Organisation of the education system in

Norway

2009/2010

NO European Commission EURYBASE NORWAY

1. Political, Social and Economic Background and Trends ...... 7 1.1. Historical Overview...... 7 1.2. Main Executive and Legislative Bodies ...... 8 1.2.1. Stortinget and the National Government...... 8 1.2.2. Regional Government ...... 9 1.2.3. Local Government ...... 9 1.3. Religions ...... 9 1.4. Official and Minority Languages ...... 10 1.5. Demographic Situation...... 10 1.6. Economic Situation...... 11 1.7. Statistics...... 11 1.7.1. Population ...... 11 1.7.2. Unemployment, Employment, GNP...... 13 2. General Organisation of the Education System and Administration of Education ...... 15 2.1. Historical Overview...... 15 2.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments ...... 18 2.3. Fundamental Principles and Basic Legislation ...... 21 2.4. General Structure and Defining Moments in Educational Guidance...... 22 2.5. Compulsory Education...... 23 2.6. General Administration...... 23 2.6.1. General Administration at National Level...... 24 2.6.2. General Administration at Regional Level ...... 28 2.6.3. General Administration at Local Level ...... 28 2.6.4. Educational Institutions, Administration, Management...... 29 2.7. Internal and External Consultation...... 30 2.7.1. Internal Consultation...... 30 2.7.2. Consultation involving Players in Society at large...... 31 2.8. Methods of Financing Education ...... 33 2.9. Statistics...... 34 2.9.1. Education Budget ...... 34 2.9.2. Student/Pupil Financing...... 35 2.9.3. Number of Institutions...... 35 3. Pre-primary Education ...... 37 3.1. Historical Overview...... 37 3.2. Ongoing Debates and future Developments...... 38 3.3. Specific Legislative Framework...... 39 3.4. General Objectives...... 39 3.5. Geographical Accessibility...... 40 3.6. Admission Requirements and Choice of Institution/Centre ...... 40 3.7. Financial Support for Pupils’ Families...... 40 3.8. Age Levels and Grouping of Children...... 41 3.9. Organisation of Time...... 41 3.9.1. Organisation of the Year...... 41 3.9.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable...... 41 3.10. Curriculum, Types of Activity, Number of Hours...... 41 3.11. Teaching Methods and Materials ...... 42 3.12. Evaluation of Children...... 43 3.13. Support Facilities ...... 43

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3.14. Private Sector Provision...... 43 3.15. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures ...... 44 3.16. Statistics...... 44 3.16.1. Number of Children ...... 44 3.16.2. Number of Institutions...... 45 3.16.3. Number of Teachers ...... 46 4. Single Structure Education ...... 47 4.1. Historical Overview...... 48 4.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments ...... 50 4.3. Specific Legislative Framework...... 51 4.4. General Objectives...... 52 4.5. Geographical Accessibility...... 53 4.6. Admission Requirements and Choice of School...... 54 4.7. Financial Support for Pupil’s Families...... 54 4.8. Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils ...... 54 4.9. Organisation of School Time ...... 55 4.9.1. Organisation of the School Year...... 55 4.9.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable...... 55 4.10. Curriculum, Subjects, Number of Hours...... 56 4.11. Teaching Methods and Materials ...... 58 4.12. Pupil Assessment...... 59 4.13. Progression of Pupils...... 60 4.14. Certification...... 60 4.15. Educational Guidance ...... 60 4.16. Private Education...... 61 4.17. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures ...... 61 4.18. Statistics...... 62 4.18.1. Number of Pupils ...... 62 4.18.2. Number of Institutions...... 63 4.18.3. Number of Teachers ...... 64 5. Upper Secondary and post-Secondary non-Tertiary Education...... 65 5.1. Historical Overview...... 65 5.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments ...... 67 5.3. Specific Legislative Framework...... 67 5.4. General Objectives...... 68 5.5. Types of Institutions...... 70 5.6. Geographical Accessibility...... 71 5.7. Admission Requirements and Choice of School...... 71 5.8. Registration and/or Tuition Fees...... 72 5.9. Financial Support for Pupils and Appretices/Trainees ...... 72 5.10. Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils...... 72 5.11. Specialisation of Studies...... 73 5.12. Organisation of School Time...... 74 5.12.1. Organisation of the School Year ...... 74 5.12.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable ...... 75 5.13. Curriculum, Subjects, Number of Hours...... 75 5.13.1. Programme for Specialisation in General Studies ...... 76

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5.13.2. Programme for Music, Dance and Drama...... 76 5.13.3. Programme for Sports and Physical Education ...... 76 5.13.4. Vocational Programmes...... 76 5.14. Teaching Methods and Materials ...... 77 5.15. Pupil Assessment...... 77 5.16. Progression of Pupils...... 78 5.17. Certification...... 79 5.18. Educational/Vocational Guidance, Education/Employment Links ...... 80 5.19. Private Education...... 80 5.20. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures ...... 81 5.20.1. Vocational Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary Education ...... 81 5.20.2. The Follow-up Service for Unemployed Young People ...... 82 5.21. Statistics...... 82 5.21.1. Number of Pupils ...... 82 5.21.2. Number of Institutions...... 84 5.21.3. Number of Secondary-School Teachers...... 84 5.21.4. Number of students in post-secondary non-tertiary education ...... 84 5.21.5. Number of recognised post-secondary non-tertiary programmes...... 85 Source: NOKUT as per 17.12.09 ...... 85 5.21.6. Number of post-secondary non-tertiary providers/institutions...... 85 Source: NOKUT as per 17.12.09 ...... 86 6. Tertiary Education...... 87 6.1. Historical Overview...... 88 6.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments ...... 91 6.3. Specific Legislative Framework...... 92 6.4. General objectives ...... 93 6.5. Types of Institutions...... 94 6.5.1. Universities ...... 95 6.5.2. Specialised University Institutions...... 96 6.5.3. University Colleges ...... 96 6.5.4. University Colleges of Arts...... 97 6.5.5. Other Public University Colleges...... 97 6.6. Admission Requirements ...... 97 6.1.1. General...... 97 6.1.2. VET pathway to HE (Y-veien)...... 98 6.7. Registration and/or Tuition Fees...... 98 6.8. Financial Support for Students ...... 99 6.9. Organisation of the Academic Year...... 99 6.10. Branches of Study, Specialisation...... 100 6.11. Curriculum ...... 101 6.12. Teaching Methods ...... 101 6.13. Student Assessment...... 102 6.14. Progression of Students ...... 102 6.15. Certification...... 103 6.16. Educational/Vocational Guidance, Education/Employment Links ...... 103 6.17. Private Higher Education...... 104 6.18. Organisational Variations, Alternative Structures...... 105 6.19. Statistics...... 105 6.19.1. Number of Students ...... 105 6.19.2. Number of Institutions...... 109 6.19.3. Academic Staff...... 109 3 EURYBASE NORWAY

7. Continuing Education and Training for Young School Leavers and Adults ...... 111 7.1. Historical Overview...... 111 7.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments ...... 113 7.3. Specific Legislative Framework...... 114 7.4. General objectives ...... 114 7.5. Types of Institutions...... 115 7.6. Geographical Accessibility...... 115 7.7. Admission Requirements ...... 116 7.7.1. Validation ( Realkompetansevurdering)...... 116 7.8. Registration and/or Tuition Fees...... 117 7.9. Financial Support for Learners...... 117 7.10. Main Areas of Specialisation ...... 117 7.10.1. Primary and lower secondary level ...... 117 7.10.2. Upper secondary level ...... 118 7.10.3. Higher education level...... 118 7.10.4. Folk high schools ...... 118 7.10.5. Study associations ( Adult education associations ) ...... 118 7.10.6. Private distance education institutions...... 118 7.10.7. Programme for Basic Skills in Working Life...... 119 7.10.8. Courses in Norwegian as a second language...... 119 7.10.9. Labour market courses ...... 119 7.11. Teaching Methods ...... 119 7.12. Trainers ...... 120 7.13. Learner Assessment/Progression ...... 121 7.14. Certification...... 121 7.15. Education/Employment Links...... 122 7.16. Private Education...... 123 7.17. Statistics...... 123 8. Teachers and Education Staff...... 126 8.1. Initial Training of Teachers ...... 126 8.1.1. Historical Overview...... 127 8.1.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments...... 129 8.1.3. Specific Legislative Framework...... 129 8.1.4. Institutions, Levels and Models of Training...... 130 8.1.5. Admission Requirements ...... 131 8.1.6. Curriculum, Special Skills, Specialisation...... 131 8.1.7. Evaluation, Certificates...... 138 8.1.8. Alternative Training Pathways ...... 139 8.2. Conditions of Service for Teachers ...... 139 8.2.1. Historical Overview...... 139 8.2.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments...... 140 8.2.3. Specific Legislative Framework...... 140 8.2.4. Planning Policy...... 141 8.2.5. Entry to the Profession...... 141 8.2.6. Professional Status...... 142 8.2.7. Replacement Measures...... 143 8.2.8. Supporting Measures for Teachers...... 143 8.2.9. Evaluation of Teachers ...... 143 8.2.10. In-service Training...... 143 8.2.11. Salaries...... 146 8.2.12. Working Time and Holidays...... 148 8.2.13. Promotion, Advancement...... 148 8.2.14. Transfers...... 149 8.2.15. Dismissal ...... 149 8.2.16. Retirement and Pensions...... 149 4 EURYBASE NORWAY

8.3. School Administrative and/or Management Staff ...... 150 8.3.1. Requirements for Appointment as a School Head ...... 150 8.3.2. Conditions of Service...... 150 8.4. Staff involved in Monitoring Educational Quality...... 150 8.4.1. Requirements for Appointment as an Inspector...... 151 8.4.2. Conditions of Service...... 151 8.5. Educational Staff responsible for Support and Guidance...... 151 8.6. Other Educational Staff or Staff working with Schools ...... 151 8.7. Statistics...... 151 9. Evaluation of Educational Institutions and the Education System...... 153 9.1. Historical Overview...... 153 9.2. Ongoing Debates and further developments ...... 155 9.3. Administrative and Legislative Framework...... 155 9.4. Evaluation of Schools/Institutions...... 156 9.4.1. Internal Evaluation...... 156 9.4.2. External Evaluation...... 158 9.5. Evaluation of the Education System...... 161 9.5.1. Evaluation of Primary and Secondary Education ...... 161 9.5.2. Evaluation of Tertiary Education ...... 162 9.6. Research into Education linked to Evaluation of the Education System...... 163 9.7. Statistics...... 164 10. Special Educational Support...... 165 10.1. Historical Overview ...... 165 10.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments ...... 168 10.3. Definition and Diagnosis of the Target Group(s) ...... 168 10.4. Financial Support for Pupils’ Families ...... 169 10.5. Special Provisions within Mainstream Education ...... 169 10.5.1. Specific Legislative Framework ...... 169 10.5.2. General Objectives...... 170 10.5.3. Specific Support Measures...... 170 10.6. Separate Special Provisions ...... 173 10.6.1. Specific Legislative Framework ...... 173 10.6.2. General objectives...... 173 10.6.3. Geographical Accessibility ...... 173 10.6.4. Admission Requirements and Choice of School ...... 174 10.6.5. Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils...... 174 10.6.6. Organisation of the School Year ...... 174 10.6.7. Curriculum, Subjects...... 174 10.6.8. Teaching Methods and Materials...... 175 10.6.9. Progression of Pupils...... 175 10.6.10. Educational/Vocational Guidance, Education/Employment Links...... 175 10.6.11. Certification...... 176 10.6.12. Private Education ...... 176 10.7. Specific measures for the benefit of immigrant children/pupils and those from ethnic minorities ...... 176 10.8. Statistics...... 176 11. The European and International Dimension in Education...... 178 11.1. Historical Overview ...... 178 11.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments ...... 178 11.3. National Policy Guidelines / Specific Legislative Framework...... 179 11.4. National Programmes and Initiatives ...... 180 11.4.1. Bilateral Programmes and Initiatives...... 180 5 EURYBASE NORWAY

11.4.2. Multilateral Programmes and Initiatives...... 181 11.5. European / International Dimension through the National Curriculum ...... 184 11.5.1. Pre-primary Education...... 185 11.5.2. Single Structure Education...... 185 11.5.3. Upper Secondary Education...... 185 11.5.4. Tertiary Education ...... 186 11.5.5. Continuing Education and Training for Young School Leavers and Adults...... 186 11.6. Mobility and Exchange...... 186 11.6.1. Mobility and Exchange of Pupils/Students...... 186 11.6.2. Mobility and Exchange of Teaching and Academic Staff...... 188 11.7. Statistics...... 188

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1. Political, Social and Economic Background and Trends

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

1.1. Historical Overview

During the Viking period (ca. 800-1050 AD), the regions were unified to one country under one king. Norway had become formally Christian by the year 1030 and Christianity replaced the Norse beliefs.

The year 1130 is regarded as the start of the High Middle Ages in Norway. Crown and Church brought district after district under their rule. During the 12th century Norway became a regional power under King Haakon Haakonson. The first written laws date from this time. Oslo became the capital in 1299. Bergen was one of the Hanseatic towns.

In 1389 Norway, Sweden and Denmark were united through royal marriage and election of regent. In 1536, Norway ceased to be an independent kingdom. The country came under Danish rule and remained so until 1814.

In the 1814 settlement following the Napoleonic Wars, Norway came under Swedish rule. In connection with a Norwegian revolt against this union, a Norwegian constitution was adopted on 17 May 1814. To this day, 17 May is celebrated as the Norwegian national holiday. The union with Sweden lasted until 1905.

Economically, export of timber and dried fish was important from the Middle Ages. Mining industry started with foreign experts in the 1600s. The basis for a modern industrial society was laid in the 1840s with the establishment of the first textile factories and engineering workshops. The size of the Norwegian merchant fleet increased dramatically between 1850 and 1880. During the first half of the 20th century, the development of hydroelectric power was an important factor for establishing metallurgical and chemical industry.

As a result of a referendum in 1905, newly independent Norway chose to become a kingdom instead of a republic. The Prince Carl of Denmark was invited to become king of Norway. He took the name Haakon VII and is the grandfather of the present King Harald V.

Norway remained neutral during the First World War. The declaration of neutrality during the Second World War was less successful, however. The country was invaded by German forces on 9 April 1940 and was occupied until 1945. The Norwegian merchant fleet was the most important resource that the Norwegians put at the disposal of the allies during the war.

The post-war period was characterised by reconstruction and development. Increasing prosperity was used to build up a welfare state which, in turn, has led to Norway having less social and economic inequality than many other Western countries.

Following rich oil finds in the 1960s, the Norwegian oil and gas industry has become very important for the nation's economy.

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Norway joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949 and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960. In a referendum in 1994, Norway rejected membership of the European Union (EU) for the second time. The European Economic Area (EEA) agreement of 1992 between the EU and EFTA countries ensures Norwegian participation in the development of the EEA. The agreement gives Norway access to the EU's internal market and opens the way for co-operation in a variety of fields, including education.

For a list of the main political parties see section 1.2.1.

1.2. Main Executive and Legislative Bodies

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The present king, who acceded in 1991, is King Harald V. Formal power is vested in the Crown, but this power, under normal circumstances, is executed through the cabinet (King in council). The King appoints the Prime Minister in accordance with the general election result. The Prime Minister chooses his or her cabinet from the party in majority or a coalition. (The parliamentary system of government was introduced in 1884). Crown Prince Haakon Magnus is first in line of succession to the throne.

The Norwegian legislative and executive system is based on the principle of division of power. Legislative authority lies with the national assembly, while the main executive power lies with the central government and the ministries. The third power, the judiciary, has the High Court as the supreme judiciary authority.

Executive power is exercised through a three-tier administrative system, the central/national level, the regional/county level, and the local/municipal level.

1.2.1. Stortinget and the National Government

Norway's national assembly, called Stortinget, consists of 169 representatives elected for a period of 4 years. The majority party or coalition of parties forms the government, there may be a minority government. The King appoints the Prime Minister. The distribution of representatives from the 19 counties is determined by election regulations. Seven political parties are represented in the Norwegian national assembly. Listed in order of the number of representatives after the 2009 parliamentary election, they are: The Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet) (64 representatives), The Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet) (41 representatives), The Conservative Party (Høyre) (30 representatives), The Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstreparti) (11 representatives), The Christian Democratic Party (Kristelig Folkeparti) (10 representatives), The Centre Party (Senterpartiet) (11 representatives), The Norwegian Liberal Party (Venstre) (2 representatives). Most of these parties and some additional parties are represented in regional (county) and local (municipal) government. If a party is unable to offer a complete list of candidates, it can form an electoral alliance with one or more other parties and offer a combined list of candidates. The Labour Party, the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party now form the Government since October 2005. As of November 2007, there are two Ministers in the Ministry for Education and Research, The Minister of Education and the Minister of Higher Education and Research.

The Ministry principally responsible for education is the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, which now also includes kindergarten (pre-school education). The Ministry of Education and Research decides the regulations and the curricula on which educational administration and activity are based. The national assembly defines the overall aims of public and private kindergartens, public compulsory primary and secondary education, of the public institutions of higher education and of pre-school education. It lays

8 EURYBASE NORWAY down their structure and organisation, determines where responsibility for running the education system lies and specifies their sources of funding.

1.2.2. Regional Government

The executive level below national government is the County Council, led by a chairman. Both the chairman and the council are elected for a period of 4 years in a combined election for County and Municipal Councils. The number of representatives to County Councils varies from 25 to 85 according to the size of the county. There are 19 counties, including the capital Oslo which is both a county and a municipality.

The main area of responsibility for the county and its administration in educational matters is upper secondary education, which includes both academic and vocational education. Taxes and national funding finance the counties' tasks.

Each county has a regional central administration where the head administrator, a County Governor, is appointed by the Government.

1.2.3. Local Government

The members of the Municipal Council are decided on the basis of results in the municipal elections, held with the county elections every four years, and the distribution of votes among the political parties. The Municipal Council has, as a rule, a chairman from the majority political party, who is normally elected for a period of 4 years. The chairman is also the head of the municipality's administrative unit, a full-time or part- time position depending on the size of the municipality. The number of seats in the Municipal Council depends on the size of the municipality.

The council members and administration in the 431 municipalities are responsible for kindergartens, compulsory primary and lower secondary schools, for teachers employed in these schools and for pre-school institutions. Local taxes and national funding provide the finance for these tasks.

1.3. Religions

Norway has a state church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church. There is full religious freedom. In addition to the state church, there are a variety of smaller Christian denominations, most of which are organised in both national and international church associations. In the towns, many of the world's religions are represented with congregations, often arising from and depending on the number of inhabitants that are immigrants.

The principle of freedom of choice in religion and the existence of the Lutheran State Church are two factors that have had major influence on legislation and curricula in the educational system.

The Storting also approved a new objective clause in the Education Act, Act No 61 of 17 July 1998 relating to primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education (in force 1 Jan 2009). The clause states that education and training shall be based on fundamental values in Christian and humanist heritage and traditions, such as respect for human dignity and nature, on intellectual freedom, charity, forgiveness, equality and solidarity, values that also appear in different religions and beliefs and are rooted in human rights.

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On the 5th of December 2008, the Storting approved a new objects clause in section 1 in Act no. 64 of June 2005 relating to Kindergartens (the Kindergarten Act). The new objects clause regulates core values in the kindergarten and how this institution can contribute to develop the child, the family and the society. It is emphasized that the kindergarten shall promote common values, and not influence the children to adhere to a specific religion. The new objects clause for kindergartens will be implemented as soon as a number of ensuing amendments in the Act relating to kindergartens have been adopted. These changes have been sent on a public hearing.

1.4. Official and Minority Languages

Norway has, for about one hundred years, had two official written forms of the Norwegian language, bokmål and nynorsk. The origin of bokmål is the Danish language as spoken in Norway, resulting from significant influences by Danish civil servants and their culture for several hundred years. The origin of nynorsk is the dialects spoken in rural areas of Norway. Pupils and their parents have, in principle, the right to choose which of the official Norwegian languages the pupils should be taught in school. However, the municipality decides which official language should be used in its schools. It is therefore, in practice, often difficult to receive one's education in the desired language if this is the wish of only a small minority in the municipality. All pupils learn both languages as a part of the subject Norwegian, final examinations in Norwegian include written work in both languages. In addition to the two official written languages, there are a variety of spoken dialects.

The Sami people have their own languages. There are an estimated 20,000 Sami speakers in Norway. This population is centred mainly in the northernmost county of Finnmark and Oslo. The municipalities are responsible for ensuring that kindergartens for Sami children in Sami districts are based on the Sami language and culture. In other municipalities, steps shall be taken to enable Sami children to secure and develop their language and their culture (Kindergarten Act, Section 8). As a general rule, Sami pupils are entitled to compulsory and upper secondary education in their own language (Education Act). The Sami language is considered an important bearer of Sami culture, and it is therefore important to maintain both written and oral forms of the language. Another strong argument is the importance of the level of competence in the mother tongue for the successful acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and skills.

Other language minorities include small groups who have lived in Norway for a long time, as well as groups of recent immigrants. Emphasis is placed on the necessity to teach the children both their mother tongue and the Norwegian language. Children from minority groups must be given the same opportunities as other pupils. In the capital Oslo, pupils in primary school represent more than 200 countries.

1.5. Demographic Situation

In 2009, Norway had 4.8 million inhabitants. The capital Oslo has well over half a million inhabitants. With a mainland area of 324 thousand square kilometres, Norway has a low population density. However, 80 % of the population now lives in urban areas.

Immigrants, defined as both parents born outside Norway, constitute 16 % of the total population and 26 % of the population in Oslo in 2009. Of the immigrants, 65 % are Norwegian citizens.

See section 1.7.1.

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1.6. Economic Situation

Norway is a high-income country. The economy is characterised by large revenues from oil and gas extraction and a large and growing services sector. Labour force participation rates are high, especially for women. Unemployment has in the 1990s been low at around 2 - 3 %, but is increasing.

See section 1.7.2. .

1.7. Statistics

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

1.7.1. Population

Population by Age (1. January 2010)

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Age %

0-4 6.3

5-9 6.1

10-14 6.5

15-19 6.6

20-24 6.3

25-29 6.3

30-34 6.5

35-39 7.4

40-44 7.5

45-49 6,9

50-54 6,6

55-59 6,1

60-64 6,0

65-69 4.4

70-74 3.2

75-79 2.7

80- 4.4

Total 100.0

Population 4,858,199

Source: Statistics Norway

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Population Density (2009)

Population 1 January 4,799,252

Land area (square km) 304,280

Population density per square km 16

Source: Statistics Norway

Total Fertility Rate

Year 1981 1991 2001 2008

Rate 1.70 1.92 1.78 1.96

The average number of live-born children born to a woman passing through the childbearing period exposed at each age to the existing fertility but not exposed to mortality. (Total of one-year age-specific fertility rates 15-49 years.)

Source: Statistics Norway

Immigration and Emigration (2008)

Immigration Emigration Net immigration

Total 66,961 23,615 43,346

Europe 46,341 14,881 31,460

Asia 11,938 2,016 9,922

Africa 4,135 600 3,535

America 3,562 1,554 2,008

Oceania 465 319 146

Source: Statistics Norway

1.7.2. Unemployment, Employment, GNP

Gross National Product (GNP) total and per capita (2008/6)

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Total (million NOK) – 2008 2,408,326

Per capita (NOK) – 2006 463,361

Source: Statistics Norway

Labour Force, Employment and Unemployment (2009)

1,000 persons

Persons aged 15 – 74 3,559

Labour force 2,608

Employment 2,542

Unemployment 66

Labour force * 72,8

Men 75,6

Women 69,8

Employment * 70,5

Men 72,9

Women 67,9

Unemployment ** 3,2

Men 3,6

Women 2,5

* As % of Persons aged 15-74

** As % of Labour Force

Source: Statistics Norway (Labour Force Survey)

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2. General Organisation of the Education System and Administration of Education

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

2.1. Historical Overview

The development of a complete, comprehensive school system in Norway has been influenced by the two school systems that formerly existed for rural and urban areas. Throughout the 20th century there has been a strong trend towards developing a school system for all pupils regardless of background, ability to learn and physical fitness. The following milestones may be highlighted:

● 13th century: Cathedral schools (Latin schools) were established in some cities. The first guilds, which controlled apprenticeships, were established in Bergen. The guilds were declared illegal shortly afterwards when the Norwegian king had a law passed giving the Hanseatic League exclusive rights to engage in and provide training in recognised trades.

● 1568: The guilds re-emerged in Norway's west-coast towns, and a Norwegian apprenticeship system developed.

● 1739: Royal ordinance on rural schools in Norway, establishing the right to public education.

● 1802: The subjects Norwegian, arithmetic and drawing were introduced for apprentices. These theoretical subjects were optional, classes were held on Sundays.

● 1811: Founding of the first university in Norway, the University of Christiania (today the University of Oslo).

● 1837: The first child asylum (daycare) for children under school age established in Trondheim

● 1839: Act regulating trades and crafts passed.

● 1850s: Three-year technical evening schools for apprentices were introduced. Theoretical subjects continued to be optional.

● 1866: Trades and crafts legislation revised. Compulsory trade and journeyman's certificate examinations removed.

● 1882: Women were allowed to take matriculation examination (examen artium) for studies.

● 1884: Women were first admitted to the university.

● 1889: Legislation on urban and rural public schools. The 7-year compulsory education programme introduced.

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● 1894: Trades and crafts legislation revised. Compulsory trade and journeyman's certificate examinations reinstated.

● 1896: Legislation on lower and upper secondary general education based on 5-years of public education instead of special programmes.

● 1910: Technical vocational colleges established, with daytime and evening classes.

● 1935: Legislation on upper secondary education based on the compulsory 7-year education programme and 2-year lower secondary school.

● 1936: Curriculum revision of 7-year compulsory education, including vocational subjects and emphasising pupil activities.

● 1940: Act on vocational schools passed.

● 1947: Establishment of the State Educational Loan Fund to provide loans and grants to students.

● 1948: Legislation on folk high schools.

● 1950: Act on apprenticeship passed. Compulsory classes in theoretical subjects introduced. Individual municipalities were free to decide whether they should be bound by the legislation or not.

● 1955: Act giving the universities wider responsibilities. Administrative personnel and students got the right to participate in faculty and university councils.

● Regulations concerning daycare institutions for children under school age.

● 1969: Legislation on primary and lower secondary education. The 9-year compulsory education programme introduced. Founding of the first regional colleges with vocational and academic study programmes, making it possible for students in outlying districts to study in the region where they live.

● 1970: Act on Private Schools.

● 1974: Legislation on upper secondary education, integrating vocational and academic educational programmes into one system.

● 1975: Education for disabled pupils incorporated into the legislation on primary and secondary education.

● 1975: First legislation on kindergarten institutions for pre-primary children

● 1976: First legislation on adult education.

● 1980: Act regulating vocational training passed. Apprenticeship training introduced throughout the country.

● 1983: Revised legislation concerning the purpose on kindergartens. 16 EURYBASE NORWAY

● 1984: Revised legislation on folk high schools.

● 1985: Act on Private Schools.

● 1985: Act on Financial Support to Pupils and Students.

● 1986: Act on Recognition of Study Programmes at, and State Funding of, Private Higher Education.

● 1987: Revised National Curriculum Guidelines for primary and lower secondary schools.

● 1988: Royal Commission Report on higher education submitted to the Ministry.

● 1989: Act on Universities and Specialised University Institutions. Chapter 11 of the Act made applicable to the non-university sector through a royal decree.

● 1991: White Paper on higher education.

● 1992: Legislation establishing the statutory right of all young people age 16-19 to three years of upper secondary education. Vocational training at school was to be integrated with apprenticeship training in the workplace. (Reform 94)

● 1993: A new Core Curriculum for primary, lower secondary and adult education came into force, replacing the first part of the National Curriculum Guidelines for primary and lower secondary education.

● 1994: Implementation of the Reform 94 of upper secondary education and training.

● 1994: 98 regional colleges were reorganised and merged into 26 state colleges, later called university colleges.

● 1995: Act on Universities and University Colleges (i.e. all state higher education institutions), introducing a common legal basis both for the university sector and the non-university sector.

● 1995: New legislation on kindergarten for pre-primary children and the first Framework Plan (curricular guidelines) for the institutions.

● 1997: The new national curriculum for the 10-year compulsory school came into force (Reform 97).

● 1998: White Paper on continuing education and adult education (The Competence Reform).

● 1998: Education Act on primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education passed.

● 2000: Revisions in Education Act on legal right to primary and secondary education for adults.

● 2000: Access to higher education for adults with validated non-formal and informal competence, amendments in Act on Universities and University Colleges.

● 2001: White Paper on higher education (The Quality Reform)

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● 2002: Act on Universities and University Colleges, amendments of June 2002 as parts of the Quality Reform.

● 2003: Act on Independent Schools, renamed Act on Private Schools 1. July 2007.

● 2004: White paper on primary and secondary education (The Knowledge Promotion).

● 2005: Act on Universities and University Colleges, integrating acts on public and private higher education.

● 2005: New Act on Kindergartens

● 2006: Revised Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergarten.

● 2009: New Act on Adult Education

The first Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Education and Church Affairs, was founded in 1814. In 1982, a separate Ministry was given responsibility for cultural and scientific affairs. In 1990, the Ministry of Education and Research was established with the purpose of (again) concentrating responsibility for all levels of education in one Ministry. In 1991, there was another reorganisation, which resulted in the Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs. The department for Church Affairs was taken over by the Ministry of Culture in 2001; the present Ministry is called the Ministry of Education and Research. Since 2006 the Ministry of Education and Research has taken over the responsibility for kindergartens and pre-school.

2.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

For pre-primary education, there is broad political agreement to expand the sector and reduce parents’ fees. Full access to kindergarten institutions is almost achieved and an individual, legal right to a place in kindergarten institution was introduced and put into effect in 2009. From 1 January 2010 the maximum parents’ fee is 2,330 NOK per month. The importance of high quality in all kindergartens is underlined in White Paper no 41 (2008-2009) Quality in Kindergartens, which will be treated in the Storting in 2010. Yearly action plans, based on a 2007-2011 strategy of recruitment, are set up to increase the number of qualified pre-school teachers in kindergarten institutions. In addition there is a 2007-2010 strategy to increase the competence of all kindergarten staff.

The Storting has decided that the earmarked kindergarten state grants to municipalities will be replaced with block grants. As a part of this process the ministry is working on adjusting the rules concerning financing of non-municipal kindergartens, so these kindergartens will be treated equally with regard to public grants.

The National Quality Assessment System encompassing the fields of learning dividends, learning environment, completion of upper secondary education, resources and school facts is continually being developed. The content of a future assurance system for vocational education and training (VET) is currently being assessed and improved.

The Ministry of Education and Research has launched a two-year national pilot project, 2010 -2011, in which selected schools will offer two additional lessons/hours per week in foreign languages other than English, currently not an option earlier than grade eight, to pupils in grades six and seven. The project is managed by the Directorate for Education and Training. 18 EURYBASE NORWAY

The Directorate for Education and Training is also carrying out an pilot scheme involving more than 150 lower secondary schools where pupils are given the opportunity to experience content and methods in upper secondary vocational educational programmes.

Another pilot scheme Overall school day (Helhetlig skoledag), 2009 – 2012. , including homework assistance, physical activity, school meal and cultural activities. New forms of co-operation between school and after school care/other activities, learning processes, learning environment and pupils' learning outcome are in focus in the various models which are being developed and tested at nine selected project schools, divided between six counties.

The School Development Programme (Knowledge Promotion – from word to deed, 2005-2010) (see section 4.2.) has partly contributed to further national policy development through a new programme for guidance (Veilederkorpset 2009 – 2010) mentioned in the Report to the Storting no 31 (2007 – 2008) Quality in Education. The new programme is introduced as a pilot project in two counties from 2009 – 2010 and draws upon experiences made within the former with guidance as a method for improving schools and organisastions.

Special educational research and practice in Norway has long been associated with diagnosis and compensatory measures. In the debate on special education during recent years, there has been a call for a stronger emphasis on the content and organisation of special education. The greater challenge is now to realise the principle of adapted teaching in practice. The current international debate is also concerned with the translation of intentions and objectives into good educational practice in the classrooms and workshops of every school. (See section 10.2.)

The Ministry of Education and Research put forward a white paper on education and equity in December 2006. The Parliament (Storting) debated the white paper named “Early Intervention for Lifelong Learning” on April 16th 2007. The Government will pursue an active policy to reduce the differences in society. Its goals are to diminish class distinctions, reduce economic inequity and combat poverty and other forms of marginalisation. The Government wishes to improve the ability of the education system to meet the individual needs by organising teaching and learning in a favourable way. Early intervention is one of the keys to this work. Early intervention must be understood both as action at an early stage of a child’s life and as intervention when problems arise or are revealed at pre-school age, during basic education or in adulthood.

The OECD Adult Literacy and Lifeskill Survey (ALL) 2004 showed that more than 400,000 adults (age 16-65) in Norway have so poor basic skills in reading and numeracy that they score lower than the level considered necessary to function in modern working life. Poor basic skills are especially found among the unemployed, social security recipients, older workers and immigrants, but many other employees are also at risk. In 2006 the Norwegian government established the Programme for Basic Skills in Working Life (Program for basiskompetanse i arbeidslivet – BKA). for adults to improve basic skills in reading, writing, arithmetic and ICT. This is organised in connection to work, employers may apply for support to start training in basic skills for their employees or jobseekers. The social partners and others co-operate with the Ministry of Education and Research in the programme (as was the case with the earlier Competence Development Programme for tailor-made training courses). .

OECD is now planning a new large survey on adults skills and competences, Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). It is the most comprehensive international survey of adult skills ever undertaken; it is a collaboration between governments, an international consortium of organisations and the OECD; and will take place across OECD and partner countries in 2011 with results published in 2013.

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PIAAC will measure the skills and competencies needed for individuals to participate in society and for economies to prosper, and will help governments to a better understanding of how education and training systems can nurture these skills.

The survey will be carried out by interviewing adults aged 16-65 years in their homes – 5 000 in each participating country; assessing their literacy and numeracy skills and their ability to solve problems in technology-rich environments; collecting a broad range of information from the adults taking the survey, including how their skills are used at work and in other contexts such as at home and in the community.

A White Paper on Education Strategies ( St.mld.nr.44 (2008-09) Utdanningslinja) was presented by the government last year and was debated in the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget) in March 2010. The White Paper predicts that there will be more jobs requiring higher education skills and fewer jobs for unskilled workers. This is based on analyses carried out by Statistics Norway (see http://www.ssb.no/arbeid_en/). Although the paper covers all levels of the education system including adult education, there is a strong focus on the fact that many young people fail to complete upper secondary education and therefore lack the skills that will increasingly be required in the labour market. The dropout rate is especially high in vocational programmes. The Government will introduce a number of measures to achieve the goal of having as many as possible completing upper secondary education. Different initiatives for the following-up is now taken by the Ministryincluding items like validation and councelling and guidance .

In Norway public responsibility for career counselling and guidance is shared between the education and the employment authorities. To enhance professionalism and to stimulate and expand more streamlined development of career guidance services at the local level, new initiatives are stated in the budget proposition to parliament for 2008-2009 and in the above mentioned white paper from 2009.

The links between vocational colleges (as part of tertiary education) and higher education institutions remains to be clarified. Part of the problem is related to the lack of a system of credit-points in the predominantly private institutions on vocational college level. This makes it difficult to assess the scope and depth of education taken, especially making comparability with higher education more difficult. In several European countries, qualification frameworks are being developed to ensure better links between and within different levels of the education system. The framework for higher education was adopted in March 2009, and there is currently a project in the Minitsry focusing on the development of a framework for the entire educational system.

The Ministry of Education and Research put forward a white paper named “The progress report for the Quality reform in Higher Education” to the parliament in November 2007. The parliament debated the white paper on March 7, 2008. There is consensus that the aims of the Quality reform are still relevant. In the forthcoming years the focus will be on learning outcome, and preserving the positive changes in teaching methods after the Quality reform. The main challenges relate to making sure that the teachers/researchers have sufficient coherent time conduct research, the Universities and the university colleges have a potential for better cooperation with the working life and the internationalization of Higher Education can improve. To make sure that the funding system of Higher Education was fit for purpose, the Ministry of Higher Education evaluated the system in 2009 with the conclusion that no major changes were needed for the time being.

Some issues concerning international student mobility and the general portability of loans and grants are being debated. The majority of Norwegian students abroad are full degree students as “free movers”. It is an aim to increase the number of students on formal exchange programmes, where institutions co-operate. Rather than many Norwegian students at bachelor level abroad, more students at master and doctorate level abroad is seen as favourable for academic quality and the economy. Changes in the student financing system

20 EURYBASE NORWAY from 2004/05 are aimed at stimulating students on higher degrees, exchanges and placements abroad. In 2009 the Norwegian Government presented a White Paper to the Parliament (the Storting), in which internationalisation of Norwegian education is viewed from an overall perspective and which includes all levels of education. The white paper proposes several measures and at the same time establishes a framework for further development and priorities.

Internationalisation of education should contribute to improving quality so that the programmes and the institutions become more attractive and competitive, both nationally and internationally. Greater interaction for pupils, students, employees, institutions and public authorities across national boundaries is an important source of inspiration. Comparing ourselves with others is vital to our development.

Pupils, students and staff in Norwegian schools, university colleges and universities travel abroad, and many come from other countries to Norway for shorter or longer periods of study or for purposes of teaching or research. These are longstanding traditions, and facilitating this kind of mobility will continue to be a priority.

In May 2006, the Government appointed an official committee to evaluate the structure of higher education and make recommendations for its development within a time frame of 10-20 years. The commission will especially focus on regional aspects. The commission presented its report to the Minister of Education and Research in January 2008. The report points to a number of challenges for Norwegian higher education in the next 10-20 years. A number of small institutions outside the cities already have too few applicants, and this situation is expected to be aggravated by demographic changes combined with social preferences for urban life among young people. At the same time, fragmentation is identified as a problem with regard to research, in particular fragmentation of research training, which the Commission relates to the existing standards and criteria for accreditation as a university. To remedy the situation the Commission proposes a process of mergers based on the institutions' own preferences, combined with stronger profiling supported by agreements with the ministry and changes in the financing system. Other measures proposed include consolidation of research training in research schools or similar structures, and measures to increase the quality of teaching in higher education institutions. In the higher education sector the analysis was generally accepted, but the proposed restructuring was rejected. The Ministry of Education and Research agreed on the need for concentration of efforts and resources but decided to opt for voluntary development rather than a top-down managed process. Networks, alliances or mergers within the higher education sector is seen as the key and will contribute to the strengthening of the efforts and the credibility of the HEIs. Cf. Chapter 6.2.

A new website gives more information in English from the Government and the Ministries: www.regjeringen.no/en.

2.3. Fundamental Principles and Basic Legislation

The overall objective of Norwegian educational policy is to provide equal opportunities for all, irrespective of gender, geographic location or economic, social or cultural background. The aim is to offer all children an education that is adapted to the abilities of the individual pupil.

The basic principles and priorities of Norwegian education are the following:

● A high general level of education in the entire population.

● Equal opportunities in the access to education,including pre-primary.

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● Decentralisation. Local adaptation and development.

● Meeting both the long-term and short-term qualification requirements of the labour market, of the society, and of the individual.

● More emphasis on a broad and general initial education, leaving specialisation to later stages and further training at work.

● Opportunities for life-long learning through a broad spectre of further training and other study possibilities.

● Strengthening the higher education sector/improving higher education, recently through the Quality Reform.

The General Section of the curriculum, the ''Core Curriculum'' established in 1993, provides an ideological basis for national curriculum development within primary and secondary education, as well as for local development in schools and municipalities.

The legislation, which provides the basis for the organisation of education, is as follows:

● Act on Adult Education (2009), replacing the earlier Act (1976 and 2009)

● Education Act on primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education (1998)

● Act on Folk High Schools (2002)

● Act on Private Schools (2003), replacing Act on Private Schools (1985)

● Act on Vocational Colleges (2003)

● Act on Kindergartens (2005), replacing the earlier Acts (1975 and1995)

● Act on Universities and University Colleges (2005), replacing Act on Recognition of Study Programmes at, and State Funding of, Private Higher Education (1986) and Act on Universities and University Colleges (1995), with later amendments

2.4. General Structure and Defining Moments in Educational Guidance

Organisation of the education system in Norway, 2009/10

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0 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910 1112131415161718192021222324252627 Barnetrinnet Ungdomstrinnet UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE ÅPNE BARNEHAGER / GRUNNSKOLE VANLIGE BARNEHAGER / ≥ 2 UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE NO FAMILIEBARNEHAGER

VIDEREGÅENDE SKOLE

LÆRLINGORDNING FAGSKOLE

Pre-primary – ISCED 0 Pre-primary – ISCED 0 (for which the Ministry of Education is not responsible) (for which the Ministry of Education is responsible) Primary – ISCED 1 Single structure (no institutional distinction between ISCED 1 and 2) Lower secondary general – ISCED 2 Lower secondary vocational – ISCED 2 (including pre-vocational) Upper secondary general – ISCED 3 Upper secondary vocational – ISCED 3 Post-secondary non-tertiary – ISCED 4 Tertiary education – ISCED 5A Tertiary education – ISCED 5B Allocation to the ISCED levels: ISCED 0 ISCED 1 ISCED 2

Compulsory full-time education Compulsory part-time education Part-time or combined school and workplace courses Additional year -/n/- Compulsory work experience + its duration Study abroad Source: Eurydice.

2.5. Compulsory Education

Norwegian compulsory education covers both primary and lower secondary education. The duration of the compulsory education programme was 7 years (primary education) until 1969, then it was 9 years until 1997 and now it is 10 years. Children start school in the calendar year of their 6th birthday and finish their compulsory education in the calendar year of their 16th birthday.

Compulsory education is determined by the Education Act (on primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education) from 1998 and the National Curriculum, Knowledge Promotion, 2006, which includes the Core Curriculum, the Quality Framework, Subject Curricula and a Framework Regulating the Distribution of Periods and Subjects. Compulsory education is comprehensive.

2.6. General Administration

The administration of the education system is divided into three levels (central level, county level, municipal level) with different responsibilities:

● The State (the Ministry of Education and Research) has the overall responsibility for the whole education sector, including kindergartens, and administers directly the institutions of higher education and research.

● The counties are responsible for upper secondary education; for the running of the schools, the intake of pupils and the appointment of teachers.

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● The municipalities are responsible for kindergartens, primary and lower secondary education (compulsory education); for the running of the schools, the building and maintenance of school buildings, the intake of pupils and the appointment of teachers.

As for the financing of county and municipal government, the Norwegian national assembly has adopted a decentralised administrative structure, which delegate considerable authority and financial freedom of action to the county level. Block grants are given, and county and municipal authorities determine their activities according to existing legislation and regulations.

In addition, the Ministry emphasises the importance of placing local responsibility for didactical interpretation and adaptation with the school owner, in accordance with the Education Act and national regulations. One of the Government's aims is to change the system of administration from one entailing detailed regulation to one of management by stated objectives for the different public services. All state institutions are expected to use a system of planning that covers both the short term (the budget year) and the medium term (3-4 years or more). State institutions must also formulate their objectives through a dialogue with the responsible Ministry and establish a system for following up their results.

2.6.1. General Administration at National Level

At national level, the Ministry of Education and Research is assisted by the Directorate for Education and Training, National Education Offices as representatives of the Ministry in every county and various advisory bodies.

2.6.1.1. The Ministry of Education and Research

The Ministry of Education and Research is responsible for policy issues and for all matters of relevance to the educational system as a whole. The Ministry has some 300 employees. The budget amounts to 95 billion NOK in 2010. As the secretariat of the Minister, the Ministry prepares matters to be presented to the national assembly and prepares answers to questions/issues raised in the national assembly. The Ministry is also responsible for following up resolutions made in the national assembly, as well as for the overall administration of the education and research at a national level. In political positions there are two Ministers each with his/her advisers One State Secretary and a Political Adviser. In addition, the administrative head Secretary General, co-ordinates the activities of the departments and is responsible for the information service. The Ministry is divided into departments:

● Department of Early Childhood Education and Care

● Department of Education and Training

● Department of Higher Education

● Department of Policy Analysis, Lifelong Learning and International Affairs

● Department of Research

● Department of Governance and Finance

● Department of Administration and Development 24 EURYBASE NORWAY

● The Communication Unit

The Ministry of Education and Research has responsibiblty for the national Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergartens.

The Ministry of Education and Research has responsibility for national examinations and assessment in primary and secondary school, the development and approval of curricula, school management training, in- service training, school development programmes and outcome measures. To accomplish these tasks, the Ministry issues guidelines.

In higher education, the Ministry has approved study programmes following application from the institutions concerned, and in accordance with the provisions of the 2005 Universities and University Colleges Act. From 2003, the independent body The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) accredits the institutions that will have a right to offer officially approved courses, i.e. assess the courses and the academic environments and decide whether they fulfil the requirements for awarding degrees in the area concerned.

2.6.1.2. Directorate for Education and Training

The Directorate is the executive agency for the Ministry of Education and Research. In this capacity the Directorate has the overall responsibility for supervising education and the governance of the education sector, as well as the implementation of Acts of Parliament and regulations. The Directorate is also responsible for managing the Norwegian Support System for Special Education (Statped), state-owned schools and the educational direction of the National Education Centres.

The Directorate for Education and Training was operative from 15 June 2004. It replaced the Norwegian Board of Education, established in 1999 to take over the tasks from the National Centre for Educational Resources and the National Examination Board. The Directorate has its own board of directors.

The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training is responsible for the development of primary and secondary education. The objective of the Directorate is to ensure that all pupils and apprentices receive the high quality education they are entitled to.

The Directorate is responsible for all national statistics concerning primary and secondary education, and on the basis of these statistics initiates, develops and monitors research and development.

The Directorate has been assigned operative responsibility for curriculum development, educational research and development work, national examinations and assessment and certain tasks related to information.

The Directorate for Education and Training is responsible for the National Quality Assessment System (NQAS) for primary and secondary education. The aim of NQAS is to promote quality development throughout primary and secondary education and training. The system is based on a broad concept of quality, where information about five areas (learning results, learning environment, completion of upper secondary education resources and school facts provides the basis for follow-up and improvement. The information on school/municipal/county/national level is available on the web site www.skoleporten.no with the intention that it will contribute to quality development by providing a basis for informed decisions. The school owner is responsible for establishing a reliable system for following up the results of the NQAS.

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2.6.1.3. County Governor

The County Governor is the chief representative of King and Government in the county, and works for the implementation of Storting (Parliament) and central government decisions.

The Ccounty governors are the foremost representatives of the state government in the counties, administratively placed under The Ministry of Government Administration, Reform and Church Affairs. The county governor carries out tasks for 12 ministries and each ministry has the supervisory control in the relevant professional field.

In Norway, people meet the public sector in most walks of life. The most important administrative level is the municipality, or local government. They are responsible for the basic services of society. The County Governor explains central policy documents in the local context, being aware of each municipality’s ability to provide. Experts from the County Governor’s office supervise and monitor local activities, advise and instruct – with due respect to the political judgement of the local government.

In so doing, the County Governor acts as a guardian of civic rights. The County Governor may look into local decisions regarding the rights of any individual in the fields of health and social care, education, building and planning, and may change the decision to the benefit of the individual. Other important fields of action are environment protection, agriculture, emergency planning, local government finances and family matters.

The office of the county governor has the important task of monitoring basic education standards. This is done through documenting, evaluating and providing advice on educational matters. The office of the county governor also checks the legality of decisions made, handle complaints and processes appeals relating to basic education. Since 2006, County Governor's main task is inspecting the local governments to ensure that basic education is run in accordance with the Education Act.

The county governor administers the state grants relating to education and assists the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training in the implementation of the "Expertise for Quality - A Strategy for further education of teachers". Basic education examinations are also coordinated by the county governor’s office.

The office of the county governor assists the Ministry in implementing national kindergarten policy in the municipalities. The County Governor supervises, provides general information and advice, upholds the law in appeal cases, promotes service quality and development, awards government funds and encourages interdisciplinary cooperation with regard to kindergartens. The county governor’s office also has a role in achieving the main political goals of quality in kindergartens, For instance the County Governor administers state grants aimed at raising the kindergarten staff’s professional competence as part of national strategic plans in the sector.

The County Governor is also inspecting kindergarten authorities to ensure that early childhood education and care is in accordance with the Kindergarten Act.

An amendment concerning an individual, legal right to a place in kindergarten institution was introduced and put into effect in 2009. In order to ensure that the individual right to a kindergarten place is fulfilled the office of the county governor guides and supervises the municipalities.

In the field of higher education, their responsibility is limited to that of coordinating activities of relevance for the education sector, notably further education and training for teachers. 26 EURYBASE NORWAY

2.6.1.4. Advisory Bodies

Some advisory bodies for specified educational levels is placed administratively under one department in the Ministry as follows:

Department of Education and Training:

● National Parents' Committee for Primary and Secondary Education

● The National Council for Vocational Education and Training

● Vocational Training Councils (at present 9), each representing the social partners and being consulted in the production of training plans, curricula and examination regulation.

● Folk High School Council (not a state institution under the Ministry)

● The Sami assembly, Department of Education

Department of Higher Education:

● The Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Higher Education (SIU) is an agency that promotes international cooperation in education and research

● Norway Opening Universities (NOU) is a national political initiative in the field of lifelong and flexible ICT-supported learning in higher education

● The Norwegian Association of Higher Education Institutions (UHR), established by the state institutions, act as consultative body to the Ministry in addition to its other activities. Private university colleges have a separate association.

Department of Administration and Development/Department for Policy Analysis, Lifelong Learning and International Affairs :

● Vox National Centre for Learning in Working Life was established 1 January 2001 by merging the Norwegian Institute of Adult Education, the Norwegian State Institution for Distance Education, and the State Adult Education Centre. Vox is a national institute whose main purposes are to initiate, co-ordinate and document research and development projects about different aspects of adult education, to facilitate contact and collaboration among national actors to establish networks for adult education, and to disseminate results.

● Norwegian Association for Distant Education (not a state institution under the Ministry)

● Norwegian Association for Adult Education ( not a state institution under the Ministry)

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2.6.2. General Administration at Regional Level

There are 19 counties and 18 education regions in Norway (Oslo and Akershus county have joint administration). Each region has various administrative bodies for education:

The County Governor, including the former National Education Office, is the state's representative, covering all levels of education except higher education There is a County Education Committee with administrative responsibility for upper secondary education, and a County Vocational Training Board representing the social partners.

2.6.2.1. County Governor

The County Governor (see section 2.6.1.3 ).

2.6.2.2. County Education Committees

The counties are responsible for providing upper secondary education. Most counties have a County Education Committee, appointed by the County Council, which is responsible for running schools according to current laws and regulations, and for adult education at the upper secondary level. The Local Government Act of 1992 allows the county authorities to choose whether they wish to have a County Education Committee or if they want a different form of organisation, e.g. a committee with a wider mandate, covering other fields in addition to education. The committee is responsible for the intake of pupils, for the employment of teachers and for assisting in school development programmes.

2.6.2.3. County Vocational Training Boards

The main purpose of the County Vocational Training Board is to promote skill needs of the labourmarked to the administration at regional level, and contribute to raise the quality of vocational education. The County Vocational Training Boards shall particularly give advice concerning strategies for quality developement in the vocational education system in the county, and evaluate the system of quality assurance. The board is also responsible for securing the attainment of qualifications in vocational education and give advice conserning cooperation between schools and the regional labourmarket.

2.6.3. General Administration at Local Level

The municipalities are responsible for administering kindergartens (pre-primary education) and for administering primary and lower secondary schools (compulsory education) and other parts of adult education. The Municipal Council appoints the Municipal Education Committee. The County is responsible for intake of pupils (children and adults), for employing teachers, running schools, for giving courses in Norwegian as a second language to adults, and for securing co-operation between schools and advisory bodies in the municipalities in primary and lower secondary education.

It is the responsibility of the municipalities to adapt kindergartens to local needs, provide a sufficient number of institutions and ensure that they are run according to national regulations. The municipal authorities also influence the number of pre-primary teachers and assistants employed, their qualifications, the integration of children with disabilities, the standard of the buildings and the equipment, and the planning of inter- municipal co-operation on early childhood education and care issues. It is the responsibility of the municipality to establish co-operation between public and private kindergartens, the municipality's advisory 28 EURYBASE NORWAY bodies, primary education institutions and local institutions which kindergartens may benefit from co- operating with. It is also the responsibility of the municipality to develop routines to ensure two-way information between municipal authorities and the kindergarten.

2.6.4. Educational Institutions, Administration, Management

The administration and management of schools and institutions varies according to their level in the education system. Guidelines for the administration and management of all educational levels are stated in White Paper No 37 (1990-91). The municipality/county administration influences the extent of self- governance in schools/institutions in the municipality/county. In higher education, all institutions are administered by the Ministry of Education and Research, and follow the provisions laid down in Act of 1 April 2005 No 15 on Universities and University Colleges in this respect, as well as the general laws, agreements and provisions applicable to all state institutions. The Ministry is also responsible for monitoring private higher education.

2.6.4.1. Educational Institutions, Administration and Management at Pre-primary Level

The management of pre-primary institutions follows a national curriculum called Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergartens(2006) and the Act on Kindergartens (2005). The regulations are according to the following specifications:

● Decisions about the number of personnel employed should be taken on basis of the age of the children, the number of hours in institution and the educational programme. (On average, a kindergarten will have 2 to 3 staff for a group of 15 to 18 children above the age of three, and 2 to 3 staff for a group of 7 to 9 younger children.)

● Municipal and privately run kindergartens are responsible for the admission criteria. Special attention is given to children who need special assistance; children belonging to linguistic and cultural minorities and children whose home environment and play environment call for municipal assistance.

● The day-to-day management of the institution is the responsibility of the head- teacher. The head- teacher has a Co-ordinating Committee consisting of representatives of parents, staff and owners, to report and discuss important matters concerning the running of the institution. The Co-ordinating Committee shall establish an annual plan for the educational activity of the institution.

2.6.4.2. Educational Institutions, Administration and Management at Primary and Secondary Level

Primary, upper and lower secondary and adult education are administered and managed according to the Education Act (1998).

The head-teacher is the head of the school and therefore responsible for both the administrative and pedagogical aspects of running the school. In addition, depending on the size of the school, the staff of a primary/secondary school comprises 1-2 assistant head-teachers, 1-2-pupil counsellors, 1-2 social teachers and 1-4 administrative staff. The head-teacher is responsible for administrative activity and enforces decisions taken at various levels of the administration. The head-teacher is responsible for the school budget within the framework established by the municipality and county authorities, for contacts with parents and

29 EURYBASE NORWAY local authorities. Depending on the size of the school and the municipality, head-teachers also perform teaching activities.

A school may have a Management Board to assist the head-teacher in the management of the school.

In primary/lower secondary schools, a School Board has a say in the administration of the school and the education it provides. The School Board comprises representatives of the parents, the pupils, and the teaching personnel, other personnel and local municipal authorities. The head-teacher is the secretary of the School Board. In upper secondary schools, there are similar boards.

2.6.4.3. Educational Institutions, Administration and Management at Tertiary Level

The Ministry of Education and Research is responsible for all higher education institutions, with the exception of those of the police and the military sectors administered by the ministries of justice and defence respectively.

The higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education and Research consist of 38 state institutions: 6 universities, 5 specialised university institutions, 25 university colleges and 2 university colleges of art, in addition to 29 private institutions with recognised study programmes. For the state institutions, the administrative and organisational structure is laid down in Act No 15 of 1 April 2005 on Universities and University Colleges. A board with external representatives is the highest governing body of the state higher education institutions. The institutions cannot be instructed as to the content of their teaching, research or development work.

The overall system of administration and management of the higher education institutions is such that most (non-academic/non-artistic) fields of activity are regulated - either through legislation, royal decrees or regulations, or through agreements between the trade unions and national authorities. The trend is that the texts of such documents have gradually become less detailed. They now outline a framework for scope of decision-making, thereby building up a system of checks and balances in which there is always at least some room for the use of discretionary decisions at the institutions, after due consideration has been given to the need for national policy and national governance. In the field of financial management, for instance, the institutions are free to transfer allocated state funds between budget items (for example between those for salaries and for other ordinary running costs), within the limits laid down in relevant general regulations for all state institutions.

2.7. Internal and External Consultation

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

2.7.1. Internal Consultation

The Ministry of Education and Research initiates most development work for the whole educational field. The Ministry appoints committees with specific mandates on each issue. Committees appointed for curriculum planning, management procedures, evaluation issues etc. comprise representatives of national, county and municipal authorities, of educational institutions, and of universities or university colleges specialising in the matters in question.

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2.7.2. Consultation involving Players in Society at large

There are no formalized structures for consultation between single institutions and the local community. Most curricular documents, White Papers, etc. do, however, encourage institutions to take part in local community life, participate in local bodies and make use of local resources for instructional purposes. In the vocational training area, established forms of cooperation have been traditional between educational authorities and the two sides of industry, both at the national and the county level. The introduction of Reform '94 further developed and formalised this cooperation.

There are several unions organising teachers at primary and secondary level. The unions play an important role in the relationship between the Ministry of Education and the individual school as well as being external ''consultative bodies'' on educational issues.

2.7.2.1. Consultation at Pre-primary Level

In the national framework plan for kindergartens, it is stated that the parents and kindergartens supplement each other in the process of bringing up the child. The main responsibility lies with the family. The function of the kindergarten is primarily to provide a supporting and pedagogic environment for the child's development. Informal contact between the institution and parents is important. This is maintained through meetings with individual parents and with the whole group of parents. The relationship is in addition formalised through parents' participation on the Co-ordinating Committee of the institution and through a Parents' Council.

2.7.2.2. Consultation at Primary and Lower Secondary Level

At primary and lower secondary level, the parent-school relationship is formalised both at the national level and at the level of the individual institution. At the national level, there is the National Parents' Committee for Primary and Secondary Education. This committee has 9 members appointed for a four-year fixed term. At the institutional level, there is a Parents' Council of which all parents are members. The council elects a Working Committee. Two members of the Parents Council represent the parents in the School Board, which is an advisory body to the school's leadership. The pupils have their own Pupils' Council.

A number of municipalities have also established a Municipal Parents' Council. This is a co-ordinating body for all the schools in the municipality.

At the level of the individual institution in primary and secondary education, there are regulations covering parents' involvement in the overall organisation of the school and teacher-parent consultation, both in cases affecting individual pupils and in connection with the planning of class activities.

It is stated in the Education Act (1998) that two meetings between the class teacher and the parents of each pupil should take place every school year. The parents, the head teacher or the teacher responsible can initiate further contacts for any subject taught in the class. As far as the individual child is concerned, parents are defined as having the principal responsibility for the child's upbringing. In relation to the school's educational programme and the individual teacher, this implies that parents have the final say as far as their own child is concerned when disagreements arise. In most cases, however, the teacher plans the individual learning programme.

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It is common practice to have parents' meeting each semester, one in the autumn and one in the spring. The meetings have several objectives. One is to elect two parents to represent the group, assume some responsibility for organising class leisure activities, and serve as primary contact between the teacher and the parents. The other purpose of the meeting is to discuss issues raised during teaching hours at school as well as in the pupils' free time. The meeting also gives teachers the opportunity to inform the parents, as a group, about the year's work in all subjects, about special projects; trips etc. planned for the class and to convey information from the school leadership.

An increasing number of schools choose to inform parents by issuing annual or bi-annual newsletters. Schools are becoming more aware of the importance of information as a part of strategic planning and as a means to improving communication with the whole group of parents as well as with the rest of the local community.

Pupils have the same level of participation in internal committees at the institution as their parents. They have a separate Pupils' Council, and elect representatives to the School Board. There are national goals for pupil participation underlining the importance of the individual pupil's development as a democratically aware human being, as well as the importance of hearing the pupils' point of view in various educational and environmental issues.

Throughout compulsory school, work in class councils and pupils' councils is considered to be of great importance. Knowledge of democratic procedures and decision-making processes, supplemented by practical experience, is intended to help pupils express their own views and opinions so that they will be able to play an active part in the community. The work of class councils and pupils' councils is mostly linked to the general running of the school. Work in class councils is part of the national curriculum for lower secondary education.

2.7.2.3. Consultation at Upper Secondary Level

At upper secondary level 1 (Vg1), the parent-school relationship is formalised both at the national level and at the level of the individual institution. At the national level, there is the National Parents' Committee for Primary and Secondary Education. (See section 2.7.2.2.)

Parent-school relations are formally limited to a meeting for the parents of all pupils when they start the foundation course. The purpose of this meeting is to inform parents about choice of subjects, apprenticeship training regulations etc.

Pupils have their own Pupils' Council with representatives from each class. Pupil participation in county education authority meetings is not standardised nationally. It is a matter for the individual county to decide.

Both pupils and parents have representatives in the School Board along with the teachers and members from the other staff.

2.7.2.4. Consultation at Tertiary Level

The universities and university colleges shall contribute to innovation and value creation on the basis of the results of research and academic development work. They are furthermore obliged to cooperate with other higher education institutions (nationally and in other countries), local and regional civic and working life, public administration and international organizations.

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A certain external influence in the decision-making process at the state higher education institutions is also provided through the presence of external board members. Of the institutions' 11 board members, 4 are external. The institution's board nominates the external board members and their deputies, and they are appointed by the Ministry at its own discretion.

It should be noted, however, that the academic freedom of the higher education institutions is considered essential, and the text of the 2005 Universities and University Colleges Act contains an explicit reference that the institutions cannot be instructed as to the content of their teaching, research, or artistic/scientific development work. The social partners therefore do not have any influence over the content of study programmes.

2.8. Methods of Financing Education

All public, and most private, education institutions and training activities are subsidised by the central government.

For the primary and secondary levels, decision-making was decentralised with a sector grant system from 1986. The former earmarking of grants to primary and secondary education from central authorities to municipality/county authorities was abolished. It was replaced by a system whereby municipality/county authorities receive a lump sum, covering all central government support for school education and culture as well as the health service. Municipalities and counties thus have considerable autonomy in their expenditure decisions.

In a few fields, there are still earmarked grants, for instance for the teaching of mother tongue and Norwegian as a second language to immigrant children, and for the teaching of Norwegian as a second language to adult immigrants.

Institutions at pre-primary level receive earmarked grants from the Ministry of Education and Research through the municipalities. The costs are shared between the State, the municipalities and the parents.

Primary and lower secondary education, administered by the municipalities, is financed through grants from the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development and municipal tax revenue. Differences in the municipalities' economy are mainly due to size and to differences in municipal tax-revenue.

The county mainly finances the upper secondary schools through income taxes. The costs in this sector vary considerably from one region to another. Additional state subsidies and provisions are given to avoid regional disparities, e.g. to schools or vocational courses where recruitment is so low that courses otherwise cannot be organised in each county, and to schools for pupils with special needs. There are also special measures for the three northernmost counties.

Training establishments receive state grants through the county authorities to cover the cost of the training component in the period of apprenticeship in the establishment. They receive no financial assistance towards the component of productive work in the apprentice's programme.

Higher education institutions are funded directly by the Ministry of Education and Research. The total amount of funding to be granted is determined by the Storting (the Norwegian Parliament) as part of the annual budget. It is meant to cover most of the costs necessary for the running of the institutions. The funding of state institutions were earlier specified in three main categories: salaries and other ordinary costs,

33 EURYBASE NORWAY investments and new equipment, other costs, e.g. activities common to several institutions. Higher education institutions now receive a total block grant and are free to decide how to allocate between types of cost.

The funding model for higher education institutions was earlier broadly based on the number of students. The Quality Reform introduced a new performance-related funding model from 2002-2003. According to the new funding model, state allocations to the institutions consist of a block grant of around 60%, and two result based indicators for education (25%) and research (15%). The sizeable basic allocation reflects a wish to maintain the provision of adequate scope of the system and to protect the academic environments from short-term fluctuations. However, in order to obtain a closer link between performance and funding, the teaching and research allocations are based on various performance measures, e.g. course credit production, international student exchanges, number of graduates, and funding obtained from other sources.

State higher education institutions can earn complementary funds from fees for distance and continuing education courses, contract research, grants from research councils, international research grants, sale of publications, etc - provided the relevant national regulations for the sector are adhered to.

The education budget for primary and secondary education for adults is the responsibility of the municipal and county educational authorities, which are given a state grant for these purposes. The remaining adult education programmes are financed by earmarked grants or subsidised by the government. Grants are given to county authorities, municipalities, organisations and institutions, companies and national associations of companies in accordance with the requirements of the Adult Education Act. The study associations may also receive contributions from public funds according to rules set out in the same act. These contributions are given on the basis of implemented hours of adult education activity, and according to special applications for pedagogical development work etc. The main source of financing for the study associations is, however, the participant fees.

The State Educational Loan Fund allocates grants and loans to pupils and students according to an official cost of living estimate, stipulated annually. Over the past few years, this cost of living estimate has been regulated approximately in accordance with the inflation rate. An effort has been made to give a higher share of the total financial support awarded as grants. For a single student taking up the maximum grant and loan according to the cost of living estimate, the share of the grant was 13% of the maximum in 1992/93 and increased to 40% in 2005/06, provided all examinations were taken. (See section ##LINK$$2.9.##/LINK$$ for statistics on the education budget).

2.9. Statistics

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

2.9.1. Education Budget

The Ministry of Education and Research has proposed an education budget of 95 billion NOK for 2010. The allocation to the education sectors is as follows in million NOK:

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Pre-primary education 26,827

Primary and secondary education 6,335*

Adult education 1,294

Higher education 24,490

All education levels and research 9,961

State Educational Loan Fund 26,071

Total 94,980

* The main part of the educational budgets of the municipalities and counties, including funds allocated through the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, come in addition to these figures.

Source: The Ministry of Education and Research Prop. 1 S (2009-2010)

2.9.2. Student/Pupil Financing

2008/09

Numbers of students receiving loans 186 752

Number of students receiving grants 187 723

Total loans allocated (in million NOK) 14 349

Total grants allocated (in million NOK) 3 012

Average loan (in NOK) 76 438

Average grant (in NOK) 16 404

Total grants allocated include loans that are converted to grants at completed education with all examinations passed.

2.9.3. Number of Institutions

The figures refer to institutions 1 October 2008

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Kindergartens 6,705

Primary and lower secondary schools 2,997**

Upper secondary schools 445**

Folk high schools 74*

Vocational colleges -

Higher education institutions 66

* Source: The Ministry of Education and Research, Prop.1 S (2009-2010)

** Institutions 1 October 2009

Sources: Statistics Norway, Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training

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3. Pre-primary Education

Organisation of the education system in Norway, 2009/10

0 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Barnetrinnet Ungdomstrinnet UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE ÅPNE BARNEHAGER / GRUNNSKOLE VANLIGE BARNEHAGER / ≥ 2 UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE NO FAMILIEBARNEHAGER

VIDEREGÅENDE SKOLE

LÆRLINGORDNING FAGSKOLE

Pre-primary – ISCED 0 Pre-primary – ISCED 0 (for which the Ministry of Education is not responsible) (for which the Ministry of Education is responsible) Primary – ISCED 1 Single structure (no institutional distinction between ISCED 1 and 2) Lower secondary general – ISCED 2 Lower secondary vocational – ISCED 2 (including pre-vocational) Upper secondary general – ISCED 3 Upper secondary vocational – ISCED 3 Post-secondary non-tertiary – ISCED 4 Tertiary education – ISCED 5A Tertiary education – ISCED 5B Allocation to the ISCED levels: ISCED 0 ISCED 1 ISCED 2

Compulsory full-time education Compulsory part-time education Part-time or combined school and workplace courses Additional year -/n/- Compulsory work experience + its duration Study abroad Source: Eurydice.

Pre-primary education (kindergartens) is for children under school age, less than six years old. Participation is voluntary. Municipalities are responsible for the development and supervision of both private and municipal institutions and for ensuring that institutions are run according to goals set by the national Government. Pre- primary institutions are generally referred to as kindergartens. In Norwegian they are called barnehage, which is a direct translation of the German word Kindergarten.

3.1. Historical Overview

The first pre-primary institution, the ''child asylum'', was founded in Trondheim in 1837. Private associations ran most of the child asylums that were established. They offered whole-day programmes and children could enrol from the age of 2.

During the period from 1850 to 1900 there was no growth in the number of institutions.

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During the establishment of pre-primary institutions based on the philosophy and pedagogical principles of Friedrich Fröbel in 1920/1930, three parallel lines developed:

● Kindergartens based on a 4 hour-a-day educational programme, run by private associations, staffed by qualified pre-school teachers and mainly used by middle-class children.

● Day nurseries offered an 8-9 hour-a-day ''babysitting'' service. These were run by the municipality, required no qualifications of the personnel employed and recruited children mainly from the working class.

● The ''folkebarnehagen'' was a short-day educational programme, primarily aimed at working class children and based on the pedagogical principles of early childhood learning.

From 1945 to 1970, courses in pre-primary teacher education were offered, and requirements for qualified teachers in all institutions were introduced. After 1970 the number of institutions giving pre-primary education expanded quickly, and they were partly financed by the state. Social and pedagogical aspects were further integrated into the national guidelines and into the activities of all pre-primary institutions.

The term barnehage was given to all institutions, in the first Kindergarten Act of 1975. New Acts were passed in 1995 and 2005. In 1983 the legislation concerning the purpose of kindergartens was revised.

In general, there are three types of pre-primary institutions in Norway; ordinary kindergarten, family kindergarten and open kindergarten. They are all coeducational.

In 2002 the opposition parties in the Norwegian Parliament entered into an agreement for a reform on the financing of the pre-primary sector. Public funding from state and municipality was to be increased to cover 80 per cent of the costs. Correspondingly, parents’ fees were to be reduced and a maximum fee was to be established. The government was asked to make a proposal on how the agreement could be carried out. In 2003 the Conservative-Liberal Government presented a White Paper on Kindergarten offer to all – economy, variety and freedom of choice (No 24 2002-03), and a proposition on changes in the Kindergarten Act. The outcome of the parliamentary debate was a broad political agreement on changes in economic and legal means in the sector. Main objectives were expansion of the sector and reduced parents’ fees. The means were a strengthened municipal responsibility for the pre-primary sector and increased state financing.

To reach the goal of full acess the government increased the state grants for establishing and running of kindergartens. In 2008 87,2 % of children aged 1-5 years and 95,6 % of children aged 3-5 had a place in kindergarten. See 3.16 Statistics.

An individual, legal right to a place in a kindergarten institution was introduced and put into effect in 2009. The municipalities are obliged to provide a kindergarten place for children that have applied for a place and who are one year by the end of August in the year of admittance, In 2010 the maximum parental fee is NOK 2330,- per month. The ministry has established a teaching guide concerning transition from kindergarten to primary school.

3.2. Ongoing Debates and future Developments

The ministry has set up a strategy followed by yearly action plans to increase the number of pre-primary teachers and a strategy for the development of staff’s competence.

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The ministry has laid down an action plan for equality between the genders in kindergarten and primary school.

White Paper no 41 (2008-2009) Quality in kindergartens will be treated in the Storting in 2010.

The Storting has decided that the earmarked kindergarten state grants to municipalities will be replaced with block grants. As a part of this process the ministry is working on adjusting the rules concerning financing of non-municipal kindergartens, so these kindergartens will be treated equally with regard to public grants.

3.3. Specific Legislative Framework

Until the end of 2005, pre-primary institutions were the responsibility of the Ministry of Children and Family Affairs. They are now the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Research.

Pre-primary institutions are generally referred to as kindergartens (barnehager), defined as pedagogical undertakings for children under school age, e.g. for children less than six years. The Kindergarten Act No 64 of 17 June 2005, in force from 1 January 2006, regulates the authorisation, operation and supervision of the institutions. The institutions must be approved by local authorities.

The Ministry has laid down regulations according to the Act, among these is the Framework Plan (national curriculum) for the Content and Tasks of Kindergartens. The new Framework Plan was laid down 1 March 2006. All approved institutions are obliged to follow the Act and the Framework Plan.

Municipalities have since 1984 had a legal obligation to provide a sufficient amount of places in kindergarten institutions. An amendment concerning an individual, legal right to a place in kindergarten institution was introduced and put into effect in 2009.

The municipalities are the local authorities for kindergarten institutions. At present, almost half of the places are provided by private organisations under municipal supervision.

The Government covers a great part of the annual costs of all approved institutions, private or public. The rest of the costs are shared between the municipality and the parents. There are regulations concerning maximum parents’ fees. For children with special needs, such as disabled children and immigrants, the Government gives special economic support to municipalities. This support makes it possible to establish programmes for integrating children with special needs in kindergarten institutions.

3.4. General Objectives

Pre-primary institutions serve a dual function: they contribute to the education of children of pre-primary age, and they provide care during parents' working hours.

The kindergarten institution shall be a pedagogically arranged organisation that gives children below primary school age good opportunities for development and activities. The institution is a means to secure good conditions for children growing up, and is also a service offered to families. The kindergarten institution shall give children a safe and stimulating community, as well as individual support and care.

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Good, moderately priced and accessible places in kindergarten institutions are important in order to give all children equal opportunities. Places in kindergarten institutions may improve knowledge of the Norwegian language for children with minority language parents (immigrants), and may contribute to helping children in families with different types of problems. Early intervention is one of the governments main efforts to achive the goal of equal possibilities for learning and to equalize social differences.

The national curriculum, the Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergartens, states the general aims of pre-primary education. The plan must be used by all kindergartens and is based on the Nordic tradition of combining education and care.

3.5. Geographical Accessibility

Municipalities have a legal obligation to provide a sufficient amount of places in kindergarten institutions. State grants to cover parts of the annual running costs have increased. The rest of the costs are shared between the municipality and the parents.

Municipal kindergartens in towns often cater for children in the neighbourhood, often the same area as for primary school. Private non-profit organisations, commercial providers and groups of parents have also established institutions. At present, almost half of the places nationally are privately provided.

3.6. Admission Requirements and Choice of Institution/Centre

The municipality shall facilitate a coordinated admission process, in which account is taken of the diversity and distinctive character of the kindergartens. Great importance shall be attached to the wishes and needs of users in connection with the actual admission.

Attendance is not compulsory and there are no formal entrance requirements. For children with special needs, such as disabled children and immigrants, the government gives special economic support to municipalities. This support makes it possible to establish programmes for integrating children with special needs in kindergarten institutions.

3.7. Financial Support for Pupils’ Families

Parents normally pay a monthly fee to have their child/children in a kindergarten institution, according to regulations given by the government. Municipalities are obliged to provide discounts for siblings and reduced fees for low income families. Low income families may receive income-based differentiation of payment or they may apply for a free place.

Regulations concerning maximum fees entered into force in 2004. In 2010 the maximum fee is NOK 2330 per month.

A cash benefit scheme entered into force for 1-year-olds in August 1998 and for 2-year-olds in January 1999. The scheme is a state grant given to parents of children who do not attend a kindergarten institution full- time. It is possible to combine part-time attendance with a reduced cash benefit. The Norwegian state also pays a family allowance to all families with children aged 0 – 18 years.

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3.8. Age Levels and Grouping of Children

Ordinary kindergartens are usually divided into groups consisting of children either in the age group 0-2 years or 3-5 years. There may also be mixed age groups of children 0-5 years. This is up to the kindergarten owners or the kindergartens themselves to decide.

As paid parental leave of absence from work constitute almost one year, few parents apply for a place before the child is one year old.

There are no regulations concerning group sizes. Regulations to the Kindergarten Act states a norm for staff qualifications. The norm is one qualified pre-school teacher per 14-18 children over the age of three, and one qualified pre-school teacher per 7-9 children under the age of three. Head teachers and the rest of the teaching staff should be qualified pre-primary teachers. The pre-primary teacher education is a bachelor’s degree at a (state or private) university college. In addition, there are assistants without the same level of qualifications. They may have some formal education on upper secondary level as children and youth workers or care workers. There are generally one or two assistants in each group of children.

3.9. Organisation of Time

The kindergartens themselves decide the organization of time, in cooperation with the joint committee and the parents. Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

3.9.1. Organisation of the Year

The formal kindergarten year starts in August like the primary school year. In cooperation with the joint committee and the parents, the kindergartens themselves decide whether they will be closed or not during shorter and longer vacations like Christmas, Easter and summer holidays.

3.9.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable

There are no national regulations concerning weekly and daily timetable.

Most ordinary kindergarten institutions are open at least 41 hours a week (Monday – Friday) and some of them even longer. Children may attend part-time or full time, from 8 hours a week to about 47 hours a week. Full time attendance is 41 hours or more a week.

Normally the kindergarten institutions open at 7.00 or 8.00 in the morning and close at 17.00 or 18.00 in the afternoon. Parents in white-collar jobs usually have working hours from 8.00 to 15.30 or 16.00, while working hours in shops usually are eight hours between 10.00 and 20.00.

3.10. Curriculum, Types of Activity, Number of Hours

The Kindergarten Act instructs the Ministry to lay down a framework for the operation of institutions. The Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergartens states the fundamental principles, goals, contents and activities for all kindergartens, both public and private. Included in the Framework Plan are also

41 EURYBASE NORWAY the political and social functions of the institutions and the importance of early childhood as a life phase of intrinsic value.

Kindergartens shall take a holistic view of care, upbringing, learning and social and linguistic skills. Kindergartens shall be cultural arenas in which children help to create their own culture. The Framework Plan recommends seven basic themes or learning areas that all children shall be acquainted with:

● Communication, language and text

● Body, movement and health

● Art, culture and creativity

● Nature, environment and techniques

● Ethics, religion and philosophy

● Local community and society

● Numbers, spaces and shapes

Within each learning area there are national process aims.

According to the Kindergarten Act, the children themselves have a legal right to participate in all questions concerning their daily lives in kindergartens.

The daily programme consists of free time to play, out-door activities, playing in groups, supervised activities, meals and reading/show-and-tell time. The hours spent on the different activities vary, according to local needs and the children’s attendance time.

Cooperation with local schools is common, for instance by using swimming pools and gymnasiums. Kindergartens also make use of theatres, cinemas, museums, parks and other local facilities in order to let the children familiarize themselves with their local environment.

Within the frames of the kindergarten's opening hours, children may attend part-time (6 – 40 hours a week) or full-time (41 hours a week or more). In 2008, 83 % of the children attended full-time. See 3.16. Statistics.

3.11. Teaching Methods and Materials

The Framework Plan recommends play and social activities as important methods for learning and development for pre-primary children. The teachers are free to choose methods within the frames of the national plan. Play is considered both a working method and an important way for children to acquire life skills.

Each kindergarten must establish an annual plan for the educational activity based on the national curriculum. A concrete evaluation programme must be part of this plan.

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Most kindergartens base their activities on the principle that the children should develop all their skills and their personal and interpersonal relations. Most groups consist of children of different ages and at different stages in their development, and the staff often balance between organized acitivities and free playing activities.

3.12. Evaluation of Children

There is no formal evaluation of children at pre-primary level.

The teachers give informal evaluation to parents about their children’s progress in different fields once or twice a year. This information is normally given in person during meetings between the teacher and the parents of one child at a time. If the teacher finds that a child does not develop well or have any kind of problems, he or she is responsible for discussing her/his observation of this problem with the parents. The teacher is responsible for giving them advice on how to cope with this in the institution and at home, and how to get in touch with a specialist in the field.

Staff in kindergartens has a duty of disclosure to the social services and to the child welfare service if needed.

3.13. Support Facilities

The Kindergarten Act gives disabled children under school age admission priority, provided that it is deemed by an expert assessment that the child has a disability.

Children who are the object of an administrative decision pursuant to the Child Welfare Act shall also be entitled to priority for admission to kindergarten.

Some pre-primary institutions offer special educational programmes for groups of children with special needs, e.g. deaf or partially-hearing children.

Mother and child health clinics are part of the municipal health services provided for all children. Their activities comprise preventive and health-promoting activities for babies and infants. Children below compulsory school age are entitled to special education if a specialist regards this necessary. Assistance may be provided at home, at the kindergarten or in other ways. The municipal Educational-Psychological Counselling Service is responsible for providing and co-ordinating measures.

(For more information about special education see chapter 10.).

3.14. Private Sector Provision

All kindergarten institutions must be approved by local authorities. All approved institutions, public and private, receive state grants to cover part of the running costs. The rest of the costs is shared between the municipality and the parents.

Firms have established kindergarten institutions for the children of their employees. Private non-profit organisations, commercial providers and groups of parents have also estblished kindergarten institutions. The private sector provision constitutes almost half of the pre-primary education sector. In 2008, 46 per cent

43 EURYBASE NORWAY of the children attending kindergarten were in private institutions and 54 per cent of the kindergartens were private.

3.15. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures

Family kindergarten provides another type of pre-primary education, usually for children under the age of three. This type is organised in private homes, with a smaller group of children and an assistant under the supervision of a pre-school teacher, who normally has responsibility for several homes. Open kindergarten provides a third type of pre-primary education. Here parents may bring and accompany their children whenever they want within the opening hours of the kindergarten. These institutions can be regarded as places where pre-primary teachers, parents and children can meet. Open kindergartens are popular, especially among immigrant families in the major cities and among parents in parental leave.

3.16. Statistics

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

3.16.1. Number of Children

The figures refer to children in kindergarten institutions 15 December 2008

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Age Children in kindergarten Percentage in kindergarten for different age groups

1 All age groups 261,886 73,1

0 year 2,713 4,5

1 year 39,134 65,8

2 years 50,342 83,6

3 years 55,093 93,6

4 years 57,068 96,4

5 years 57,074 96,8

6 years 462 -

1-2 years 89,476 74,7

3-5 years 169,235 95,6

1-5 years 258,711 87,2

1 Children in open kindergartens are not included

An average of 83 % of children in kindergartens, or 217,411 children, had full-time places (41 hours or more a week). In addition 15,189 children attend kindergarten 33 - 40 hours a week.

Of children in kindergartens, 54% or approximately 141,502 children attended public institutions.

These figures refer to 261,886 children in ordinary kindergartens and family kindergartens. In addition 7,223 children attended open kindergartens with their parents.

Source: Statistics Norway

3.16.2. Number of Institutions

The figures refer to institutions 15 December 2008

All kindergartens 6,705

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Public kindergarten 3,082

Private kindergarten 3,623

Source: Statistics Norway

3.16.3. Number of Teachers

The figures refer to 15 December 2008.

Personnel in kindergarten 81,450

Personnel that are qualified pre-primary teachers 26,338

Source: Statistics Norway

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4. Single Structure Education

Organisation of the education system in Norway, 2009/10

0 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Barnetrinnet Ungdomstrinnet UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE ÅPNE BARNEHAGER / GRUNNSKOLE VANLIGE BARNEHAGER / ≥ 2 UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE NO FAMILIEBARNEHAGER

VIDEREGÅENDE SKOLE

LÆRLINGORDNING FAGSKOLE

Pre-primary – ISCED 0 Pre-primary – ISCED 0 (for which the Ministry of Education is not responsible) (for which the Ministry of Education is responsible) Primary – ISCED 1 Single structure (no institutional distinction between ISCED 1 and 2) Lower secondary general – ISCED 2 Lower secondary vocational – ISCED 2 (including pre-vocational) Upper secondary general – ISCED 3 Upper secondary vocational – ISCED 3 Post-secondary non-tertiary – ISCED 4 Tertiary education – ISCED 5A Tertiary education – ISCED 5B Allocation to the ISCED levels: ISCED 0 ISCED 1 ISCED 2

Compulsory full-time education Compulsory part-time education Part-time or combined school and workplace courses Additional year -/n/- Compulsory work experience + its duration Study abroad Source: Eurydice.

In Norway, there is a long tradition for combining primary and lower secondary education in a comprehensive and compulsory school system with a common legislative framework and a national curriculum. This chapter will deal with both levels in a single structure.

From 1997 Norwegian children start school during the calendar year of their sixth birthday. Compulsory education covers 10 years and consists of two stages:

● Primary stage: grades 1-7 (age 6-12)

● Lower secondary stage: grades 8-10 (age 13-16).

No formal division is made between the stages. Some schools cover all compulsory education, while others are purely primary schools or lower secondary schools.

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4.1. Historical Overview

The Norwegian school system can be traced back to the cathedral schools of the Middle Ages. In 1739, the first Education Act was passed, relating to rural schools. The first primary schools for the general public were run by the Church, and were established for the purpose of educating the population in religion. Reading, writing and arithmetic were taught, in addition to religion. The period of education was, however, brief and the quality of the teaching varied considerably.

During the 19th century primary education was gradually expanded. More subjects were taught and the number of years at school increased. 7 years of education became compulsory in 1889.

In 1969, primary education and lower secondary education were integrated into 9 years of education as compulsory for children from the age of seven. In 1997, compulsory education was extended to 10 years for children from the age of six.

Compulsory education has included a national curriculum since 1939. This first curriculum was revised during the 1950s. A major curriculum reform was implemented in 1974, based on curriculum guidelines and to a certain extent local adaptations. The curriculum was revised in 1987.

A new national curriculum for primary and lower secondary education was implemented in 1997 as a part of a major reform (Reform-97). The first step in this revision was the publication in 1993 of the Core Curriculum for primary, secondary and adult education. The new curricula for primary and lower secondary education provided the structure, organisation and content of the 10-year compulsory school.

For the first time in Norwegian educational history, a complete Sami curriculum was introduced for pupils living in Sami administrative regions.

From 1 January 1999, all municipalities are required by law to provide day-care facilities for school children (SFO) before and after school hours for all pupils in grades 1-4.. Guidelines for financing and approval of such day-care facilities are laid down in acts and regulations. The municipalities shall also approve and oversee private day-care facilities that receive state support. The parents pay fees set by the municipality.

The implementation and results of Reform 97 were extensively evaluated. The objective of providing education that is adapted and customised to each individual pupil’s needs was not successfully met. A disproportionately high number of pupils did not acquire basic skills that are good enough. This was also confirmed by the results of international surveys. To improve the education, a Quality Committee for primary and secondary education was appointed in 2001.

In 2002, the Quality Committee submitted its partial report (NOU 2002:10) “First Class from Class One. Proposals for a framework for a national quality assessment system for Norwegian primary and secondary schools". Following Government proposals, the national assembly (Storting) was in unison in favour of the development of such a system. The National Quality Assessment System (NQAS) was developed and is operated by the Directorate for Education and Training. The system is based on a broad concept of quality. Skoleporten, a key part of the national quality assessment system, is the web service the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training uses to provide schools and school owners with relevant and reliable data about primary and secondary education. The web site provides data relating to the fields of learning dividends, learning environment, completion of upper secondary education, resources and school facts,

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The four fields of learning dividends, learning environment, completion of upper secondary education and resources are called "assessment areas" as they contain relevant information for local assessment activities. The field "school facts" provides facts about Norwegian schools. See section 9.5.

In June 2003, the Quality Committee submitted its main report (NOU 2003: 16) “First and Foremost. Improved quality in primary and secondary education for all”. The proposals were sent out for broad consultation, as usual. In April 2004, the Government presented the White Paper “Culture for Learning” (No. 30 2003-2004).

The Knowledge Promotion is the latest reform in the 10-year compulsory school and in upper secondary education and training. It introduces certain changes in substance, structure and organisation from the first grade in the 10-year compulsory school to the last grade in upper secondary education and training.

One of the main goals of Knowledge Promotion is to help all pupils to develop basic skills that will enable them to participate actively in a knowledge society. The Norwegian school system is inclusive; there must be room for all. Everyone is to be given the same opportunities to develop their abilities. The Knowledge Promotion, with its special emphasis on learning, is meant to help ensure that all pupils receive an adapted education.

The reform took effect in autumn 2006 for pupils in grades 1-9 in 10-year compulsory school and for pupils in their first year of upper secondary education and training (i.e. the 11th grade).

The main points of the Knowledge Promotion reform are:

● Basic skills (the ability to express oneself orally, the ability to read, numeracy, the ability to express oneself in writing, and the ability to use digital tools) are given priority and greater attention, as they are important for pupils’ professional and personal development. Basic skills are integrated in curricula for all subjects in all grades.

● The number of lessons in primary school, especially in the first four grades, has been increased in order to improve the pupils’ basic skills.

● Subject curricula are clarified to express clear objectives specifying the level of competence expected from pupils at each level.

● In order to create better continuity and teacher cooperation in primary education, the division in elementary stage (grades 1-4) and intermediate stage (grades 5-7) is removed.

● In order to allow for increased flexibility in the organisation and customisation of the education, up to 25 % of the number of lessons in each subject at all levels can be used more freely according to local conditions and individual needs.

● A Quality Framework defines the principles for developing optimal learning environments and learning achievements.

● In order to achieve quality development, schools must be able to recruit competent, committed and motivated teachers and school management. Entrance requirements have been introduced for general teacher education. School owners will be supported by national authorities in competence development for

49 EURYBASE NORWAY teachers, head teachers and school administrators, including further education for teachers in priority subjects.

● Schools will have increased flexibility in how they organise cooperation with parents.

● Cooperation between schools and the local business community will be further stimulated.

The national curriculum for Knowledge Promotion which encompasses the 10-year compulsory school and upper secondary education and training as a whole was implemented from 2006/2007. The natural progression and coherence between compulsory schooling and upper secondary education and training has been made evident, and subject curricula are continuous for the entire period of schooling wherever possible. It is possible for lower secondary pupils to study parts of subjects taken from ordinary upper secondary curriculum.

A separate curriculum is designed for Sámi Knowledge Promotion to be used in Sámi administrative districts.

The Act on Independent Schools was renamed Act on Private Schools 1. July 2007, and has over the years undergone both minor and major revisions. The most significant of these revisions is that some of the earlier requirements regarding conditions for approval have been more or less reinstated, as the requirement that the private school constituted a pedagogical or religious alternative (i.e. Steiner and Montessori schools, schools for various religious congregations).

4.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

There has been a debate on the principle of autonomy and responsibility of local authorities, schools and teachers, and questions have been asked if there is competence and capacity locally to fill the task of implementing new curricula. As a consequence The Directorate for Education and Training develop electronic guidelines to some of the subject curricula to support schools and teachers in their efforts to implement the curricula.

The Ministry of Education and Research has launched a two-year national pilot project, involving up to 100 groups of pupils in grades six and seven, starting in the 2010-2011 school year. Participating schools will offer two additional lessons/hours per week in foreign languages other than English, currently not an option earlier than grade eight. The aim is to gain knowledge about feasibility and local needs.

The Directorate for Education and Training is also carrying out a national pilot scheme involving more than 150 schools where the idea is to give pupils the opportunity to experience content and methods in vocational education programmes.

Another pilot scheme is Overall school day (Helhetlig skoledag). New forms of co-operation between school and after school care/orher activites, learning processes, learning environment and pupils' learning outcomes are in focus in the various models which are being developed and tested at nine selected project schools, divided between six counties.

The School Development Programme, Kunnskapsløftet – fra ord til handling (Knowledge Promotion – from word to deed, 2005 - 2010) takes as its starting point that schools can improve their pupils’ academic and social learning by developing as organisations. The programme initiates quality assessment and practical development projects in primary and secondary schools, including schools with little previous experience in

50 EURYBASE NORWAY such projects. Some projects involve kindergardens in order to improve early childhood education and care. National funding gives the schools a possibility to cooperate with external competence environments (researchers, consultants, local professionals etc). From the documented main challenges concerning the pupils’ learning for a school, the participants are to plan and implement holistic measures linked to organisation, leadership, use of staff, roles and career plans, use of human resources in the community, the use of support tools etc. It is not least a question of schools as social institutions, about improved interaction with the school owners, parents and the local business and working community, about systematic cooperation with professional bodies and about participation in international networks. The programme has partly contributed to further national policy development through a new programme for guidance (Veilederkorpset 2009 – 2010) mentioned in the Report to the Storting no 31 (2007 – 2008) Quality in Education. The new programme is introduced as a pilot project in two counties from 2009 to 2010 and draws upon experiences made within the former, with guidance as a method for improving schools and organisastions.

4.3. Specific Legislative Framework

Public primary and secondary education are administered and managed according to the Education Act, Act No 61 of 17 July 1998.

The Act concerns primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education in publicly maintained schools and training establishments unless otherwise specifically laid down.

The Act concerns private primary and lower secondary schools that do not receive state support pursuant to the Private Education Act and private tuition at home at the primary and lower secondary levels.

For education designed specifically for adults, for which the municipality or county authority is responsible, chapter 4A in the Education Act shall apply.

Private primary and secondary education are regulated by the Act on Private Schools, Act No 84 of 4 July 2003.

The Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion, with status as a regulation, includes the following:

● The Core Curriculum, - a general part – for primary, secondary and adult education (1993)

● The Quality Framework

● Subject curricula

● A Framework Regulating the Distribution of Periods and Subjects

Sign language has official status as a minority language, developed for deaf and hearing impaired pupils.

The quality framework summarises and elaborates on the provisions in the Education Act and its regulations, including the National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion in Primary and Secondary Education and Training, and must be considered in light of the legislation and regulations.

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4.4. General Objectives

The Education Act, Act No 61 of 17 July 1998, relating to primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education, gives all children the same statutory right to 10 years of schooling. According to the Act, the objectives of education and training are:

Education and training in schools and training establishments shall, in collaboration and agreement with the home, open doors to the world and give the pupils and apprentices historical and cultural insight and anchorage.

Education and training shall be based on fundamental values in Christian and humanist heritage and traditions, such as respect for human dignity and nature, on intellectual freedom, charity, forgiveness, equality and solidarity, values that also appear in different religions and beliefs and are rooted in human rights.

Education and training shall help increase the knowledge and understanding of the national cultural heritage and our common international cultural traditions.

Education and training shall provide insight into cultural diversity and show respect for the individual’s convictions. They are to promote democracy, equality and scientific thinking.

The pupils and apprentices shall develop knowledge, skills and attitudes so that they can master their lives and can take part in working life and society. They shall have the opportunity to be creative, committed and inquisitive.

The pupils and apprentices shall learn to think critically and act ethically and with environmental awareness. They shall have joint responsibility and the right to participate.

Schools and training establishments shall meet the pupils and apprentices with trust, respect and demands, and give them challenges that promote formation and the desire to learn. All forms of discrimination shall be combated.

The school environment is of great importance to pupils’ well-being and learning results. Chapter 9a of the Education Act establishes that "all pupils in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools are entitled to a good physical and psycho-social environment that will promote health, well-being and learning". The schools must work systematically to follow up the pupils’ school environment and implement measures to comply with the requirements of the Education Act.

The Core Curriculum of 1993 has been retained as the general part I of the 2006 National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion (LK06). The main aims stated in the Core Curriculum are something to work towards and to measure progress by.

The aim of the Knowledge Promotion Reform of 2004 is “to sustain and develop the best in basic education (understood as compulsory and upper secondary education), with a view to ensuring that pupils are better able to meet the challenges of the knowledge society. The competence aim are stated more clearly. The basic skills of pupils and apprentices are strengthened. At the same time, the schools’ central role as mediator of values, general educational standards and culture will be safeguarded. Schools meet pupils and families from increasingly diverse backgrounds. All pupils and apprentices have a right to adapted and

52 EURYBASE NORWAY differentiated learning and teaching programmes, according to their own requirements and needs. It is a precondition of equality of opportunity that all pupils and apprentices are given the same chance to develop their knowledge.”

The Learning Poster, as part of ,the Quality Framework, includes 11 basic commitments, mandatory in all primary and lower secondary schools (as well as in upper secondary schools and apprenticeship training work-places. All schools shall:

● Give all pupils an equal opportunity to develop their abilities individually and in cooperation with others.

● Stimulate pupils’ motivation, perseverance and curiosity.

● Stimulate pupils’ development of their own learning strategies and of their capacity for critical thought.

● Stimulate pupils’ personal development and identity, and assist them in the development of ethical, social and cultural competence, and democratic understanding and participation.

● Encourage pupil participation, and enable pupils to make conscious value judgments and decisions on their educational needs and future work.

● Promote adapted teaching and varied working methods.

● Stimulate, exploit and develop the individual teacher’s competence.

● Contribute to teachers being evident leaders and role models for children and young people.

● Ensure that the physical and psycho-social learning environment promotes health, joy and learning.

● Prepare for cooperation with the home and ensure parents’/guardians’ co-responsibility in the school.

● Prepare for the local community to be involved in education in a meaningful way.

4.5. Geographical Accessibility

Municipalities are responsible for primary and lower secondary education. Norway has a scattered population and the school system is adapted to local demographic patterns. There are a relatively large number of small schools situated in rural remote and sparsely populated areas. The few pupils in different grades are taught in the same classroom.

In rural municipalities, children living far from their schools daily commute to their schools by free bus services. Along the coast, children go by boat from remote islands to schools in larger islands or on the mainland. Remote areas may have local schools that cater only for the youngest children in grades 1-4.

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4.6. Admission Requirements and Choice of School

All pupils shall start primary education in the calendar year of their sixth birthday. If, exceptionally, a child enters school at age 5 or 7, the decision is taken by municipal authorities based on parental consent and expert assessment.

There are no admission requirements. According to the Education Act, pupils attending the primary and lower secondary school who have a mother tongue other than Norwegian or Sami have the right to special education in Norwegian until they are sufficiently proficient in Norwegian to follow the normal instruction of the school. If necessary, such pupils are also entitled to mother tongue instruction, bilingual subject teaching, or both.

The general rule is that pupils attend the public school that is closest to where they live, or the school designed for the area where they live. On application, a pupil may be accepted for another school if there are available places.

Compulsory education (grades 1-10) in public institutions is provided free of charge and school materials are free.

Fees are charged in private schools, which usually receive public funding (approx. 85% of total expenses).

4.7. Financial Support for Pupil’s Families

There is no financial support for pupils’ families, since compulsory (primary and lower secondary) education and school materials are free in public schools.

4.8. Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils

The compulsory school is now, with the Knowledge Promotion reform, organised in two stages:

● Primary stage: grades 1-7 (age 6 to 12)

● Lower secondary stage: grades 8-10 (age 13 to 16)

Some schools have pupils at all stages. Dividing compulsory education between two schools is often done for practical reasons, such as the number of pupils, the size of the buildings and traditions in the local area.

Norway has a scattered population and the school system is adapted to local demographic patterns. Some schools may have very few pupils, and it is therefore inappropriate to divide pupils into grades according to the year they were born. In these multigrade schools, the same teacher teaches pupils of different ages in the same classroom, but teaching is adapted to the levels of the pupils. Multigrade schools have been approximately one third of all schools, but with less then one tenth of all pupils.

Compulsory education is comprehensive and coeducational. The aim is to offer all children an education that is adapted to their individual abilities. This principle applies just as much to the education of children with learning difficulties or other handicaps as to children with exceptional abilities, be these theoretical, practical,

54 EURYBASE NORWAY physical or aesthetic. Extra resources, mostly extra teachers, can be allocated to pupils with learning difficulties or other special educational needs. (See chapter 10. about special education.)

Flexibility on local level in organising learning activities is the norm since the school year 2004/2005. The earlier understanding of the term class does formally not exist any more, children in the same grade belong to groups. A group may also have pupils from different grades. There are no regulations as to group size, but the size shall be pedagogically justifiable. Two or more teachers may cooperate in teaching a group of pupils. A contact teacher shall have the same functions as the earlier class teacher.

(For statistics see section 4.18.).

4.9. Organisation of School Time

Regulations for lessons per year in each subject are given in the National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion. The organisation of school time is the responsibility of the local school. .

The minimum number of teaching hours at primary level has been increased in later years by the Ministry of Education and Research, especially in the first four grades. Physical activity is introduced as a compulsory activity and allocated a minimum numbers of hours (grades 1 – 7).

4.9.1. Organisation of the School Year

The school year of primary and lower secondary education consists of 38 weeks (190 days) for pupils and 39 weeks for teachers.

The school year starts in mid-/late August and ends approximately in mid-June in the whole education system.

There are usually four short vacations during the school year. These are one week in late September/October, two weeks at Christmas, one week in February, and one and a half weeks at Easter. The summer vacation lasts around 8 weeks.

4.9.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable

The school week is five days. Teaching hours are given in 60-minute units.

One main concern in primary education has been providing day-care facilities (SFO) before and after school hours for pupils in grades 1-4. Since 1999, all municipalities are required by law to provide such facilities, and they receive state support for this purpose. In addition, parents pay a monthly fee. Day-care facilities must provide amenities for play and participation in cultural and recreational activities appropriate for the age, level of physical ability and interests of the children. They must also provide satisfactory development conditions for children with physical disabilities. In many schools, there is co-operation with local organisations within sports, music and other areas. Opening hours are generally from 8.00 am to 5.00 p.m., but not during school hours. Both opening hours and the monthly fee vary between municipalities. From 2010 every school will organise homework assistance for pupils in grades; compulsory for the municipality to organise, but voluntary for the pupils. Homework assistance will normally be organised through cooperation between school and SFO.

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4.10. Curriculum, Subjects, Number of Hours

The National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion Kunnskapsløftet 2006, encompasses the 10-year compulsory primary and secondary education and upper secondary education and training as a whole. A separate Sami curriculum is to cover the overall education of pupils living in certain Sami administrative regions of Norway where there are long traditions of Sami language and culture.

The curriculum consists of:

• The Core Curriculum

• The Quality Framework

• Subject Curricula

• A Framework Regulating the Distribution of Periods and Subjects

The core curriculum of 2003 deepens appreciation for basic values and the view of humanity underlying the instruction and is continued in the new curriculum: Knowledge Promotion.

The Quality Framework clarifies the school owners’ (municipalities’ and counties') responsibility for an all- round education in accordance with established regulations and guidelines and adapted to local and individual needs and qualifications.

The distribution of teaching hours per subject for the 10-year compulsory school is established for primary schooling as a whole (grades 1-7) and for lower secondary schooling (grades 8-10). The school owner (municipalities) is responsible for the distribution of teaching hours at each level.

To improve each pupil’s access to differentiated education, municipalities may reassign 25% of the classes for a given subject. This can be done when it is likely that it will help pupils attain the goals for their subjects as a whole. The subject syllabus goals cannot be deviated from, even if classes are reassigned. Any reassignment must take place in cooperation with the home and requires the consent of each pupil or apprentice, as well as their parents or guardians.

Technology and design are introduced as an interdisciplinary topic at primary and lower secondary level. Schools are also encouraged to make room for increased physical activity for all pupils, and to raise awareness of nutrition and diet.

The Ministry of Education and Research decides on a minimum number of teaching hours in different subjects during each stage in compulsory education (the Framework for Regulating the Distribution of Periods and Subjects). The municipalities are free to offer children more teaching periods than the minimum.

Minimum allocation of hours in compulsory education (2009/10):

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Subject Grades 1 - 4 Grades 5 - 7 Sum Grades 8 - 10 Sum Compulsar y education

Norwegian 931 441 1 372 398 1 770

Mathematics 560 328 888 313 1 201

English 138 228 366 227 593

Physical activity 0 76 76 0 76

Grades 1 – 7

Natural Science 328 256 584

Foreign Language/ in- 0 0 227 227 depth studies in languages (Norwegian, English, Sami)

Social Studies and History 385 385 256 641

Religion, Philosophies of 427 427 157 584 Life and Ethics

Arts and Crafts 477 477 150 627

Music 285 285 85 370

Food and Health 114 114 85 199

Physical Education 478 228 706

Class council and pupils’ 0 0 71 71 council

Elective Programme 0 0 113 113 Subjects

All subjects 5 196 2 566 7 762

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The organisation of school time is primarily the responsibility of the local school administration.

4.11. Teaching Methods and Materials

One of the main principles set for Knowledge Promotion is the introduction of more freedom at local level with respect to local curriculum work and the choice of work methods, teaching materials and the organisation of classroom instruction

The new subject curricula contain clear competence aims at specified grades. In assigning such skills targets, the subject curricula are expressing high academic ambitions for all pupils, who in varying degrees should be able to reach the targets that have been set. Each pupil shall be stimulated to the best realization of his or her goals through differentiated education. If a pupil is not benefiting properly from ordinary lessons, he or she is entitled to special tuition.

Under the Knowledge Promotion, schools are to prioritize the cultivation of basic skills in all subjects. The basic skills being an important foundation for all other learning have been incorporated into the subject syllabuses for all subjects. All teachers are therefore responsible for enabling pupils and apprentices/trainee teachers to develop basic skills through their work in various subjects. An emphasis on reading and writing from the first grade in the 10-year compulsory school is an integral part of the Knowledge Promotion.

The subject curricula for Knowledge Promotion focus on active, enterprising and independent pupils. Pupils should learn by doing, exploring and experimenting, and in so doing should acquire new knowledge and understanding. The working methods chosen should contribute to the process whereby pupils develop new perspectives and encounter new impulses. The working methods should also present them with challenges, which, together with their active participation and individual efforts, will build up their competence and self- respect. Suitably adapted education presupposes a variety of methods to allow for the different abilities and aptitudes of the pupils.

Pupil participation is a basic principle of the national curriculum. The pupils will gradually be given more responsibility for planning their own learning, and at the lower secondary stage, they shall share the responsibility for planning and evaluating the tasks they carry out themselves, or together with others.

Education for democracy is a major, basic school responsibility. Acquaintance with democratic working methods and decision-making procedures must be complemented by practical activities which give the pupils experience, a real say in, and shared responsibility for, shaping the environments in which they grow up and learn.

Teaching materials comprise textbooks, ICT-related aids, sound and images produced with specific learning objectives in view. There are no prescribed textbooks. Items originally produced for other purposes, such as newspaper articles, feature films or literary works, can also be used as learning material. In subjects other than Norwegian, teaching materials may only be used when they are simultaneously available in both Bokmål and Nynorsk at the same time and at the same price. In special cases the Ministry may make exceptions from this rule. Local education authorities are responsible for supplying schools with teaching aids which are free for pupils. Teaching materials should motivate and activate pupils and help them to develop good working habits. They should encourage both independent work and collaboration between pupils. Teaching materials must be chosen so as to serve the purposes of varied and individually adapted work. Pupils with special needs require teaching aids, which take their abilities and aptitudes into account. Teaching materials are not subject to government overview with the exception of those produced through

58 EURYBASE NORWAY the public grant scheme. Government policy in this case is that teaching materials should recognise universal design and diverse cultural backgrounds.

School libraries have a central place in education and serve as centres of cultural activity and sources of information and materials.

In their education, pupils should acquire knowledge about, insight into, and positive attitudes to the information society and information technology.

There are no regulations as to how much, if any, homework pupils should have.

4.12. Pupil Assessment

By means of various forms of assessment, pupils' learning and the instruction provided by schools are to be viewed in relation to the objectives, the contents and the principles of the national curriculum. Assessment must relate to and provide a basis for guidance and be a pointer to the further learning and development of the pupils. Assessment should inspire teachers to think through, plan, and improve their teaching. In addition to this it should provide a source of information for other educational institutions and for employers about the competence pupils have acquired on the completion of their school education.

The main purpose of pupil assessment is to promote learning and development. Assessment gives pupils, parents and teachers feedback on pupils' progress, on educational processes and their results. Assessment must be designed to enable pupils to consider their own work and progress, motivating them to work and use their abilities. Pupils should play an active part in assessment and get practice in taking responsibility for and evaluating their own work.

In recent years, there has been a development in Norwegian schools in favor of putting greater emphasis on continuous and formative assessment. Individual assessment without marks is part of the day-to-day learning process, and is included in the regular planned conferences between teachers, pupils, and parents or guardians. Using the objectives in the national curriculum as a frame of reference, assessment should emphasise individual aptitudes, learning processes and results. Individual advice must be given to pupils on how they should work in the future.

Assessment at the primary stage (grades 1-7) does not involve the awarding of marks. At lower secondary stage (grades 8-10), a system of marks is introduced as part of the ongoing assessment and as a part of the final assessment. Ongoing assessment should be seen in conjunction with final assessment, which provides information about the achievement of the pupil after the conclusion of teaching in the subject. These marks have the objectives and contents of the subject curricula as their starting point. A numerical marking system on a 6-to-1 scale has been introduced, 6 being the top mark and 1 the lowest.

At the end of grade 10, national examinations are conducted. Pupils are required to take a centrally set written examination in one of three subjects: Norwegian, Mathematics, Sami or English. Every year it is decided locally which groups of students will take each of the four subjects. Pupils are told only a few days before the examination what will be their subject. The national exams are marked externally. Exams are compulsory except for pupils with individual teaching programmes, for whom it is up to the parents to decide. Pupils in independent schools based on Rudolph Steiner pedagogical principles are exempted from national exams.

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Most pupils will also have to sit an oral examination, which is organised locally. The oral examination may be in any of the school subjects, except Arts and Crafts, Home Economics and Physical Education. In those subjects where the pupils have not taken an examination, the final mark is given on the basis of the teacher’s assessment of the pupil throughout the year.

National tests in pupils’ basic skills (reading in Norwegian, English and Mathematics) for pupils in primary school, grade 5, and lower secondary school, grade 8, are part of the National Quality Assessment System (NQAS), where results from schools are made public through the website www.skoleporten.no. The main purpose of the national tests is to collect information about pupils’ basic skills and to be instruments for improvement and development activities locally and centrally Results from national tests shall give the teacher a better starting point for adapting the teaching to individual pupils and plan tempo, methods and contents. Starting with the 2007-2008 school year, a compulsory mapping test in reading skills, compulsory mapping test for number comprehension and mathematics skills for the second grade is given. A compulsory mapping test in reading skills for pupils in primary school grade 1and a voluntary mapping test in number comprehension and mathematics skills for pupils in primary school grade 3 were introduced for the first time in spring 2009. A compulsory mapping test in reading skills in primary school, grade 3, is to be introduced in spring 2010. In autumn 2010 a compulsory mapping test in reading skills and a voluntary test in English is to be introduced in upper secondary school, grade 11.The purpose of the mapping tests is for teachers and schools to identify which pupils may need additional follow up and adaptation. The mapping tests contain mainly easy tasks, so as to provide good information about the weakest pupils. See section 9.5.1.

4.13. Progression of Pupils

Pupils progress automatically to the next grade at the end of a school year throughout compulsory education. Pupils in difficulty may receive additional educational support.

After completing compulsory lower secondary school, all young people between the ages of 16 to 19 are entitled to three years of upper secondary education.

4.14. Certification

Upon leaving school, all pupils receive a certificate indicating the subjects taken, the latest marks for the year’s work and the examination results. The marks are used as one of the more important criteria for further education in upper secondary school, i.e. when it comes to selecting an area of study and being admitted into a chosen school. All pupils leaving lower secondary school are entitled to three years of further education at upper secondary level.

4.15. Educational Guidance

According to §22-2 and §22-3 in the Regulation to the Education Act pupils have an individual right to receive two kinds of guidance: social pedagogic guidance and educational and vocational guidance. Guidance counsellors are obliged to be up to date on educational options and labour market needs. Therefore, and in order to secure the quality of the service, guidelines for guidance counsellors’ educational competences have been established. The effectiveness of this initiative is yet to be evaluated. This guidance service is supposed to be known to pupils and their parents, and be accessible for pupils at their own school.

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The right to necessary guidance implies that the pupil has access to information, guidance, follow-up, as well as help to adapt well into the school environment and to make decisions on future vocational and educational choices. The guidance is intended to help decrease social inequality, prevent dropout and to integrate ethnic minorities. The pupil is entitled to receive the help he or she needs to facilitate personal development and to exploit individual resources, unlimited by traditional gender roles.

(For information about special education see chapter 10.).

4.16. Private Education

Norway has a very small private education sector, compared to most countries. The private schools have 2,58 % of the pupils. The rest of the pupils are in municipal schools.

With the exception of a few private schools, none of the private schools are fully private, i.e. entirely financed by parents’ fees or non-governmental organisations. Private schools approved on the basis of the Act of Private Schools, are grant-aided, they usually receive 85 % of total expenses as public grants – provided they are approved by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training.

According to the Education Act, a private primary or lower secondary school has to constitute either a religious alternative, a pedagogical alternative that is generally recognised, or follow internationally certified curriculum, in order to be approved. In addition to this, primary or lower secondary schools that accommodate pupils with special needs regarding adapted education, and Norwegian primary or lower secondary schools situated abroad, may be approved. Furthermore, the approving authority now has an exclusive right to decide whether an applying school is to be approved or not. Fulfilling the formal requirements does not give a right of approval. As a result there is no longer a substantial increase in the number of approved private primary or lower secondary schools.

With regard to foreign and international primary and lower secondary schools in Norway, the Ministry may grant exemptions from the requirements laid down in the Education Act.

4.17. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures

Due to the comprehensiveness of the public school system there are few alternative primary and lower secondary institutions or organisational variations.

Schools with pupils in all grades are called fully graded schools (fulldelte skoler). However, Norway has a relatively large number of small schools situated in rural remote and sparsely populated areas. The few pupils in different grades are there taught in the same classroom. Such multigraded schools (fådelte skoler) have constituted approximately one third of all schools, but with less than one tenth of pupils. The difference between fully graded and multigraded schools is now less applicable, since the system of age-graded classes has been replaced with varying grouping of pupils.

A few (less than hundred) pupils are taught at home. In some cases, this is because the parents prefer this kind of family life and have objections to the official school policy. In other cases, the reason is that the local population is not sufficient to maintain a school. Instead of long travel or boarding, the child might stay at home and receive teacher guidance using different kinds of teaching aids.

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4.18. Statistics

4.18.1. Number of Pupils

Number of pupils in primary and lower secondary school (2009/10)

Pupils in all primary and lower secondary schools: (excluding Norwegian schools abroad, including special classes and separate classes for minority 615,930 language pupils)

- Pupils in primary stage 424,055

- Pupils in lower secondary stage 191,831

Pupils in public primary and lower secondary schools 600,002

-Pupils in primary stage 414,274

-Pupils in lower secondary stage 185,694

Pupils in private schools 15,928

-Pupils in primary stage 9,781

-Pupils in lower secondary stage 6,137

% of >Number of pupils per school pupils

Less than 100 pupils 32 %

100-300 pupils 40,7 %

300 pupils or more 27,3 %

Total 100 %

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Number of pupils in different grades:

In grade:

1 59,137

2 57,987

3 59,091

4 61,614

5 61,882

6 61,288

7 63,056

Primary stage (1-7) 424,055

8 64,401

9 63,919

10 63,511

Lower secondary stage (8-10) 191,831

11* 44

Total 615,930

Pupils in special groups and groups for minority language pupils are included in each grade.

* A few private schools offer an 11th grade.

Source: Statistics Norway, Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (private schools)

4.18.2. Number of Institutions

Number of primary and lower secondary schools (2009/10)

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Primary and lower secondary schools total 2,997

Public primary and lower secondary schools 2,841

- Primary schools 1,758

- Lower secondary schools 472

- Combined primary and lower secondary schools 767

Private primary and lower secondary schools 156

Source: Statistics Norway, Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (private schools)

4.18.3. Number of Teachers

Number of teachers in primary and lower secondary schools (2009/10)

Teachers in primary and lower secondary schools 66,296

Men 18,044

Women 48,292

Source: Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training

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5. Upper Secondary and post-Secondary non-Tertiary Education

Organisation of the education system in Norway, 2009/10

0 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910 1112131415161718192021222324252627 Barnetrinnet Ungdomstrinnet UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE ÅPNE BARNEHAGER / GRUNNSKOLE VANLIGE BARNEHAGER / ≥ 2 UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE NO FAMILIEBARNEHAGER

VIDEREGÅENDE SKOLE

LÆRLINGORDNING FAGSKOLE

Pre-primary – ISCED 0 Pre-primary – ISCED 0 (for which the Ministry of Education is not responsible) (for which the Ministry of Education is responsible) Primary – ISCED 1 Single structure (no institutional distinction between ISCED 1 and 2) Lower secondary general – ISCED 2 Lower secondary vocational – ISCED 2 (including pre-vocational) Upper secondary general – ISCED 3 Upper secondary vocational – ISCED 3 Post-secondary non-tertiary – ISCED 4 Tertiary education – ISCED 5A Tertiary education – ISCED 5B Allocation to the ISCED levels: ISCED 0 ISCED 1 ISCED 2

Compulsory full-time education Compulsory part-time education Part-time or combined school and workplace courses Additional year -/n/- Compulsory work experience + its duration Study abroad Source: Eurydice.

In Norway, the compulsory school system comprises primary and lower secondary education, covering grades 1-10. These grades are described in chapter 4. Upper secondary education, or the period from the 11th to the 13th grades, normally serves the 16-19 age group. It includes general academic studies, vocational studies and apprenticeship training. Around half the pupils attend the general academic studies stream, the other half attends the vocational studies stream.

5.1. Historical Overview

The guilds, which developed in Norway after 1568, were responsible for the apprenticeship system. Vocational training underwent substantial developments in the middle of the 1850s in consequence of the industrialisation of Norway. Formal demands were reduced at the end of the 19th century, but were reinstated from the beginning of the 20th century.

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The academic Latin schools were a continuation of the cathedral schools (se section 4.4.). The subjects included Norwegian, mathematics, classics, religious studies and history. Reforms were carried out in 1869 and 1896, introducing science and modern languages. Academic school at secondary level consisted of lower secondary school (middle school) and upper secondary school (gymnasium). It led to examen artium, the matriculation examination necessary for university studies. Women were allowed to take this examination from 1882.

In 1935, it was decided that the upper secondary school should take the form of a continuation of the 7-year primary school. Theoretical and practical education was given in separate institutions by teachers qualified in specific subjects, at lower secondary and upper secondary level. General academic education and vocational education/training were separate systems until 1974.

In the 1970s and 1980s, extensive reforms were carried out within upper secondary education. One objective was to co-ordinate general education and vocational education/training in one comprehensive system, giving equal status to practical and theoretical education. At the same time, vocational education was strengthened on its own terms by means of an Act passed in 1980.

The systemic and curricular reforms implemented in the period 1994-98 were accompanied by a continuing process of school assessment and teacher and management training. The reforms have been subject to ongoing evaluation throughout the period of reform.

The Knowledge Promotion Reform is both a structure and content-based reform of compulsory education and upper secondary education (see section 4.1.). The reform was proposed by the Ministry of Education and Research and debated in Parliament in 2004. In upper secondary education, the reform was implemented from the school year 2006/2007.

In upper secondary education, the main model for the vocational education programmes normally involve two years in school and two years at a workplace. The academic education programmes involve three years in school. The former 12 vocational programmes are merged into 9 vocational programmes. Three academic education programmes remain. The progression is from upper secondary level 1(Vg1) to upper secondary level 2(Vg2) and upper secondary level 3(Vg3).

The Act on Independent Schools was renamed Act on Private Schools 1. July 2007, and has undergone both minor and major revisions over the years. The most significant of these revisions is that some of the earlier requirements regarding conditions for approval have been more or less reinstated, as with the requirement that the private school constituted a pedagogical or religious alternative (i.e. Steiner and Montessori schools and schools for various religious congregations).

The post-secondary non-tertiary level has a more recent history. Today’s institutions have developed through one of three main paths:

 state or county technical colleges building on vocational secondary education, often leading to qualifications as master craftsmen or certificates for seamen

 private provision originally recognised as “secondary education without parallel to public provision”, several of which are in art, culture or Bible studies

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 other private provisions, generally developed through training needs resulting from new technologies since the 1980s, in media, design, communication, administration, logistics, ICT, health and social studies

5.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

There is a debate on how different authorities and organisations can motivate and stimulate more pupils to choose natural science subjects in grades 12 and 13 in academic programmes in upper secondary school. This is especially debated in connection with fewer applicants to engineering colleges and science studies in universities.

Another theme is that fewer pupils choose foreign languages as French and German in specialisation studies in upper secondary school. This is discussed as leading to problems for language studies at university level, for future qualified language teachers, as well as for international cooperation.

The high rate of drop-outs, especially from the vocational programmes in upper secondary education, is another topic that is currently being discussed. The reasons for dropping out are complex as the measures proposed to improve the completion rate in upper secondary education and training. Six areas are emphasised here in accordance with the Report no 16 (2006 – 2007) to the Storting, Early Intervention for Lifelong Learning: development and formalisation of the trainee candidate scheme, additional and more varied apprentice places in schools and companies, focus on career guidance counselling, strengthening the competence of teachers and counsellors, more efforts in multiple education, and measures for adults. The National Quality Assessment System (NQAS) is conceived as an important measure related to follow-up and improvement throughout the education system. . The content of a future assurance system for vocational education and training (VET) is currently being assessed and improved. (See section 9.5.1.)

For the post-secondary non-tertiary level, the main challenge is to become more visible both among potential applicants and employers. The recent decision to create a common association for all institutions and social partners at this level (the start-up or “founding” conference took place on 19 April 2010) could prove decisive in this respect.

5.3. Specific Legislative Framework

Public upper secondary education and training is regulated by the Education Act, Act No 61 of 17 July 1998. This act covers all public education at school, from primary to upper secondary level. It also covers vocational training (apprenticeship), whether this takes place in an enterprise or at school.

Private upper secondary education is regulated by the Act on Private Schools, Act No 84 of 4 July 2003 (see section 4.3.).

Upper secondary education and training comprises all courses leading to qualifications above the lower secondary level and below the level of higher education.

Young people having completed primary and lower secondary education, or the equivalent, have a statutory right to three years’ upper secondary education leading either to admission to higher education, to vocational qualifications or to basic skills.

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Pupils with special needs are entitled to more than three years of upper secondary education.

Upper secondary education normally covers the 16-19 age group, or the period from the 11th to the 13th grades. It includes general academic studies, vocational studies and apprenticeship training. The authorities are legally obliged to make adequate provisions for older pupils who wish to start, continue or complete their education at this level. The county administration is responsible for both ordinary and adult upper secondary education.

The Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion, with status as a regulation, includes the following:

● The Core Curriculum,- a general part – for primary, secondary and adult education (1993)

● The Quality Framework

● Subject Curricula

● A Framework Regulating the Distribution of Periods and Subjects

Sign language has official status as a minority language, developed for deaf pupils.

The quality framework summarises and elaborates on the provisions in the Education Act and its regulations, including the National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion in Primary and Secondary Education and Training, and must be considered in light of the legislation and regulations.

The Act on Vocational post-secondary education, Act No 56 of 20 June 2003, revised in 2007, regulates short (half-a-year to two years’) vocational post-secondary. In this act, the term vocational denotes programmes leading to qualifications that can be immediately used in working life without further training.

As a consequence of the 2007 revision of the law, all providers must document quality assurance systems, and it is also possible to obtain institutional accreditation for programmes within a defined field of study, rather than having to apply for recognition programme by programme. NOKUT, the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education, is responsible for recognition of post-secondary non-tertiary provision.

Since 1 January 2010, vocational colleges are administered by the counties.

5.4. General Objectives

One of the main objectives of upper secondary education is to make it possible for all pupils to attain a recognised qualification, vocational and/or academic.

The Education Act of 1998 has the same main objectives as the earlier Act on Vocational Training and Act on Upper Secondary Education. According to the Act, the objectives of education and training are:

Education and training in schools and training establishments shall, in collaboration and agreement with the home, open doors to the world and give the pupils and apprentices historical and cultural insight and anchorage.

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Education and training shall be based on fundamental values in Christian and humanist heritage and traditions, such as respect for human dignity and nature, on intellectual freedom, charity, forgiveness, equality and solidarity, values that also appear in different religions and beliefs and are rooted in human rights.

Education and training shall help increase the knowledge and understanding of the national cultural heritage and our common international cultural traditions.

Education and training shall provide insight into cultural diversity and show respect for the individual’s convictions. They are to promote democracy, equality and scientific thinking.

The pupils and apprentices shall develop knowledge, skills and attitudes so that they can master their lives and can take part in working life and society. They shall have the opportunity to be creative, committed and inquisitive.

The pupils and apprentices shall learn to think critically and act ethically and with environmental awareness. They shall have joint responsibility and the right to participate.

Schools and training establishments shall meet the pupils and apprentices with trust, respect and demands, and give them challenges that promote formation and the desire to learn. All forms of discrimination shall be combated.

The school environment is of great importance to pupils’ well-being and learning results. Chapter 9a of the Education Act establishes that "all pupils in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools are entitled to a good physical and psycho-social environment that will promote health, well-being and learning". The schools must work systematically to follow up the pupils’ school environment and implement measures to comply with the requirements of the Education Act.

The Learning Poster, as part of the Quality Framework, includes 11 basic commitments, mandatory in all upper secondary schools and apprenticeship work-places (as well as in primary and lower secondary schools, (see section 4.4.). All schools and apprenticeship work-places shall:

● Give all pupils and apprentices/trainees an equal opportunity to develop their abilities individually and in cooperation with others.

● Stimulate pupils’ and apprentices’/trainees’ motivation, perseverance and curiosity.

● Stimulate in pupils and apprentices/trainees the development of their own learning strategies and their capacity for critical thought.

● Stimulate pupils’ and apprentices’/trainees’ personal development and identity, and assist them in the development of ethical, social and cultural competence, and democratic understanding and participation.

● Encourage pupil participation, and enable pupils and apprentices/trainees to make conscious value judgments and decisions on their educational needs and future work.

● Promote adapted teaching and varied working methods.

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● Stimulate, exploit and develop the individual teacher’s competence.

● Contribute to teachers and instructors being evident leaders and role models for children and young people.

● Ensure that the physical and psycho-social working and learning environment promotes health, joy and learning.

● Prepare for cooperation with the home and ensure parents’/guardians’ co-responsibility in the school.

● Prepare for the local community to be involved in education in a meaningful way.

The aim of the 2003 Act on vocational post-secondary education (“fagskoleloven”) is to ensure quality vocational post-secondary non-tertiary provision through a system of public recognition and to ensure good learning conditions for students attending such programmes.

5.5. Types of Institutions

Upper secondary schools are administered by the regional authorities, the counties. The large majority of the schools are public, owned by the counties. While the schools to some extent specialise and offer a full education in different areas, the goal is that every county should offer most educational programmes.

See section 5.19. for private upper secondary education.

See section 5.20.1. for vocational post secondary colleges.

Upper secondary schools are invariably coeducational. Their pupils are recruited from the lower secondary schools in their areas. There are, however, no formal links between these schools or with teacher training institutions. School buildings are used by pupils during the day, and are often available for adult education courses in the evenings.

The large majority of upper secondary schools are combined schools, i.e. offering both general academic education and vocational education. This is the case for public schools built after the reform of 1974, see section 5.1.. Schools built earlier tend to have facilities for either general or vocational education. Even if school buildings have different locations, they are part of the same institution and therefore have a common administration and management. Institutions offering both general and vocational education sometimes have teaching facilities in separate buildings.

Depending on the size of the school, the administrative staff consists of one head master (rektor), 1 deputy head master, a number of head/main/principal teachers (depending on the number of courses being offered at the school), 1-2 pupil counsellors and 2-4 secretaries.

As opposed to the rest of the Norwegian education system, the majority of the vocational post-secondary non-tertiary providers are private.

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5.6. Geographical Accessibility

The equity principle, which underlies Norwegian educational provision, requires equality of access. The counties are responsible for upper secondary education. Within each county, upper secondary courses are also provided in remote areas. The vast majority of 16- to 19-year-olds travels daily to school. However, a limited number are required to board.

5.7. Admission Requirements and Choice of School

Upper secondary education is available to all pupils who have successfully completed compulsory education. Although typically attended by pupils from 16-19 years of age, the counties are legally required to make adequate provision for older pupils who wish to start, continue or complete their education. The 1994 reform gives all young people between 16 and 19 a statutory right to upper secondary education.

A pupil has the right to a place on one of three courses that he or she has applied for, chosen from the 12 advanced courses 1 at present available. Admission to specific courses can be affected by factors such as the applicant's grades and the county's course provision. However, more than 90% are admitted to their first choice. A pupil with a handicap which makes it necessary to provide special education has the right to be accepted on a specific advanced course 1 at the request of the pupil, parents and teacher.

If the number of applications exceeds the number of course places in the county, the pupil is assigned a course depending on the pupil's achievement points. In some counties, this rule also applies to the assignment of pupils to specific schools. The achievement points are based on marks from compulsory subjects in lower secondary school. Pupils applying for an upper secondary level 1 programme (first year) have to fulfill one of the following requirements:

● Completed Norwegian compulsory education (primary and lower secondary education).

● Completed education equivalent to Norwegian compulsory education.

● Completed all but one year of compulsory education and left lower secondary school due to specific circumstances such as a disability preventing the pupil from taking further part in education at that level.

● Completed 7 years of compulsory education in accordance with the requirements of the former education system.

County authorities can decide to award 50% of the places in the first year in Music, dance and drama to pupils on the basis of a test or documentation of their specific skills.

All pupils who wish to qualify for higher education have an opportunity to do so. Pupils or apprentices who wish to qualify for higher education in addition to gaining an occupational qualification, should be given an opportunity to do so. Universities and university colleges may set additional requirements.

Pupils attending upper secondary education and training who have a mother tongue other than Norwegian or Sami have the right to special education in Norwegian until they are sufficiently proficient in Norwegian to follow the normal teaching of the school. If necessary, such pupils are also entitled to mother tongue instruction, bilingual subject teaching, or both.

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Post-secondary non-tertiary provision, all of which is vocational, is based on completed upper secondary education or training, or similar qualifications. The choice of vocational college is determined by the choice of courses on offer, as some courses on offer at this level are found in several counties, whereas others are unique,

5.8. Registration and/or Tuition Fees

Attendance at public-sector upper secondary schools is free.

Most post-secondary non-tertiary providers are private and charge tuition fees. The public post-secondary colleges are free.

5.9. Financial Support for Pupils and Appretices/Trainees

Pupils in upper secondary school may receive financial support from the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (NSELF). The amount is means tested against parents’ income and assets. Pupils who live at home with their parents may receive a basic grant and a grant for teaching materials. Pupils who live away from their parents may receive a housing grant, which is not means tested. Pupils may also receive a travel grant and a provider’s supplementary grant.

In 2009/2010 maximum grant for upper secondary pupils living with parents are NOK 1 870 a month. This grant is means tested towards the parents economy. Pupils who do not live with their parents can get a maximum grant of NOK 3 710 a month. Pupils in upper secondary education can also receive an individual grant for school equipment of maximum NOK 2 750 a year. In addition, maximum loans are respectively NOK 1 300 per month for those who receive a grant for living outside their parents home, and NOK 2 600 for pupils who live with their parents.

The county authorities' expenditures on vocational education in working life are generally subsidies paid to the apprentice training companies, administration costs and costs incurred from theory provision to apprentices and trainees. Company subsidies are paid with regulated rates. The expenditures correspond to 8,4 % of the county authorities' net operating expenditures on upper secondary education.

At the post-secondary non-tertiary level, students are entitled to the same level of support through the State Educational Loan Fund as students in higher education.

5.10. Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils

Upper secondary education consists of the grades 11, 12 and 13. From the school year 2006/07, the names are advanced course 1, 2 and 3.

Pupils are normally in the age group 16-19, but they may be older.

Classes are organised by courses. Level of competence is not a determining factor. There is therefore no streaming or grouping by competence in the instruction. Any streaming is not accepted in Norwegian schools; pupils in upper secondary schools attend mixed-ability classes.

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However, attaining minimum competence at one course level is necessary for admission to the next level.

Teachers are assigned to classes depending on their specialisation. Pupils have different teachers in most subjects. Pupils choosing the same subject in course Vg2 and Vg3 can often have the same teacher in the subject during the two years.

At the post-secondary non-tertiary level, students are minimum 19 years old upon entry. As many programmes at this level are exclusively offered as part-time studies designed to be combined with work, a large proportion of students are mature.

See section 5.21. for recent statistics.

5.11. Specialisation of Studies

Upper secondary education and training is available all over the country so as to ensure an equal education for all. Since 1976 Norway has had a unified upper secondary structure that coordinates general studies and vocational studies. General education and training normally takes three years, divided into three levels: Upper Secondary level 1 (Vg1), upper secondary level 2 (Vg2) and upper secondary level 3 (Vg3). Although some vocational programmes also are school-based (3 years’ duration), the main model of vocational education and training normally takes 4 years (VG1 and VG2 in school) and VG3 as apprenticeship training in a training establishment, followed by one year of productive.

Vocational education and training mainly leads to a trade or journeyman’s certificate. If the county authorities do not succeed in providing enough apprenticeship training places, the county authorities are obliged to offer Vg3 course in school, in which case there is no productive work. The final trade or journeyman’s examination is the same as it would have been after training in a training establishment.

General studies take three years and lead to general university admissions certification. It is possible for pupils who have finished their vocational education at Vg1 and Vg2 to take Vg3 a supplementary programme for general university admissions certification.

Programmes for General Studies:

 Programme for Specialisation in General Studies

 Programme for Sports and Physical Education

 Programme for Music, Dance and Drama

Vocational Education Programmes:

 Programme for Building and Construction

 Programme for Design, Arts and Crafts

 Programme for Electricity and Electronics

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 Programme for Health and Social Care

 Programme for Media and Communication

 Programme for Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry

 Programme for Restaurant and Food Processing

 Programme for Service and Transport

 Programme for Technical and Industrial Production

In each vocational education programme, there is a common first year, upper secondary level 1 (Vg1) before the pupils specialise for different trades and occupations by choosing among several courses in the second and third year.

There are 9 programme areas which qualify for higher education studies: 1. Language Studies, Social Studies and Economic Studies; 2. Natural Science and Mathematics Studies; 3. Arts, Crafts and Design Studies; 4. Music Studies; 5. Dance Studies; 6. Drama Studies; 7. Sport and Physical Education Studies; 8. Media and Communication Studies and 9. Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry Studies.

The post-secondary non-tertiary provision offers a choice between practically all imaginable fields of vocational training.

5.12. Organisation of School Time

Regulations for teaching hours per year for each year are given in The National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion. The organisation of school time is the responsibility of the local school.

There are no regulations regarding the organization of school time at the post-secondary non-tertiary level. An assessment of the work load for students is done as part of the recognition procedure.

5.12.1. Organisation of the School Year

In upper secondary education, the school year consists of 190 days or 38 weeks. This is the same as in primary and lower secondary education. The school year starts in mid-/late August and ends in mid-June. The school year is divided into two semesters or three terms.

There are usually four short vacations during the school year. These are one week in late September/October, two weeks at Christmas, one week in February, one and a half week at Easter. The summer vacation lasts around 8 weeks.

There are no regulations regarding the organization of the school year or weekly or daily timetables at the post-secondary non-tertiary level. A lot of the offer is flexible and designed for part-time students.

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5.12.2. Weekly and Daily Timetable

The school week is five days. Pupils in upper secondary schools have from 30 to 35 teaching hours a week.

5.13. Curriculum, Subjects, Number of Hours

The National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion Kunnskapsløftet 2006, encompasses the 10-year compulsory primary and secondary education and upper secondary education and training as a whole.

The curriculum consists of:

• The Core Curriculum

• The Quality Framework

• Subject Curricula

• A Framework Regulating the Distribution of Periods and Subjects

The core curriculum of 2003 deepens appreciation for basic values and the view of humanity underlying the instruction and is continued in the new curriculum: Knowledge Promotion.

The Quality Framework clarifies the school owners’ (municipalities’ and counties') responsibility for an all- round education in accordance with established regulations and guidelines and adapted to local and individual needs and qualifications. (see section 5.4.)

The introduction of the Knowledge Promotion Reform (see section 5.11.), is aiming at giving young people a broader educational basis and avoiding early specialisation. All courses have three components: common core subjects; subjects related to the education programmes; optional subjects. About 500 new subject curricula have been worked out for all subjects in the 10-year compulsory school and for the common subjects in upper secondary education and training during 2005 – 2008.

The distribution of teaching hours per subject for upper secondary education and training is established for each specific level.

In Programme for Specialisation in General Studies, common subjects (Norwegian, Mathematics, Natural Science, English, Social Science, Geography, History, Religion and Ethics, and Physical Education) and programme subjects related to the area of study have a total of 2523 teaching hours over 3 years. Included for all pupils in Programmes for General Studies there is a compulsory foreign language course of minimum 225 teaching hours over 3 years, in addition to the English course of minimum 140 teaching hours.

Programme for Music, Dance and Drama, Programme for Sports and Physical Education and the programme area for Crafts and Design Studies have a total of 2943 teaching hours over 3 years.

In the standard model for vocational education/training, the first 2 years are given at school. The concluding specialised training (1 or 2 years) is provided as vocational training in working life, but is often combined with some teaching at school. Divergence from the standard model occurs in certain vocational subjects.

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Mandatory subjects in all the vocational programmes are Norwegian, Mathematics, Natural Science, English, Social Science and Physical Education. The total number of teaching hours in these subjects over the 2 years is 588. In addition, there are 1963 teaching hours over 2 years in the course-related subjects. In vocational education programmes, it is possible to take a fourth additional year in the remaining general subjects in order to gain matriculation rights to higher education.

Vocational training in working life consists of two parts; school-based instruction and practical work in a training establishment. State grants are given to the training establishment to cover the cost of provided training. This part of the training normally consists of up to one year full-time training combined with up to one year of productive work, following the two years at school. In special cases, more or all of the training may take place in working life.

All young people have the opportunity of achieving occupational qualifications by means of training at school and/or in working life. Vocational training in trades that come under the Education Act qualifies for a trade or journeyman's certificate. The training model for these trades consists of 3 to 4 years of a mixture of practical and theoretical training. It is possible for pupils who reconsider their route of education after upper secondary level 2(Vg2), to take subjects in their third year that qualify them for university/university college studies.

5.13.1. Programme for Specialisation in General Studies

There are 3 programme areas in upper secondary level 2 and 3 (Vg2 and Vg3): Language Studies, Social Sciences and Economics Studies; Natural Science Studies and Mathematics Studies; Crafts and Design Studies.

5.13.2. Programme for Music, Dance and Drama

There are 3 programme areas in upper secondary level 2 and 3 (Vg2 and Vg3): Music Studies; Dance Studies; Drama Studies.

5.13.3. Programme for Sports and Physical Education

The programme is basically an education in sports, but it is also possible to combine the education with active participation in competitive sports. The selection of sports is based on Norwegian traditions. The education consists of three years in school and gives general academic competence.

5.13.4. Vocational Programmes

The following programmes are vocational:

• Building and Construction

• Design, Arts and Crafts

• Electricity and Electronics

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• Media and Communication

• Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry

• Restaurant and Food Processing

• Service and Transport

• Technical and Industrial Production

In Programme for Media and Communication upper secondary level 1 and 2 are common. Upper secondary level 3 has four options: photography; media graphics; vocational education in school; and programme area for general studies.

5.14. Teaching Methods and Materials

Decisions on content within the frames of subject curricula, organisational matters, methods teaching aids and forms of work are delegated to the teaching institutions (see section 4.11.).

Teaching materials comprise textbooks, ICT-related aids, sound and images produced with specific learning objectives in view. There are no prescribed textbooks. Items originally produced for other purposes, such as newspaper articles, feature films or literary works, can also be used as learning material. In subjects other than Norwegian, teaching materials may only be used when they are simultaneously available in both Bokmål and Nynorsk at the same time and at the same price. In special cases the Ministry may make exceptions from this rule. Local education authorities are responsible for supplying schools with teaching aids which are free for pupils. Teaching materials should motivate and activate pupils and help them to develop good working habits. They should encourage both independent work and collaboration between pupils. Teaching materials must be chosen so as to serve the purposes of varied and individually adapted work. Pupils with special needs require teaching aids, which take their abilities and aptitudes into account. Teaching materials are not subject to government overview with the exception of those produced through the public grant scheme. Government policy in this case is that teaching materials should recognise universal design and diverse cultural backgrounds.

School libraries have a central place in education and serve as centres of cultural activity and sources of information and materials.

5.15. Pupil Assessment

Pupil assessment has the following aims:

● Informing the pupil, parents, teacher and school about the pupil's progress in relation to the course objectives

● Serving as a tool for the guidance, motivation and development of the pupil

● Offering an opportunity for the teacher to continuously evaluate his/her teaching procedures

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● Providing information about the pupil’s competence to society, employers and higher education institutions.

Both continuous evaluation and final evaluation are used. The final evaluation is the end-of-year marks combined with results from examinations. Knowledge of the objectives is essential when evaluating a pupil's total achievement.

In most cases the final test in vocational education and training is the trade or journeyman’s examination. The test is marked as very good, 'passed'' or failed. The vocational education programmes lead to trade certificates, journeyman’s certificates or vocational qualifications. In addition, training candidates can take a competence examination, but this examination does not give them full technical expertise

Two types of marks are awarded in the upper secondary school and recorded on pupils' certificates. The first are marks for overall achievement in the final subjects, based on the pupils' work during the school year, including practical work, work in class, homework, tests, project work and group work. The overall achievement marks are given on a six-point scale from 1 (lowest) to 6 (highest); decimal points are not used.

The second are marks awarded in end-of-year examinations, using the same grading system. Most examinations in written subjects are organised by public examination boards. Papers are evaluated centrally by groups of experienced teachers. As a safeguard against possible error a separate commission of examiners deals with appeals. Their decision is final. Examinations are either written, oral, a combination of the two, or practical. In the programme for Specialisation in General Studies, written examinations in Norwegian are compulsory. In addition, pupils normally take at least two written examinations in at least two other subjects. In the programmes for Music, Dance and Drama, and Sports and Physical Education, a written examination covering the central subject matter in the area of study is compulsory. Pupils may also be examined in general subjects. In all these education programmes, all pupils in upper secondary level 3 (Vg3), also take oral examinations during which the class teacher acts as examiner and an external assessor, appointed for the occasion, awards the marks.

From the autumn 2009 a compulsory test in mathematics skills at upper secondary level 1 (Vg1) was introduced. In autumn 2010 a compulsory test in reading skills and a voluntary test in English is to be introduced at upper secondary level 1 (Vg1).

5.16. Progression of Pupils

All upper secondary schools provide guidance to pupils on matters related both to choice of study programme and to future career (see section 5.18.). A general matriculation standard is introduced, giving entry to higher education.

Pupils can be admitted to upper secondary level 2 (Vg2) if they have completed the upper secondary level 1 course (Vg1) in accordance with the requirements of the curriculum. If a pupil has failed one or more subjects, he/she can be admitted to upper secondary level 2 (Vg2) if the school can document the possession of sufficient skills and knowledge to follow a course at the higher level.

To be admitted to upper secondary level 3 (Vg3), pupils have to document completion of upper secondary level 2 (Vg2), or the school accepts that their skills and knowledge meet the level required. Pupils who need special assistance and do not have marks from the advanced course 1 are accepted on the basis of individual

78 EURYBASE NORWAY evaluation. Pupils are normally accepted on courses building on the advanced course 1 they have followed, so that they receive a complete programme of upper secondary education.

A three-year progression is guaranteed for all pupils. If there are not enough apprenticeship places, the county is obliged to provide a specialisation option, which leads to a trade or journeyman's certificate in the form of an advanced course 3 at school. The structure requires a close relationship between schools and working life parties.

If the number of applications exceeds the number of available places in the county, pupils are given points according to their marks in all subjects.

5.17. Certification

Students are awarded grades according to their achievement. A distinction is made between occupational qualifications and qualifications for higher education. Out of the present 12 education programmes (see section 5.11.) the three first are the main route to qualifications for higher education.

Minimum requirements for higher education entrance qualifications include two components:

● Successful completion of 3 years of upper secondary education including upper secondary level 1, 2 and 3 (regardless of area of study) or possession of a recognised vocational qualification/trade or journeyman's certificate.

● Studies corresponding to a specific level of attainment, determined in periods per week, within the following general subject areas: Norwegian; English; social studies; mathematics; science/environmental studies.

There are basically two different kinds of certificates:

● The trade or journeyman's certificate in crafts and trades.

● Certificate awarded on completion of 3 years of upper secondary education leading to either general entrance qualifications for higher education or vocational qualifications in vocational subjects. In order to gain the certificate, the candidate must have passed all subjects and exams pursuant to the curriculum. The certificate lists the general compulsory subjects, subjects related to the chosen area of study and electives. Marks recorded on certificates are those awarded by the subject teacher indicating the pupil's level of achievement in the subject, with the addition of examination marks. The higher education entry qualification consists of two components. The basis is three years of study with a minimum level of achievement in the subjects mentioned above. The following programmes are included: Specialisation in General Studies; Music, Dance and Drama; Sports and Physical Education; Design and Crafts (upper secondary level 3); Media and Communication (upper secondary level 3); Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry (upper secondary level 3). In addition, everyone who has completed and passed upper secondary level 1 and 2 in a vocational programme, can achieve general university and college admission certification by taking a supplementary course at upper secondary level 3 that will qualify them for higher education.

Upper secondary school certificates are issued on the authority of the school and signed by the principal. The county examination board on the basis of recognised tests issues trade and journeyman’s certificates.

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(See section 5.21. for statistics.)

5.18. Educational/Vocational Guidance, Education/Employment Links

Guidance to pupils in lower and upper secondary school is part of the work load for one or more teachers in each school. The teachers are qualified as counselors through local or regional in-service training courses, and through further educational courses in career counselling delivered by universities and university colleges. As part of the Knowledge Promotion Reform, the Ministry of Education and Research stimulates the strengthening of competence of the individual school counsellor by educational programmes, legislation and guidelines for competency criteria. An initiative has been taken to establish regional partnerships for educational and vocational guidance in a life long perspective as a task for county authorities.

As an initiative to address drop-out from upper secondary education, and relating to the need for communication and cooperation between the education and the labour sector, the project Partnerships for career guidance (pilot) was started in 2005. The project is regionally based, and seeks increased co-operation, co-ordination and communication of career guidance related issues between the main stakeholders in lifelong career guidance. The main stakeholders are the education sector, labour sector, and regional authorities. From 2009 the pilot was extended to include all Norwegian counties. The financial support given to the Partnerships for 2009 were specially aimed at strengthening counselling at lower secondary level, as a means to prevent drop-out.

The goals defined by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training for the partnerships are, among others, to offer a better and more coherent career guidance service in a lifelong perspective, across sectors, gender and age groups, to improve access to guidance counselling services, to improve the countywide coordination of career guidance, and to improve quality of career guidance in lower and upper secondary education. Target groups are, among others, school counsellors at lower and upper secondary level, advisers in the follow-up services and in adult education, and individuals.

By January 2010 most of the 19 counties have established regional partnerships and, in most cases, career centres. The remaining counties are either on their way to establishing such centres, or have chosen an even more decentralised model, still aiming to support lower secondary level in particular.

The pilot projects have been evaluated. The partnership arrangement is regarded as a successful initiative and has been established as a permanent feature.

In the standard model for vocational education and training, the first 2 years are given at upper secondary school. The concluding specialised training (1 or 2 years) is provided through vocational training in working life (apprenticeship). This part of the training normally consists of up to one year full-time instruction combined with up to one year of productive work in an enterprise in public or private sector. The training is often combined with some teaching at school. The school assists pupils in finding training establishments.

5.19. Private Education

Norway has a very small private upper secondary education, compared to most countries. The private schools have approximately7 % of the pupils in the sector.

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Private schools that are approved by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training are grant-aided; they usually receive 85 % of total expenses as public grants.

A private upper secondary school has to constitute either a religious alternative, a pedagogical alternative that is generally recognised, follow internationally certified curricula or offer specialisation in top athletics, in order to be approved. In addition to this, upper secondary schools that accommodate pupils with special needs regarding adapted education may be approved. Furthermore, the approving authority now has an exclusive right to decide whether an applying school is to be approved or not. Fulfilling the formal requirements does not give a right of approval. As a result there is no longer a substantial increase in the number of approved private upper secondary schools.

The Ministry may approve a private upper secondary school if there is an international agreement to this effect. In connection with such approval the Ministry can deviate from the requirements in the Education Act and from regulations decided pursuant to the Act.

5.20. Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures

Vocational post-secondary colleges are different from upper secondary schools 5.20.1..

A follow-up service is established for unemployed 16-19 year-olds not in upper secondary school 5.20.2..

In a very small number of private international schools with upper secondary sections, the language of instruction is English or French. A United World College has been established in Fjaler, in the western part of Norway. In addition, a few upper secondary schools have classes preparing for the International Baccalaureate instead of the Norwegian upper secondary certificate.

Pupils applying for shorter courses can be accepted according to decisions by the county administration. Generally, a pupil who needs to take a course in a subject to complete his qualifications can be given a place. Shorter courses are offered within the county depending on what schools have to offer and the pupils’ needs. These always follow the approved curricula for the foundation and advanced courses.

5.20.1. Vocational Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary Education

This level of education is regulated by the 2003 Act on vocational post-secondary education (“fagskoleloven”). As from 1 January 2010, the counties are responsible for the administration of this level of education, which covers a wide range of provision and providers:

The vocational post-secondary technical and maritime colleges, which are traditionally run by the counties, offer two-year courses to students who already have trade skills, practical work experience, and/or a vocational upper secondary qualification. They offer further vocational qualifications within a broad range of trades, including those of master craftsmen, and also act as a stepping stone to higher education. Vocational post-secondary technical and maritime colleges currently offer courses in engineering, motor mechanics, drilling technology, production technology, electronics, machinery, process technology, welding technology, house building, heating-ventilation-sanitary technology, chemistry, foodstuffs technology, agricultural andmaritime studies, and fishery.

The majority of the provision at the post-secondary non-tertiary level (ISCED 4) is private, see also section 5.1 historical overview. Education at this level is of half-a-year (one semester) to two years’ duration and offers 81 EURYBASE NORWAY cover a wide range of studies. Besides those at the technical public vocational colleges, there are recognised programmes in business administration, marketing, tourism, ICT, health and social education, alternative medicine, media, culture, arts, Bible studies, and varied service occupations.

The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) is since 1 January 2004 responsible for the recognition of vocational post-secondary education. At first, few private providers applied for recognition according to the Act on Vocational post-secondary education, but in the last few years, there has been a ‘floodwave’.. The Act on Vocational post-secondary education was amended in 2007, related to the role of NOKUT, the Act on Independent Schools and a revision of the regulations regarding financial support for studies to the effect that only pupils/students attending schools and/or programmes approved according to an educational Act are entitled to receive loans and grants from the State Educational Loan Fund. Since 2005, providers have queued up for approval by NOKUT and already in 2006/07, there were approx. 10.000 students in approved vocational post-secondary non-tertiary programmes By December 2009, there were 1321 recognised programmes distributed between 193 providers, of which 50 public, with a total of approximately 16200 students (11400 full time equivalents), of whom 6400 (40 %) – 4100 or 36 % in f.t.e.. The numbers are still expected to grow.

5.20.2. The Follow-up Service for Unemployed Young People

The youth follow-up service was set up as part of a major upper secondary school reform in 1994 (Reform 94). The reform established the statutory right to upper secondary education. One of the follow-up service’s main aims was (and still is) to meet challenges related to high drop-out rates in secondary education.

Founded in The Education Act, the service is obliged to follow- up all young people aged 16-21, who are neither in school nor at work. The primary aim is to help them obtain general matriculation, a formal vocational qualification or a partial qualification, which can improve their access to the labour market. The services primary objective is accordingly to encourage these youths to a return to the education system, and to give them support – in collaboration with the counsellors in upper secondary schools – in doing so. If they are not willing to return to education, they should be helped – often with the aid of the public employment service – to get a job or to be offered a place on a publicly-funded labour market related programme (though these are not always easily found). Sometimes a combination of these strategies is found to be effective.

The service is managed at the county level and organised in different ways in the counties. In some counties the service is closely linked with the municipality’s Pedagogical-Psychological Service (PPT); in some with the counselling services in secondary/upper secondary schools; and in some with the school administration in the county's municipalities.

The follow-up service makes contact with about 20 % of the total group of youths with a right to upper secondary education that are not registered as taking part in the education system (The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training, 2008). Some of these are able to give quick and acceptable explanations (e.g. in private schools, or studying/working abroad); a few reject help while some require and accept guidance and support through the service.

5.21. Statistics

5.21.1. Number of Pupils

Pupils in upper secondary education (2009/10) 82 EURYBASE NORWAY

Upper secondary school total 190,313

Upper secondary level 1 74,961

Upper secondary level 2 65,278

Upper secondary level 3 50,074

Specialisation in General Studies 89,053

Music, Dance and Drama 6,298

Sports and Physical Education 11,287

Media and Communication 8,938

Restaurant and Food Processing 4,616

Service and Transport 7,300

Health and Social Care 16,794

Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry 4,069

Design, Arts and Crafts 5,957

Electricity and Electronics 9,886

Technical and Industrial Production 12,844

Building and Construction 9,923

Alternative training 3,348

Upper secondary school all programmes 190,313

Public upper secondary schools 177,392

Approved private upper secondary schools with parallel in public schools 13,348

Apprentices 34,440

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Total upper secondary education 224,702

Source: Statistics Norway

5.21.2. Number of Institutions

Upper secondary schools (2009/10)

Total upper secondary schools 445

Run by the State 3

Run by the counties 360

Run by municipalities 0

Approved private schools with parallel in public schools 82

Sources: Statistics Norway

5.21.3. Number of Secondary-School Teachers

Upper-secondary school teachers in public schools (2009/10)

Total number of teachers 24,979

Men 12,827

Women 12,152

Source: Statistics Norway

5.21.4. Number of students in post-secondary non-tertiary education

Statistics are as per December 2009 collected through organizations of post-secondary non-tertiary providers. Because legislation in the field is relatively recent and there are many private providers, the statistics are not complete. Until June 2010, consultation is ongoing on a system of systematic collection of statistics on the post-secondary non-tertiary level,

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Ownership Number Share No. of full time equivalents Share

County 6400 4100

Other public 60 15

Total public 6460 40 % 4115 36 %

Private FFF 6800 5200

Private NFFL 1200 1200

NKI 1800 900

Other private - unorganised ? ?

Total private 9800 60 % 7300 64 %

Total 16260 100% 11415 100 %

5.21.5. Number of recognised post-secondary non-tertiary programmes

Ownership Antall Andel

County 225 17 %

Other public 13 1 %

Private 1083 82 %

Total 1321 100 %

Source: NOKUT as per 17.12.09

5.21.6. Number of post-secondary non-tertiary providers/institutions

Places of study

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Ownership Antall Andel

County 45 23 %

Other public 5 3 %

Private 143 74 %

Total 193 100 %

Source: NOKUT as per 17.12.09

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6. Tertiary Education

Organisation of the education system in Norway, 2009/10

0 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Barnetrinnet Ungdomstrinnet UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE ÅPNE BARNEHAGER / GRUNNSKOLE VANLIGE BARNEHAGER / ≥ 2 UNIVERSITET / HØGSKOLE NO FAMILIEBARNEHAGER

VIDEREGÅENDE SKOLE

LÆRLINGORDNING FAGSKOLE

Pre-primary – ISCED 0 Pre-primary – ISCED 0 (for which the Ministry of Education is not responsible) (for which the Ministry of Education is responsible) Primary – ISCED 1 Single structure (no institutional distinction between ISCED 1 and 2) Lower secondary general – ISCED 2 Lower secondary vocational – ISCED 2 (including pre-vocational) Upper secondary general – ISCED 3 Upper secondary vocational – ISCED 3 Post-secondary non-tertiary – ISCED 4 Tertiary education – ISCED 5A Tertiary education – ISCED 5B Allocation to the ISCED levels: ISCED 0 ISCED 1 ISCED 2

Compulsory full-time education Compulsory part-time education Part-time or combined school and workplace courses Additional year -/n/- Compulsory work experience + its duration Study abroad Source: Eurydice.

Higher education is in Norway defined as education and training provided at universities, specialised university institutions, university colleges, university colleges of arts, other public university colleges not under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and Research, and private higher education institutions.

Since the Quality Reform of 2002, higher education institutions offer 3-year bachelor’s degrees, 2-year master’s degrees and 3-year Ph.D. degrees. A few study programmes are shorter than 3 years, there are some integrated five to five and half year master degrees and some professional study programmes that last 6 years. In addition, there are some master programmes of less than two years duration.

Tertiary education also includes vocational colleges (ISCED 4) and practical courses of training with duration half a year to two years as alternatives to higher education. For more information, see section 5.20.1.

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6.1. Historical Overview

During the period when the country was under Danish rule (1380-1814), Norwegians had to go to Copenhagen or other European cities to study at a university. The first academic institution in Norway was founded 1760 in Trondheim, as the Royal Norwegian Society of Science. The first Norwegian university was founded 1811 in Oslo and opened in 1813 as the Royal Norwegian Frederik’s University - Frederik being the name of the contemporary Danish-Norwegian king. The first university Act in Norway, of 1824, had regulations for this university.

The other universities were all founded after World War II, in 1946 (Bergen), 1969/1996 (Trondheim), and 1972 (Tromsø). The University of Bergen evolved from the scientific work and teaching at the Bergen Museum (1825). The University of Trondheim evolved from the Royal Society of Science (1760), the Norwegian Institute of Technology (1910), the Norwegian Institute for Teaching (1922), and an independent faculty of medicine (1972); it became the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in 1996. The Norwegian College of Fishery Sciences (1971) was incorporated into the University of Tromsø in 1988. Recently, three other institutions have been approved as general universities. In 2005, the specialised Agricultural University of Norway (1897) became the Norwegian University of Life Sciences, and Stavanger University College (1969) became the University of Stavanger. In 2007 Agder University College became the third new university, University of Agder.

Five public specialised university institutions were founded with study programmes to the highest level in their respective fields: the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science (1935), the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration (1936), the Oslo School of Architecture and Design (1961), the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences (1969) and the Norwegian Academy of Music (1972). The Norwegian Lutheran School of Theology was accredited as a private specialised university institution in 2005. Tthe MHS School of Mission and Theologyand BI Norwegian School of Management were accredited as specialised university institutions in 2008, while Molde University College was accredited as Molde University College, specialised university institution in logistics in 2010.

As part of the policy for equal opportunities to higher education, regardless of social, economic and/or geographical background, the State Educational Loan Fund was established 1947 to provide financial support for students in the form of loans and grants.

The Norwegian higher educational system has gone through a comprehensive process of restructuring. The three main reform phases have been:

● 1970s: Expansion and decentralisation. A non-university sector established, by upgrading existing vocational schools to colleges and decisions on new regional colleges in all counties.

● Late 1980s - 1995: Network Norway was to connect public university and non-university sector institutions. Concentration, merger of 98 public colleges to 26 university colleges.

● 1998 – 2005: The Quality Reform with organisational, financial and educational measures. The Bologna Process.

In the 1960s, attention was first focused on the problem of capacity, because the student population at the universities grew quickly. Alternatives to the long university studies (4-7 years) were asked for. To obtain more equal educational opportunities for all became increasingly important. Politicians were in favour of

88 EURYBASE NORWAY decentralising higher education and furthering democratisation. An official Committee on Higher Education was appointed and submitted five reports 1966-70. The Government decided to establish a new type of higher education institutions: regional colleges with 2-3 year mainly vocational programmes, geared towards the various regional economies. The first regional college was established 1969 as a separate institution. The Norwegian regional colleges became well known internationally during the 1970s and 1980s as a successful decentralisation measure. The Committee had proposed that regional colleges should be comprehensive institutions incorporating existing vocational education for engineers, nurses, teachers etc. This proposal was too controversial; comprehensive colleges were not established until the mid 1990s.

In the 1970s and 1980s, the many existing vocational schools of engineering, nursing, teaching etc in the regions were upgraded to colleges, as a non-university sector of higher education. The upgrading included admission requirements, academic requirements for staff, length of study programmes (2-3 years) and content of curricula.

In 1981, regional colleges and colleges of engineering, teacher education, social work, librarian and journalism were given the right to award the lower university degree after 4 years of study. This right was given in 1989 to conservatories of music and in 1991 to maritime colleges, a college of hotel management, colleges of nursing and of other health professions.

One aim for the structural reforms in the late 1960s and the considerable expansion in the 1970s was to create equal access to higher education for all, irrespective of economic, social or geographical background. As a result, a vast number of colleges developed. At the most, 127 regional and vocational colleges existed, many of them very small. Most colleges were public (state) institutions, around 20 were private institutions. There was a certain overlap in the sense that different colleges were teaching similar subjects within the same region or same town.

At the end of the 1980s, it was decided to review various aspects of higher education. Three different official Committees submitted reports on the following areas:

● the national structure and organisation of higher education and research

● teacher education

● conditions for foreign students in Norway.

In 1991, the Government presented a White Paper on higher education, which proposed that higher education institutions should be reorganised and merged. The term Network Norway was coined to denote a national higher education and research network, based on the principles of specialisation, cooperation and communication. A governing principle was that new study programmes should be planned and viewed in relation to an overall national plan. During the 1990s, national responsibility for several subject specialisations was given to a number of institutions (nodes in the network). However, the 1999 evaluation showed that the impact of these nodes was not as expected, neither at the national nor at the institutional level, partly because of disagreements on resource allocation.

In the College Reform of 1 August 1994, the state non-university sector was reorganised. 98 regional and vocational colleges were merged into 26 university colleges (statlige høgskoler). None of the former separate institutions were closed down, and some of the university colleges became multi-campus institutions in a county. Each county has at least one university college, as was the case with the regional colleges. In 1996, seven colleges and academies of arts, crafts and design were merged into two new university colleges of arts,

89 EURYBASE NORWAY one in Oslo and one in Bergen. One academy of arts was integrated into the university in Trondheim. Regional music conservatories were integrated into universities in Bergen and Trondheim, and into the Norwegian Academy of Music in Oslo.

In 1998, a new process of reform was initiated. The two main reasons were the need for quality improvements in higher education and research (problems with delays before graduation and student drop- out), and Norway’s obligations in the Bologna Process. A new official Committee on Higher Education was set up, submitting its main report in May 2000. A recommendation was that the institutions should be given a higher degree of autonomy and be organised as public corporations outside the Ministry, but with the Ministry retaining ownership and having the right to appoint the majority of the board members. Furthermore, the Committee recommended that the Ministry should fund activities like teaching and research, not the institutions themselves, and that the funding system should be the same irrespective of ownership of the institution. A new degree structure was also recommended.

A White Paper was presented to the Storting (national assembly) in the spring of 2001. This was the foundation for the Quality Reform in higher education, implemented from 2003/04. The Quality Reform encompasses the following elements:

● Changes in governance structure at the institutional level, allowing institutions more autonomy concerning organisation and management issues

● Increased institutional autonomy, for example concerning the introduction and repeal of courses and study programmes

● A new funding formula for the institutions, more aimed at the accomplishment of results and institutional output in teaching and research

● A new degree structure according to the Bologna Process, introducing a bachelor’s, master’s and ph.d. degree system, and the launching of a new grading system based on the ECTS

● New forms of student guidance, evaluation and assessment intended to improve the follow-up of students, reduce drop-out and study interruptions, and to stimulate students to complete their studies at a younger age

● A new scheme for financial support for students, designed to stimulate students to follow formal study progression and to complete their studies on time

● The establishment of the independent Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT). Accreditation of institutions and study programmes have been introduced, along with systematic evaluations of institutional quality assurance systems

● More emphasis on internationalisation as a means to improve the quality of Norwegian higher education, and the establishment of the Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Higher Education (SIU).

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6.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

Before the Quality Reform, funding of institutions was partly based on the number of students (input). With the new funding formula, funding is partly based on the number of students passing examinations (output). Will departments and institutions be tempted to let weak students pass instead of fail, because of the funding consequences? This has been debated in the media. Norway has had a system of external examiners for all written and oral examinations in universities and university colleges. With the Quality Reform, this was no longer required for examinations at bachelor level (also because portfolio assessment was introduced). With no external examiners, local examiners may let more students pass. The first report from the ongoing evaluation of the Quality Reform documented a decrease in the percentage of failed examinations. However, this decrease started around the year 2000, before the Quality Reform. The use of the lowest pass mark (E) has not increased, this indicates that institutions have not let the weakest students pass examinations because of economic considerations. Other elements of the Quality Reform may contribute to fewer failed examinations: Students are required to write more essays and be more continuously assessed. To get part of their state loans converted to grants, students have to pass all their examinations.

The links between vocational colleges (as part of tertiary education) and higher education institutions remain to be clarified. Part of the problem is related to the lack of a system of credit-points in the predominantly private institutions at vocational college level. This makes it difficult to assess the scope and depth of education taken, especially making comparability with higher education more difficult. In several European countries, qualification frameworks are being developed to ensure better links between and within different levels of the education system. The Ministry of Education and Research has started the work to develop a national qualifications framework for higher education, with the participation of relevant stakeholders. A proposal should be ready by the middle of 2007.

In May 2006, the Government appointed an official Commission with 12 members to evaluate the structure of higher education and make recommendations for its development within a time frame of 10-20 years. The Commission focused especially on regional aspects. The Commission called “Stjernø-utvalget”, named after its chair, professor Steinar Stjernø, presented its report to the Minister of Education and Research in January 2007. The Commission's report points to a number of challenges for Norwegian higher education in the next 10-20 years. A number of small institutions outside the cities already have too few applicants, and this situation is expected to be aggravated by demographic changes combined with social preferences for urban life among young people. At the same time, fragmentation is identified as a problem with regard to research, in particular fragmentation of research training, which the Commission relates to the existing standards and criteria for accreditation as a university. To remedy the situation the Commission proposes a process of mergers based on the institutions' own preferences, combined with stronger profiling supported by agreements with the ministry and changes in the financing system. Other measures proposed include consolidation of research training in research schools or similar structures, and measures to increase the quality of teaching in higher education institutions. In the higher education sector the analysis was generally accepted, but the proposed restructuring was rejected. The Ministry of Education and Research agreed on the need for concentration of efforts and resources but decided to opt for voluntary development rather than a top-down managed process.

HEIs need to obtain a minimum size or critical mass that enables sustained high-quality research and teaching output, either through institutional mergers or by extensive alliances. Major future trends – demographic developments, global challenges – will increase the pressure for knowledge production, development and dissemination. Budget restraints will prevent a corresponding increase in resource allocation to higher education and research. Networks, alliances or mergers within the higher education sector is seen as the key and will contribute to the strengthening of the efforts and the credibility of the HEIs.

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An allocation of NOK 50 mill. for 2010 will be used as incentive rewards to restructuring processes under way. However, it is not possible to specify a compound figure for all budget lines, since much is done through budget adjustments under other processes and purposes, e.g. the teacher education reform under implementation includes and funds significant elements that fall under structural reform

In Norway, the prognosis and matching of skills is discussed in a white paper recently presented by the government to the Storting (the Norwegian Parliament) Report No. 44 (2008–2009) called “Education Strategy”. The paper, which has not yet been debated, proposes that a better system needs to be developed for prognosticating future skills needs, as well as various measures to strengthen the links between higher education and the world of work. The debate also concerns the general level of education needed among the future workforce. As in the recent EU report “New Skills for New Jobs”, the Norwegian white paper predicts that there will be more jobs requiring higher education skills and fewer jobs for unskilled workers. This is based on analyses carried out by Statistics Norway (see http://www.ssb.no/arbeid_en/). Although the paper covers all levels of the education system including adult education, there is a strong focus on the fact that many young people fail to complete upper secondary education and therefore lack the skills that will increasingly be required in the labour market. The dropout rate is especially high in vocational programmes. The Government will introduce a number of measures to achieve the goal of having as many as possible complete their upper secondary education. Closer individual follow-up of pupils and apprentices will be facilitated. Young people who have already dropped out of school will be more closely followed up than they are today. In addition, education will be made more subject-relevant and work-relevant and will allow for greater flexibility so as to make it easier to take the individual needs of pupils into account. There will also be a stronger focus on improved and closer cooperation between the education system and working life. The paper will be debated in the Storting on 25 March.

A national qualifications framework for higher education was adopted in March 2009, based on the framework for the European Higher Education Area as well as the principles of the EQF. The higher education institutions are now in the process of implementing the framework in all study programmes, and this is to be done by 2012.

6.3. Specific Legislative Framework

The Act of 1 April 2005 No 15 on Universities and University Colleges is common to all higher education institutions, both public (state) and private institutions.

Because of the Quality Reform, the 1995 Universities and University Colleges Act was changed considerably. The revised act entered into force on 1 July 2002 and 1 January 2003. The legislation was changed considerably as part of the Quality Reform, and The main changes, now part of the 2005 Act, were as follows:

● The institutions are no longer mentioned by name, but by categories: universities, specialised university institutions and university colleges.

● Institutions can change category if certain conditions are met, for example from university college to university.

● Private institutions can apply for status as ''accredited institution'' belonging to the categories mentioned in 1,on the same basis as state-owned institutions.

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● The institutions must have satisfactory systems for internal quality assurance.

● The act introduces an independent (from the ministry and the institutions) governmental agency for accreditation and evaluation, NOKUT.

● The board is made responsible for the physical and psychological learning environment ensuring the health, security and welfare of the students.

● The academic year is stipulated to be 10 months.

● Full time study for one academic year is normally awarded 60 credits (based on the ECTS).

● Students admitted for study programmes of more than 60 credits will have a mutual and formal agreement with the institution outlining the responsibilities and duties of both parties.

● Recognition of degree or periods of study from institutions not covered by the act is shared between the institutions and NOKUT .

● The grading scale is unified and corresponds to the ECTS grading scale, from A (best) to E (pass) and F (failed).

● Issuing ''Diploma Supplement'' is mandatory. It is done automatically and free of charge.

In 2007, the 2005 Act was amended in order to include a statutory regulation of individual academic rights.

The legislation on loans and grants to students, starting with the establishment of the State Educational Loan Fund in 1947, has been of vital importance for the recruitment to higher education. The act currently in force is Act of 3 June 2005 No 37. The organisation of student welfare (i.e. student housing, canteens, day-care institutions) is also important for the recruitment to higher education, and the latest legislation in this field is Act of 14 December 2007 No 116 (this Act entered into force 1 August 2008).

6.4. General objectives

The aims of the national policy on higher education in the past decade were defined through a 1991 White Paper on higher education (St meld nr.40 1990-91 “From vision to work”) and the ensuing parliamentary debate. These aims were reiterated in all the budget proposals during the 1990s, and are still important as an underlying rationale for higher education policy making, not least through general political backing from the Storting (Norwegian Parliament). According to these aims, higher education should:

● Contribute to enhance the capacities and abilities of the population in such a way that consideration is taken both to the interests of the individuals and to the country’s need for a highly educated work force

● Improve the quality in higher education and research

● Ensure that applicants to higher education institutions are given equal treatment (in terms of access)

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● Promote conditions at the universities and university colleges that are favourable to the development and transmission of new knowledge

● Use the resources of the sector more effectively

● Reduce the time actually spent by students before graduation, so that the lengths of study periods needed correspond more closely to the formal requirements

● Encourage increased international cooperation in higher education and research.

In addition, specific goals and objectives are stated for each subject or area of professional education. For the education of health personnel and teachers, there are separate national curriculum regulations specifying study content and general goals.

6.5. Types of Institutions

The differences between types of higher education institutions are mainly related to their self-accreditation rights. Universities can without applying for external accreditation establish study programmes at all levels. University colleges may establish new programmes at the bachelor level without applying for accreditation. The state-owned colleges who have the right to award the degree Ph.D. may establish master programmes within the subject area of their Ph.D. Private higher education institutions accredited in one of the categories mentioned in 6.3 have the same freedom of establishment of programmes as the state-owned institutions belonging to the same category, while the private higher education institutions without institutional accreditation still have to apply to NOKUT for all new programmes. The different categories of higher education institutions in Norway are as follows:

● Universities (so far public institutions only)

● Specialised university institutions (both public and private)

● University colleges (both public and private) including two public University colleges of arts

● Other university colleges (public, but not under the auspices Ministry of Education and Research, i.e military colleges and the The Norwegian Police University College)

● Higher education institutions that provide accredited study programmes (private).

The university sector consists of universities and specialised university institutions. The non-university sector consists of university colleges (including, university colleges of arts and private higher education institutions which provide accredited study programmes. Norway is among the countries with the highest share of students in the non-university sector, approximately 60 %.

Transfers between the institutions are encouraged and simplified by the degree system (see section 6.15.) .

Norway does not have a separate open university. All universities and university colleges are expected to offer flexible ICT-supported courses. Norway Opening Universities (NOU) was established in 1999 as a national collaboration and networking agency, supported by the Ministry of Education and Research. NOU

94 EURYBASE NORWAY provides on its web site a comprehensive database with search engine on continuing education courses, both ICT-supported and on-campus courses, on offer from all universities and university colleges. A national distance education network in higher education (SOFF) was established in 1990, located in Tromsø. SOFF was responsible for distant ICT-supported learning, working with stimulation through public grants for development and networking. In 2004, SOFF was merged into Norway Opening Universities. Represented in the NOU board are organisations of public and private universities and university colleges, national student organisations, employers’ and employees organisations.

The Norwegian Association of Higher Education Institutions (UHR) was established in 2000 by merging the former associations of the university sector and of the university colleges. Its mission is to coordinate the activities of the member institutions, and to contribute to a national policy on higher education. Private university colleges have a separate association, but the accredited private higher education institutions may beome members of UHR as well.

More than 85 % of students attend state institutions, although there are as many as 32 private institutions with recognised study programmes, compared to 43 state institutions.

(See section 2.6.4.3. for information about the management of institutions at higher education level, section 6.17. for information on private university colleges and section 6.19. for recent statistics).

6.5.1. Universities

Universities are broad institutions covering most branches of study; they have both professional programmes and general disciplinary programmes. They have the main national responsibility for research training. Since 1969, Norway had four universities located in eastern, western, middle and northern Norway. 1 January 2005, two new universities were established after passing the new institutional accreditation process, and in 2007 a third new university was approved . The present seven universities are:

● University of Oslo (founded 1811) is the oldest and largest university in Norway, with the widest range of study programmes. The Norwegian College of Special Education (founded 1961) was incorporated into the University in 1990.

● University of Bergen (founded 1946).

● Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim (founded 1996) is the second largest university. Its predecessor, the University of Trondheim (1969) was a merger of the College of Arts and Science, formerly the Norwegian Institute for Teaching (1922), the Norwegian Institute of Technology (1911) and the Museum of the Royal Norwegian Society of Science (1760). Included in the 1996 merger were the Faculty of Medicine, the Trondheim Academy of Fine Arts and Trøndelag Conservatory of Music.

● University of Tromsø (founded 1968) is the northernmost university in the world. The Norwegian College of Fishery Sciences (founded 1971) was 1988 incorporated into the University.

● University of Stavanger (founded 2005) was a former university college (founded 1969).

● Norwegian University of Life Sciences (founded 2005) was a former specialised university institution in agricultural studies (founded 1897).

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● University of Agder (founded 2007), a former university college (founded 1994)

6.5.2. Specialised University Institutions

There are nine specialised university institutions (vitenskapelige høgskoler) in 2010. These institutions offer professional programmes at master and postgraduate level and doctoral degrees. They have a national responsibility for research within their fields. The institutions are:

● The Norwegian School of Veterinary Sciences (founded 1935) in Oslo

● The Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration (founded 1936) in Bergen

● The Oslo School of Architecture and Design (founded 1961) in Oslo

● The Norwegian School of Sport Sciences (founded 1969) in Oslo

● The Norwegian Academy of Music (founded 1972) in Oslo

● The Norwegian School of Theology (founded 1907) in Oslo, a former private higher education institustion was accredited as specialised university institution from 1 January 2005.

● The MHS School of Mission and Theology (founded 1843) in Stavanger, a former private higher education institution was accredited as a specialised university institution from 2008

● BI Norwegian School of Management (founded 1943) in Oslo, a former private higher education institution, was accredited as a specialised university institution from 2008, while

● Molde University College in Molde, a former university college, was accredited as Molde University College, specialised university institution in logistics from 1 January 2010.

6.5.3. University Colleges

University colleges predominantly offer 3-year professional bachelor programmes (engineering, nursing, social work etc). There are also professional programmes of varying lengths from one to five years, e.g. in teacher training (four years) and business administration (two years).

Most university colleges also offer some master’s degrees and a few also offers doctoral programmes. These have research responsibilities in fields where they award doctoral degrees. With the Quality Reform, they offer more master’s programmes (professional, multidisciplinary, management), often flexibly organised to be used as continuing education for working professionals.

In addition, most university colleges offer some programmes which parallel university subjects at undergraduate level, mainly one-year programmes. These programmes allow students to transfer to universities, but are also popular as continuing education for adults.

On 1 August 1994, 98 regional colleges and vocational colleges were reorganised and merged to become 26 state colleges, each offering a broader range of subjects but with their own particular specialities. The

96 EURYBASE NORWAY purpose of the reorganisation was to raise academic standards and to make better use of the available resources. The term ''state college'' was changed into the term ''university college''. This reflects a general academic upgrading of these institutions since 1994, with more members of the faculty holding doctoral degrees and more master level degrees being offered.

The growth and development of the former regional and vocational colleges was closely related to a government policy in which higher education was regarded as an important contributor to the local economic, social and political life. The colleges played an important role in the decentralisation of higher education in Norway, and they have had a strong commitment to their respective local communities. The most important categories before the 1994 merger were regional colleges, colleges of education, colleges of engineering, colleges of nursing, colleges of social work and health care education, and conservatories of music. These institutions form the core of the faculties within the new university colleges, with a long history - in some cases going back to the 1860s. There are also two university colleges of arts, as the result of mergers 1 August 1996: The Oslo National Academy of the Arts covers visual arts and crafts and performing arts, after merger of five colleges. The Bergen National Academy of the Arts covers visual arts and crafts, after merger of two colleges. These university colleges of arts officially belong to the category “university college”, there is no separate category for University colleges of arts.

6.5.4. University Colleges of Arts

There are two university colleges of arts, as the result of mergers 1 August 1996: The Oslo National Academy of the Arts covers visual arts and crafts and performing arts, after merger of five colleges. The Bergen National Academy of the Arts covers visual arts and crafts, after merger of two colleges.

6.5.5. Other Public University Colleges

The Norwegian Police University College and military university colleges are not under the authority of the Ministry of Education and Research, but the Act of 1 April 2005 No 15 on Universities and University Colleges partly applies to these institutions as well.

6.6. Admission Requirements

6.1.1. General

Admission capacity to higher education is decided centrally by the government. To many studies admission is competitive, since demand exceeds the number of places available.

A general matriculation standard has been introduced, setting minimum requirements for admission to higher education, which include the following components:

● Successful completion of 3 years of upper secondary education - including upper secondary level 1, 2 and 3, (regardless of programme), or a recognised vocational qualification/trade certificate.

● Included in, or in addition to, the above-mentioned criteria, it is necessary to have successfully completed upper secondary studies corresponding to a specific level of attainment, determined in the total number of hours per subject within the following general subject areas: Norwegian (393); English (140); history (140), social studies (84); mathematics (224),and natural science (140

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Pupils from the three general education programmes have this level of attainment in the subject areas. Pupils from the nine vocational education programmes may take a one-year supplementary general course to meet the admission requirements.

Additional admission requirements of advanced courses in mathematics and sciences (physics, chemistry, biology) in upper secondary school are set by institutions for certain professional studies (engineering, medicine etc).

Applicants can be admitted to higher education without having passed the normal upper secondary final examinations. Such students must, however, fulfil the specific minimum subject requirements mentioned above, be 23 years of age or more, and have at least five years of work experience or a combination of work experience, education and training.

As part of the Competence Reform from 2001, applicants who are older than 25 years of age can apply for a study programme, be evaluated and admitted on the basis of their total documented formal, non-formal and informal competence from work and life (realkompetanse). Each institution decides if the applicant is considered as qualified for the chosen study programme. The institution is free to set additional admission requirements related to the programme, for example number of years spent in relevant work or sufficient competence in English (due to textbooks in English). Institutions are not allowed to reserve a quota of places for these applicants, who must compete with those who have completed upper secondary school. These students are admitted on probation, but may be awarded a general study competence after having passed examinations after at least one year.

6.1.2. VET pathway to HE (Y-veien)

This initiative is a three-year engineering degree at bachelor level specifically adapted to students in possession of a trade or journeyman’s certificate only. (Normally, holders of a trade or journeyman’s certificate are required to have an additional year of general studies from upper secondary school in order to be admitted to higher education.) Following the increase in number of institutions wishing to offer a VET pathway in engineering, the Ministry of Education and Research in 2007 decided to include the VET pathway to such adapted or tailormade engineering programmes in the general regulations on admission to higher education. The institutions have later been invited to apply for the authorization to set up similar programmes in other relevant fields, and some pilot schemes have started.

Every tertiary vocational student with two years of tertiary vocational education holds a Higher Education Entrance Qualification, given that they have passed the demands in Norwegian at the upper secondary level.

In addition, the Higher Education Act opens up for HEIs to give exemptions for relevant parts of non higher education. This has lead to several agreements in the engineering field, between University Colleges and Tertiary Technical Vocational Colleges, where two years of tertiary technical vocational education may give one year exemption in the three year bachelor degree in engineering.

6.7. Registration and/or Tuition Fees

Studies in Norwegian public (state) higher education institutions do not have tuition fees.

A small fee has to be paid each semester to the student welfare organisation.

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6.8. Financial Support for Students

The Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (NSELF) was established in 1947 and provides financial support for the students in the form of grants and loans. The support is meant to cover expenses for accommodation, subsistence costs and study materials. Financial support is also given for study abroad. Exchange students and degree seeking students all qualify for support.

Every student can get financial support up to NOK 87 600 each academic year of ten months (2009/2010). The support is initially given as a loan, however, 40 percent of the loan may be converted to a grant for students who do not live at home with their parents. In order to receive maximum grant, students have to:

● Pass all their examinations

● Earn less than NOK 136 061 each year (2010)

● Have assets not exceeding NOK 269 168 (single students) and NOK 517 053 (married students) (2010).

The support remains a loan for students who live at home with their parents, even if they pass all their examinations. Means testing of the parents’ economy was disbanded in the early 1970s. There are special arrangements for maternity leave, illness and students with children. The size of the grant also depends on the income of the student and the income of spouse or cohabitant.

Students may receive an additional loan of maximum NOK 53 730 each year to cover fees in private higher education institutions (2009/2010).

Loans are interest free during the studies. The first payment is normally made about seven months after graduation. NSELF has schemes that ordinary banks do not have. In cases of low income, unemployment, illness, childbirth or care of small children, repayments may be postponed for a period and the interest can be waived. In some cases all or parts of the loan will be cancelled. This applies if the person lives and works in certain parts of Northern Norway. All, or parts of the loan, may also be cancelled if illness prevents the person from working.

6.9. Organisation of the Academic Year

The academic year is 10 months and normally divided into two terms (semesters): Autumn term from mid August to mid December, Spring term from early January to mid June.

With the Quality Reform of 2002, the institutions were encouraged to make the terms longer. Earlier the Autumn term started in early September and the Spring term in mid January.

Professional study programmes generally start in the Autumn term, disciplinary studies may start in both the Autumn and Spring terms.

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6.10. Branches of Study, Specialisation

For all branches of study, most study programmes are three-year bachelor programmes and two-year master programmes with a few exceptions.

In humanities and arts, universities offer mainly disciplinary programmes while university colleges offer professional programmes. In performing music, there are four-year bachelor programmes. As specialisation, the University of Oslo offers non-European language programmes and the University of Tromsø offers a Sami language programme. The University of Oslo The MHS School of Mission and Theology and The Norwegian School of Theology offers a six-year professional programme in theology.

In education, there are four-year general teacher education programmes in addition to three-year specialised teacher education programmes. Universities offer professional master programmes in e.g. special education and pedagogical-psychological counselling. .Starting with the autumn 2010 student intake, the General teacher Education is replaced by the new differentiated teacher education. Differentiated primary and lower secondary teacher education (four-year) qualifies alternatively for teaching in primary school, years 1-7 or in lower secondary school, years 5-10, according to which of the two distinct programmes of study is followed. It also qualifies for teaching in adult education at the corresponding level. Teaching qualifications are limited to the chosen specialisations in teacher education. Cf. Chapter 8.

In business administration, the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration offered four- year professional university level programmes that are now five-year master programmes. The same applies to the private Norwegian School of Management BI. Through institutional mergers, BI offers specialised programmes in marketing, retail trade etc. University colleges offer two-year (høgskolekandidat) and three- year (bachelor) programmes in business administration, often with specialisation targeted at the regional economy (fisheries, shipping etc), and some offer two-year master programmes.

In social sciences and law, universities are the main actors. University colleges offer mainly professional programmes for social work, librarianship, journalism etc and some disciplinary study programmes at bachelor level.

In science, mathematics and computing, universities are the main actors especially at master level, but also university colleges offer master programmes.

In engineering and architecture, the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) is the main actor on master level. The Oslo School of Architecture and Design offers a 5.5-year master in architecture while the private higher education institution Bergen School of Architecture offers a 5 year master degree in acrchitecture. University colleges offer bachelor programmes in engineering and some also offer master programmes.

In health and welfare, universities offer professional master programmes in dentistry and pharmacy. Universities also offer six-year professional programmes in medicine and psychology, while the specialised Norwegian School of Veterinary Science offers a six-year programme in veterinary medicine. University colleges and some private higer education institutions offer bachelor programmes for nurses and other health professions.

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In agriculture and fisheries, the Norwegian University of Life Sciences and the Norwegian College of Fishery Sciences (part of the University of Tromsø) are the main actors at master level. Some university colleges offer bachelor programmes in these fields.

6.11. Curriculum

Academic freedom is seen as essential to a sound functioning of the higher education system. The Act on Universities and University Colleges clearly states that the institutions cannot be instructed as to the content of their teaching, research, or artistic/scientific development work. Within the limits laid down by law, the universities and university colleges are free to develop new subjects, disciplines, and programmes.

At all Norwegian higher education institutions, the workload of studies for the students is indicated in credits. 60 Norwegian credits (ECTS credits) correspond to one year of full-time studies.

The choice of teaching methods (lectures, seminars, paper and/or thesis writing, laboratory training, etc.) and the number of teaching hours per week are factors that vary according to subject/level/institution; they are decided by the institutions themselves. Detailed curricula and subject/discipline design are likewise decided by the institutions, subject to peer review of academic content through the sub-committees of the Norwegian Association of Higher Education Institutions. Such information is found in student guides or ''study catalogues'' which are available on institutions’ web sites or on request from the individual institutions. This information is therefore not systematically available at a national level.

(See section 6.15. for a description of the degree system.)

6.12. Teaching Methods

The main teaching methods used at higher education institutions are lectures and seminars, but project work is gaining importance. The lectures are held for larger groups of students, and involve student participation only to a minor extent, whereas seminars allow more active student participation. In addition, students are encouraged to write papers or reports. With the Quality Reform, students are required to do more writing during their studies. The writing of a research thesis is mandatory for master’s degrees (except in professional study programmes) and for doctor’s degrees.

For specific subjects and branches of study, lectures are combined with work in laboratories and teaching of research methods from the undergraduate level onwards. Excursions, field trips and visits to industry and museums are often a mandatory part of the programme.

Study programmes aimed at training students for a specific profession involve teaching methods that are specific to the education in question. Usually the students are placed for one or more periods in different institutions (internship in hospitals, practice in schools etc.) or in enterprises to gain practical work experience connected to the studies. Group sessions are widely used.

ICT is increasingly used among on-campus students: information from teachers and administration to students, discussion groups, submission of essays, lecturer’s notes etc. Student housing is equipped with Internet access. Students are expected, and in some cases required, to own a personal computer.

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ICT based distance education programmes are alternatives to on-campus studies. Such programmes are developed and delivered by all universities and most university colleges. In some professional programmes, simultaneous video transmission of lectures are sent to students in rural study centres so that these students may take part in the discussions with the lecturer.

The recent Quality Reform in higher education emphasises internationalisation. To that end, the provision that the main teaching language is Norwegian has been removed. The teaching is mainly in Norwegian. Lecturers are required to be fluent in one of the Scandinavian languages (Norwegian, Danish or Swedish). An increasing number of English-language programmes are offered to foreign students, mainly for masters’ degrees. Students may submit written examinations in any of the Scandinavian languages or in English.

6.13. Student Assessment

Student evaluation in higher education is usually based on examinations at the end of courses. Certificates, issued at the end of a professional education or a degree course, contain all the marks given in the different courses a student has taken. Certificates document the specialisation, depth of study and interdisciplinary aspects of courses.

For graduate (master) students and doctoral students there is a system of individual supervision of the thesis, which also functions as an evaluation of the student's work and progression.

Marks are given on the basis of written and/or oral examinations. Universities and university colleges generally hold individual written examinations. Group examinations and home-based examinations are other forms of written examinations used in professional studies at universities and university colleges. In addition, a term paper may constitute part of an examination. Oral examinations are normally individual, but can in certain cases be conducted in groups. Universities and university colleges are largely free to determine what types of examination best suit the course objectives, content and structure. With the Quality Reform, portfolio assessment was introduced.

Use of external examiners to set the marks (alone or in cooperation with the course teacher) has been obligatory for all written and oral examinations. External examiners are recruited from other institutions and/or professional work. With the Quality Reform, external examiners are no longer obligatory for examinations on bachelor level. Besides, the increasing use of formative examinations instead of summative examinations has left the course teacher(s) more in charge of assessing the students.

The Quality Reform in higher education introduced from 2003/04 a new, uniform grading scale conforming to the ECTS rating scale. The grading scale is A-E for pass and F for failed.

6.14. Progression of Students

In most areas, students have to pass examinations in order to follow and complete a study programme. For some courses, a certain level of knowledge and hence marks have to be met by the student at each stage in order to proceed through the programme. Students may repeat examinations they do not pass, maximum three times.

A system of inter-institutional credit transfer is regulated by law. Students receive full credit for their previous studies if they move from one institution of higher education to another after completion of a programme. It

102 EURYBASE NORWAY is therefore quite common to qualify for a degree on the basis of a combination of courses taken at two different higher education institutions, e.g. at a university college and at a university.

6.15. Certification

Questions concerning degrees, examinations, and the normal length of a study programme, are decided by the Ministry of Education and Research.

The main structure of degrees and the duration of study programmes are as follows:

● Three-year Bachelor’s Degree, two-year Master’s Degree and three-year Ph.D. is the main model, introduced in 2002/2003 as part of the Quality Reform. There are some exceptions to this model.

● In a few professional studies, students will enrol for a five-year integrated Master’s Degree programme, e.g. engineering, industrial design, dentistry, pharmacy, architecture (five-and-a-half-year).

● A limited number of professional study programmes, of duration six years or more, retained their earlier degrees. These degrees are in medicine (cand.med.), psychology (cand.psychol.), theology (cand.theol.) and veterinary science (cand.med.vet.).

● In performing music, the Bachelor’s Degrees are four-years. General teacher education has four-year programmes.

● The earlier university college two-year degree “høgskolekandidat” has been kept. This degree may be built upon to obtain a Bachelor’s Degree.

● The traditional general doctorate (dr.philos.) is awarded on the basis of high level research conducted over a number of years, leading to the successful defence of a substantial thesis.

As a means of facilitating and encouraging student mobility between higher education institutions in the country, degrees can be conferred on the basis of studies from a combination of higher education institutions. This system generally implies reciprocal recognition of study programmes between higher education institutions on a time for time basis. There should, however, be no overlap in content or duplication of exams.

6.16. Educational/Vocational Guidance, Education/Employment Links

All institutions offering courses in higher education have a study service responsible for counselling individual students on their choice of subjects and combination of courses, on which courses are required for specific occupations, on specific requirements during study periods and examinations and on study techniques.

At universities, counselling is integrated into the general study administration of each faculty. Most faculties have a counselling centre with the primary task of giving students advice on further studies, related to their choice of future work. The universities publish guides with detailed information on the main branches of

103 EURYBASE NORWAY study and requirements for further study. Responsibility for advising on combinations of courses lies with the departments and teaching staff, and with supervisors in the case of higher degrees and doctoral studies.

At university colleges, there is generally a separate study counselling service in each faculty, dealing with groups of students following courses in that faculty.

In many areas, universities and university colleges have close relations to business and to society at large. Relevant employers’ organisations and trade unions are consulted in connection with the development of national curricula for programmes such as nursing, engineering and teacher education. In other cases there may be a direct dialogue between employers and HEIs about the content of the curricula. However, this varies, and the HEIs have full autonomy in determining the content of the programmes except in the few programmes governed by national curricula, The recent white paper “Education Strategy” signals a more active role for the government with regard to new skills for new jobs and proposes various measures in this regard. The paper will be debated in parliament on 25 March

Institutions with mainly vocational programmes such as nursing or teacher education interact closely with employers i.a. in connection with work placements, which are obligatory for the students in such programmes. This also means that they receive continuous feedback from employers on the quality of the students and the content of the programmes. To an increasing degree, work placements are also introduced in other programmes where they are not mandatory, e.g. business administration and in some cases arts and social sciences.

Many study programmes at universities and university colleges include supervised practice and placements in institutions and enterprises for students. At university college level, professional studies in teaching, social work and health care have traditions for including several practice periods. This has not been the case for studies in engineering, but now some university colleges experiment with one-day-a-week placements in local industry. At university level, one or more practice periods in the last part of professional studies are obligatory in e.g. architecture, dentistry, engineering, journalism, law (at one university), psychology, veterinary medicine. Some professional bachelor studies in business administration and tourism have introduced a one-semester practice period as an option, with study abroad or an optional subject as alternatives. Employers’ and employees’ associations presently take part in experiments to introduce supervised practice periods in more study programmes.

Universities have set up special offices responsible for establishing contact between the university and industry. The contact between higher education institutions and industry is also assured through externally financed research projects at the institutions.

Universities and university colleges have established Centres for Continuing Education and Distance Education during the 1990s. These centres may assist when departments develop tailor-made courses commissioned by an employer in the private or public sector.

6.17. Private Higher Education

One act is common to all higher education institutions, both public (state) and private institutions. This is the Act of 1 April 2005 No 15 on Universities and University Colleges. Chapter 8 is on private institutions.

Earlier, private higher education in Norway was regulated by the Act of 11 June 1986 No 53 on the Recognition of Study Programmes at Private Colleges and the State Funding of these.

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Among the 33 private higher education institutions, three institutions have been accredited by the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) as specialised university institutions while five institutions have been accredited as university colleges.

Private higher education institutions may only receive state funding for recognised study programmes, but they are not automatically entitled to such support. In 2007, there are 32 private higher education institutions with recognised study programmes, of which 24 institutions receive state funding for (part of) their activities. All of these have to send budget proposals, and yearly accounts and reports on examination procedures, numbers of registered students, graduates, etc. to the Ministry.

The private higher education institutions cover a wide spectre of study programmes: ballet, music, theology and religious studies, teacher education, nursing and social work, engineering, computer technology, business administration and marketing etc.

Most of the private institutions offer programmes at bachelor level, some have programmes at master level. The Norwegian School of Theology, the School of Mission and Theology and the Norwegian School of Management BI can confer doctoral degrees.

Although there are many private higher education institutions in Norway, these are on the whole relatively small.

The Norwegian School of Management BI, however, is a major actor within the field of business studies. It has about 19,000 students (half of which follow part-time courses) and 7 branches located in all parts of Norway. This makes BI by far the largest private higher education institution in Scandinavia.

6.18. Organisational Variations, Alternative Structures

There are no alternative structures in public higher education. However, alternatives in terms of organisation and structure may be found at private higher education institutions.

The International Summer School (ISS) at the University of Oslo is a centre for learning in an international context, offering a wide variety of courses taught in English at undergraduate and graduate levels. Every year the ISS welcomes an average of 500 students who participate in its activities from the last week of June until the first week of August. Students can choose from courses in Norwegian language, Norwegian and Scandinavian literature, folklore, history, history of art, culture and society, political science, international relations and economics. Graduate students and professionals may take courses in special education, peace research, international development studies, energy planning and the environment, media and communications and health planning. There is no tuition fee.

6.19. Statistics

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

6.19.1. Number of Students

Number of students according to sector and type of institution 1 October 2009

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Students

Higher education institutions 215 966

University sector: 113 903

Universities 91 783

Specialised university institutions 22 120

Non-university sector: 102 063

University colleges 89 414

University colleges of arts 818

Other public colleges 1 231

Military colleges 1 006

Private university colleges and higher education institutions 9 594

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Number of students in institutions in university sector 1 October 2009

Students

University of Oslo 28 256

University of Bergen 14 386

Norwegian University of Science and Technology 20 465

University of Tromsø 8 351

University of Stavanger 8 494

University of Agder 8 564

Norwegian University of Life Sciences 3 267

Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration 3 081

Norwegian School of Veterinary Science 471

Norwegian School of Sport Sciences 1 238

Norwegian Academy of Music 620

Oslo School of Architecture and Design 569

BI Norwegian School of Management (private) 14 896

School of Mission and Theology (private) 331

Norwegian School of Theology (private) 914

Number of students in university colleges 1 October 2009

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Students

Østfold University College 4 208

Akershus University College 3 822

Oslo University College 12 410

Hedmark University College 5 534

Gjøvik University College 2 495

Lillehammer University College 4 124

Buskerud University College 3 383

Vestfold University College 5 200

Telemark University College 5 506

Stord/Haugesund University College 3 026

Bergen University College 6 921

Sogn og Fjordane University College 3 188

Molde University College 1 808

Ålesund University College 1 965

Volda University College 3 210

Sør-Trøndelag University College 5 506

Nord-Trøndelag University College 4 336

Bodø University College 5 314

Narvik University College 1 162

Nesna University College 920

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Harstad University College 1 566

Finnmark University College 1 807

Sami University College 140

Source: Norwegian Social Science Data Services (Database for Statistics on Higher Education), except “Other public colleges” and “Military colleges”. Source: Statistics Norway

6.19.2. Number of Institutions

● 7 state higher education institutions under the authority of the Ministry of Education and Research, including

○ 7universities

○ 6 specialised university institutions

○ 22 university colleges

○ 2 university colleges of arts

● 32 private higher education institutions, including

○ 3 specialised university institution

○ 5 university colleges

○ 24institutions that provide recognised study programmes

○

 Other higher education institutions, not under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and Research o 5 military colleges o 1 - The Norwegian Police University College

6.19.3. Academic Staff

Teaching and research staff in full-time equivalents by type of higher education institution and position (percentage female staff in parenthesis) 1 October 2009

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2009-data (prosentage of women)

Universities Specialised University Colleges of All state university colleges arts institutions institutions

Professor 2348 21 % 184 17 % 325 21 % 35 47 % 3004 20 %

College reader 15 32 % 0 100 % 35 20 % 1 100 % 53 24 %

Associate professor, senior lecturer 2029 37 % 183 36 % 1540 41 % 36 45 % 4051 39 %

Assistant professor 85 27 % 9 12 % 59 24 % 1 100 % 159 24 %

Adjunct professor 179 15 % 14 12 % 27 18 % 2 0 % 230 16 %

Lecturer 859 54 % 61 43 % 2292 61 % 39 57 % 3587 60 %

Research fellow 3607 50 % 204 56 % 498 61 % 19 46 % 4420 51 %

Researcher 755 41 % 31 45 % 26 30 % 0 830 40 %

Post doc 919 46 % 29 48 % 12 24 % 0 971 46 %

Research assistant 219 58 % 5 38 % 9 69 % 1 100 % 238 58 %

Other academic staff 229 59 % 13 34 % 388 65 % 3 52 % 695 63 %

Total 11244 40 % 733 37 % 5210 52 % 135 50 % 18239 44 %

Source: Norwegian Social Science Data Services (Database for Statistics on Higher Education)

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7. Continuing Education and Training for Young School Leavers and Adults

Equal opportunities for lifelong learning is the basic principle of Norwegian adult education policy, which aims to raise the general level of education of the entire adult population. A major task in recent years has been to integrate adult education into several reforms in the public education system. In addition, the tradition of cooperation between private grant-aided providers of adult education and public authorities has been maintained.

7.1. Historical Overview

Organized adult education started in the 1840s, and was a crucial contribution to the democratization process in Norway. Initially, adult education was run by humanitarian, political and other non-government organizations. These providers are still very active. Study groups are widely used in the courses, while folk high schools (after the Danish model) provide longer residential courses. Distinguishing features of these traditional forms of adult education are the absence of examinations and national curricula, which is typical for non-formal learning in general.

The first private correspondence school was started in 1914, the regulating Act came in 1948. These schools offered both general and vocational courses at lower and upper secondary level, later also at higher education level. In the 1980s, some of the schools were pioneers in distance education using television and computers.

Since the 1960s, when the school system took responsibility for certain aspects of adult education, the public sector has played an important role in running adult education courses. In 1976, Norway was the first country to introduce a separate Act on Adult Education. Division of work between public schools and private sector providers was set up. Cooperation between public authorities and the private non-commercial providers was formalized. National grants to providers should subsidize adult education. Right to educational leave was debated in the 1970s and 1980s, but not legislated until the 1990s.

In 1998 the Government presented a White Paper on continuing education and adult education, the Competence Reform. The basis for the reform was the need for competence in the workplace, in society and by the individual. The reform was aimed at embracing all adults, regardless of labour market attachment, and it had a broad and long-term perspective. The reform was implemented with active participation from the social partners. The Storting has approved the legal right for adults to primary and lower secondary education, also to leave from work for educational purposes. Systems for the documentation of non-formal learning have been established, in working life and for access to upper secondary education and to higher education. A national plan of action included

● improvement of the documentation of results of adult education

● development of educational models for adults in lower secondary education

● development of models for adults to document non-formal competence

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● development of educational models for adults in upper secondary education, with special focus on literacy

● compressed upper secondary education for adults, with special focus on single parents

● models for coordination of adult education within the regions

● models for cooperation between different organisers of adult education

● experimentation with information technology in the area of adult education.

As part of the Competece Reform, the social partners cooperated with the Ministry of Education and Research and the Ministry of Trade and Industry in setting up the Competence Development Programme for the period 1999-2006. Financial support was given to projects where education providers developed tailor- made courses for employees in an enterprise/public organization, preferably by including learning in the workplace and flexible learning by ICT. Applications from SMEs were also prioritized. More than 700 cooperative educational projects were supported, with more than 30,000 participants.

The Competence Development Programme has been evaluated with positive results, especially projects that included learning in the workplace. The programme was, however, not much used in trades where employees have few opportunities for learning. Another finding in the evaluation was that there had been few participants with only primary education.

The OECD Adult Literacy and Lifeskill Survey (ALL) 2004 showed that more than 400,000 adults (age 16-65) in Norway have so poor basic skills in reading and numeracy that they score lower than the level considered necessary to function in modern working life. Poor basic skills were especially found among the unemployed, social security recipients, older workers and immigrants, but many other employees are also at risk.

In October 2006 the Government appointed an official committee to evaluate the role of the non- governmental study associations (NGOs) for the individual, working life and society, and with regard to the field of education. The government wishes to strengthen the role of the study associations as providers of education and learning opportunities for adults, as well as their role as bearers of cultural values and traditions in local communities. The Committee, named “Tron-utvalget” after its leader County Governor Audun Tron, delivered its report to the Minister of Education and Research on the12th of September 2007.

As of 2008, the Parliament ( Stortinget ) has got a proposal to establish by law the right to upper secondary education for adults was extended to include everyone over the age of 25 who has not completed education at that stage.

Vox – The Norwegian Agency for Lifelong Learning was established 1 January 2001 by merging the Norwegian Institute of Adult Education, the Norwegian State Institution for Distance Education and the State Adult Education Centre. Vox is a national institute whose main purposes are to initiate, coordinate and document research and development projects about different aspects of adult education, to facilitate contact and collaboration among national actors to establish networks for adult education, and to disseminate results.

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7.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

In 2006 the Norwegian government established Programme for Basic Skills in Working Life. The programme supports both businesses and public providers of adult education. It is based on the lesson learnt from the Competence Development Programme (1999-2006) that training and education combined with a paid job often gives the best results, especially for groups with low levels of formal education. The purpose of the programme is to ensure that adults acquire the basic skills they need to meet new requirements and rapid changes in working life. The programme has been evaluated.

In Norway public responsibility for career counselling and guidance is shared between the education and the employment authorities. Career guidance services are offered to pupils in secondary and upper secondary school, to students and graduates in university and colleges, to adults with educational rights and -needs in various centres organized by the county authorities. The Employment and Welfare Administration provide its clients counselling services. In addition there are career guidance services offered by private actors.

During the last decade several reports have pointed out challenges with regard to issues like, coordination across sectors and actors, professionalism and quality assurance, as well as services offered to adults. Several steps have been taken in recent years to improve cross- sectoral counselling and guidance in a lifelong perspective. County authorities have been given a responsibility for establishing regional partnerships for educational and vocational guidance. Regional partnerships, involving school authorities (counties and municipalities), the Employment and Welfare Administration (the Public Employment Service), higher education institutions and the social partners, have been established in almost every county. Establishing career guidance centres has been important to many regional partnerships.

To enhance professionalism and to stimulate and expand more streamlined development of career guidance services at the local level, new initiatives are stated in the budget proposition to parliament for 2008-2009 and in a white paper from 2009. The Ministry of Education will consider creating a national body for career guidance within Vox - The Norwegian Agency for Lifelong Learning. It will contribute to knowledge and quality development, and promote cooperation between relevant sectors and actors, as well as further development of the user-oriented services.

OECD is now planning a new large survey on adults skills and competences, Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). It is the most comprehensive international survey of adult skills ever undertaken; a collaboration between governments, an international consortium of organisations and the OECD; will take place across OECD and partner countries in 2011 with results published in 2013.

PIAAC will measure the skills and competencies needed for individuals to participate in society and for economies to prosper, and will help governments to a better understanding of how education and training systems can nurture these skills.

The survey will be carried out by interviewing adults aged 16-65 in their homes – 5 000 in each participating country; assessing their literacy and numeracy skills and their ability to solve problems in technology-rich environments; collecting a broad range of information from the adults taking the survey, including how their skills are used at work and in other contexts such as the home and the community.

A White Paper on Education Strategies ( St.mld.nr.44 (2008-09) Utdanningslinja) was presented by the government last year and was debated in the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget) in March 2010. The White Paper predicts that there will be more jobs requiring higher education skills and fewer jobs for unskilled

113 EURYBASE NORWAY workers. This is based on analyses carried out by Statistics Norway (see http://www.ssb.no/arbeid_en/). Although the paper covers all levels of the education system including adult education, there is a strong focus on the fact that many young people fail to complete upper secondary education and therefore lack the skills that will increasingly be required in the labour market. The drop-out rate is especially high in vocational programmes. The Government will introduce a number of measures to achieve the goal of having as many as possible completing upper secondary education. Different initiatives for the follow-up is now being taken by the Ministry. This will cover all levels of education and a number of special items like validation , councelling and guidance and drop-outs from secondary education.

7.3. Specific Legislative Framework

Equal educational opportunities for adults and the principle of lifelong learning are the principles of Norwegian adult education policy, which aims to raise the general level of education of the entire adult population.

Adult education is regulated by the Adult Education Act (the law is from1976 and it is rewised in depth with legislative effect from 01.01.2010 ) and the Education Act (1998). In addition, there is the Act on Folk High Schools (1984).

The Adult Education Act regulates the study associations (studieforbund) and the distance education institutions (nettskoler).

Under the Adult Education Act, the provision of courses is the responsibility of the respective public education authorities at the various levels of education. The Education Act regulates primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education for children, youths and adults.

The Education Act (1998) regulates education at primary, lower secondary and upper secondary school level for adults as well as for children and young people.

In 1999, with effect from 2001, an act on educational leave was passed. Persons having been in the working life for more than three years and with the same enterprise the last two years, have the right to full-time or part-time leave up to three years to join an organised educational programme. The act does not regulate the question of salary and living costs in connection with leave.

7.4. General objectives

Continuing and furthering education in Norway aims at fulfilling the competency needs of the individual, of enterprises in working life, and of society at large. Emphasis is on qualifying people for a labour market in a time of change, strengthening citizenship and democratic involvement, and improving the general quality of life.

A particular aim is to reduce the educational gap between generations and groups of the population

The general objectives of primary and secondary education for adults are stipulated in Core Curriculum (see section 4.4. for details.)

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7.5. Types of Institutions

From August 2002, adults who have not completed primary and lower secondary education have a legal right to do so. Adult education at these levels is organised by the municipalities. The municipality receives financial support as a part of national funding, and the municipality decides about priorities for adult education at this level. The National Education Office in each county gives advice to the municipalities on determining the needs and making plans for the education. Primary and lower secondary education can be taken at local primary and lower secondary schools, as well as at municipal adult education centres. Private distance education institutions, or study associations co-operating with the municipalities, can also arrange primary and lower secondary education courses.

From August 2000, adults born before 1978 and without completed secondary education have had legal right to upper secondary education. From autumn 2008, this right has been extended, see section 7.2. The county education authorities are responsible for adult education at upper secondary level. The county receives financial support as a part of national funding. Adult education at upper secondary level is given at upper secondary schools and county-based adult education centres. In addition, some study associations, distance education institutions and labour market authorities offer courses that qualify as parts of a full secondary education programme.

Education for adults in Norwegian as a second language was extended in 1998 and regulated by an act from 2005 (Introduksjonsloven)Immigrants are given lessons sufficient to reach a minimum level of competence. The courses are maximum 3,000 hours for persons with little or no schooling from their home country, and 850 hours for persons with a better educational background. The courses are offered to immigrants, refugees, and asylum seekers (except those who have Swedish, Danish or Sami as their first language). This education is covered by national funding. Responsibility lies centrally with the Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion and locally with the municipalities.

Labour market training courses for the unemployed provide occupational qualifications to meet the demands of the labour market. They are part of the Government's labour market strategy and are fully financed by the State. The Ministry of Labour is responsible. The courses take place in upper secondary schools, in course centres attached to the schools or in business and industry. Quite a large part of the courses corresponds to modules from the curriculum for upper secondary education.

Universities and university colleges provide continuing education, both short updating non-credit courses and longer credit-giving modular programmes. Generally a combination of meetings and ICT is used for flexible learning. Most participants are in employment. For adults, an alternative is to attend ordinary on- campus programmes, where one third of the students are older than 30 years.

Three types of institutions providing adult education belong to the private grant-aided sector: folk high schools, study associations, distance education institutions. For information on these providers, see section 7.16..

7.6. Geographical Accessibility

Decentralisation of institutions at primary, secondary and higher level has been important in Norwegian educational policy. A part of this policy has been to integrate adult education with regular first time education on both secondary and tertiary level, as opposed to establishing a separate system for adult education. The municipalities and counties thus have a responsibility for providing formal education to 115 EURYBASE NORWAY adults as well as to youngsters. Universities and university colleges have a regional responsibility for continuing education.

Study associations offer courses in cities, towns and communities, they report courses from almost all municipalities . Study centres are established in some communities as brokers to offer courses from several public and private providers, using video conferencing, ICT and visiting lecturers. Distance education is offered from higher education institutions and private providers. So even in less populated areas, continuing education is accessible to adults.

7.7. Admission Requirements

Adult education providers have varying lower-age limits for admission. Adult education at primary and lower secondary level requires a minimum age of 16 years for participation. Adult education at upper secondary level requires a minimum age of 21 years for participation. Labour market training courses for long-term unemployed persons (unemployed six months or longer) require a minimum age of 19 years for participation. Folk high schools as boarding schools require that pupils are 17 years or older, but they may admit 16-year old pupils. Study associations have a minimum age of 14 years, distance education providers have no specific age limits.

Adult applicants for vocational courses in upper secondary education have to meet additional requirements regarding qualifications.

For updating courses from universities and university colleges, admission requirements are usually a specified degree or degrees. For credit-giving continuing education courses, qualifications are often stated as certain kinds of work experience and not as degrees. Participants with varying levels of formal qualifications meet in for example management courses and tailormade courses for an employer.

7.7.1. Validation ( Realkompetansevurdering) Validation ( realkompetansevurdering) is being used as a tool to facilitate admission to all levels of formal eduction for adults.

The Norwegian concept of “realkompetanse” refers to all formal, non-formal and informal learning acquired. In reality, this means the sum of the overall skills and knowledge individuals have acquired through the education system, paid and unpaid work, organizational work, family life and life in society.

The official Norwegian term which is used to describe this area of activity can be translated into English as ”documentation and validation of formal, non-formal and informal learning outcomes”. The Norwegian approach has been built on the idea that the documentation and validation methods must have value for users in different areas:

 participation in working life/carrying on a profession or trade

 participation in the education system - admission and shortening of education

 participation in voluntary activities

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7.8. Registration and/or Tuition Fees

The authorities' responsibility for funding of adult education depends on the level and type of education provided. The cost of primary and secondary education for adults is covered by municipal or county education authorities. The participants must meet the cost of textbooks in upper secondary education, and there is a fee for upper secondary examinations. The educational authorities also cover the cost of adult immigrant education.

Public universities and university colleges charge fees for most of their continuing education courses in order to qualify people for a labour market in a time of change, and to improve the quality of life of individuals. Participants and/or their employers pay the fees. There are no reduced fees for the unemployed. (An alternative may be free on-campus ordinary day-time courses.) If credit-giving continuing education courses have fees, credits by these participants are not included in the total number of student credits that contributes to state funding of the institution with the new funding formula.

Fees are charged by private providers of adult education, but the courses are subsidised by public grants.

7.9. Financial Support for Learners

Adult learners may receive loans and grants from the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) for upper secondary education, vocational colleges and higher education. There is an upper age limit of 65 years but no other age-specific rules. The maximum loan (NOK 87 600 for the academic year 2009/10 - 10 months). Up to 40 % of the loan may be converted to grants if all exams are passed and the student live away from the parents and the additional income per year is not above a set limit. The support is reduced for part- time education. For additional information see www.lanekassen.no

The legal right to educational leave, passed in 1999, does not include subsistence and other financial support. Some professions have paid educational leave as part of their union agreements.

7.10. Main Areas of Specialisation

The number of organisations, the number of courses offered at different levels and the different authorities involved make the picture of adult education in Norway very complex.

There are several types of adult education based partly on the type of education offered and partly on the organisation involved. The main ones are described below:

7.10.1. Primary and lower secondary level

Since August 2002, adults have had a legal right to primary and lower secondary education. Adult education at primary and lower secondary level (compulsory education) is organised by the municipalities. The County Governors in every county gives advice and stimulates the work in each municipality as regards determining the needs for adult primary and secondary education and making plans for its provision in the individual municipality. Primary and lower secondary education are offered as special courses for adults, who are not supposed to attend ordinary classes for children at these levels. Primary and lower secondary education for adults are often taught at municipal adult education centres. Primary and lower secondary education courses

117 EURYBASE NORWAY can also be arranged by distance education institutions or study associations co-operating with the municipalities. Courses at lower secondary level leading to examinations in different subjects cover mainly the 9th and 10th grades. Additional subjects are taken, depending on the participants' skills and knowledge.

7.10.2. Upper secondary level

From August 2008, adults from the age of 25 and without completed secondary education have had a legal right to upper secondary education. Adult education at upper secondary level is given at upper secondary schools and county-based adult education centres. In addition, some study associations, distance education institutions and labour market authorities offer courses that qualify as parts of a full secondary education programme. Adults wishing to follow vocational courses have additional requirements regarding age (over 21) and qualifications. Distance study methods are also used. Adults with all-round work experience within a specific field may present themselves as external candidates for a craft examination consisting of both a practical and a theoretical part. About 60% of those obtaining the craft certificate avail themselves of this arrangement.

7.10.3. Higher education level

Universities and colleges provide continuing education for adults, both short updating non-credit courses and longer credit-giving modular programmes. Most participants are in employment. Many courses are adapted or tailor-made for an employer. For flexible learning, a combination of physical meetings and ICT is often used. Fees are paid by participants or employers.

7.10.4. Folk high schools

These schools provide general education courses of different lengths for young people and adults, but these do not result in formal qualifications. The 77 folk high schools are boarding schools owned and run by religious organisations, independent foundations or county authorities, in various parts of the country. There are no examinations and external curricular requirements at the folk high schools. The national assembly has decided that from the school-year 1997/98, the whole-year-pupils are credited three points in the competition for admission to higher education.

7.10.5. Study associations ( Adult education associations )

The non-governmental study associations (NGOs) offer courses and study groups for adults. They are responsible for the content of the courses; most of the courses are not bound by national curricula and examination systems. The courses cover a large number of activities, from pure leisure activities to academic subjects and vocational subjects. Some associations offer courses qualifying for lower and upper secondary education and higher education.

7.10.6. Private distance education institutions

These institutions started with correspondence courses, but took up newer media (TV, video, ICT) quite early and now offer a number of multimedia programmes. The courses cover fields ranging from leisure activities to university and college level subjects, but mostly courses at upper secondary and university level. An increasing number of courses are related to in-service vocational training.

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7.10.7. Programme for Basic Skills in Working Life

In 2006 the Norwegian government established the Programme for Basic Skills in Working Life (Program for basiskompetanse i arbeidslivet – BKA). The objective of the programme is to prevent employees and job- seekers from being excluded owing to lack of basic skills from a labour market that demands knowledge to an even greater extent. The programme will contribute potential employees to making it economically attractive and administratively simpler for employers to educate employees in basic skills in reading, writing, numeracy or ICT skills so that they can meet new requirements in working life. The programme is based on the realization that training and education at the workplace often gives the best results for persons with low level of formal education. As far as possible training offered shall be job-related and take place at the workplace. The programme funds employers in both private businesses and public sector. The purpose of the programme is to ensure that adults acquire the basic skills they need to meet new requirements and rapid changes in working life. The programme will be further developed and it has been strengthened by doubling its budget from 2008 till 2009.

7.10.8. Courses in Norwegian as a second language

Courses for adults in Norwegian as a second language and knowledge about the Norwegian society are legally and economically the responsibility of the Ministry of Children, Equity and Social Inclusion. From September 2005 immigrants have the right and obligation to attend 300 lessons; 250 lessons in Norwegian language and 50 lessons to learn about the Norwegian society. Unless they attend the lessons they will not have a permanent admittance to stay, and they will not have the possibility to obtain the Norwegian citizenship. Immigrants who need more education to learn the language, may get up to 2700 lessons in addition. The municipalities have the responsibility for providing these courses.

7.10.9. Labour market courses

These courses are the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour. Registered job-seekers who need certification can be offered courses in training for the labour market. The aim is to qualify participants for vacant positions. The training usually takes the shape of shorter, vocational courses. The courses are administrated by labour market authorities and the courses are given by a wide range of institution and organisations on the base of tender. Job-seekers undergoing rehabilitation can receive regular education for a period of up to three years. Participation on the courses is organised by the local offices of the Norwegian Labour and Welfare Oragnisation (NAV).

7.11. Teaching Methods

Following the previously mentioned educational reforms, the national framework curricula for teacher training were revised and put into force in 1998/99. The training shall lay a foundation for the challenges teachers will meet in primary, secondary and adult education. Therefore the training must be related to working life. The teacher training takes into account the principle of lifelong learning, both with regards to comprehensiveness and coherency in basic education, as well as in further and continuing education. Problem-based, self-directed and team-based methods are included in all study programmes. Adult teaching methods are included, and the students shall be able to use computer technology in their teaching.

These principles indicate that the differences in teaching methods between primary/secondary education and adult education are less significant now than some decades ago.

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Regulations (2000) on upper secondary education for adults say that the provisions shall be flexible and adapted to the individual adult’s needs. The modular structure of upper secondary education makes this possible to achieve. Distance study methods are frequently used.

Universities and university colleges have in their continuing education courses used the teaching methods now introduced in initial education through the Quality Reform: fewer lectures and more seminars, more group discussions, more essay writing, project reports instead of written examination. ICT is widely used, but it is generally combined with repeated national/regional meetings of participants - to establish group membership and reduce dropout rates among part-time students with a heavy workload. Academic staff is often supplemented with professionals teaching and discussing with participants. Academic theories and research are taught with a view to improve professional practice. Longer programmes are modular, modules were used for continuing education to reduce drop-out before initial on-campus education was modularised in humanities and social science.

As independent residential schools, folk high schools focus on personal growth in a wide sense, developing the mind, spirit and body of students through teaching and social interaction. Group projects are widely used, for instance in performing arts.

In courses from study associations not bound by national curricula (as in secondary education), the participants have the opportunity to influence the content and methods used. These non-governmental associations have a long tradition of study groups with active participants, supported by a teacher or on their own. Evening courses are more widely used than distance education.

Private distance education institutions were pioneers in using TV, videoconferencing and computers in their teaching. From correspondence courses they had experience in organising and giving academic feedback to distant students. They cooperated with universities and university colleges in developing and offering ICT based courses before these institutions had necessary competence. Programmes are modular.

7.12. Trainers

For adult education in primary and secondary school subjects, trainers have to be qualified teachers, regardless of whether the provider is a school or a private organisation. For teaching Norwegian as a second language, special courses are required.

Teaching continuing education courses is not part of the teaching duties for academic staff at universities and university colleges. However, those that do value the contacts with working life. Academics are often supplemented with professionals in teaching courses.

Teaching adults is now part of the ordinary teacher education. Some universities and university colleges offer special programmes in adult education, for instance one year part-time programme with flexible learning. Such programmes may also be offered in cooperation with adult education organisations and municipalities.

Private providers of adult education (folk high schools, study associations, distance education institutions) are free to set their own qualification requirements for teachers in non-school subjects, even if they receive state grants for the courses.

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7.13. Learner Assessment/Progression

For adults, there are alternatives to ordinary examinations in lower and upper secondary schools:

Adults may take lower secondary level examinations in different subjects as external candidates, without attending the courses.

In VET, adults with broad work experience within a specific field may present themselves as external candidates for a trade examination consisting of both a practical and a theoretical part, as an alternative to apprenticeship. This opportunity is widely used.

Universities and university colleges offer, in addition to non-credit updating courses, credit-giving continuing education courses and programmes. Flexible organisation usually requires that part-time students use twice the time as full-time students. Programmes are modular, as initial education also is. Programmes usually start once or twice a year, part-time students become part of a group by joining meetings and using ICT for discussions. (Exceptions are programmes based entirely on ICT.) The institution set the time for examinations, sometimes examinations are decentralised so students do not have to travel far. Written examinations may be used in disciplinary undergraduate courses. More usual in continuing education is a combination of essays/project reports (individual or group) and oral examination. Students are assessed by marks as in initial education (now A-F, earlier 6 point scale with subdivisions).

In folk high schools, there are no examinations and external curricular requirements.

Study associations have no examinations and external curricular requirements, except education in primary and secondary school subjects. For higher education studies, universities and university colleges set curricular requirements and arrange the examinations. Students take examinations as private candidates.

Private distance education institutions have a similar assessment situation as study associations. One institution has established a private university college specialising in computer and technical education, having the right to arrange examinations.

See also, section 7.7.1 Validation (realkompetnsevurdering)

7.14. Certification

Adult education in primary and secondary school subjects is certified as for young pupils, regardless of whether the provider is a school or a private organisation.

Completing the course Norwegian as a second language is documented by a diploma.

Some of the labour market training (LMT) courses lead to craft or journeymen’s certificates.

Continuing education by universities and university colleges have participation certificate for non-credit courses, usually short updating courses. For credit-giving modular study programmes with flexible delivery for part-time students, the certificate states the number of credits and the results of the examinations. The programme may be part of a degree (bachelor or master) or constitute a degree (master or professional master). Some programmes for professional specialisation are not part of a degree. The institution awards

121 EURYBASE NORWAY the certificate, the department(s) is academically responsible – as for initial education. This also applies when the institution arranges examinations for students from study associations and private distance institutions.

Folk high schools, study associations and private distance education providers do not use examinations for their own courses where they determine the curricula. Accordingly, a student/participant receives an attendance diploma specifying the content and duration of the course.

As part of the Competence Reform, Skills Centres have been established in municipalities/counties to assess and document the formal, non-formal and informal learning of candidates as equivalent to vocational secondary education. Dialogue-based method is combined with portfolio assessment, self-assessment and possibly vocational testing. Vox – Norwegian Agency for Lifelong Learning has been active in developing the methods used.

The value of such non-formal education may have increased in later years. The initiatives of the Competence Reform (1998) favour recognition of learning outcomes regardless of whether they are in formal education programmes. They favour learning settings that are less structured than a traditional school setting. They are intended to support lifelong learning for multiple purposes, not just vocational. In this, they further affirm the rationale for the establishment of institutions like folk high schools and study associations. See 7.7.1 Validation (realkompetansevurdering)

7.15. Education/Employment Links

As part of the Knowledge Promotion reform, the curricula in secondary education were changed to strengthen the link between education and the world of work. A new subject in lower secondary education was introduced to provide the pupils with samples and experiences from upper secondary education, in order for them to make more informed choices regarding study programmes and further career plans. In VET (upper secondary education) a new subject provides pupils with in-depth experiences from working life. In particular the last course is relevant also to adult puplils.

Adults with rights to primary and/or secondary education also have rights to career guidance. The counties and municipalities are responsible for providing this service. They are also responsible for offering adult applicants recognition of non-formal and informal learning (RNFL). Counties and municipalities organize these services differently, but most typically they are offered in skills centres (see above) or in career centres (see below).

In recent years “partnerships for career guidance” have been established in many counties. These partnerships have varying organization, but they are all aimed at strengthening the cooperation between providers of career guidance services and relevant stakeholders: counties, muncipalities, PMSs, HEIs, social partners, and users. Many partnerships have established career centres where guidance services are offered to adults (among other target groups) with regard to both education and work. The Ministry of Education has from 2007 provided financial support for all counties to establish such partnerships.

Most universities and many university colleges have Centres for Continuing and Distance Education. The centres offer course information on web sites as well as guidance to potential participants. The centres are also active in coordinating the development of multi-disciplinary tailormade courses for employers. In addition, most universities and several university colleges have Career Centres which offer guidance to students about the working life. These centres also provide a stategic link between HEIs and enterprises.

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Labour market authorities are responsible for establishing courses for different trades/occupations that are relevant for the unemployed and in demand by employers. The Public Employment Service (PSE) officers advise unemployed on further education in order to improve their chances of obtaining work.

7.16. Private Education

In 2005/06 there are 77 folk high schools located in the countryside in various regions. They are all boarding schools. Most schools are private, run by religious organisations or independent foundations. Only ten schools are run by the counties. The Council of Folk High Schools coordinates activities and provides a link to the authorities. The folk high schools provide education for young people and adults. Two schools have senior citizens and pensioners as their main audience. Folk high school courses do not result in formal qualifications. Most schools offer one-year courses (33 weeks), covering the school year from August to June or half-a-year courses (16.5 weeks). The schools also offer many shorter courses. A variety of subjects are offered, but most schools specialise in a certain field. The boarding costs are covered by a fee paid by the pupils and by state grants.

20 non-governmental study associations, with over 400 member organisations, run courses and study groups for adults. Courses are offered in most municipalities. There is an “umbrella” association, Norwegian Association for Adult Learning (NAAL, in Norwegian “VOFO”), that coordinates activities and provides a link to the authorities. The courses cover a large number of activities, from purely leisure activities to vocational courses and academic subjects. There are courses at different levels. Higher education institutions arrange the examinations for courses at this level. Fees are charged for the courses. The study associations also receive public financial support, according to earlier numbers of participants and course hours.

12 private distance education institutions currently receive financial support. There is an “umbrella” association for these and other private/public providers, Norwegian Association for Distance and Flexible Learning (NADE, in Norwegian NFF), that coordinates activities and provides a link to the authorities. Distance education earlier consisted only of correspondence courses, but some of these institutions were pioneers from the 1980s in using TV, videoconferencing and computers. Today, the offer includes multimedia programmes. Courses cover fields ranging from leisure activities to university and university college subjects. The majority of courses are at higher education level, where higher education institutions arrange the examinations. Fees are charged.

In addition, there are private university colleges, in particular business schools, which provide a significant share of the continuing education on the tertiary level.

7.17. Statistics

Number of adults participating (2008) in the different programmes as reported by the organisers and level of national financial support (2010) are given below.

Ordinary primary and lower secondary education for adults*:

● Participants 3 879

● Percentage women 58 %

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Upper secondary education*:

● Participants 41 347

● Percentage women: 69 %

Higher education institutions ( students of 31 years and older)*:

 Students 56 443

 Persentage of the total number of students 29 %

 Participants in further education ( formal education) 20 814

 Participants in continuing education ( non-formal education) 68465

Folk high schools**:

● 74 private/public folk high schools

● Participants: 6 168

● Participants (shorter courses): 16 849

● Percentage women 61 %

● National financial support 619 million NOK

Adult education associations *:

● 21 recognised study associations

● Participants 483 421

● Percentage women 57%

● Number of courses 36 300 (2005)

● National financial support 174 million NOK **

* One person may be counted several times if participating in several modules/courses.

Private distance education institutions *:

● 12 recognised private institutions

● 20 152 courses were completed 124 EURYBASE NORWAY

● National financial support 12,5 million NOK **

Sources: * Vox-mirror 2009 and **National financial support from The Ministry of Education and Research Prp nr.1 S ( 2009-2010).

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8. Teachers and Education Staff

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

8.1. Initial Training of Teachers

The decision-making body in all initial teacher education is the Ministry of Education and Research. Important advisory bodies for the Ministry are the Norwegian Association of Higher Education Institutions (UHR) in particular its agency the National Council for Teacher Education, and the independent Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT).

Different types of initial teacher education qualify for teaching at different educational levels, but all teacher education qualifies for teaching at more than one level. The following types of teacher education exist:

● Pre-primary teacher education (three-year) qualifies for educational work in kindergartens. Addition of one year’s relevant further education qualifies pre-primary teachers to work in the first to fourth year of primary school.

● General teacher education (four-year) qualifies for teaching at primary and lower secondary school and adult education at the corresponding level. A full year of study of the subject is required in order to be qualified for teaching the subjects Mathematics, English and Norwegian in lower secondary school. Starting with the autumn 2010 student intake, the General teacher Education is replaced by the new differentiated teacher education (below).

● Differentiated primary and lower secondary teacher education (four-year) qualifies alternatively for teaching in primary school, years 1-7 or in lower secondary school, years 5-10, according to which of the two distinct programmes of study is followed. It also qualifies for teaching in adult education at the corresponding level. Teaching qualifications are limited to the chosen specializations in teacher education.

● Subject teacher education (three-year and four-year) qualifies for teaching of specific subjects at primary and lower secondary school, at upper secondary school, adult education and for other cultural work with children and adolescents.

● Vocational teacher education (three-year) qualifies for teaching at upper secondary school, adult education and for subjects from the fifth year of the primary school.

● One-year programme in educational theory and practice is a teacher education programme for students who have 3 to 5 years of university or university college education, usually covering two or three school subjects. The programme qualifies for teaching from the fifth year of the primary school, at upper secondary school and adult education.

● Integrated master’s degree (five-year) qualifies for teaching of certain subjects from the fifth year of primary school, at upper secondary school and adult education.

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● Sami teacher education qualifies for teaching Sami children in kindergartens and schools in Sami areas. The purpose of the courses is to secure qualified personnel. Sami language is an official language in Norway.

● Teacher education for deaf students qualifies for teaching deaf children and adolescents in kindergarten and schools. It includes the subjects Norwegian Sign Language and Norwegian for deaf pupils. Sign language is an official language in Norway.

8.1.1. Historical Overview

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

8.1.1.1. Pre-primary Education

The first national programme for the education of pre-primary teachers was introduced in 1935 with the establishment of Barnevernsakademiet (Academy of child welfare) in Oslo. Before 1935, Norwegian women had been educated for positions as nurses or teachers in kindergartens at Froebel institutes in Denmark, Sweden and Germany. In 1945, another four private training institutes were opened in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Kristiansand. Three of these have later been closed, or they have merged with Colleges of Education. Only one, the Queen Maud's College of Early Childhood Education, still remains as a separate private institution.

During the 1970s, programmes for the education of pre-primary teachers were established at a majority of the regional colleges of education. Since 1980, when the programmes were extended from 2 to 3 years, they have been formally acknowledged as an integral part of the Norwegian system of higher education. New national curriculum guidelines were approved in 1995. With the revision of teacher education programmes, new national curriculum regulations for pre-primary education were implemented in 2003/2004.

8.1.1.2. Primary Education

The first teacher education institution for the primary level was established in 1826. The institution has survived to the present day - since 1994 as part of a university college.

In the beginning of the 20th century, teacher education was of one year's duration for students with a Certificate of Upper Secondary Education, and of three years' duration for other students. Later, these programmes were extended to two and four years, respectively. During the 1960s, the former was extended to three years, and the longer programme for students without the upper secondary school certificate was gradually abolished.

From 1992, general teacher education follows a four-year programme. Graduates from the previous three- year programme have equal status with graduates from the current four-year programme, in the sense that both are qualified to teach at all levels in primary and lower secondary school.

In 1981, teacher-education colleges became degree-awarding institutions and thus clearly integrated into the system of higher education institutions. Due to the reorganisations of the non-university higher education institutions in 1994, all previous colleges of education, except the private ones, are now part of the state university colleges.

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The Quality Reform of higher education set three-year bachelor’s degrees and two-year master’s degrees as the norm. However, the Ministry of Education and Research in March 2001 stated that they wanted to keep the four-year general teacher education, in the White Paper on the Quality Reform, St.meld. nr 27 (2000- 2001). The Ministry would focus on teacher education in a new White Paper, after the ongoing evaluation of teacher education programmes by the Network Norway Council was finished. In April 2002, the Ministry presented a White Paper, St.meld. nr 16 (2001-2002) The Quality Reform – On new teacher education. Varied, demanding, relevant. The principles for revised teacher education programmes were consistent with the intentions in the Quality Reform and were to be implemented from August 2003. To strengthen the professional focus of teacher education, considered necessary by the evaluation, the Ministry implemented different measures: new national curriculum regulations (see section 8.1.6.), strengthened training in practice periods for students, pilot projects with guidance for recently educated teachers, special funding of competence development for teachers and headmasters.

The Knowledge Promotion Reform of primary and secondary education was initiated in April 2004 by a White Paper, St.meld. nr 30 (2003-2004) Culture for learning. For the necessary quality development in schools, the competence and skills of teachers and headmasters are crucial. The Ministry initiated an evaluation to follow the ongoing work at university colleges of improving the quality of their revised general teacher education and making it more relevant for professional practice. The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) was to be responsible for the evaluation, carried out by a Nordic team in 2004 - 2006. The first report came in September 2005. (See section 8.1.2.)

In the White Paper, St. meld. nr 11 (2008-2009) The Teacher – the Role and the Education, tabled in February 2009, the Ministry of Education and Research proposed a new teacher education for primary and lower secondary school, which. was passed by the Storting later in the spring. The reform requires that students make an initial choice between a primary and a lower secondary school career specialization. Apart from that radical change the new teacher education aims at increased subject concentration with competence limited to the chosen specialities within the teacher education, stronger elements of teaching practice in teacher education and improved links to research and research-based knowledge.

8.1.1.3. Secondary Education

Teacher education courses were introduced at the University of Oslo in 1907, as a result of discussions that had begun as early as in 1836. During this period, several commissions had worked on the idea of introducing a methodological and practical addition to the academic studies. Already in 1834, pedagogical and practical studies had become mandatory for students in the field of theology, but the main argument against including practical or pedagogical aspects in other subjects, was that these were not considered a proper task for the university.

Until the autumn of 1993, the teacher education courses at the universities (now commonly referred to as programmes in educational theory and practice) lasted for one semester (1/2 year), and admission was restricted to graduates. When the study period of the programmes was extended to one year, it was implied that the extra semester could be part of the student's university/university college degree. In practice, however, most students are graduates at the time of admission to the programme. Recently, integrated master’s degrees (two-year and five-year) have been established with educational theory and practice as part of the degree besides the academic subjects.

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8.1.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

The first report in September 2005 from the Nordic team in the NOKUT evaluation of general teacher education (2004-2006) has led to debates in Norwegian media. One problem area is that many students fail their examinations and use too many years in order to graduate. This may improve with the recent stricter admission requirements. (See section 8.1.5.) The Quality Reform implies expectations of fulltime students, but both staff and students at teacher education institutions are worried that many students prioritise paid work instead of time for studying. This is verified by student surveys. According to the report, the institutions could demand more from the students, feedback to students in assessments could also be improved. The final report was delivered in September 2006.

Another problem area is the links between theoretical subjects and professional training in practice periods. In general, the links are too weak. The teaching of subjects is often disciplinary oriented, without including the subject specific educational methods that make the teaching professionally relevant for the students. Students, newly graduated teachers and practice supervisors in schools say they experience too great a distance between the university college and the practice school/supervisors. Headmasters find that newly graduated teachers lack competence on e.g. cooperation and mandatory meetings with parents. In the remaining evaluation period, the Nordic team will focus on these problems and possible measures. The weak links between theory and practice in professional education is a recurrent theme in policy and debates, not only for teacher education.

A challenge for teacher education and schools, especially primary schools, is to recruit and keep more male teachers. The Ministry of Education and Research has worked continuously to recruit more men to work in schools, and to encourage male teachers to remain in their jobs. In 2001 the Ministry invited male teachers to contribute with suggestions. This led to a report (''Let men be men'') and the creation of a network of male teachers and students.

In order to recruit students with a minority background to the teacher education, some institutions have made special teaching programmes for these students.

8.1.3. Specific Legislative Framework

All higher education in Norway is covered by the same legal act, including institutions offering teacher education (see section 6.2.). This is the Act of 1 April 2005 No 15 on Universities and University Colleges. Chapter 8 is on private institutions.

Until 1996 all teacher education for pre-primary, primary and secondary education was further regulated by the 1973 Teacher Training Act. The Teacher Training Act was repealed in 1998, and its regulations transferred partly (concerning the required qualifications of teaching staff) to the new comprehensive Education Act of 1998. Other regulations (concerning the objectives of teacher education, the minimum quantity of supervised teaching practice and the all-round assessment of suitability for teaching work) are maintained through the 1995 and later 2005 Act on Universities and University Colleges.

The Education Act of 1998 regulates primary and lower secondary education (compulsory education), upper secondary education and adult education.

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The Kindergarten Act of 17 June No 64, in force from 1 January 2006, lays down rules and requirements for all pre-primary institutions, including qualification requirements for staff, stating notably that the head teacher and the teaching staff should be qualified pre-primary teachers.

8.1.4. Institutions, Levels and Models of Training

Pre-primary teacher education is at present offered by 17 of the 25 public university colleges (see section 6.5.3.) and two private university colleges, Queen Maud's College of Early Childhood Education in Trondheim and the Norwegian Teacher Academy in Bergen. Decentralised pre-primary teacher education has been organised by a number of university colleges in order to meet a growing demand, due to the increased number of kindergartens and a general shortage of qualified pre-primary teachers. Decentralised programmes aim at recruiting persons already employed as assistants in kindergartens. According to recent estimates and political ambitions, the demand for new pre-primary teachers will increase in the future.

University colleges educate pre-primary teachers, general teachers, subject teachers and vocational teachers. 19 of the 25 university colleges, including Saami University College, provide general teacher education.

Vocational teachers in upper secondary school have their qualifying background from one of the following areas:

● A 3- or 4-year programme for subject teachers, usually at a university college.

● A 3-year programme for vocational teachers, offered at three university colleges.

● A craft/trade certificate, relevant professional experience and a 1-year programme in educational theory and practice.

● An acknowledged artistic competence and a 1-year programme in educational theory and practice (for art subjects).

Teachers of general, or academic, subjects in upper secondary school have 3 to 6 years of university or university college studies, usually covering two or three different school subjects. Degree courses at the universities do not, in most cases, include a pedagogical aspect. In most subjects, university courses give more general qualifications, and are often directed towards scientific work rather than towards teaching. As a consequence, graduates who wish to qualify for a teaching career have to extend their study. A one-year programme in educational theory and practice is offered at all universities, at four specialised university institutions, at most university colleges and at one private university college. Until 1993, this programme lasted for half a year (one semester, or 30 credits), and only graduates were admitted. After the expansion to a one-year programme, the added 30 credits of teacher education can be integrated into a university or university college degree.

With the 2002 plan for revision of the teacher education, the institutions were asked by the Ministry also to develop teacher education programmes where educational theory, didactics, practical training and subject studies are organised in a concurrent model. The universities have developed such two-year master programmes (after bachelor) and integrated five-year master programmes, especially for teaching science since this is a field with unmet demand for teachers with university degrees.

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8.1.5. Admission Requirements

The admission requirements to pre-primary teacher education and general teacher education correspond to those described in section 6.6., which are valid for higher education in general.

From autumn 2005 and as part of the Knowledge Promotion Reform, the Government has introduced stricter admission requirements to general teacher education. Applicants must have as a minimum mark 3 in Norwegian and mathematics from upper secondary school (6 is the best mark) and a minimum of 35 study points in total. If these requirements had been in force in autumn 2004, one third of the new students in general teacher education would not have been admitted. By introducing these admission requirements, the teacher education institutions will have applicants with the academic qualifications and motivation deemed necessary for studies and later work as teachers.

The admission requirements to vocational teacher education are:

● A trade certificate, craft certificate or another completed vocational qualification

● Two years of relevant vocational experience

● General higher education entrance qualifications.

8.1.6. Curriculum, Special Skills, Specialisation

The different types of teacher education programmes follow models that are described in National Curriculum Regulations for the following programmes:

● 3-year programme for pre-primary teachers. Implemented in 2003.

● 4-year programme for general teachers. Implemented in 2003.

● 4-year programme for differentiated primary and lower secondary teacher education. Implemented in 2010.

● 4-year programme for teachers in practical and aesthetic subjects. Implemented in 1999.

● 3-year programme for teachers of physical education. Implemented in 1999.

● 3-year programme for teachers in arts and crafts. Implemented in 1998.

● 3-year programme for teachers in music, dance and drama. Implemented in 1999.

● 1-year postgraduate programmes in educational theory and practice for subject teachers. Implemented in 2003. Qualification as a teacher is obtained in combination with an academic degree from university college or university; acknowledged professional competence as an artist; or certificate of vocational competence including vocational practice.

● 3-year programme for vocational teachers. Implemented from 2000.

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The National Curriculum Regulations for all programmes, except the new differentiated 4-year programme, are organised as follows:

Chapter 1: Common for all programmes:

● Introduction: Objects, legal authority for the national curriculum regulations, the relation between national curriculum regulations and local guidelines.

● Common aims, visions and areas of competence for all types of teacher education.

Chapter 2: Separate for each type of teacher programme

● Objects and distinctions for the particular programme.

● Structure and organisation, including distribution of credits between mandatory and optional subjects and adaptation to the degree structure.

● Principles for supervision and evaluation

● Principles for making general guidelines into plans for each subject

● Principles for drawing up subject plans in accordance with each education programme as a whole.

● Special admission requirements (if demanded).

Chapter 3: Curriculum regulations for the mandatory subjects

● Organisation of academic content

● Practical training

● Laying down curriculum guidelines

● Evaluation and exemption

● Assessment of suitability

Three existing teacher education programmes were evaluated by the Network Norway Council in 2001: the 3-year programme for pre-primary teachers; the 4-year programme for general teachers; and the 1-year postgraduate programme in educational theory and practice for subject teachers. After subsequent regional hearings, the Ministry decided in 2002 to accomplish another revision of teacher education programmes.

The Ministry presented a White Paper in April 2002, St. meld. nr 16 (2001-2002) The Quality Reform – On new teacher education. Varied, demanding, relevant, that outlined principles for the revised teacher education programmes implemented from August 2003:

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● The educational institutions will be given more freedom and flexibility in shaping their own teacher education.

● The students will be given more freedom of choice concerning selection of subjects.

● The educational institutions are to work in close contact with professional life.

● The educational institutions are to take into consideration the perspective of life-long learning.

● The teacher education must be made more profession-oriented, and the institutions are to increase the quality aspect through supervised practice.

● Increase the quality in education through student participation in didactical and practical research.

● Develop the students’ ability to create a good learning environment.

These principles are also consistent with the intentions of the Quality Reform in higher education, implemented in 2002/2003.

The National Curriculum Regulations for the Differentiated primary and lower secondary teacher education dated February 2010 are organized differently. The curriculum itself, which is codified in official regulations, provides a framework within which the programmes and subject plans are to be developed. National guidelines have been developed under the Ministry but are not codified. They constitute an interpretation and operationalisation of the general framework. More detailed programme and subject plans are to be developed by the individual teacher education institusions, and are the basis for the actual courses of study offered.

The regulations contain the following sections:

§ 1 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

§ 2 EARNING OUTCOMES

Knowledge

Skills

Competence

§ 3 STRUCTURE OF THE DIFFERENTIATED PRIMARY AND LOWER SECONDARY TEACHER EDUCATION

(1) Specialization and subject content

(2) Structure

§ 4 NATIONAL REGULATIONS, PROGRAMME PLAN AND INDICATORS

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§ 5 EXEMPTION CLAUSES

§ 6 ENTRY INTO FORCE AND TRANSITION CLAUSES

8.1.6.1. Pre-primary Education

Pre-primary teacher education is a three- year education programme (180 credits) that qualifies for educational work in kindergartens and the first grade of primary school. The programme includes:

● Practical and didactic training (45 credits).

● Relevant subjects (105 credits) including drama, arts and crafts, music, natural science, mathematics, Norwegian or Sami language, religion and ethics and social studies.

● An in-depth course in at least one subject chosen among those mentioned above (30 credits), normally the third year.

● 20 weeks are allocated to supervised practice in a kindergarten institution. It is a requirement that 1– 2 of these weeks are supervised practice in the first year in primary school.

The education is based on the knowledge of how children grow, develop and learn in interaction with the environment. Sources of such knowledge are found in psychological, pedagogical and sociological research on children, families and society. Knowledge of how kindergartens, families and social groups function, and how they influence the development of children, are important elements.

With the revision of pre-primary teacher education programme, the institutions are given more freedom in the number of credits for each subject and the national curriculum regulations are less detailed.

The methods of work should reflect the overall aim of providing the students with the competencies, skills and knowledge that are required for pre-primary teaching. In a kindergarten, the most essential and important aspect of work will always be that of relating to children.

It is through inter- and multi-disciplinary co-operation that the study programme is given a sense of unity. The study of education, both theory and practice, should function as a means of linking the various subjects and disciplines into a whole. Each university college is free to organise its own teaching. Active participation by the students, creating a sound basis for life-long learning, is an absolute prerequisite.

The most important methods in pre-primary teacher education are individual studies, group activities and project work, which include research and development work. The choice of methods will vary between practical and academic subjects. An important aim is that the students should develop their capacity for independent reflection on educational, academic and methodological questions. Practical work-related training in the initial education takes place in the 20 weeks of supervised practice during the three-year education.

8.1.6.2. Primary Education

Teachers in primary and lower secondary education are mainly educated at university colleges offering general teacher education. National curriculum regulations give instructions as to how the programme must

134 EURYBASE NORWAY be organised e.g. the subjects that are mandatory, the number of credits per mandatory subject, and the number of credits open for the students' individual choice of subjects ( 120 credits equivalent to two years). According to the White Paper on teacher education St. meld. nr.16 (2001-2002), the organisation of general teacher education was more left to the institutions. Students got more freedom of choice on subjects they want to study. The number of mandatory subjects were reduced. Furthermore, three years of general teacher education qualify for a bachelor’s degree, and the fourth year may form part of a master’s degree.

The four-year general teacher education programme (240 credits) comprises the following elements:

● One and a half years (90 credits) of mandatory subject studies. These are: Norwegian (30 credits), mathematics (30 credits), religion and ethics (20 credits), elemental teaching of mathematics, reading and writing (10 credits). Didactic and methodological studies are integrated components in each subject.

● Half a year of mandatory educational theory (30 credits).

● Normally 20 – 22 weeks, with a minimum of 18 weeks of supervised practice in schools during the three first years of the programme. Also the fourth year must have an element of work practice.

● Two years of in-depth studies in optional subject(s), chosen from among the compulsory subjects in primary and lower secondary school or from other subjects relevant for teaching in primary or lower secondary school.

Subject teachers are qualified through three-year teacher education programmes in arts and crafts, performing arts, nutrition and home economics, commercial subjects and physical education and through a four-year teacher education programme in aesthetic and practical subjects.

Sami University College in Kautokeino municipality, Finnmark county, has a special four-year programme for general teacher education, in which the Sami language and Duodji (the traditional crafts of the Sami people) are compulsory, and in which all subjects are taught in the Sami language. The graduates from this programme are qualified to teach both in Norwegian and Sami mother-tongue schools. Sami students from Finland who follow this programme are automatically qualified to teach in Finnish schools - provided the course in Norwegian is replaced by one in Finnish. The college also receives Sami students from Sweden.

There is also a general teacher education aimed at teaching deaf pupils.

At present there is no mandatory organised guidance for teachers after the completion of initial teacher education, and there is no period of probation. But in accordance with the recommendation in the White Paper on teacher education St. meld nr. 16 (2001-2002), the Ministry has taken the initiative to establish organised guidance for newly educated teachers. University colleges are supposed to cooperate with the owners of schools and pre-primary institutions. The pilot projects are being evaluated.

In addition to initial teacher education, primary and lower secondary school teachers who want to upgrade their qualifications and increase their salaries have the opportunity to do so through programmes of at least half a year's duration.

8.1.6.3. Secondary Education

The three-year vocational teacher education programme (180 credits) consists of three main elements:

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● A core element (30 credits) common to all students, which includes pedagogy, didactics, professional code of ethics, ethical values an attitudes.

● A breadth element (90 credits), which prepares for teaching the relevant foundation course in upper secondary school and provides vocational breadth and vocational didactics.

● An in-depth element (60 credits), which will prepare for teaching the relevant advanced courses I and II in upper secondary school.

These teachers already have full trade or craft qualifications. The study programme comprises a specialisation course in one vocational subject, including new technology and the didactics of vocational training. There are 12-14 weeks of supervised teaching practice in schools.

Teachers of general or academic subjects in upper secondary education have 3 to 6 years of university or university college studies, usually covering two or three different school subjects. In addition they must have a one-year programme in educational theory and practice. Here lectures and group work is used. A written assignment during the second semester is mandatory, it shall have practical relevance to work in school and discuss issues related to educational theory and subject-related didactics. There are 12 - 14 weeks of supervised teaching practice in schools, done in group/pair and individually.

8.1.6.4. Tertiary Education

Before 1995, the university and non-university sectors had different categories of teaching staff. Today, there is a unified structure for teaching positions in all higher education. There are now identical requirements to all teaching staff with the same professional title, whether they are at a university, a university college, or a private university college. The proportions and numbers of the various categories of staff still vary between the main types of institutions, and are likely to continue to do so, because of differences in size, study programmes and academic profile between the various institutions.

In the university sector, academic staff is divided into the following categories, according to qualification requirements (titles are indicated in Norwegian with the corresponding English translations in brackets):

Professor - the highest academic post. Qualification criteria:

● Scientific or artistic level in accordance with international and/or national standards within different academic areas. In traditional academic subjects this means at least a doctorate or qualifications on an equivalent level.

● Experience from teaching/tutoring.

Førsteamanuensis (Associate Professor) - usually the lowest level of appointment in academic posts in the university sector. Qualification criteria:

● A Norwegian doctorate in the subject area in question or an equivalent foreign doctorate approved as equal to a Norwegian doctorate or qualifications on equivalent level documented by scientific work of equal extent and quality.

● Course in educational theory and practice or teaching/ tutoring experience.

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● In certain subjects, artistic qualifications will be regarded as equivalent to scientific qualifications.

Høgskoledosent (Professor). Qualifications beyond those for associate professor are required. Other qualifications than scientific ones can be relevant if they are important to the post in question and are on a higher academic level. Qualification criteria:

● A Norwegian doctorate in the subject area in question or equivalent foreign doctorate approved as equal to a Norwegian doctorate or qualifications on equivalent level documented by scientific work of equal extent and quality.

● Scientific dissertation or making of textbooks or management and participation in research projects or recognised exploratory and development work or artistic activity of high standards in the subject area in question.

● Professional experience.

● Course in educational theory and practice or teaching/tutoring experience.

Førstelektor (Associate Professor) - a teaching post. Qualification criteria:

● A higher degree examination from a university or university college or equivalent or artistic qualifications on a higher level.

● One or several of the following qualifications, depending on breadth and depth: Scientific work. Pedagogical activity. Management and participation in research projects/recognised exploratory and development work. Making of textbooks or equivalent. Artistic activity. Compilation of scientific collections. Professional experience will also be taken into account.

● Course in educational theory and practice or teaching/ tutoring experience.

Universitetslektor (Assistant Professor) - teaching will be the main work task. Qualification criteria:

● A higher degree examination from a university or a university college or equivalent higher education or artistic activity.

● Professional experience.

● Course in educational theory and practice.

At university colleges, in addition the following teaching positions are used (titles are indicated in Norwegian with the corresponding English translations in brackets):

Høgskolelektor (Assistant Professor) - usually the lowest level of appointment in academic posts at university colleges. Teaching will be the main work task. Qualification criteria:

● Higher degree examination from a university or university college or equivalent higher education or artistic activity.

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● Research qualifications beyond the higher degree level and/or professional experience.

● Course in educational theory and practice or teaching/tutoring experience.

Høgskolelærer (Lecturer) - used to a limited extent, i.e. for practical teaching of students. Qualification criteria:

● 4 years of higher education with at least 2 years education in the subject/subject area the applicant will be teaching.

● Professional experience.

● Course in educational theory and practice.

Private university colleges that are approved by the ministry and receive government support can appoint professors, etc. For these institutions, the Ministry requires that they use the same qualification criteria and procedures as the state institutions.

8.1.7. Evaluation, Certificates

In initial teacher education, practical teaching skills and pedagogical knowledge are formally evaluated. The evaluation of students is carried out in accordance with the national curriculum regulations and locally adapted curriculum documents. In addition, an all-round assessment of suitability for teaching work is carried out.

Examination committees in teacher education (at all levels) are official, examination results are public, but only published with the candidate's examination number. The certificate of teacher education (at all levels) is issued on the basis of officially recognised examinations at an authorised institution.

It should be noted that general rules concerning examinations, notably on exemption, assessment, complaints, appeals, certificates and the annulment of examinations or tests are common for all higher education programmes and courses and laid down in the Act on Universities and University Colleges.

As part of the final evaluation, each university college should make an overall assessment of the individual student's suitability for a teaching position with regard to academic and pedagogical qualifications and personal qualities. The Ministry of Education and Research issues guidelines for this evaluation. The evaluation procedures are equally valid for students attending other programmes of teacher education.

Pre-primary teacher education programmes at colleges qualify mainly for teaching in kindergarten institutions. Since 1997, when compulsory school entry age was changed from 7 to 6 years of age, pre- primary teachers were considered qualified to teach in the first grade of compulsory primary school. Through a one-year specialisation, pre-primary teachers may qualify to teach in grades 2 - 4 in primary schools. From 2008 pre-primary teachers must also qualify through a one-year specialisation in order to teach in the first grade of the primary school. Those holding a degree having commenced their studies prior to the academic year 2007 at the latest, keep their qualification for teaching in the first grade.

Teachers with a Certificate of General Teacher Education were authorised to teach all subjects at all levels of compulsory education (i.e. primary and lower secondary school, grades 1 through 10), including teaching

138 EURYBASE NORWAY adults at these levels. From 2008 a full year course (60 credits) is demanded to teach Norwegian, Mathematics and English at lower secondary level. Those holding a degree having commenced their studies prior to the academic year 2006 , keep their qualification for teaching all subjects at all levels.

Most general teachers whose certificates date from 1994 or earlier - when the programme had duration of 3 years - have extended their education with an additional year of specialised study.

Teachers with a combination of university or university college studies and a one-year programme in educational theory and practice, vocational teachers, and subject teachers can teach the subjects in which they have a qualification at all levels, except the first 4 years of primary school. From 2008 a full year course (60 credits) is demanded to teach Norwegian, Mathematics and English at lower secondary level.

Vocational teachers with full trade qualifications and completed three-year vocational teacher programme are qualified for teaching vocational subjects in upper secondary education (grades 11 to 13, both the relevant basic course and advanced courses I and II), and for training apprentices. The programme can also qualify for teaching at lower levels (grades 5 to 10 in compulsory education) in subjects for which the teacher has a relevant qualification of at least 30 credits that also includes didactic training.

Required qualifications for teaching general subjects in upper secondary education are a university degree or university college degree, in addition a one-year programme in educational theory and practice. With a bachelor’s degree, the teacher becomes an adjunkt. With a master’s degree, the teacher becomes a lektor. Teachers with these qualifications are also used in lower secondary education, together with general teachers.

8.1.8. Alternative Training Pathways

All main types of teacher education (pre-primary, general, vocational) are offered through decentralised study programmes. Course contents are identical with the ordinary programmes, but follow a different organisational plan, allowing the student to have a part-time job. Decentralised programmes therefore often have a longer duration.

In addition many institutions offer flexible teacher programmes including the use of ICT. Institutions with programmes in teacher education also provide in-service training and post-graduate courses for teachers.

8.2. Conditions of Service for Teachers

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

8.2.1. Historical Overview

In Norway, having Lutheranism as a state religion, relatively strong links have existed between the state, the church and the school system. Up to 1915 all teachers had to be members of the state church. However, since the last part of the 19th century, there has been a gradual process of secularisation that accelerated after World War II.

Teachers were highly regarded in the traditional farming society. Demands were made on teachers' general behaviour, also outside school. After World War II, the standing of teachers has been somewhat reduced,

139 EURYBASE NORWAY mainly due to the steady increasing level of education within the population. Today we see a shortage of men in the teaching profession as well as a shortage of science teachers.

8.2.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

The Knowledge Promotion Reform of primary and secondary education necessitates competence development in a number of areas for both teachers and school management. Charting of teachers’ formal competence has shown that very many teachers lack specialisation in main subjects. It is necessary to arrange enough further education courses to ensure that there will be specialised personnel in schools to strengthen education in basic skills. The introduction of a compulsory second foreign language (besides English) will also entail further education. The Ministry, in cooperation with a number of other bodies, has constructed a strategic plan for the competence development for school management, teachers, trainers, advisors and other personnel in the period 2005-2008. The priority areas are:

● Increased competence in the management of the individual school and apprenticeship work-place.

● Reform-related competence development among the teaching staff, and development of a learning culture in the individual school and apprenticeship work-place.

● Further education of the teaching staff in schools.

8.2.3. Specific Legislative Framework

Working conditions for teachers are regulated partly by law, partly by various agreements between trade unions and the government and partly by regulations set by the government.

The most important acts are the general employment acts such as the Act on Pensions for State Employees (1949), the Act on Working Conditions (1977/2005) and the Civil Service Act (1983). The Education Act (1998) and the Adult Education Act (1976) influence teachers’ working conditions in primary and secondary school. The Act on Universities and University Colleges (2005) influences teachers’ working conditions in higher education institutions.

There is a general agreement for public employees between the unions and the Ministry of Government Administration and Reform, negotiated as equal partners.

There are agreements that apply only to teachers, between unions and the Ministry of Education and Research, negotiated as equal partners. These agreements were numerous and detailed, but the parties have in later years simplified the agreements and reduced their number. The government decided on 31 January 2003 to transfer the responsibility of trade negotiation with the teacher organisations to the school-owner (counties and municipalities).

For the higher education sector, there is an agreement on wage and working conditions for lecturers and researchers at universities and university colleges.

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8.2.4. Planning Policy

As a planning policy for teacher supply and demand, the Ministry of Education and Research has a tradition of making prognoses of the need for teachers, with the aim to determine the number of students in general teacher education at university colleges.

Some of the parameters selected for the teacher prognoses have been:

● The number of teachers graduated

● The age distribution of teachers

● The frequency of work force participation in different age groups

● Expected development in the number of pupils

● Average number of pupils in a class

● Number of hours pupils are taught

● Mean weekly hours for teaching for teachers at different levels

● Percentage of part-time teachers (paid by the hour)

● Percentage of substitute teachers

● Percentage of lower secondary teachers with general teacher education (not university education).

Even in periods where there has been a balance between supply and demand for teachers, outlying rural regions (especially in Northern Norway) have not been able to attract enough qualified teachers while the cities have had unemployed or under-employed newly graduated teachers. The Ministry has tried to counteract this tendency by setting up schemes for the northern municipalities, offering teachers better economy and educational leave.

Until 2003, it was the Ministry of Education and Research that had the dominating role concerning the capacity in higher education. With the Quality Reform from 2003, the responsibility for the capacity in most subject fields has been transferred to the higher education institutions themselves, the reason being that this will make it easier to adjust to changes in demand. (Some exceptions are due to costs and societal needs e.g. medicine studies.) However, the Ministry is still responsible for estimating future needs and demands for the different types of educational qualifications in the labour market.

8.2.5. Entry to the Profession

Teachers apply for their positions. The posts are announced in public journals and bulletins. The school owner is the employer and is thus responsible for appointments, so the municipality is responsible for appointments in primary and lower secondary schools, while the county is responsible for appointments in upper secondary schools. The school prepares a ranking list of applicants, based on level of education, marks

141 EURYBASE NORWAY obtained, and years of working practice. The educational authorities make the appointment. The use of interviews is growing. There is a tendency towards a self-governing system for schools in the disposition of financial resources including teachers’ salaries. When recruiting a teacher, and to a lesser extent in the annual local salary negotiations, the employer (the local authorities) may attract good teachers by increasing the salary.

For teachers in higher education, advertisement and appointments to academic posts are regulated in Act on Universities and University Colleges of 1 April 2005 and in a circular on common appointment structure that provides guidelines for the qualification and assessment criteria for academic posts. There cannot be any deviation from academic qualifications. Appointments are always made on the basis of expert assessment in the light of the requirements described in the advertisement and job description. Both sexes must be represented among the experts. In addition to the qualification requirements listed in section 8.1.6.4., factors such as publications, professional experience, research work, and pedagogical qualifications are generally taken into account when selecting academic staff. For posts where pedagogical qualifications are required, the extent to which applicants are so qualified should be given separate consideration. On the recommendation of the experts or the appointing body, the institution board can decide that trial lectures or other tests shall be arranged before an appointment is made.

8.2.6. Professional Status

The municipalities employ teachers in municipal kindergarten institutions and public schools at primary and lower secondary level. The counties employ teachers at upper secondary institutions. Employers recognise the professional status of teachers, and teachers' professional bodies negotiate terms of employment and salary levels.

For all state higher education institutions, specific legislation regulates the conditions of service for staff, Act of 4 March 1983 No 3 on Civil Servants. The Civil Service Act applies to employees of the Norwegian civil service and other state institutions, including those for higher education. It also regulates procedures for the announcement of vacancies, appointments and dismissals, and civil servants' right to resign. The general provisions of the Civil Service Act are as a rule applicable to staff of higher education institutions, with the adaptation of the provisions relating to appointment procedures, dismissal, notice, suspension or disciplinary punishment laid down in the Act on Universities and University Colleges

Research, development work and dissemination of knowledge are defined as inherent activities of higher education institutions. The freedom for the institutions concerning the content of teaching research is underlined in the Act on Universities and University Colleges of 1 April 2005. Most academic staff has dual functions, dividing their time between teaching and research.

The Act No 62 of 17 June 2005 on Working Conditions ensures standards for, and minimum requirements to, the physical and psychological working conditions of employees.

The Act No 45 of May 1978 on Gender Equality ensures that both sexes should be represented in all boards and councils, and that importance should be attached to considerations of equality between the sexes for instance in appointments.

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8.2.7. Replacement Measures

For replacing teachers that will be absent for a few days or weeks, due to illness or training courses, schools usually contact a supply teacher from a list of those locally available. Depending on local labour market conditions, supply teachers may be qualified teachers that are retired, unemployed or recently graduated. Supply teachers may also be not fully qualified, with a university degree or as students. If supply teachers are not found, colleagues may have to assist.

For replacing teachers that will be absent for several months or a year, due to illness or maternity leave, a temporary position is advertised and a substitute teacher engaged. Applicants for temporary positions are mostly recent graduates.

8.2.8. Supporting Measures for Teachers

Supporting measures for new teachers in their first post have not been usual as formal arrangements. Recently, a project on guidance for recently educated teachers has been supported by the Directorate for Education and Training and is being evaluated.

8.2.9. Evaluation of Teachers

This is not applicable to Norway. Teachers are not individually evaluated with a separate report resulting in implications for career or salary.

8.2.10. In-service Training

In-service training is aimed at the updating and renewal of vocational and pedagogical background and skills. In-service training is flexible in organisation, content and methods in order to meet a variety of needs. It does not always lead to formal qualifications. In-service training may be given as courses by a variety of institutions, or organised through innovative projects in the schools (local school-based development and research projects).

Since the 1960s, in-service training has been an important part of the teacher education policy in Norway. A lot of the courses offered now are a result of the need for subject-related and pedagogical updating among teachers as a group. Other courses are the result of reforms being implemented. The current need for in- service training is related to widespread development and innovation in the school system and the demand for individual development and professional updating of the teachers.

In-service training courses are organised at local, regional and national levels. The organisers may be local education authorities, teachers' associations, associations for special subjects in higher education institutions, regional officer’s educational departments, County Education Committees, national councils or national education authorities.

Participation in course programmes is looked upon as a way to qualify for additional tasks or to develop in the actual field of work. In the case of mandatory in-service educational programmes, local educational authorities do have some responsibility for adapting the working environment to the new qualifications of the personnel included in the programme.

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Admission requirements vary depending on the type of course. They may refer to initial teacher education, in-service training, further education, number of years in teaching, other responsibilities or posts in the school system.

8.2.10.1. Govermental policies Governmental policies have the last two decades given more attention to continuing- and further education. The White Paper on Quality in Education, St.meld. nr. 31 (2007-2008) was launched 13. june 2008, at the same time as the state funded initiative Competence for development (Kompetanse for utvikling 2005-2008), which also included trainers and training supervisors came to an end. The white paper addresses the relative low performance of Norwegian pupils in reading, math and science, and proposes a permanent system for further education of teachers and school leaders with high priority to training that leads to formal accreditation.

The strategy Competence for quality (2009-2012) gives school owners an opportunity to apply for teachers to attend courses in prioritised subjects at different Univeristies and University Colleges. The strategy is a consensus document, signed by the departement of education, employer- and employee organisations.

The strategy Competence for Quality (2009-2012) emphazises:

 Further education for teachers and guidance counsellors;

By February 2010 there has been made agreements with 22 universities and university colleges to offer 91 study programmes within the programme.

The content of in-service training is influenced by current school reforms as well as by the priority given to certain areas by the Ministry of Education and Research.

As regards to continuing training 79 mill NOK is budgeted in 2010. The target groups of the initiative are teachers, vocational teachers, trainers and training supervisors in companies, examination boards and appeals boards for craft and journeyman’s examinations. Prioritised areas for continuing training in 2010/2011 are: reading, mathematics, assessment, councelling and vocational training.

In addition there are also separate education programmes for mentors (as an offer for those mentoring newly educated teachers) and education programmes for newly employed head teachers/principals and school deputies. Both programmes lead to formal accreditations.

8.2.10.2. Regular in-service training Teachers in primary and lower secondary schools have one week of compulsory study and planning during the school year. This is the most common form of in-service training at the local level available to teachers in compulsory education. It gives no formal credit but should play an important role in updating teachers' knowledge, encourage work with other teachers and make possible development programmes in the school. The local education authorities are responsible for the programmes, but the content is to a large extent decided by the teaching staff and administration of the individual school. The training may take place in one school, or groups of schools may join in the same programme for a day or two. Teacher education institutions and specialists in various fields may assist by offering programmes suitable for a study or planning day. The State and the municipal education authorities share the costs.

Similar study and planning days are arranged for teachers in upper secondary schools, five days during the school year. Two annual staff seminars are also held, lasting two days. Among important issues that have 144 EURYBASE NORWAY been given priority by the Government as well as the schools, are internationalisation, the environment and information technology.

Apart from study and planning days, no specific arrangements have been introduced to ensure that the teachers receive in-service training at regular intervals. The only exception is an arrangement for teachers in some schools in northern Norway, introduced as part of a special scheme for the area. Here teachers may take one year's paid leave of absence after a certain time in duty (following a scale depending on the situation of the school). The leave of absence may be used for in-service training or further education.

8.2.10.3. Funding School owners are supported by national authorities in competence development for teachers, head teachers and school administrators, including further education for teachers in priority subjects. Schools have increased flexibility in how they organize cooperation with parents. Cooperation between schools and the local working community will be stimulated.

Most of the funds go to further training. These funds will be allocated to the County Governors (fylkesmannen) who distribute these funds based on applications from school owners. Funds that go to continuing training are distributed by using an objective model of distribution. The County Authorities (fylkeskommunen) shall develop a plan for the continuing training and apply to the County Governor for funding. The plan is to comprise a varied and flexible array of educational offers in order to reach as many as possible within the target groups. Cross-sectoral as well as sector-specific initiatives will be considered.

8.2.10.4. Responsibility for in-service training The responsibilities of counties and municipalities for in-service training as employers of teachers are stated in the Education Act of 1998. It is stated that teachers have an obligation to attend in-service training to ensure that their teaching follows national guidelines. In the 2005 (and earlier 1995) Act on Universities and University Colleges, it is stated that university colleges offering teacher education and other higher education institutions should provide in-service training. It is a priority for the national education authorities to stimulate to greater involvement.

In the Education Act it is stated that the school owner is responsible for ensuring correct and necessary competence. The school owner should have a system for providing teaching personnel, school leaders and personnel with special responsibilities in the school system with opportunities for necessary competence enhancement with a view to refreshing and extending their professional and educational knowledge.

Attendance at in-service courses depends to a large degree on the resources and attitudes of local authorities. Municipal education authorities decide whether staff may participate or not.

However, in recent years some teachers have not been able to attend courses because municipal authorities cannot or will not pay the cost of a substitute teacher. In-service expenses have to compete with many sectors in the local community when it comes to allocation of resources. Opportunities to take part in in- service courses are less for teachers working in municipalities with financial problems than in muncipalities with a solid economy. The tradition of local autonomy is strong in the Norwegian administrative system. National educational authorities are discussing ways of avoiding such differences in participation in in- service programmes.

Responsibility for in-service training for teachers at the national level lies with:

. The Ministry of Education and Research

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. The Directorate for Education and Training

. The universities and other teacher education institutions

. The National Council for Vocational Training

Responsibility at the county level lies with:

 Regional Commissioners

 County Education Committees

 County Vocational Training Boards

 County co-ordinating committees

Responsibility at the local level lies with:

 Municipal Education Committees

 Primary and lower secondary schools

 Upper secondary schools

 Municipal co-ordinating committees

Foreign teachers may participate in in-service training in Norway; there are many different exchange programmes. The Ministry of Education and Research welcomes a strengthening of international co- operation in higher education and research and recommends participation in international programmes for schools and practising teachers.

8.2.11. Salaries

Teachers' salaries depend largely on the type of position and on seniority. A small proportion of the pay may however be a result of performance, this is decided locally. Positions depend on type of higher education and the number of years of studies. The main positions are for primary school teachers with 3-year teacher training college (“lærer”), primary or secondary school teachers with 4 years of studies (“adjunkt”) and secondary school teachers with 5-6 years of studies (“lektor”).

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Lowest seniority, 0 year Highest seniority/level, 16 (annual wage 2010) years or more (annual wage2010)

Primary school teacher with teacher training 319,313 NOK 397,563 NOK college (lærer)

Primary/secondary school teacher with 4 352,102/368,655 NOK 419,537/442,702 NOK years of studies (adjunkt)

Secondary school teacher with 5-6 years of 384,099/391,675 NOK 475,950/496,411 NOK studies (lektor)

Source: The Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities (KS)

The salary increases with number of years of employment (seniority). The very highest salaries will be paid only if negotiated especially due to competence. When hiring new teachers, it is possible to start paying them more if they posses exceptional qualities or have competence especially needed by the school. Teachers will be paid extra if they have specific additional tasks, such as counselling, responsibility for a group or participation in camp school.

In higher education, all institutions appoint their own staff, and have the right to negotiate salaries since 1996. Such local negotiations must however be in accordance with the centrally negotiated framework wage agreements for the various categories of employees. They only concern the distribution of funds obtained through national level negotiations between the Ministry of Government Administration, Reform and Church Affairs and the trade unions.

Salaries for teachers and researchers vary according to professional position and competence. At universities, the most common positions are associate professor (''førsteamanuensis'') and professor. At university colleges, there is also the position of assistant professor (''høgskolelektor'').

Lowest level (annual wage 2006) Highest level (annual wage 2006)

Assistant professor 361 500 NOK 547 400 NOK

Associate professor 438 700 NOK 630 400 NOK

Professor 518 200 NOK 1 024 800 NOK

Source: Ministry of Government Administration and Reform – Main tariff agreement with state employees 1. May 2006 – 30. April 2007, Wage plan no. 44

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8.2.12. Working Time and Holidays

Different aspects of working conditions are stated in the working-time agreement with teaching personnel in educational institutions of primary and secondary education. Teachers at the different levels up to and including upper secondary school have the following main working-time agreement from January 2002:

● The annual working time is 1687.5 hours.

● Mean weekly hours of teaching at the different levels of education:

○ Primary education: 26 hours

○ Lower secondary education: 21.2-25 hours

○ Upper secondary education: 16.3-23.5 hours

● The teaching time is 45 of every 60 minutes.

● In addition, teachers have a mandatory 150 hours at school, usually 5 hours per week used for meetings, planning etc.

● In addition to the teaching days, teachers have to be present for five planning days.

● The rest of the working time is at the teacher's free disposal, at school or at home.

Most teachers work full time, but a considerable number of teachers work part-time, especially in primary schools. Teachers older than 58 years of age get their lecturing time reduced with 6%.

On the basis of the Working Environment Act, staff at universities and university colleges normally work 37.5 hours per week.

The normal holiday entitlement for all employees is 25 working days (five weeks), employees older than 60 years get one week more. This is the case for higher education staff. Teachers in primary and secondary school, however, have a separate working hours agreement regulating working hours rather than holidays. The pupils are present for 38 weeks of the calendar year. In addition, teachers are obliged to follow in-service courses etc for one week. The teachers are normally not at school when the pupils have holidays: one week in September, two weeks at Christmas, one week in February, one and a half week at Easter and seven to eight weeks during summer.

8.2.13. Promotion, Advancement

Open positions for teachers and headmasters are advertised publicly. Selection is mainly based on the curriculum vitae. Applicants are evaluated and recommended by the schools.

Administrative staff in schools (headmasters, deputy heads and advisers) are almost invariably professional teachers who, particularly in the case of administrators under the level of headmaster, continue to have responsibility for some teaching. There are limited opportunities for promotion to administrative posts. Only 148 EURYBASE NORWAY approximately 10% of the total workload in primary and secondary education is devoted to administrative functions.

Most posts at state higher education institutions are advertised openly. The Act on Universities and University Colleges (Section 6-3 (4)) states “When special grounds so indicate, the board may itself make academic appointments without prior advertisement of the vacancy. Such appointments may not be made if more than one member of the board objects to this.” In addition, regulations (FOR 2006-02-09 no 129) provide that academic staff at higher education institutions can be promoted according to qualifications, following expert evaluation.

8.2.14. Transfers

Mobility is fairly high among younger teachers, partly because permanent positions are difficult to obtain without previous teaching experience. The turnover rate depends upon the general situation in the labour market. In general, teachers with qualifications from a university college represent a relatively stable professional group compared to other university college graduates.

8.2.15. Dismissal

Dismissal of teachers is extremely rare. Cases in the last thirty years are confined to flagrant misconduct, such as making the work environment impossible for colleagues and the propagation of fascist ideology. Only a limited number of teachers leave the profession as a result of dismissal.

Teachers working in the school sector are not likely to face the risk of unemployment. Those who are permanently employed will be guaranteed a new job in cases where the school is closed or reorganised. They may not be dismissed for reasons of shortage of work.

Questions relating to dismissal of staff at state higher education institutions are regulated through the Universities and University Colleges Act, and the Civil Service Act.

8.2.16. Retirement and Pensions

The Norwegian Public Service Pension Fund (Statens pensjonskasse), established in 1917, is an external department of the Ministry of Government Administration and Reform. It is responsible for the administration of retirement finances. All state employees are automatically members of The Norwegian Public Service Pension Fund, and teachers will remain so by special agreement even though counties and municipalities employ them. Teachers in public employment - whether they are employed by a municipality (pre-primary and compulsory education), a county (upper secondary education), or a state institution (higher education) - are also automatically members if they have at least 35% of a full-time position. A monthly deduction depending on the size of the salary is made to The Norwegian Public Service Pension Fund.

The general retirement age is 70 years. Teachers - together with many other groups of employees - are covered by a special agreement (AFP-agreement) which gives them the right to reduced workload or early retirement from the age of 64. According to this agreement, the regular pension agreement takes over at the age of 67. In most cases the pension corresponds to about 66% of the salary.

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8.3. School Administrative and/or Management Staff

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

8.3.1. Requirements for Appointment as a School Head

For headmasters, three years of training experience is required in addition to normal teacher qualifications. Selection is mainly based on the curriculum vitae. Applicants are evaluated and recommended by the school. Professional experience with administrative and economic matters as deputy head is considered an advantage. Strategic pedagogical competence may come from professional experience in local school development projects or from further education programmes in school management.

There is no clear pattern to recruitment to administrative positions, beyond official encouragement of female staff to seek higher level posts. Available positions are advertised nationally and posts are often filled by external applicants, i.e. applicants from other schools and other municipalities/counties.

8.3.2. Conditions of Service

Headmasters and administrative staff in schools follow the standard working time for public offices, in winter 8.00-15.45, in summer 8.00-15.00.

Salaries for headmasters in primary and lower secdondary schools vary from 387,648 NOK to 631,296*/ 719,196** NOK (01.12.2009).

Salaries for headmasters in upper secondary schools vary from 479,496 NOK to 632,976*/ 747,900** NOK (01.12.2009).

* The whole country except Oslo

** Oslo

8.4. Staff involved in Monitoring Educational Quality

Inspectors, trained to monitor the quality of education, are not used in Norway.

Support for local and school based evaluation is a responsibility for The Directorate for Education and Training (see section 9.4.1.1.). The National Quality Assessment System contains information from all primary and secondary schools about four areas: pupils’ learning results, learning environment, resources, pupils’ progress (in upper secondary education). The information is available on the web site www.skoleporten.no on school/municipal/county/national level with the intention that it will contribute to quality development.

Regional Education Offices, which are county based, have a supervising role towards the school owners (municipalities and county authorities) and present annual reports to the Ministry. These reports are based on statistical data, qualitative reporting and meetings with the education authorities in municipalities and counties.

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8.4.1. Requirements for Appointment as an Inspector

This is not relevant for Norway.

8.4.2. Conditions of Service

This is not relevant for Norway.

8.5. Educational Staff responsible for Support and Guidance

Vocational guidance to pupils in lower and upper secondary school is part of the work load for one or more teachers in each school. The teachers are qualified as counsellors through local or regional in-service training courses. Lecturers come from the labour market services, local industry and business, labour market and higher education research institutes, universities and university colleges.

As part of the Knowledge Promotion Reform, the Ministry of Education and Research wishes to stimulate the development of measures to strengthen the competence of the individual school counsellor. An initiative has been taken to establish regional partnerships for educational and vocational guidance as a task of county authorities.

8.6. Other Educational Staff or Staff working with Schools

All educational institutions have a varying number of auxiliary staff, i.e. janitors, school secretaries, technical- administrative staff, teacher assistants.

8.7. Statistics

Teachers by type of institution, men/women (2009/2010)

Total Men Women

Compulsory school 66,296 18,044 48,202

Upper secondary school 24,979 12,827 12,152

University colleges 5,567 2,841 2,726

Universities 9,945 6,378 3,567

Sources: Statistics Norway, Norwegian Social Science Data Services (Database for Statistics on Higher Education)

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Teachers by type of institution and qualifications fourth quarter 2008

Compulsory Upper secondary school school

Teachers with higher degree from university/university college 4,4 % (28,2 %)

Teachers with lower degree from university/ university college/ 88,5% (63,6 %) general teacher training from university college

Teachers with upper secondary education or lower 7 % (8,2%)

Total 66,522 (100 %) 24,820 (100 %)

Source: Statistics Norway

Teachers by type of institution, age group and percentage above 46 years fourth quarter 2008

Age group Compulsory school Upper secondary school

Less than 36 years 19,325 3,870

36-55 years 33,074 13,250

56-65 years 13,407 7,179

66 years and above 716 521

Total 66,552 24,820

% above 46 years 44 % 59,5 %

Source: Statistics Norway

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9. Evaluation of Educational Institutions and the Education System

The educational sector plays an important role in national development, and the sector also manages a large part of society's resources. It is thus important to document and evaluate to what extent the sector is able to meet the national objectives for the sector as well as the relationship between resources input and results. Efforts to develop a national evaluation programme have long been in progress. The direct background for the special priority given to this work in Norway is an OECD report from 1988 concerning the Norwegian educational system. The report concluded that there was very little documentation and control data that could indicate to what extent educational policy goals were achieved. The Ministry of Education and Research has followed up many of the proposals made by the OECD experts (see section 9.1.).

9.1. Historical Overview

The history of educational development and improvement since 1945 can be divided into three periods:

● 1945-55: Implementation of the educational reform policy and coordination of the separate parts of the school system in accordance with decisions from before 1940.

● 1955-76: A period of continuous development and research at all levels of the education system. For the first time systematic research was undertaken to provide a basis for political decisions.

● 1976-today: The focus on evaluation in this period has been twofold. The importance of both structural and content aspects has been recognized. Key educational developments, including the reorganization and consolidation of compulsory schooling, the decision to integrate and streamline as fully as possible the academic and vocational areas of study in upper secondary education, and the rapid growth of higher education have been subject to ongoing evaluation. The implementation of recent reforms is accompanied by parallel evaluation examining the extent to which the changes introduced contribute to realizing the stated goals.

The purpose and main outline of a national evaluation programme for primary and lower secondary school were presented in Report No. 47 to the Storting (1995-96) on pupil assessment, school-based evaluation and the national evaluation programme. The report emphasized that the purpose of a national evaluation programme is to help ensure the provision of an equivalent high standard of school facilities to all pupils. It was indicated that this overall objective should be achieved by:

● Supplying relevant control data to the state, to municipalities and to the schools

● Obtaining information as a basis for development and guidance

● Providing information to the public

● Encouraging more targeted use of resources.

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The report emphasized that the point of departure for the national evaluation of the primary and lower secondary school is the full breadth of the school’s objectives. The evaluation programme must obtain information that can be part of the basis for political decision-making at national and municipal levels, and that can be made the basis of developmental measures nationally, municipally and at the individual school. The report indicated that the knowledge of school-based evaluation, as a method for systematic surveying, evaluation and implementation of local development and improvement measures, is a precondition for being able to utilize the results of external evaluation. This was the background for the proposal to introduce mandatory school-based evaluation.

The Report to the Storting No. 28 (1998-99), A National Strategy for Evaluation and Quality Development in Primary and Secondary Education, focused on school and enterprise-based evaluation as the foundation of national evaluation. The Ministry suggested strengthening such evaluation by focusing on research and development, implementing educational research and qualifying student teachers for systematic school- and enterprise-based evaluation. More knowledge of learning and working processes in the classroom (open classrooms) was part of the strategy, as well as an Internet-based electronic resource bank to provide access to relevant information and practical aids useful for systematic, local self-evaluation. The Ministry also advocated the importance of co-operation with the community outside the school and encouraged external participation in the evaluation.

The Ministry also developed (as a trial arrangement) obligatory use of diagnostic tests in reading proficiency in second and seventh grade. Concerning the assessment of pupils and apprentices the Ministry advocated

● systematic analysis of examination answers

● further experimentation with alternative forms of examination

● local experiments with assessment without grading at the lower secondary school level

● further development of guidance and support material for local and central examinations

● further development of grading and learning support tests

● experiments with obligatory use of diagnostic tests

● continuation of Norwegian participation in international surveys and co-operation in this area.

To co-ordinate the different national initiatives for development and evaluation activities, the Ministry advocated the establishment of a new national development centre. The Norwegian Board of Education was established in 1999, taking over the tasks of the former National Examination Board and the National Centre for Educational Resources. In 2002, the Ministry conducted an external evaluation of its organisation, functions and competencies. Based on the results of this evaluation, the reports by the Quality Committee and the Ministry’s ongoing work, a new national system of quality assessment was framed.

In 2002 the committee on Quality in Primary and Secondary Education was requested to undertake an additional analysis of the existing system of national evaluation (see section 9.5.) and propose a new national quality assessment system covering compulsory and upper secondary education. The committee presented this report in June 2002. Among the recommendations was the development of national tests to assess pupils’ basic skills, and the establishment of a national web site where data from different sources are combined in a set of quality indicators for each school, municipality, county, and at national level. This will 154 EURYBASE NORWAY provide the local school, the local/regional authorities and the national authorities with updated and relevant information as the basis for quality discussion and development.

The new National Quality Assessment System (NQAS) was developed by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. The Directorate was operative from 15 June 2004, when it replaced the Norwegian Board of Education. The Directorate is responsible for the development of primary and secondary education.

Concerning higher education, the Parliament (Stortinget) revised the Universities and University Colleges Act in 2001, and established the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) in 2002. NOKUT is an independent governmental agency whose purpose is to control and develop the quality of Norwegian higher education institutions through the evaluation, accreditation and recognition of quality assurance systems, institutions and education programmes.

9.2. Ongoing Debates and further developments

The National Quality Assessment System (NQAS) for primary and secondary education, encompassing the fields of learning dividends, learning environment, completion of upper secondary education, resources and school facts, is continually being developed. The content of a future assurance system for vocational education and training (VET) is currently being assessed and improved. How to use the information from the different parts of the system in local assessment activies to improve development is however still a challenge to schools and to school owners.

In 2007, the Ministry commissioned two reports. One to assess the role of NOKUT in Norwegian higher education, and the other one to assess whether NOKUT meets the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (ESG). Following a tender, the contract for the evaluation was given to a team of five researchers. The reports were presented to the Ministry in February 2008. NOKUT fully complies with the ESG and the team are generally positive to NOKUT and NOKUTs role, but areas for improvement were pointed out, and clear recommendations were given.

9.3. Administrative and Legislative Framework

The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (Utdanningsdirektoratet) was operative from 15 June 2004. It is the executive agency for the Ministry of Education and Research, responsible for the development of primary and secondary education. The Directorate has been assigned operative responsibility for national curriculum development, educational research and development work, national examinations and assessment and certain information tasks. The Directorate has operative responsibility for the new National Quality Assessment System (NQAS) for decision makers in the primary and secondary school system, but also providing information to parents, pupils and others on its web site www.skoleporten.no.

The Education Act, Act No 61 of 17 July 1998, relates to public primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education.

The Act on Private Schools, Act No 84 of 4 July 2003, regulates private primary and secondary education (schools seeking approval for state grants).

The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) was operative from 1 January 2003 as an independent agency. All accredited higher education will be subject to accreditation control through a

155 EURYBASE NORWAY system of institutional audits, running in cycles of 5 years. The emphasis is on the institutions' own quality assurance systems and the information about actual educational quality that these provide. A second stage in the control mechanism is the possibility of a more detailed scrutiny of individual programmes by the NOKUT, where this is judged to be appropriate.

The Act on Universities and University Colleges, Act No 15 of 1 April 2005, covers both public (state) and private higher education institutions. Formerly, there were two separate acts.

9.4. Evaluation of Schools/Institutions

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

9.4.1. Internal Evaluation

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

9.4.1.1. Internal Evaluation at Primary and Secondary Level

In primary and lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools, teachers have five planning days in the school year. These planning days are often used to carry out local evaluation and development programmes, planning and development activities etc. All schools are required, on a regular basis, to evaluate how far the organization and implementation of work at the school are in line with the objectives of the curriculum. The municipality, or the county at upper secondary level, is responsible for ensuring that the evaluation is carried out.

School-based assessment is part of school development evaluating to what extent the teaching and learning correspond to the curriculum aims and principleThe aim is to be a support for the staff's understanding of the relations between general conditions, processes and results. School-based assessment is an important starting-point for local development work.

This activity is mandatory for all schools and learning enterprises under the Act of Education, by a supplementing regulation. The teachers/instructors or team of teachers/instructors will evaluate their own teaching, the learning outcomes of the pupils/apprentices, learning conditions and learning climate in the school/the learning enterprise. The regulation does not prescribe any specific evaluation methods to be used, but states that it is the responsibility of the local education authorities (municipality or county) to ensure that each institution carries out the evaluation.

Support for local, individual and school-based evaluation is one of the important areas of responsibility of the Directorate for Education and Training. The National Quality Assessment System (NQAS) contains information from all primary and secondary schools about five key areas: learning dividends, learning environment, completion of upper secondary education, resources, and school facts. The information is available on the web site www.skoleporten.no on school/municipal/county/national level with the intention that it will contribute to quality development (see section 9.5.1).

There are five user surveys adapted to the Knowledge Promotion: The Pupil Survey, The Teacher survey, The Parent survey, The Apprentice Survey and The Trainer Survey.

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The aim of The Pupil Survey and The Apprentice Survey is to give pupils and apprentices the opportunity to express their opinions on important issues that affect learning and well-being in schools and training establishments. The results from user surveys are used by schools, school owners and state education authorities as an aid to analysing and developing the learning environment.

Pursuant to The Education Act and The Act on Private Schools, it is mandatory for school owners and school administrators to implement The Pupil Survey each spring, between the middle of January and the end of April, for pupils in Year 7, Year 10 and upper secondary level 1. Completing the survey is optional for pupils. School owners and school administrators may also opt to implement the survey in the autumn semester. School owners and school administrators can choose whether they wish to implement The Teacher Survey and The Parent Survey both in the spring and in the autumn. Implementing The Apprentice Survey and The Trainer Survey is also optional for county administrations.

The surveys are thematically coordinated so that answers from pupils, teachers and parents within the same themes and questions on the pupils’ learning environment can be compared, as for the apprentices and trainers.

The analysis of The Pupil Survey 2008 shows that the two main factors that affected pupils’ marks were how well they felt the teaching was adapted to their needs and their own efforts.

The final examination of compulsory education in grade 10 is increasingly assessed by level of achievement. The information possessed by the examiners on the pupils' level of achievement and the problems they encounter in the different areas of the various subjects will be included in the national evaluations and form the basis for selecting the areas which should be made the object of diagnostic tests or other surveys and evaluations.

Following the 1997, the 2007 and the 2009 regulations on pupil assessment, informal evaluation without the use of marks should be emphasised and systemised, and the learning-promoting perspective of assessment has been strengthened. Mapping tests give the teacher or trainer a varied basis for assessment to meet pupils and apprentices wherever they may happen to be in the learning process. Compulsory and voluntary mapping tests have been developed in reading skills, number comprehension, mathematics skills and English. Guidelines and handbooks have been prepared to show teachers how to evaluate the results, so that teachers can use the results in local development work.

9.4.1.2. Internal Evaluation at Tertiary Level

For decades the Norwegian Council of Universities (since 2000 the Norwegian Association of Higher Education Institutions) has operated a sub-committee, the Contact and Information Committee on University Pedagogics (KIUP), for the purpose of stimulating and coordinating work on educational quality in the universities and university colleges.

In 1998 the Ministry established Network Norway Council (NNR) with the assigned national task of supervising the quality of higher education. The Council was a semi-independent advisory body relating to the Ministry in matters relating to higher education. It was replaced by the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) in 2002 (se section 9.3.). NOKUT runs institutional audits, with the emphasis on the institutions’ own quality assurance systems and the information about actual educational quality that these provide.

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Until the 1970s there was little tradition for universities and colleges to make systematic evaluations of their educational programmes. Since then, the question of quality assurance and quality development has gradually received increased attention, particularly after the Commission on Quality in Higher Education published its report in 1990. Most institutions in the 1990s started to operate quality assurance procedures, including programme assessment by students.

The responsibility for quality improvement has explicitly been given to the higher education institutions themselves. However, with the establishment of NOKUT and the requirement that all Norwegian higher education institutions should have their own system of quality assurance, some external pressure has been created to focus more strongly on the improvement dimension of quality assurance. This is particularly visible in the criteria listed by NOKUT in 2003 concerning the evaluation of an institutional quality assurance system. A quality assurance system should comprise:

● How work related to quality is linked to the strategic objectives of the institution

● Defined objectives for the work related to quality

● How work related to quality is linked to management at all levels

● How work related to quality is proven to be a systematic activity that includes staff participation

● Collection and analysis of data and information from evaluations enabling the accumulation of knowledge on the institutional status concerning the quality of the educational provision

● Assessment of whether objectives related to quality have been met

● Utilisation of results from work related to quality as basis for decision-making aimed at improvements

● Clarifications as to how work related to quality contribute to optimising the use of available human, financial and administrative resources

● Active student participation in the work related to quality

● An annual report to the Board of the institution in which an overall assessment is made about the status of the work related to quality, and indications about the quality of the educational provision.

It is stated that the quality assurance system is the responsibility of the Board and the leadership of the institution. A quality assurance system must contain routines to ensure the quality of new programmes. NOKUT has not specified any formal requests concerning what an institutional quality assurance system should look like.

9.4.2. External Evaluation

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

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9.4.2.1. External Evaluation at Primary and Secondary Level

The Directorate for Education and Training is the primary national authority responsible for inspection work as laid down in the Norwegian Education Act and the Norwegian Private Schools Act. Inspection activities are organised in a separate department at the Directorate.

Besides this National Inspection work, there are the County Governors at regional level who have to carry out inspections on a regional level, directed at the municipalities and county municipalities. Inspection assignments are one of many administrative tasks in the areas of education and training; tasks that have to be carried out by the office of the County Governor.

The Directorate for Education and Training also carries out inspections directed at private schools.

The Inspectorate controls any activity that is regulated by legislation, and in practice involves public and private school owners, which are the municipalities, county municipalities and private school owners. This also includes businesses or agencies that run training courses for adults, training within the criminal administration system and training at social and medical institutions.

The Education Act, the Private Schools Act and the Folk High Schools Act represent the legally defined minimum standard for quality at Norwegian schools; school owners are ordered to offer enough opportunities for learning of a defined and specified content, organised in a certain way, and shall make decisions in accordance with existing guidelines.

Inspection activities are therefore organised and carried out concerning conditions of important significance for attaining the objectives of the educational sector and where the Inspectorate could have the greatest effect. A major focus of the Inspectorate is to focus attention on fundamental values like safety, non- discrimination and attending to the interests of groups with the greatest needs.

An assessment is made of the importance of and risks involved in selecting themes for inspections. In the past, the Inspectorate has focused on themes like the psycho-social environment, pupils with special needs, and lately also Sami pupils’ rights and the rights of adults.

As a consequence of their responsibility the municipalities and counties have to carry out their own assessments in order to ensure the quality of schools. One main aspect of the Inspectorate’s approach is to control the school owners’ systems for following up on issues and findings of their own evaluations. In practice, this involves that in national inspection work (as written above: partially executed by county inspectors) the checking of routines, procedures, competences, communication and the clarification of roles at school level and in the municipalities is a topic. This is done with the purpose of checking if “the system of self – governance” leads to good education and continuous improvement indeed. In other words: this kind of approach has the purpose of verifying that school owners actually have a system in place to ensure the best possible quality of learning and that they are able and willing to correct their actions if shortcomings or violations of law are found.

Basic education examinations are coordinated by the county governor's office.

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9.4.2.2. External Evaluation at Tertiary Level

The use of external examiners at all examinations at universities and colleges were mandatory until the Quality Reform in 2003 that removed the requirement from examinations in bachelor studies.

In the early 1990s the Ministry of Education and Research initiated and funded national evaluations of educational quality in several study programmes at Norwegian universities and university colleges, with the use of external international expert groups. These evaluations were pilot projects, with local quality development as the aim. Control or setting a national standard was not the aims, nor should the results have any consequences for the funding for a study programme. Participation in evaluation was mandatory for public universities and colleges, voluntary for private colleges. Methodologically, the evaluations followed international practice (f. ex. the Netherlands). The Norwegian Institute for Studies in Research and Education (NIFU) was professionally and administratively responsible for organising the evaluation process, emphasising the dialogue between department/institution and expert group. The evaluation process had these stages:

● Setting up expert groups of international/Nordic academics, including Norwegian professionals in evaluating professional study programmes. Introductory seminar for expert groups on evaluation models and the focus on educational development.

● Start-up conference for expert groups and academics from participating departments/institutions.

● The themes for the evaluation of a study programme: aims, content (subjects, curriculum), teaching, forms of evaluation/examination, student progress and drop-out, examination results (over time), material resources, internal relations, external relations to world of work (graduates, employers).

● Self-evaluation reports with statistic documentation from participating departments/institutions.

● Site visits from expert groups, meeting academics, student and administration. Preliminary evaluation communicated. Each expert group to visit institutions in a region.

● Evaluation report written by each expert group, focus on educational development, publicly available.

● Summing-up conference for expert groups, academics, the Ministry and academic/professional associations.

With this evaluation process, the subject English was evaluated in 1990. Between 1992 and 1995 five other subject areas were evaluated: business administration, sociology, electronic engineering, mathematics and music. The subject Norwegian language as taught in general teacher education was evaluated in 1997.

The pilot projects should explore how to organise a possible national system of recurrent evaluations of study programmes.

The Norwegian Agency for Quality in Education (NOKUT) was established in 2003, and has amongst its tasks to carry out evaluations commissioned by the Ministry of various fields of study. The Ministry has commisoned evaluations of three fields of study, including general teacher education (2004 -2006),

160 EURYBASE NORWAY engineering (2006-2008) and pre-primary teacher education (commissioned by the Ministry in March 2008). In addition NOKUT reaccredited all the nursing programmes in Norway in 2006.

9.5. Evaluation of the Education System

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

9.5.1. Evaluation of Primary and Secondary Education

The National Quality Assessment System (NQAS), established in 2003 as part of the Knowledge Promotion Reform, is operated by the Directorate for Education and Training. The aim of NQAS is to promote quality development throughout primary and secondary education and training. The system is based on a broad concept of quality, where information about five areas (learning dividends, learning environment, completion of upper secondary education, resources and school facts) from all schools provide the basis for follow-up and improvement. The information is available on the web site www.skoleporten.no on school/municipal/county/national level with the intention that relevant and reliable data and reports will contribute to quality development by providing a basis for informed decisions. The school owner (municipality, county) is responsible for establishing a reliable system for following up the results of the NQAS and The National Inspection work as being an important part of the NQAS (see section 9.4.2.1.)

The statistical information in NQAS comes from different databases operated by the Directorate for Education and Training, Statistics Norway and (for upper secondary education) the counties. Information on the learning environment comes from a web based survey where pupils evaluate different aspects of their learning situation. The National Quality Assessment System gives information on

● School facts: Information on number of pupils, teachers and schools at local, regional and national level.

● Learning dividends: National tests of pupils’ skills (reading in Norwegian and English, and mathematics) for pupils in grade 5 in primary and grade 8 in lower secondary school. Final examinations (Norwegian, mathematics, English) for pupils in grade 10 in lower secondary school. Examinations (Norwegian, mathematics, English and other major subjects) for pupils in upper secondary school. Trade- and journeyman’s examinations for apprentices.

● Learning environment: Pupils’ evaluation on their motivation, teachers’ ability to motivate, well- being, opportunity to work undisturbed, bullying, variation in forms of learning and evaluation, work plans and goals, support and guidance, pupil participation, pupils’ council involvement, physical environment.

● Completion of upper secondary education and training: Completion rates (male/female, immigrants). Average time used for completion. Change of educational programme.

● Resources: Economic resources used per pupil (municipal/county level, not school level) etc. Teacher resources, number of pupils per teacher etc. Material resources, number of pupils per personal computer etc.

Educational statistics provide a picture of the most important quantitative criteria of evaluation of conditions in the school sector. At present, educational statistics include the time spent on different educational activities, the number of pupils, pupil flows, participation rates, classes and schools, the personnel in different categories and the examination results/marks for assessed attainment. As a part of the KOSTRA-project 161 EURYBASE NORWAY

(Municipality-State-Reporting), educational statistics have been significantly extended. KOSTRA focuses on two purposes:

● To give better information about the municipalities, both for the central and for the local governments. This includes a more coherent data collection, which makes it possible to combine data from many sources, for example combination of data on accounts and data on services and personnel.

● More efficient reporting. All data reporting from the municipalities are electronic, by use of electronic forms or file extracts. And the same data should be collected only once, even if it is used for many purposes.

● The publishing includes a number of fixed indicators on the municipalities' priorities, productivity and the coverage of needs. It is structured to enable the comparisons of one municipality with the average for the comparable group of municipalities, the region or the country. The publishing also includes detailed data that enables the users to construct their own indicators and tables, by use of several programmes.

Another important statistical source is the National Education Database (NUDB) established in 2002 by Statistics Norway. The database follows individuals through the education system, and is connected to other types of data such as family background and labour market status. The database allows for analysis of student flows, drop-out rates, progression etc., and how this is related to social background, and will be a useful tool for evaluation of the national education system.

For more information on pupil assessment see section 4.9.

9.5.2. Evaluation of Tertiary Education

Universities and university colleges are instructed by the Ministry to evaluate their own activities. Over the last ten years, there has been a growing recognition of the need for adding a national dimension to quality assurance work in the sector. This follows an international trend, which has moved several European countries to launch national programmes of quality assurance. Other factors have promoted this development too: a dramatic expansion in the number of students has led to general pressure problems in the universities and colleges and to the recruitment of students with more varied ability backgrounds. Also, there is an increasing tendency for students to spend more of their time on part-time jobs.

In its report on Norway, an OECD review team (Thematic Review of the First Years of Tertiary Education, 1997) stated that ''there would be value in adopting a form of monitoring and review whereby every institution would participate by following a publicly declared set of procedures. (...) Responsibility does indeed reside in the institutions, but this does not preclude a more definite approach, nationally, to quality issues.''

In 1998 the Government set up a new advisory body for higher education, the Network Norway Council (NNR). One of the tasks of the new body was to take responsibility for the quality assurance of higher education at national level. The assignment can be subdivided into a number of specific tasks:

● To propose common guidelines and procedures for evaluation and quality assurance work in the higher education sector.

● To audit the quality assurance work of the 38 institutions covered by the Universities and University Colleges Act.

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● To propose what specific subject areas should be exposed to large-scale national evaluations and to monitor such evaluations.

● To evaluate nationally recognised competence centres in specific subject areas (the 'nodes' in the Network Norway).

● To build a knowledge bank on evaluation and quality assurance in higher education that will enable the Network Norway Council to advise the Ministry and guide the institutions of higher education in questions of programme quality and quality assurance.

● To provide informative statistics on higher education.

Between 1999 and 2002 the NNR carried out several evaluations of higher education in Norway: institutional evaluations of Norway’s four universities, evaluations of higher degree programmes in university colleges without parallels in the university sector, evaluation of six pilot master degree programmes, evaluation of teacher education, evaluation of the 30-odd ''nodes'' (recognised competence centres) of the Network Norway.

Without removing the overall responsibility of universities and university colleges to safeguard and develop the quality of their own educational programmes, the NNR decided to develop a national module, with certain set standards and procedures, to be incorporated into the quality assurance work of all institutions. Preliminary guidelines for this national module were developed by the end of 1999 and immediately tested through a pilot project in four selected institutions in 2000 - 2002.

The Parliament (Stortinget) revised the Universities and University Colleges Act in 2001, deciding that a system of official accreditation should now apply to all recognised state and private higher education in Norway, and that a new independent agency, the National Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) would undertake the accreditation procedures. The new agency was operative as of 1 January 2003. Accredited institutions of higher education will be divided into three categories, with different rights to offer new programmes at different degree levels without a formal process of accreditation, whereas unaccredited institutions (all private) must seek accreditation for all new programmes. However, unaccredited institutions may achieve status as accredited, just like accredited institutions may change category, after a formal process of institutional accreditation.

All accredited higher education will then be subject to accreditation control through a system of institutional audits, running in cycles of six years. The emphasis is here on the institutions' own quality assurance systems and the information about actual educational quality that these provide. A 'second stage 'in the control mechanism is the possibility of a more detailed scrutiny of individual programmes by NOKUT, where this is judged to be appropriate.

9.6. Research into Education linked to Evaluation of the Education System

Research based evaluations of several development projects in compulsory and upper secondary education are being supported at national level and administered by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. The projects are covering a period of 3-4 years. The major current studies and evaluations are of:

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● The Knowledge Promotion reform. The evaluation includes 11 different evaluations.

● A strategy to strengthen competence among teachers

● The learning environment

● Educational/vocational guidance

● Overall school day project

● Foreign language project at primary level

● Longitudinel study of learning outcomes and resources

● Participation in OECD and IEA international comparative studies

● Pilot scheme: offer content and methods in vocational education programmes at lower secondary level

● National programme for school leadership education

Experience content and methods in vocational programmes The Government presented in 1998 a White Paper containing principles and proposals of a Competence Reform for adults (see also section 7.1.). A national plan of action for continuing education and adult education included several development projects. Evaluations were made 2000-2003 of models for validating and documenting non-formal and informal competence for working life, upper secondary school and higher education. Evaluation was also made of the Competence Development Programme (1999-2006), where education providers developed tailormade courses for employees in an enterprise/public organisation, preferably by including learning in the workplace and flexible learning by ICT.

With the restructuring of regional colleges into larger, multi-department state colleges in 1994, a comprehensive research programme was set up 1996-1999 in order to evaluate the restructuring process and its effects, including the effect on educational quality.

Ongoing research related to higher education has emphasis on evaluation of the Quality Reform (see also section 6.1.), organised by the Research Council of Norway for the Ministry of Education and Research. A comprehensive research programme is set up 2003-2007 to evaluate the implementation of the reform and the effects on students, staff and higher education institutions.

9.7. Statistics

The ongoing evaluation of the Quality Reform has a total budget of 60 million NOK including 9,5 million for the year 2010.

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10. Special Educational Support

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

10.1. Historical Overview

Special education originated from educational initiatives for the handicapped, which formerly were considered incapable of benefiting from training. The first school for the deaf was established in 1825. Special schools were at first established on a private basis with public support, later the schools were taken over and run by the State. The Education Act for Abnormal Children 1881 was the first educational legislation for handicapped children, which included the education for deaf, blind and mentally retarded children. This Act was replaced by a set of new acts in 1915. As for the mentally retarded, the Act introduced a distinction between the educable and the non-educable. A new Special School Act in 1951 extended the number of designated categories of handicaps to include pupils with auditory problems, learning disabilities, language problems and emotional and behavioural problems. The Act of 1951 put the responsibility on the state to provide educational facilities for different groups of physically disabled pupils in special schools. However, the weakest were still assessed as incapable of benefiting from training, and had therefore no right to education. An extensive study was begun aimed at large-scale expansion of the state special school system, gradually including mentally disabled pupils who could gain from specially adapted teaching of a less theoretical character.

Gradually, there was a growth in awareness that the special educational needs should to a greater extent be resolved within the ordinary school system. Through an amendment in the Primary School Act in 1955, every municipality was obliged to provide additional teaching to pupils with learning difficulties, against state refunding of the costs. The scope of this additional teaching grew rapidly. This locally organised special teaching in the ordinary school was a decentralised alternative to the special school system. However, a form of segregation still existed in that the teaching was usually provided in special classes. As a consequence of the need for expert diagnosis, there was also a gradual expansion of the educational-psychological service. The first school psychologists' offices were established in Aker and Oslo municipalities in 1946.

The debate concerning the organisation of special education became considerably more active during the 1960s. No responsibility for teaching the most physically disabled pupils was imposed on the ordinary school, and there were long waiting lists for places in the special schools. At this time, the first cases concerning inadequate education were brought before the court. White Paper No 42 to the Storting (1965- 66) on expansion of special schools prepared for an extensive development that would correspond to more than a tripling of the number of pupils to over 8,000. The Storting rejected the concrete development plans in 1968.

During the 1960s, criticism was levelled at separate, specialised and segregated school facilities for physically disabled pupils, and there was increasing acceptance for an integration ideology emphasising decentralisation and normalisation. White Paper No 88 to the Storting (1966-67) concerning the development of care of the physically disabled represented a breach with special care, virtually rejecting the establishment of special measures for the physically disabled.

In 1969, a committee appointed by the Storting was charged with preparing legislation to replace the Special Schools Act of 1951. A report on legislation for special education issued in 1970 represents the most important break until that time in the historical tradition of a relatively extensive special school system. The

165 EURYBASE NORWAY report proposed the integration of as many physically disabled pupils as possible in the ordinary school, as well as special educational measures for physically disabled pupils under school age and for physically disabled adults. In 1975, the main principles of the report were adopted as the basis for amendments to the Act relating to primary and lower secondary education and the Act concerning Upper Secondary Education, and these amendments entered into force in 1976. As a result of this, the Special Schools Act of 1951 was repealed, leading to the following important changes:

● Extension of the educational concept, so that children and young people who do not fully benefit from traditional school subjects and theory were now given the right to education.

● Requirement regarding adaptation of teaching to the abilities and aptitudes of each individual pupil.

● Right to special education for children under school age.

In connection with an amendment to the Act relating to primary and lower secondary education in 1987, it was decided that from 1988 all children would, as far as possible, attend the school for the geographical admission area to which they belonged. The Standing Committee on Education and Research particularly stressed the consequences of this amendment for pupils with a need for special education. Young people with special needs for specially adapted educational facilities were granted by an amendment in 1982 the first option on places in the Upper Secondary School. In 1991, the same group of pupils was granted the right to upper secondary education for more than three years, when so decided on the basis of expert assessment. From 1994, when the right to three years' upper secondary education was granted to all young people, pupils with a need for specially adapted teaching were granted the right to be admitted to the foundation course of their choice and entitlement to up to five years' upper secondary education.

The municipalities and county authorities have thus for many years had the formal responsibility for adapting education to the needs of all pupils, including those with special needs. This principle is upheld in the Education Act of 17 July 1998, which came into force 1 August 1999.

In 1998 the Government submitted White Paper No 23 to the Storting (1997-98) on education for children, young people and adults with special needs. Positive results had been achieved in integrating special education into mainstream education:

● Practically all physically disabled children were awarded places in day-care institutions that are applied for, pursuant to section 9 of the Act on Day-Care Institutions.

● Practically all children and young people received education in their local primary and lower secondary school.

● Pupils with large and complex physical disabilities were generally offered facilities in the ordinary school.

● Increased resources had been allocated to special educational measures during recent years.

● The number of teachers with special educational competence had increased, and utilisation of special educational competence had improved.

● There had been considerable local development to strengthen specially adapted teaching.

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● The use of individual teaching plans for pupils had increased.

● Better management procedures had been developed at individual schools, in the educational- psychological counselling service and in the school administration in the municipalities and county authorities.

● Pre-school teachers and school teachers were mainly satisfied with the many support services available.

● Most parents were satisfied with the educational facilities provided for children and young people with special needs.

However, there were considerable local variations that seemed more to reflect different customs in the schools than variations in the objective needs of the pupils. Although most children, young people and adults with special needs received locally based teaching, this did not always lead to participation in the community.

The report contained an evaluation of the restructuring of the state support system for special education since 1992. The report did not deal with special educational work in day care institutions and schools in the broadest sense, but was particularly devoted to the organisation of the professional help and support apparatus at local and national levels. (For further description, see section 10.3.) .

A practice-oriented competence-building programme 2000-2003 aimed to: Strengthen the PPS and the competence of the school administration in areas where the local communities have the greatest need for support: behaviour disorders, reading and writing difficulties and complex learning difficulties. The programme redefined the working profile of the PPS more in the direction of system-oriented guidance work and worked to strengthen the contact and network cooperation between National support system for special education and local PPS and between the resource centres.

Changes in the Norwegian Support System for Special Education have been carried out along with the proposed measures:

● The state maintained facilities at current level for ''low-frequency'' groups, such as the visually impaired, the hearing impaired and those with severe speech and language disorders.

● Full-time school facilities for deaf sign language users maintained.

● Resource centres for social and emotional problems had structural changes, including a strengthening of the Centre for Behavioural Research.

● The Resource Centres for complex learning difficulties had a staff reduction and a clearer delimitation of functions. All centres allocated joint tasks in relation to social and emotional problems and severe complex learning difficulties, as severe mental disability and learning and behaviour disorders with neurological causes, e.g. ADHD, Tourettes syndrome, narcolepsy. Some centres were allocated special or nation-wide functions, for example in relation to foreign language pupils and Sami pupils with special educational needs, early stimulation of children with physical disabilities, persons with acquired brain damage, persons with cleft lip and palate, etc. The National Resource Centre for ADHD, Tourettes Syndrome and Narcolepsy was made permanent.

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The Norwegian Storting has decided that all adults shall have a statutory right to primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education. The right to upper secondary education has been put into force from autumn 2000, and the right to primary and lower secondary from August 2002.

10.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

Special educational research and practice in Norway has long been associated with diagnosis and compensatory measures. In the debate on special education during recent years, there has been a call for a stronger emphasis on the content and organisation of special education. The greatest challenge is now to realise the principle of adapted teaching in practice. The current international debate is also concerned with the translation of intentions and objectives into good educational practice in the classrooms and workshops of every school.

In 2007 the Ministry of Education and Research appointed a committee to evaluate to what extent the ordinary and the special education in Norway provides learning and progression for individuals with special educational needs, and if the education system ensures early intervention for children, pupils and apprentices with special needs. The committee is also going to examine the work done by the national Support System for Special Education and the municipal Pedagogical Psychological Services. The committee delivered its report NOU 18:2009: The Right to Education (Rett til læring) to the Minister of Education 2nd of July 2009. The report with all its suggested activities have been on an official hearing and the Norwegian ministry for Education and the Minister of Education are now to suggest what to do next.

10.3. Definition and Diagnosis of the Target Group(s)

The aim is to identify children with special needs as early as possible. All local health centres co-operate with the Pedagogical Psychological Service (PPS). The Education Act ensures the right to special education below the compulsory school age. The PPS may be contacted by health service, day care institutions and schools. Parents can also ask for help directly. People of all ages have a legal right to special education, but special education is not compulsory. Parents must therefore give their written approval before anything can be done by the PPS concerning the child’s or the pupil’s needs. In any case, it is the parents who must apply for special education.

Pupils with special educational needs have a right to special education in accordance with professional evaluation. The municipal PPS has advisory responsibilities. The National Support System for Special Education assists municipalities and schools in their work with children, youth and adults with special needs. The centres develop special pedagogical competence through their charting of needs, as well as their advising, training and development efforts.

The normal guidance procedure is that the PPS does an assessment of a person’s educational needs and gives a recommendation on the content and amount of special education that the person should receive. The PPS will write an expert report, it is to give reasons why the person (child/youth/adult) is in need of special education. It will also describe the content of special education, the extent and how the education ought to be organised. The school/education centre will then work out an Individual Education Plan. This plan must take into consideration the advice in the expert report, but also adapt the special education to the curriculum being taught to the rest of the class. The report from the PPS gives advice to the municipality or county on how the measures taken can ensure that the pupil will get an equivalent educational situation to that of the other pupils. If the municipality does not follow the advice given, the reason for this must be documented. Since special education is based upon an individual decision, parents can make complaints if

168 EURYBASE NORWAY they are not satisfied with the special education provided for the pupil. The National Education Office in the county is the final body of appeal for decisions concerning individual pupils. If it supports the parent’s view, the municipality has to comply with the requirements of the National Education Office.

Special education is a right guaranteed by the Norwegian Education Act which is intended to ensure adapted and equitable education for persons who do not, or cannot, gain satisfactory benefits from the regular teaching programme. The term is used for pupils with all kinds of disabilities. In the practical work with children and pupils with special educational needs, there has been a change from the use of medical diagnoses to a description of how well the person functions. Special education should be based on the possibilities in the pupil’s abilities rather than focusing on weaknesses. Still a lot of pupils get a diagnosis based on their disability, although many children do not fit in these categories. Some pupils will of course benefit from being diagnosed, but it is a challenge to respond to special needs without introducing new segregated programmes or relations.

For the majority of pupils concerned, special education is provided at the school to which the pupil belongs, most often within a class. The pupils may be taught in small groups together with other pupils with special educational needs, or individually. For many pupils there is a combination of the models of organisation. The PPS gives advice to schools and teachers concerning organisational models and methods of education. When the municipality or county lacks competence on certain problems, it may get help from a National Resource Centre.

White Paper No 23 to the Storting (1997-98) recommended that the Ministry should reorganise the special educational support system so that the users are given the most beneficial available local competence. The reorganisation was to be carried out primarily by transferring resources and competence from the National Support System for Special Education to the local Pedagogical Psychological Service (PPS). The PPS in municipalities and counties were reinforced with new professional posts. Arrangements for inter-municipal co-operation shall ensure that all parts of the county and all municipalities have access to a high level of special educational competence.

10.4. Financial Support for Pupils’ Families

The economic cost of adapted teaching for pupils with special needs is covered by the school owner (municipality or county). This includes costs for special teaching aids, transport etc paid by the school.

10.5. Special Provisions within Mainstream Education

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

10.5.1. Specific Legislative Framework

The Education Act of 17 July 1998 entered into force 1 August 1999. The Act covers primary, lower secondary and upper secondary school for all ages, and has replaced various other Acts. Teaching shall be adapted to the abilities and aptitudes of individual pupils and apprentices. Pupils who do not, or are unable to benefit satisfactorily from ordinary tuition, have the right to special education.

The decision to provide education in the form of specially adapted education or to refuse to provide such education will be an individual decision pursuant to the Public Administration Act.

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The Education Act directs the municipalities to provide a Pedagogical Psychological Service (PPS), to be organised in co-operation with other municipalities or with the county authorities. The PPS shall assist the school in work on organisational development and development of expertise in order to improve the adaptation of tuition for pupils with special needs, and ensure that expert assessments are prepared where this is required by the Act.

The Education Act makes no distinction between different forms of special education. Measures range from an extra teacher to help certain pupils with specific lessons to individually adapted teaching plans that differ greatly from what we traditionally associate with primary and lower secondary education.

According to the Regulations on primary and lower secondary education parents' consent must be obtained before carrying out special education. There is thus no obligation to receive special education, as is the case with ordinary schooling.

10.5.2. General Objectives

As a fundamental principle, pupils who need special help and support shall receive this as far as possible in the ordinary school and class within the normal framework of teaching. In co-operation with parents and guardians, the school shall provide the pupil with educational facilities adapted to his or her needs. If a day care institution or school needs additional expertise in order to adapt facilities to the special requirements of an individual pupil, the necessary help and support shall be obtained from the municipal Pedagogical Psychological Service (PPS), The National Support System for Special Education or other professional help and guidance services.

Apprentices shall have the same access to an PPS as pupils attending the upper secondary school. The county authorities may also consent to varying contractual conditions for apprentices. Young people with poor motivation for schooling may in accordance with an expert assessment take the whole of their upper secondary education in an enterprise.

The National Curriculum for primary and secondary education is based on the principles of equity; inclusion, participation and decentralisation. The Quality Framework caters to pupils with educational needs by demanding local and individual adaptations. All pupils, including those with special difficulties or special abilities in certain areas, must be given challenges corresponding to their capacities. If all pupils are to receive equivalent instruction, individual adaptation is essential. Every element in the teaching process - curricula, working methods, organisation and teaching aids - must therefore be designed with the different capacities of different pupils in mind. (See section 4.3, 4.4. and 4.10.)

10.5.3. Specific Support Measures

Kindergarten

Most children at preschool age who need special education assistance are offered facilities in ordinary kindergarten institutions. Very few are offered places in special kindergarten institutions or in special departments for e.g. deaf children. Special assistants are often used for these children.

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Compulsory Education

Approximately 7.8 per cent of the pupils (48,470 pupils in 2009/10) in compulsory education are recognised as having special educational needs and receive special education after individual decisions. In the primary and lower secondary school, special education is mostly provided in the ordinary school. Adapted teaching in the primary and lower secondary school is carried out within these frameworks:

● Ordinary teaching.

● Ordinary teaching reinforced by extra teaching resources (used for dividing classes, dual teacher system, group teaching, individual teaching).

● Special education in accordance with individual decisions, carried out on the basis of an expert assessment, where the teaching is usually based on an individual teaching plan.

● Teaching in special units (separate schools or departments for special education) as for special education in accordance with individual decisions.

In some municipalities, particularly the larger ones, departments have been established at some schools, for example for mentally disabled (reinforced schools) and for the hearing impaired.

Assistants are to an increasing extent used for children in special education programmes in school.

Children/young people with behavioural and emotional problems may in some instances be enrolled in an educational programme focusing on social and practical skills. Such programmes can be organised in special classes in ordinary schools or in separate school departments. During recent years, there has been a certain increase in the number of such programmes. The Ministry of Education and Research is following this development closely in order to prevent new types of segregated education.

There are no regulations specifying the teaching methods to be used in special education in primary schools. The Quality Framework states certain principles on which teachers should base their planning and educational activities. One of these principles is education adapted to the needs of the pupils. In the process of relating provisions and regulations to the specific needs of the individual school and its pupils, the school compiles specific teaching plans for every subject and every class. These plans build on local considerations, the previous knowledge of the children etc. It is the school's/teacher's responsibility to use teaching methods appropriate to the needs of the individual pupil. In some cases, it is necessary for the teacher to co-operate with the Pedagogical Psychological Service or the National Support System for Special Education. Significant changes in a child's education may only be made in co-operation with the parents. The municipality is responsible for supplying necessary teaching aids and equipment.

Upper Secondary Education

In upper secondary education, approximately two-thirds of the pupils who receive specially adapted teaching are integrated in ordinary classes, while one-third attend special classes in the form of specially adapted courses.

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Higher Education

In higher education, there is no legal basis for the policy of equal right to education. However, according to the Act on Universities and University Colleges of 2000, higher education institutions should, where possible, provide facilities suitable for students with special needs. According to the Act, the higher education institutions are responsible for ensuring that the learning environment at the institution, including the physical and mental working environment, is fully satisfactory on the basis of an overall assessment of considerations regarding the health, safety and welfare of the students. The design of the physical working environment shall, as far as possible and within reason, ensure that premises, access roads, sanitary facilities and technical installations are designed in such a way as to enable persons with disabilities to study at the institution.

The Act also states that “the institutions shall, to a possible and reasonable extent, adapt study provisions for students with special needs. This adaptation must not result in a reduction of the academic requirements of the individual courses.”

In addition, higher education institutions assist students with special needs at examinations by: buying PCs, renting extra rooms, wages for secretaries and inspectors' extra hours at prolonged examinations.

Adult Education

In adult education, there are considerable variations in the organisation of teaching adults with special needs. In one-third of municipalities the teaching is carried out in separate centres or departments, often in connection with social and medical institutions.

The Pedagogical Psychological Service (PPS) and the National Support System for Special Education (STATPED)

The main support system for mainstream education consists of the municipal PedagogicalPsychological Service (PPS) and the National Support System for Special Education (STATPED). STATPED consists of 13 public and 2 private resource centres. The scope of available facilities outside the ordinary school system has gradually been reduced. In order to provide users with good quality adapted facilities, local day care institutions and schools need professional help and support from staff with specialised qualifications in education and/or psychology. Teachers and pre-school teachers ask for help in carrying out individual investigations and guidance in connection with individual users, what is termed ''individually oriented work''. There is also a need for more general educational guidance and assistance to staff in questions concerning organisation, practical methodology and measures for improving the learning environment, what is termed ''system-oriented work''. The professional guidance responsibilities of the PPS are therefore extensive, and embrace both individually oriented and system-oriented tasks. The capacity of the PPS varies considerably between counties, and there is some shortage of psychologists and counsellors. There has been increasing pressure on the PPS. The staff wants to devote more resources to general system-oriented work in schools/day care institutions and fewer resources to individual consultations such as expert assessments.

The National Support System for Special Education and other professional institutions are intended to supplement the local PPS with specialised knowledge that is not normally available locally. They have direct contacts with those responsible for education in the municipalities and county authorities, and assist pupils with particularly heavy and complex problems in relation to the school. These pupils are primarily small ''low- frequency'' groups, such as the visually impaired, the hearing impaired and pupils with severe speech and language disorders. However, some centres work with ''high-frequency'' groups. These are primarily pupils 172 EURYBASE NORWAY with social and emotional problems, reading and writing difficulties and complex learning difficulties (including mentally disabled). Examination and guidance can either be carried out in the local community or in connection with short stays at the resource centres.

10.6. Separate Special Provisions

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

10.6.1. Specific Legislative Framework

The Education Act of 17 July 1998 regulates education at primary, lower secondary and upper secondary level. A main principle is that teaching shall be adapted to the abilities and aptitudes of individual pupils. Pupils who do not, or are unable to, benefit satisfactorily from ordinary tuition have a right to special education (5.1.). The Education Act makes no distinction between different forms of special education.

The main model since 1975 is to provide special education integrated within mainstream education. (See section 10.5for more information.)

Deaf pupils have a right to learning and being taught in Norwegian sign language as their first language

Severely visually impaired and blind pupils have the right to necessary instruction in Braille and training in the use of necessary technical aid. Pupils are also entitled to necessary training in order to deal with getting to school and being familiar with the home environment.

10.6.2. General objectives

Separate provisions of special education shall adapt teaching to the abilities and aptitudes of each child. This principle is also followed in ordinary school. Separate schools for special education may be able to provide even more tailor-made education, because the pupils are few and have the same kind of special needs. Developing the pupils’ social competence is important e.g. for deaf children using sign language.

10.6.3. Geographical Accessibility

The education act states that deaf and hearing impaired children and young people have the right to receive education in and about Sign Language. As a consequence of the Norwegian model for inclusion deaf and hearing impaired children are mainly in ordinary kindergartens/ schools and a wide spectre of different programs are scattered all around the country. These programmes will differ from one year to another in relation to the numbers of and the current need of the deaf and hearing impaired. When hearing impaired get their education in ordinary settings they are also mostly supplied with microphones for teacher, microphones for the hearing students, and in many schools/classes also a sound amplifier.

There are five national resource centres for special education – one in each region. One of them is private owned, but grant- aided. They have special schools witch cater for mostly local pupils living at home and some boarding pupils from the region. In addition, part-time pupils attend courses in sign language for a period.

There is one private owned high school for the deaf were all teaching is done in sign language 173 EURYBASE NORWAY

Døves Media (“Deaf Media”) is a private grant-aided firm witch produces weekly TV-programmes for Deaf and hearing impaired persons.

For blind and visually impaired children, separate special schools do not exist any more. The two National Resource Centres in this sector assist in setting up adapted education in ordinary schools, produce teaching materials and give courses to pupils and teachers in their region. This is also the case for the Resource Centres for deaf and blind children. (See section 10.5.3. for more information.)

National hospitals/rehabilitation centers can have their own schools for children/young people in the institution. E.g. the two separate special schools attached to national hospitals/ centres for children with asthma and allergy, are located near Oslo and in the mountains in western Norway.

10.6.4. Admission Requirements and Choice of School

Local health centres and schools co-operate with the local Pedagogical Psychological Service (PPS)) and the National Support System for Special Education in assessment and recommendation. See section 10.3. for more information.

The separate special schools for deaf and hearing impaired children offer education to children that have Norwegian sign language (NTS) as their first language. The Education Act 2.6 gives these pupils a right to education in, and using, sign language. The schools also offer special education according to 5.1. to pupils that have Norwegian as their first language and need to learn sign language or use sign language as a second language e.g. in communication when more than two people participate.

10.6.5. Age Levels and Grouping of Pupils

Separate special education is adapted to the individual pupil’s needs and according to individual teaching plans.

10.6.6. Organisation of the School Year

Full-time pupils (local or boarding) in separate special schools follow the ordinary school year. Some special schools have part-time pupils for courses lasting from 2 to 12 weeks.

The education offered by schools attached to a social and/or medical institution is limited to the time the children stay in the institution. In the psychiatric service for children and young people, the average length of stay in an institution is one year. The aim is to integrate the children/young people in their home community as quickly as possible.

10.6.7. Curriculum, Subjects

Pupils in need of special education are entitled to the same amount (hours) of teaching as other pupils in the elementary and secondary school system. They are also entitled to special programmes designed to develop their abilities. Curriculum, subjects and hours may be changed to suit individual needs.

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From 1997 there are special curricula for deaf pupils, based on the principle that sign language is the first language. There are four special curricula for deaf pupils: sign language, Norwegian as a second language, English, eurhythmics and drama.

10.6.8. Teaching Methods and Materials

Teachers in separate special schools develop and produce educational tools, e.g. in sign language for deaf pupils. Such development and production is also done by the National Support System for Special Education for adapted teaching of pupils in ordinary schools. In addition the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (UDIR) administrates a grant scheme enabling publishers to produce necessary teaching aid for special education needs. The grant scheme is administrated through a yearly advertisement to which publishers are invited to apply.

ICT-assisted teaching is important for disabled children. Pupils receive systematic education in using ICT in school subjects. ICT based tools are important for the disabled in their communication with society. Some special schools and National Resource Centres have Internet shops for educational tools offered as CD-ROM, video, DVD, in print or Braille.

Developing the pupils’ social competence is also important for separate special schools. The schools arrange afternoon activities for the pupils in co-operation with the parents. A minority of boarding pupils go home only on weekends. For them the school offers care, training for independence and social development in close co-operation with the parents.

10.6.9. Progression of Pupils

If the normal course of education has not been followed, the individually adapted curriculum and its objectives form the basis for formal as well as diagnostic evaluation of the pupil.

10.6.10. Educational/Vocational Guidance, Education/Employment Links

There is a Pedagogical Psychological Service (PPS) in every municipality that is responsible for providing pedagogical, psychological and subject-related advice for pupils and their parents, teachers and educational institutions. The PPS may be inter-municipal, depending on the size of the municipalities. The service also assists in diagnosing different learning difficulties, takes part in the planning process, and assists in making individual education plans.

The county authorities is under a legal obligation to establish a follow-up service for young people who have a statutory right to education, but who are not in training or employed, including those whose education is discontinued. The object of the follow-up service is to provide the young people in question with opportunities that will lead to formal competence. The follow-up service shall take place in close co- operation with the various municipal, county-municipal and government institutions which today have part responsibility for this group.

There is a training-for-employment programme for pupils with disabilities/learning difficulties, in accordance with the general outline and content of the education.

For further information see section 5.18..

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10.6.11. Certification

The pupil generally receives a certificate/diploma stating the content of the courses he/she has taken and teaching methods used. The teacher's assessment of the pupil's achievement and progress in skills and knowledge are stated in the certificate/diploma.

10.6.12. Private Education

Most private special schools were taken over and run by the state during the 19th and 20th century. The few present private special schools are grant-aided as they receive state financial support. Their owners are foundations or patient associations.

For deaf and hearing impaired pupils on upper secondary level, there are 2 private schools with 56 pupils (9 boarding pupils) in 2005/06 and no state schools. On primary and lower secondary level, there is 1 private school with 3 pupils (2 boarding pupils) and 5 state schools with 114 pupils (17 boarding pupils).

The Association for Heart- and Lung-diseased Patients (LHL) owns a vocational upper secondary boarding school with approximately 130 disabled pupils.

10.7. Specific measures for the benefit of immigrant children/pupils and those from ethnic minorities

There are three remedial arrangements for teaching pupils from language minorities (not Norwegian or Sami) in primary and lower secondary school:

● Education in their first language (mother tongue) is given to pupils. This was the case for 3,218 pupils or 3,6 % of all pupils (1. October 2009).

● Dual language education uses the pupil’s first language in addition to Norwegian in teaching by bilingual teachers. This was the case for 11,037 pupils or 1,8% of all pupils (1. October 2009).

● Separate Norwegian education is additional teaching of Norwegian or teaching Norwegian as second language. This was the case for 41,497 pupils or 6,7 % of all pupils (1. October 2009).

A total of 22,351 pupils or 3,6 % of all pupils received education in their first language and/or dual language education. Education was given in 117 languages, most of these were non-European languages. The most common languages (with more than a thousand pupils) were Urdu, Somali, Arabic, Kurdish, Vietnamese, Polish, Albanian and Turkish.

10.8. Statistics

Approximately 48,470 pupils in the primary and lower secondary school or 7,9 % of the pupils received special education in accordance with individual decisions during the school year 2009/10.

Approximately 1,930 pupils or 0.3 % of the pupils received special education in separate schools during the school year 2009/10. 176 EURYBASE NORWAY

During the school year 2009/10, 5,400 adults received special education in accordance with individual decisions.

Source: Statistics Norway, Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training.

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11. The European and International Dimension in Education

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

11.1. Historical Overview

Increased globalization of society poses new requirements on education. For Norway international co- operation is therefore of vital importance. The education system must respond to the demands of the international community, and international communication and co-operation are necessary to ensure quality in education. Moreover, education should result in greater international understanding. In formulating its national education policy, Norway has to take account of international trends and developments, while ensuring national traditions and identity.

Through the EEA agreement, Norway participates fully in EU programmes in education, training and research. Other multilateral activities include participation in international organisations like the Nordic Council of Ministers, the Council of Europe, the OECD and UNESCO, as well as participating in the Bologna Process. Bilateral arrangements include mutual exchange of educational experience and expertise, and assistance to developing countries. An international outlook and education for international understanding are also integrated elements of the Norwegian kindergarten and school curricula.

11.2. Ongoing Debates and future developments

With the Quality Reform of higher education, there are some issues concerning international student mobility and the general portability of loans and grants that are being debated.

The general aim is to increase the number of students abroad on formal exchange programmes, based on co-operation between institutions.

Many Norwegian students go abroad as part of their bachelor degree, but more students at the master’s and doctoral levels is seen as favourable both for academic quality and for the economy. Changes in the student financing system from 2004/05 aimed at stimulating students on higher degrees and students on exchanges and placements abroad, and in the last few years, there has in fact been an increase in the number of students on organized mobility programmes and a slight reduction in the number of ‘free mover’ full degree students abroad. Norwegian HEIs are encouraged to develop study programmes in English in order to attract foreign students.

The impact of the global higher education market has changed the pattern of mobility, and some concern has been voiced regarding quality. However, the regulations for the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund require that education abroad shall be officially approved as higher education in the host country and recognized in Norway for the student to receive loans and grants. (See section 11.3.)

Official policy has over the years underlined the importance of encouraging Norwegian students to go to non-English-speaking countries. Special language grants were introduced in 1997 for this reason, but they do not seem to have had the desired effect.

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In 2009 the Norwegian Government presented a White Paper to the Parliament (the Storting), in which internationalisation of Norwegian education is viewed from an overall perspective and which includes all levels of education. The white paper proposes several measures and at the same time establishes a framework for further development and priorities.

Internationalisation of education should contribute to improving quality so that the programmes and the institutions become more attractive and competitive, both nationally and internationally. Greater interaction for pupils, students, employees, institutions and public authorities across national boundaries is an important source of inspiration. Comparing ourselves with others is vital to our development.

Pupils, students and staff in Norwegian schools, university colleges and universities travel abroad, and many come from other countries to Norway for shorter or longer periods of study or for purposes of teaching or research. These are longstanding traditions, and facilitating this kind of mobility will continue to be a priority

11.3. National Policy Guidelines / Specific Legislative Framework

It is a policy objective that the Norwegian education sector should take a full part in the ongoing global exchange of information and knowledge, as international exchange and capacity development are important for the quality of the education system.

Recent major Norwegian political trends in the education sector are related to

 Increasing quality with special emphasis on basic skills (reducing the gap in pupils' ability levels, increased ability to meet pupils' individual needs, strengthening pupils' ability to participate in society and be responsible in social contexts, more information on what actually works)

 early intervention for lifelong learning. Over the recent years there has been a strong political focus on early childhood education and care.

 using education to even out social inequalities

 improving the organisation of schools

The same aspects are central in Norwegian international co-operation in education, in multilateral co- operation through the various international organizations, as well as in bilateral contacts and co-operation. Norwegian education institutions at all levels take part in a series of international co-operation programmes and activities, the scope of which have grown significantly during the last decade.

The White Paper introducing the Quality Reform, No 27 (2000-2001) includes more emphasis on internationalisation as a means to strengthening the quality of Norwegian higher education and research. Internationalisation comprises the following elements: student, teaching and research staff exchanges; curriculum development, including joint degrees; knowledge of international affairs; use of international literature; international research co-operation; profile of study programmes including English speaiking courses; and finally, through the Bologna Process, the creation of comparable systems of grades and degrees.

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The Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (NSELF) has, since its establishment in 1947, provided loans and grants to Norwegian students, also for studies abroad. The Ministry of Education and Research sets annual regulations for the NSELF, including requirements relating to financial support for studies abroad (section 35- 1 for 2006/2007): “To higher education outside the Nordic countries, support is given when the education is comparable to, or is on the same level as, or can be approved as a part of, a Norwegian bachelor’s or master’s degree. Admission requirements should be as for equivalent education in Norway. Support is also given to education equivalent to a Norwegian degree on the Ph.D. level. The education and the institution must have official approval or equivalent approval in the country where the studies take place. …”

Lifelong learning and educational opportunities for adults are important principles of Norwegian educational policy. The aim is to provide suitable conditions in order to strengthen the competence of the adult population. Updated and new competence is necessary to improve competitiveness – both at a national and international level – and to increase flexibility in a changing working life. New competence can give individuals greater freedom of choice and possibilities to realise their wishes and needs – including travelling and employment in foreign countries.

11.4. National Programmes and Initiatives

The Norwegian education authorities, schools and higher education institutions take active part in educational networks and programmes in the Nordic Council of Ministers, the Arctic Council, the European Union, the Council of Europe, the OECD, UNESCO, and other relevant international organizations and processes. Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

11.4.1. Bilateral Programmes and Initiatives

Norway has bilateral agreements with many countries, covering, inter alia, the mutual exchange of pupils, students, teachers, researcers and educational experts. All Norwegian higher education institutions have cooperation agreements with several institutions abroad and in addition there are agreements administered by the Research Council of Norway and Norwegian Centre for International Co-operation in Higher Education (SIU). Norway favours bilateral co-operation agreements at the institutional level, but have recently signed Memorandum of Understanding with several governements for strategic purposes.

The action plans for internationalisation in schools emphasise the importance of developing bilateral school exchanges at the local level. The number of bilateral school exchanges initiated at school level has increased considerably during the last 15 years. Universities and other institutions of higher education have a strong international orientation, and the number of mutual exchange programmes and agreements with higher educational institutions abroad is rapidly increasing. The agreements are mainly directed towards institutions in the other Nordic countries and the rest of Europe, in developing countries, the USA and Canada, as well as Australia.

In 1991, the Centre for International University Co-operation (SIU) was established by the Norwegian Council of Universities to co-ordinate the activities of higher education institutions in this field. In 2004, SIU became a government agency under the Ministry of Education and Research with a slightly modified name, the Norwegian Centre for International Co-operation in Higher Education. SIU is a national agency for the EU Lifelong Learning Programme and Erasmus Mundus and manages a number of other programmes and initiatives both for the Ministry of Education and Research and for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in addition to its other task, like the provision of information on Norwegian higher education abroad.

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11.4.2. Multilateral Programmes and Initiatives

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

11.4.2.1. European Union

Co-operation with the EU in the field of education, training and research is based on Protocol 31 in the Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA). According to this protocol, the EEA/EFTA states are entitled to participate in all programmes in the areas of education, training and youth, and research as from 1 January 1994. In addition, the directives for mutual recognition of professional qualifications fall within the scope of the EEA Agreement.

Thus, according to the EEA Agreement, Norway has full access to the action programmes for education and training, and participates actively in the Lifelong Learning programme, in Erasmus Mundus as well as in Cedefop. In addition, Norway takes an active part in the activities that are related to the Lisbon agenda in education and training 2010, like clusters and Peer Learning Activities.

In terms of volume, the EU programmes by far constitute the most largest arena for cooperation open to Norwegian schools and higher education institutions, they are well established within the sector and significant for the way in which international cooperation is organized at all levels .

11.4.2.2. The Council of Europe

The Council of Europe is seen as an important forum for pan-European co-operation in education, as it includes all of Europe, covering kindergarten, school education, adult education, and higher education. The pan-European aspect is particularly important for the support this allows the Council of Europe to give to the Bologna Process in higher education, which aims at creating a European Higher Education Area by 2010.

Among the current educational activities of the Council of Europe are projects related to education for democratic citizenship, history teaching, language learning, to intercultural dialogue and activities related to the Bologna Process in higher education. The co-operation also includes a network on school links and an in- service teacher-training programme. Norway is actively engaged in the work in the Council of Europe, and has, together with 27 other countries, joined the partial agreement on the European Centre of Modern Languages in Graz, Austria, set up in 1994 as a resource centre for European language learning.

Norway participates in the Council of Europe's work related to the recognition of higher education. This involves work related to the follow-up of the Council of Europe and UNESCO Lisbon Recognition Convention, including participation in the Convention Committee and the ENIC (and NARIC) network.

The European Wergeland Centre:

The European Resource Centre on Education for Intercultural Understanding, Human Rights and Democratic Citizenship

The European Wergeland centre is a European resource centre on education for intercultural understanding, human rights and democratic citizenship and was established as a result of an initiative between Norway and the Council of Europe. The Wergeland Centre shall promote the work of the Council of Europe within the field of education for intercultural understanding, human rights and democratic citizenship. The centre’s 181 EURYBASE NORWAY mission is to build bridges between policy, research and practice. The Wergeland Centre provides services and activities for education professionals such as teachers, teacher trainers, researchers, decision makers and representatives of civil society. The centre is located in Oslo and its working language is English. For more information see: www.theewc.org

11.4.2.3. Nordic Co-operation

Nordic co-operation in the field of culture, education and research has long traditions, and is in formal terms based on the Nordic cultural agreement from 1971. The Nordic Ministers of Education meet regularly within the framework of the Nordic Council of Ministers. The Nordic Council of Ministers conducts a permanent dialogue with the parliamentarians meeting in the Nordic Council.

Nordic co-operation is from 1995 organised in three major priority areas. The first covers Nordic co-operation properly speaking, with a special focus on measures aimed at promoting Nordic identity and the common linguistic heritage. The second concerns relations to Europe and the third concerns co-operation with neighbouring countries (the Baltic States, North-West Russia and the Barents region). The Nordic countries pay special attention to developments in the Baltic countries, and have intensified their efforts to assist the Baltic countries in matters regarding education and research.

It is an overall objective to create a common Nordic area for education and research. The aim is to facilitate exchanges and contacts among the Nordic countries and to establish the Nordic area as a community in the fields of education and research. Efforts are thus made to facilitate the mobility of students, teachers and researchers through various exchange programs and to promote regular contact between institutions of education and research, e.g. by developing data networks.

Among initiatives for the development of the infrastructure are the establishment of Nordic e-networks between schools and institutions of higher education and an agreement on admission to universities and higher educational institutions in the Nordic countries.

A new generation of the Nordic grant programmes, NORDPLUS, was launched in November 2007 and put to work in 2008. The programmes have been running for nearly twenty years and cover a variety of activities on education and research The new Nordplus Framework Programme 2008 - 2011 is enlarged to encompass participation by the Baltic countries on an equal footing with the Nordic countries.

Within the Nordic co-operation the issue of research is taken up. NordForsk is a Nordic research board with responsibility for cooperation on research and researcher training in the Nordic region. The organisation focuses on research areas in which the Nordic countries are international leaders, and promotes research and researcher training of high international calibre. NordForsk was established on 1 January 2005 and has three main functions – coordination, funding and policy advice: • The objective of NordForsk’s coordination role is to develop the Nordic Research and Innovation Area (NORIA) into an attractive, cutting-edge region for research and innovation. • NordForsk’s research funding instruments seek to create synergies that supplement existing national investments in research. • NordForsk is the Nordic Council of Ministers‘ advisory body in the area of research. NordForsk uses its policy, analysis and communication activities to build a platform from which the Nordic countries can take full advantage of their shared opportunities.

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11.4.2.4. The Bologna Process

Norway participates actively in the Bologna Process, now encompassing 47 European countries. The aim of the Bologna Process is to establish the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) by 2010. The Bologna Process is the European process which has the greatest impact when it comes to the development of higher education in Norway. Norway has been actively involved in promoting the global dimension of the Bologna Process, having chaired the working group on the global dimension which developed the strategy of the Bologna Process on the global dimension, and having been a member of the working group onwards. Norway also participates in the working group on reporting on the implementation of the Bologna Process as well as in the working group on the social dimension of the Process.

11.4.2.5. UNESCO

Norway is an active member state in educational co-operation under the auspices of UNESCO. As member on the Executive Board (2005 – 2009), Norway has emphasized UNESCOs global coordination role for the Education for All process. Norway is a large contributor to extra-budgetary funds to UNESCO’s education activities and will follow up on this also when the ExB-periode is over. Norway supports the implementation of Education for All in various developing countries, UNESCO's International Institute for Educational Planning (Paris), UNESCO's Institute for Lifelong Learning (Hamburg) and UNESCO’s Institute for Statistics (Montreal). The Norwegian National Commission for UNESCO is also a connecting link between UNESCO and relevant professional authorities in Norway, and has also been given operational responsibility for some activities in the educational sector.

58 Norwegian schools and university colleges participate in the UNESCO Associated Schools' Project Network (ASPnet). Students and teachers within the ASPnet participate in a wide range of activities. In accordance with the four main study themes of this world-wide network (United Nations and World Concerns, Human Rights and Democracy, Intercultural Learning and Environment and Education for a Sustainable Future), the Norwegian schools are involved in a set of activities relating to internationalised education. The Transatlantic Slave Trade Education Project (''Breaking the Silence'') and World Heritage Education (''World Heritage in Young Hands'') are two main international ASPnet projects the Norwegian schools are actively involved in.

11.4.2.6. OECD

Within the framework of the OECD, Norway participates in the Education Committee and in the Board of the Centre for Research and Innovation (CERI). Norway has in the past few years been involved in a number of OECD thematic reviews: Early Childhood Education and Care Policy (1999-2002), Tertiary Education (2005- 2008), Equity in Education (2005-2007), Recognition of Non-formal and Informal Learning (2006-2008), and a new on Pathways for Students with Disabilities to Tertiary Education and Employment started up in 2007. In addition, there are some Country Reviews on Norway: Adult Learning in Norway (2000-2001) and Lifelong Learning in Norway (2002).

Through CERI, Norway is involved in International Network for Education Statistics (INES), in Schooling for Tomorrow and in What Works in Innovation in Education activities.

Norway is participating in the Programme for International Students Assessment (PISA), the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) and is an active participant in the preparation of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC).

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11.4.2.7. ICDE

Norway hosts the secretariat for the International Council for Distance Education (ICDE), which is given support by the national education authorities in order to be able to contribute actively in the international efforts for distance education.

11.4.2.8. Bilateral co-operation in Education at governmental level

Norway is in the process of signing a memorandum of understanding with several countries worldwide to enhance cooperation especially in Higher education. Increased exchange of students and staff is the main aim of these MOUs in addition to closer cooperation on international educational policy matters.

11.4.2.9. Bilateral co-operation in Education at governmental level

Norway has recently focused particularly on co-operation with North and South America. The Norwegian Minister of Higher Education and Research has signed agreements on research collaboration and on higher education with her colleagues in Brazil, Argentina and Chile. The agreements form the basis for closer collaboration in areas such as climate and polar research. Exchange of researchers and students will also play a central role. In addition, a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between Norway and India. Increased exchange of students and staff is the main aim of these MOUs in addition to closer cooperation on international educational policy matters.

11.5. European / International Dimension through the National Curriculum

National Curricula for Kindergarten, Primary and Secondary education are determined by the Ministry of Education and Research. The individual curricula for Primary and Secondary education are developed by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training in co-operation with the teacher's unions, the social partners and other parties with special interest for the curriculum in question. The present curriculum for primary and lower secondary education (grades 1-10) and upper secondary education and training (grades 11 – 13) was determined in 2006, with the Knowledge Promotion reform. New curricula have been developed and implemented from the school year 2006/07. The Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergarten entered into force August 2006.

International aspects are incorporated into the curricula at kindergarten and all school-levels within primary and secondary education. The Core Curriculum stresses its importance for all education already in the preamble, from which the following excerpt is taken:

“Education must spur students to diligence and to close collaboration in the pursuit of common goals. It must foster minds and manners that facilitate the achievement of the results they aim at. It must promote democracy, national identity and international awareness. It shall further solidarity with other peoples and with mankind's common living environment, so that our country can remain a creative member of the global community.''

There are some schools in Norway offering a wider international range of topics in their educational programmes. Some of these schools may have exchanges with schools in other countries, either independently or to ASP-schools when they are linked to the UNESCO ASP-school net (see section 11.4.2.4.).

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The United Nations Council in Norway supports schools which co-operate with schools in developing countries.

The Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research has published an internet-based handbook on internationalisation for use within teaching projects that aim at including internationalisation. A separate appendix to the handbook lists a large number of targets and main points within the individual subject curricula for Primary (grades 1-7), Lower secondary (grades 8-10) and Upper secondary (grades 11-13) education.

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

11.5.1. Pre-primary Education

Pre-primary institutions cater to many immigrant children from different non-European countries, especially in the cities. The themes Local community and society, Ethics, religion and philosophy and Art, culture and creativity are included in the Framework Plan for the Content and Tasks of Kindergartens. Stories, pictures, music and other cultural activities from the countries of immigrant children are commonly used in kindergartens.

11.5.2. Single Structure Education

The national curricula for Social Studies, History, Religion, Philosophies of Life and Ethics, English, Foreign language/ in-depth studies in languages for primary and lower secondary education (grades 1-10) incorporate the international aspect in competence aims at the end of grade 4. grade 7 and grade 10. focusing on culture, civics, history, geography and nordic and international co-operation.

The international dimension is also integrated in subject curricula where applicable by the local level (school owners and schools).

11.5.3. Upper Secondary Education

In upper secondary education the international aspect is included in the curricula for all education programmes. The importance of giving pupils in vocational programmes an understanding of the international aspects of their trade is emphasised. Projects in bilingual teaching are being carried out in some programme areas and subjects. English is a mandatory subject in all programmes in upper secondary education and training. Pupils in the programmes for general studies have a second foreign language as mandatory subject.

The national curricula for Social studies has five main subject areas: individual and society, working and business life, politics and democracy, culture and international relations. The subject is mandatory in all the 12 education programmes for secondary education and training.

Other curricula with important international dimensions are those for religion and ethics, geography, history focusing on culture, civics and society, politics and international co-operation.

The global and international dimension is also integrated in subject curricula where applicable by the local level (school owners and schools).

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A few upper secondary schools offer international examinations in a general academic program (the international baccalaureate).

The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training offers different supporting materials to the schools in their effort to internationalise the education, e.g. the Internet portal The Schoolnet (Skolenettet, http://skolenettet.no/Default.aspx?epslanguage=NO) with the proper module Global School (Global skole) and a handbook for internationalisation in primary and secondary education.

11.5.4. Tertiary Education

Higher education curricula is developed by the individual institutions based on principles and regulations set by the Ministry of Education and Research. For some study programmes, e.g. nursing and teacher training, a national framework plan has been set by the Ministry of Education and Research. Norwegian HEIs are encouraged to develop study programmes in English in order to attract foreign students

11.5.5. Continuing Education and Training for Young School Leavers and Adults

Since 2002, adults have a statutory right to primary and lower secondary education as well as a right to upper secondary education since 2000. The same curricula apply to adult education as to ordinary pupils in primary and secondary education.

Study associations and private distance education institutions are free to develop curricula in their courses (except for secondary school and higher education). Of the almost 50,000 annual courses from the non- governmental study associations, most courses are vocational. Only 15 % concern foreign languages, social science subjects and religious subjects. Some of these courses may have a European or international dimension.

Folk high schools are also free to develop curricula in their short and long (one-year) residential courses. As they are “a school for life” with their founders among Christian organisations and labour unions, international solidarity is a value. The schools now have foreign students. However, no survey exists of the different courses that could indicate a possible international dimension.

11.6. Mobility and Exchange

Please refer to the subdivisions for more details.

11.6.1. Mobility and Exchange of Pupils/Students

Participation in the EU education and training programmes is considered very valuable by Norwegian authorities. The number of outgoing Norwegian Erasmus students has been 1,000 – 1,300 the last ten years, in a wide variety of disciplines. Spain and France are the most popular destinations. From an imbalance with fewer incoming students, there is a majority of incoming students since 2001/02. Evaluations of Norwegian participation in the Sokrates and Leonardo da Vinci programmes in 2001 disclosed a lack of study programs available in English, also partly weak administrative and organizational structures at the institutional level. A study in 2004 on the internationalisation of Norwegian higher education institutions concluded that the situation is more positive. 186 EURYBASE NORWAY

With the Quality Reform of 2002, all degree programmes at universities and university colleges are designed to allow for an international exchange period as an integral part of the programme. The introduction of individual education plans containing the student’s and the institution’s mutual commitments, is also expected to facilitate both the student’s and the institution’s planning of international student mobility. The number of students on mobility as part of their home degree who received support from the State Educational Loan Fund has increased to above 6,000. Compared with the total number of students, the level is still modest.

Most Norwegian students abroad are full degree students (14,000) and not related to any organised or formal student exchange programme. The loans and grants from the State Educational Loan Fund are portable, and additional funding for tuition fees is awarded to students abroad to provide them with the same financial conditions as students taking higher education in Norway. The combination of individual students’ decisions and liberal economic support has resulted in some policy challenges that are being debated (see section 11.2.).

Compared to other countries, Norway has a relatively small number of foreign students. The main reason is probably that most courses are taught in Norwegian, Norway's geographical location and cost of living are additional factors. However, the foreign student population in Norway has expanded rapidly in recent years, particularly the numbers of students with a non-EU/EEA background. This is due to the Quota Scheme, a special scheme introduced in the academic year 1994/95 for citizens of certain Central and Eastern European countries and most developing countries. Each year, a maximum of 1,100 students receive financial support from the State Educational Loan Fund on specific conditions in order to undertake studies in Norway.

The following issues regarding foreign students are of particular importance:

 The need for, and the quality of, different introductory programmes, including language programmes.

 Rules and procedures for the recognition of qualifications gained in countries of origin.

 The financing schemes and welfare facilities available to foreign students.

The general admission requirements for applicants with a foreign educational background are the same for all higher education institutions and correspond to those applicable to Norwegians (see chapter 6.). In general, applicants with foreign qualifications must be able to present documentation of completed education equivalent to a Norwegian 3-year upper secondary education or training. In addition, command of the Norwegian language must be documented through special tests for non-Nordic citizens. Students who are admitted to study programmes that are taught in English, or students participating in European exchange programmes, do not have to fulfil these language requirements in Norwegian. More details concerning the requirements to prior education are obtainable from the individual university, university college or the National Academic Information Centre (NAIC) that is now a part of NOKUT.

According to the Act on Universities and University Colleges (No 15 April 2005, earlier No 22 May 1995), the higher education institutions are themselves responsible for the recognition of foreign academic qualifications, as part of or equivalent with their degree. At the national level, this responsibility rests with NOKUT, the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education. NOKUT has the national ENIC/NARIC office and the information unit for the 1997 Council of Europe and UNESCO Lisbon Convention (on the Recognition of Qualifications Concerning Higher Education in the European Region), as well as the follow-up of the implementation of the Diploma Supplement linked to the Convention. (The Diploma Supplement is

187 EURYBASE NORWAY compulsory at all public higher educations since 2002.) Applicants with foreign academic qualifications who are not interested in further studies in Norway, can since 2003 get a full evaluation of their qualifications, so- called general recognition, from NOKUT.

Certain occupations are regulated by law. For those, authorization is necessary. It should be noted that all EU directives on recognition of professional qualifications are applicable in Norway and the other EFTA/EEA countries.

11.6.2. Mobility and Exchange of Teaching and Academic Staff

The teacher exchange part of the Erasmus program has gained popularity in the last years, with some 300 Norwegian teachers out and some 200 foreign teachers coming in. Mobility of Nordic academic staff is part of the NORDPLUS program.

There is now a stronger emphasis on attracting foreign academic staff to Norway. This is a rather recent addition to the policy agenda. A specific task force/commission set up by the Research Council of Norway published their report in 2003, proposing a range of measures to increase incoming mobility of academic staff. The White Paper of 2005 discussed the measures. The newly established Research Centers of Excellence may be used to attract highly qualified staff from abroad.

For PhD students, staying a period abroad as part of their doctoral program is also strongly encouraged – this has been usual for some time.

11.7. Statistics

Erasmus exchange programme (2006/07):

Norwegian outgoing students 1.257

Foreign incoming students 2.575

All exchange programmes in higher education (2009):

Norwegian outgoing students 4.505

Foreign incoming students 5.253

Source: Norwegian Centre for International University Co-operation (SIU), Norwegian Social Science Data Services (Database for Statistics on Higher Education)

Norwegian students at foreign higher education institutions with financial support from the State Educational Loan Fund (2006/07):

Full foreign degree students 12,375

Norwegian upper secondary school pupils participating in exchange programmes abroad with financial support from the State Educational Loan Fund: 984 188 EURYBASE NORWAY

Source: Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund

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