadha. It is also different from the language used in the Rock Edicts of Asoka found in Dhauli (Khurda district) and Jaugada (Ganjam district) of Odisha. K.P. Jayaswal and R.D. Banerji who have examined the language of the inscription inclined to believe that the language of the Hathigumpha and other minor inscriptions in the caves of the Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills is not Magadhi and has some resemblance with the canonical Pali. In fact Prakrit had a number of variants in India such as Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi, Suraseni, Maharastri, etc. Kalinga was the land of Odra Prakrit as indicated by Bharata in his Natyasastra. The language of the Hathigumpha inscription may, therefore, be called as Odra Prakrit which had some near approach to the canonical Pali. The literary merit of the inscription stands out as one of the finest compositions in the epigraphic literature of India. Most of the verbs are found to be present indicative and present causative forms and frequent occurrence of present tense indicates that Kharavela was ruling over Kalinga at the time of the composition and engraving of the inscription. It exhibits the excellence of poetic quality and at the same time retains the ornate and expressive prose style. The script of the inscription is admittedly Brahmi and they exhibit a stage of development after the Asokan Brahmi. It is preferred to call the script of the inscription as transitional Brahmi.
5. Date of Kharavela
The Hathigumpha inscription furnishes the names of four important rulers of ancient India such as Satakarni, Nandaraja, Yavanaraja, and Brihaspatimitra in connection with the activities and achievements of Kharavela. Besides, the expression ti-vasa-sata showing the time gap between Nandaraja and Kharavela throws lights on the determination of the chronological position of the king. While Satakarni has been identified with the Satavahana king Satakarni I who ruled in the middle of the first century BCE, Nandaraja is identified with Mahapadmananda, the king of Magadha who ruled in the middle of the fourth century BCE. The latter was the king of Magadha some three hundred years (ti-vasa-sata) before Kharavela. King Brihaspatimitra of Magadha who was a contemporary of Kharavela is no other than Bahasatimitta of the Pabhosa inscription and of the Kausambi and Ahichhatra coins. He was ruling over an extensive territory stretching from Anga to Panchala in the second half of the first century BCE. All these information give strength to the argument that Kharavela belonged to the first century BCE.
6. Ancestry and early career of the king
Kharavela belonged to the third generation of the Chedi-Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga. Mahameghavahana was the progenitor of the family and was very likely the grandfather of Kharavela. Chetaraja was the immediate predecessor of Kharavela and was very likely his father. The inscription states that Kharavela as a young prince was physically handsome and was brown complexioned. He had many auspicious marks on his body. In his
childhood, he received proper training in the field of writing, coinage, accountancy, legal and administrative procedures (lekha-rupa-ganana-vavahara-vidhi). He further obtained proficiency in the art of dancing and music, and military techniques. When he attained fifteen years of age, he assumed the responsibility of administration as a crown price and then on completion of his twenty-fourth year of age, he was anointed as the king of Kalinga. He assumed the title of aira maharaja which has been rendered as an Aryan king and lord of Kalinga (Kalingadhipati).
7. Kharavela as a benevolent king
In the very first year of his reign he repaired the gates, ramparts and structures of Kalinganagari, his capital, which was then severely damaged by a cyclone. He caused to have built flight of steps for the cool tanks and laid out all gardens at the cost of thirty-five hundred thousand coins and thus pleased his subjects. Kalinganagari has been identified with modern Sisupalgarh in close vicinity of Bhubaneswar. It was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India in 1948-49. A fortified citadel with a huge mud rampart has been discovered from the site. Apart from this many terracotta objects, potteries including roulette wares, war implements, seals, silver punch marked coins, etc., have been discovered. In the third regnal year he made arrangements of festivals and gatherings and organized performances of acrobatics, dance and music. The sculptural embellishments of the numerous caves in the Khandagiri and Udayagiri hills are mute witnesses to the claim made in the inscription. The right wing of the lower storey of the Ranigumpha presents a scene of graceful dance performed by a girl on a pillared pavilion to the tune of concert played by four female musicians. King Kharavela accompanied by his queens and courtiers is found to be enjoying the performances. This indicates that the king was a great patron of dance and music. From the line 16 of the inscription it is further learnt that the king had revived the tauryatrika or performance of dance, song and concert included in the sixty-four branches of art that had been suspended during the time of the Mauryas.
In the fifth regnal year Kharavela had renovated the aqueduct that had been originally excavated some three hundred years before by Nandaraja Mahapadmananda, and extended its flow up to Kalinganagara. From the excavation at Sisupalgarh, archaeologists could trace the evidence of a moat surrounding the fortified area. The benevolence of the king is further attested by the act of remitting taxes and cesses for both the urban and rural population of his kingdom. This had cost the exchequer many hundred thousands of coins. This was apparently an attempt to display the regal wealth and general prosperity of the kingdom.
8. Kharavela as a conqueror
Kharavela was a great military genius. The prevailing political situation demanded military preparedness not only to check the impending danger from different corners that was threatening the newly acquired independence of Kalinga but also to launch an offensive strategy to demonstrate the military might of the kingdom of Kalinga. The rise of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and assumption of the title daksinapathapati by Satakarni I was a major challenge. The rising strength of Magadha under Brihaspatimitra after the fall of the Sunga-Kanva rule was a major source of danger for Kalinga. The presence of the Indo- Greeks in the north and north-west of India and their repeated attempts of establishing political suzerainty over the region was the most disturbing element of the time. The Tamil confederacy in the south consisting of the Ceras, Colas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras with their superior military and naval power was a serious threat to the emerging power of the Mahameghavahanas. In these circumstances the young and ambitious king Kharavela launched a career of conquests and reorganized the military strength of the kingdom. Line 4 of the Hathigumpha inscription points out the fact that he had a vast army consisting of the infantry, cavalry, elephantry and chariots. From line 17 it is
evident he assumed the proud epithet of apratihata caka vahana valo or the possessor of a large and invincible army.
In his second reganl year, Kharavela disregarding Satakarni, mobilized his vast army to the west and marched up to the river Krishna and stormed the city of Asika. This city was very likely the capital of Assaka, the territory located between the Godavari and the Krishna. The result of the fight has not been recorded and it seems that it was indecisive or there was no directed fight between the two adversaries. In the fourth regnal year Kharavela again directed his army to march against the Satavahana territory. This time he took the assistance of the resources of the Vidyadhara territory, which was then considered as invincible. The rulers of the Rastrikas and Bhojakas were crushed, their crowns were cast off, their umbrellas and other royal insignia were throw aside and their jewellery and wealth confiscated and they were made to pay obeisance to the king of Kalinga. The discomfiture of the kings of Rastrikas and the Bhojakas made Kalinga a great power and its sphere of political influence extended from the eastern sea to the western sea.
The next military expedition of the king was directed against the kingdom of Magadha. In his eighth regnal year, the king marched to the north, demolished the hill fortress of Gorathagiri guarding Rajagriha. Gorathagiri has been identified with the modern Barabar hill. Rajagriha near Pataliputra was the capital of Magadha. At this critical juncture, the Indo-Greeks who had already taken possession of Mathura advanced to towards Pataliputra. But the news of the destruction of Gorathagiri and the success of Kharavela against Magadha created consternation in the camp of the Yavanas or the Indo-Greeks and they retreated to Mathura. Kharavela diverted his plan of besieging Rajagriha and chastised the Yavanas up to Mathura, drove them from there and saved the city which was then a famous stronghold of Jainism. In order to commemorate his victory against the Yavanas, in the very next year he constructed a huge victory palace in Kalinganagari at a cost of thirty-eight hundred thousand coins. In the tenth regnal year Kharavela again marched through Bharatavarsha for conquest. This is the first epigraphic reference to Bharatavarsha which probably denoted north India in general. No details about the campaign have been mentioned in the record, except that the king secured jewels and precious stones from the retreating army. It seems that the retreating army referred to in the record could be the Indo-Greeks.
In the eleventh regnal year Kharavela fought a war with the forces of the confederated Tamil states including the Ceras, Colas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Karalaputras. The confederacy existed for 1300 years prior to his time. It had a large number of village settlements. Line 13 of the Hathigumpha inscription states that Kharavela lost his strange and wonderful elephants and ships but obtained horses, elephants and jewelleries. The reference to loss of ships in the battle apparently point to a naval battle between the two. Rivalry in maritime activities in the Bay of Bengal could be one possible reason for this naval battle. The confederacy was shattered and in the very next year the king of Pandya, one of the members of the confederacy, surrendered and was forced to attend the court of Kalinganagari with various pearls, jewels and precious stones as a token of allegiance.
In the 12th regnal year Kharavela proceeded with a vast army as far as Uttarapatha or north- west India where he terrorized many kings to submission. Although the inscription is silent on the kings and kingdoms subdued by the king yet it appears that the Indo-Greeks were compelled to submission. On his return from Uttarapatha, he planned to invade Magadha and encamped on the banks of the river Ganges, not far from Pataliputra. The people of Magadha were struck with terror at the sight of the vast army of the Kalinga. Brihaspatimitra, the king of Anga and Magadha, did not offer any resistance and was forced to surrender. Kharavela brought back the Kalinga Jina as a trophy of victory along with the wealth plundered. The Kailinga Jina was taken away from Kalinga by Nandaraja in the 4th century BCE.
Thus, within a brief span of ten years Kharavela could achieve a series of victories extending his suzerainty from the north-western part of India to south India. The army of Kalinga under his command marched through the territories of the Satavahanas, subdued the Rastrikas and the Bhojakas, chastised the Yavanas, terrorized the people of Magadha and destroyed the Confederacy of the Tamil states. These military exploits did not aim at establishing a political empire for Kalinga engulfing all the conquered territories but to exhibit the power and prestige of Kalinga by humbling the rising powers of his time. In this respect he fully justified the claim of the title Cakravartin given to him in the inscription of his chief queen.
9. Kharavela as a patron of Jainism
Unlike Asoka who was a convert to Buddhism, Kharavela was a Jaina by birth. The opening line of the Hathigumpha inscription reads namo arhamtanam namo sava sidhanam, saluting the Arhats and all the Siddhas. His military campaigns were often linked with his religious zeal for heightening the prestige of the Jaina faith. In his 8th regnal year he rescued Mathura, the famous pilgrim centre of Jainism from the Yavanas and brought from there a sapling of the Kalpa tree with a ceremonious military procession to Kalinga. In the eleventh regnal year Kharavela is said to have reclaimed the ancient metropolis of Pithumda by ploughs drawn by asses. Pithumda, the ancient city was once the capital of Kalinga. It was located near modern Srikakulam and Kalingapatnam in north Andhra Pradesh. The reclamation of the city by the use of asses in place of bulls indicates that the king was a devotee of first Tirthankara Adijina Risabhanatha. It may be noted here that the bull is associated with Risabhanatha. After defeating the king of Magadha, Kharavela brought back the Kalinga Jina to Kalinga. It was taken away by Mahapadmananda some three hundred years back from Kalinga. The king is called as an upasaka or devotee of the Svetambara system and bestowed royal endowments to the monks of that sect. For the rainy season retreats of the Jaina monks, the king had excavated a number of cells for resting of their bodies in the Udayagiri hill. Officers and noblemen of the time of Kharavela as well as his chief queen and son emulated the example set by him and extended patronage to Jainism by excavating caves and making endowments to the monks and sramanas.
Kharavela had two queens, the chief queen was Vajiraghara and he had another queen whose name was Simhapatha. From the Mancapuri cave inscription it is known that the chief queen with the blessings of the arhats excavated caves for the sramanas of Kalinga. Similarly queen Simhapatha was also a liberal minded lady. At his persuasion, the king had built a rest house close to the dwellings of the arhats for the convenience of the monks and sages of different religious sects who used to come to the Kumari hill for pilgrimage from all directions. The edifice was erected with thirty-five hundred thousand stone slabs of fine quality, which were brought from distant places and was decorated with artistic engravings and many precious stones. This magnificent building dedicated to the cause of all religious sects was estimated to have been constructed at the cost of one hundred and five thousand coins. Besides, the spoils of victory were also distributed among all the householders of the state including the brahmanas. Even if he was a worshipper of Jaina arhats and monks, he had equal respect and honour for all the religious sects. This amply testifies to the liberal and tolerant attitude of the king in matters of religion.
10. Kharavela’s ideals of kingship
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela does not explicitly refer to the pattern of administration prevalent then but indirectly refers to it on many occasions. Kharavela seems to have emulated the ideals of kingship as envisaged by Kautilya in his Arthasastra. He had studied all branches of knowledge required for a king to run the administration. He had equally received training in warfare. In line 10 of the inscription he is represented as an embodiment of the principles of politics, diplomacy, peace and equity (danda-samdhi- samayo). He assumed the title of Aira-Maharaja which has been rendered by many scholars
as the king of the Aryan race. The coronation of the king is compared with that of Prithu, the son of Vainya. He was a just and benevolent king who pleased his subjects through his administration. He turned the life of a Rajarsi and declared himself the worshipper of Rajarsi Vasu. In the last line of the inscription he is described as an upholder of law (Cakadharo), the protector of law (Gutacako) and the executor of law (Pavatacako) aiming at the highest benefit on man. In the Mancapuri cave inscription Kharavela is called as Cakravatin or an all powerful king.
The inscription further reveals at many places that he had under his command an invincible army consisting of infantry, cavalry, elephantry, chariots and navy. The king possessed an invincible army which is called as mahati-sena, sena-vahini and apratihata-cakra-vahini-vala. The army which is considered as an important element of the state was vast, well organized and invincible. It not only defended the fortified townships of Kalinga but also defended the kingdom and established law and order of the kingdom. The offensive strategy of the king to exhibit the military might of Kalinga is manifest in the number of campaigns which he had successfully undertaken in different directions.
From the building activities initiated by the ruler either in the renovation of canals, repair of the devastated township of Kalinganagari, excavation of caves and erection of dwelling houses in the twin hills, maintenance of a huge armed force, or construction of a beautiful victory palace in his capital city, it is apparent that he had used the state resources for all these accomplishments. The state treasury was replenished by revenues collected from different sources. The war booty and gifts in the forms of coins, pearls, jewels and precious stones from the subdued rulers and subordinates also added to the treasury. The financial stability of the kingdom is further attested to by the remittance of taxes from the general public living both in the rural and urban areas. In short, Kalinga was prosperous kingdom under Kharavela.
Although nothing is known about the administrative system Kalinga under Kharavela, yet the short commemorative inscriptions in the numerous caves of Udayagiri bear ample testimony to the well organized administration. The reference to mahamada (same as mahamattra), nagara-akhadamsa (same as nagara vyavaharika or city administrator), kamma or cula kamma (same as karma-saciva), etc., in these records clearly proves the existence of a council of ministers and a powerful bureaucratic machinery to run the administration. The sculptural panels depicting the war scenes and court lives of the time further corroborate the evidence gleaned from the inscriptions. There is no doubt about the fact that the military organization was also headed by the Commander in Chief as well as adhyaksas or superintendents for each division of the army.
11. Conclusion
Thus, the Hathigumpha inscription offers a fair idea about the career and achievements of the king Kharavela in an eulogistic manner. But at the same time it reflects of the political and religious climate of Kalinga and the whole of India. In the post-Maurya period the kingdom of Kalinga reasserted its independence under the Mahameghavahanas and attempted to avenge the defeat and discomfiture against Magadha. The text of the inscription further supplements the process of state formation in Kalinga in the post-Maurya phase. The primary state of Magadha had cast its impact on Kalinga and its subsequent interaction with the pristine state supplied necessary ideas and idioms for development of a state apparatus with all its essential elements.