DOCSLIB.ORG

The Next 50 Years of Neuroscience

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Next 50 Years of Neuroscience The Journal of Neuroscience, January 2, 2020 • 40(1):101–106 • 101 Viewpoints The Next 50 Years of Neuroscience Cara M. Altimus,1* Bianca Jones Marlin,2* Naomi Ekavi Charalambakis,3 Alexandra Colo´n-Rodríguez,4 Elizabeth J. Glover,5 XPatricia Izbicki,6 XAnthony Johnson,7 X Mychael V. Lourenco,8 Ryan A. Makinson,9 Joseph McQuail,10 XIgnacio Obeso,11 Nancy Padilla-Coreano,12 and XMichael F. Wells,13 for Training Advisory Committee 1Milken Institute, 2Columbia University Zuckerman Institute, 3University of Louisville, 4University of California at Davis, 5University of Illinois at Chicago, 6Iowa State University, 7Veterans Administration Health Care System, 8Federal University of Rio do Janeiro, 9Journal of DoD Research & Engineering, 10University of South Carolina School of Medicine, 11Fundacio´n de Investigacio´n HM Hospitales, 12Salk Institute, and 13Broad Institute On the 50th anniversary of the Society for Neuroscience, we reflect on the remarkable progress that the field has made in understanding thenervoussystem,andlookforwardtothecontributionsofthenext50years.Wepredictasubstantialaccelerationofourunderstanding of the nervous system that will drive the development of new therapeutic strategies to treat diseases over the course of the next five decades. We also see neuroscience at the nexus of many societal topics beyond medicine, including education, consumerism, and the justice system. In combination, advances made by basic, translational, and clinical neuroscience research in the next 50 years have great potential for lasting improvements in human health, the economy, and society. Introduction where the field will be, but are also a reflection of the research In 1969, the United States National Academies Committee on achievements that have driven us scientifically, and what we are Brain Sciences agreed that a central organization was needed to most excited to see develop in the future (Extended Data Figure “1) advance understanding of nervous systems and their role in 1-1, available at https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0744-19. behavior; 2) promote education in the neurosciences; and 3) in- 2019.f1-1). It is our hope that this vision will spur enthusiasm form the general public on results and implications of current among professionals in the field and increase public understand- research.” Thus, the Society for Neuroscience (SfN) was founded ing of the remarkable potential that neuroscience research holds with the goal of serving as that central organization by bringing to improve human health and society. together neuroscientists across disciplines. Over the course of the last 50 years, members of the Society have been instrumental in Cellular and molecular neuroscience driving the incredible growth and rapid technological advances The past 50 years produced monumental advancements in our that have accelerated our understanding of both healthy and understanding of the cellular and molecular processes that dic- pathological nervous system function. tate our every thought, desire, and action. This progress was As members of SfN’s Trainee Advisory Committee, many of driven, in part, by technical innovations, such as patch-clamp us joined the field within the last decade and recognize that it is electrophysiology, PCR, and genomic sequencing, which gifted our cohort’s vision and drive that will advance the field through neuroscientists with experimental opportunities that were incon- the next 50 years. Our Committee represents the vastness of neu- ceivable in the 1960s. By the time SfN celebrates its 100th anni- roscience research, with members spanning broad scientific in- versary, we anticipate even greater shifts in methodology and terests, ranging from neurodevelopment to neural correlates of conceptual consensus that will push the field further toward an- behavior, and coming from countries around the world. As a swering such questions as follows: How do the billions of indi- diverse group of leaders within the Society, we think deeply about vidual components of the brain work together to generate the next generation of neuroscientists and what their scientific behavior? How do changes to the brain lead to disease? What world will look like because it is also what our world will look like. makes the human brain unique? This article and timeline figure convey not only our vision of Two notable accomplishments toward answering these ques- tions will be the completion of the connectome and a compre- hensive cellular atlas of the mammalian brain. Execution of these Received April 1, 2019; revised Dec. 3, 2019; accepted Dec. 3, 2019. daunting tasks is fueled in part by funding from National Insti- The Trainee Advisory Committee is a group of current and recent trainees (graduate students and postdoctoral tutes of Health’s BRAIN Initiative, a 10 year program initiated in fellows) charged with making recommendations for the Society of Neuroscience Council and committees on how 2016 in the United States aiming to support the development and Society initiatives, projects, and programming can be designed, enhanced, or modified to address the needs and concerns of the Society’s trainee members. All authors participated in this perspective as members of the 2019 implementation of innovative neurotechnologies to better un- Society for Neuroscience, Trainee Advisory Committee. derstand the brain (Bargmann, 2014), as well as the Human Brain The authors declare no competing financial interests. Project funded by the European Union to foster research at the *C.M.A. and B.J.M. contributed equally to this work as chair and incoming chair, respectively, of the Trainee interface of neuroscience and computation and the Brain/ Advisory Committee. Correspondence should be addressed to Bianca Jones Marlin at [email protected]. MINDS project in Japan focused on mapping higher brain func- https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0744-19.2019 tion in marmosets. Among these new technologies are ongoing Copyright © 2020 the authors advancements in single-cell transcriptomics/proteomics, which 102 • J. Neurosci., January 2, 2020 • 40(1):101–106 Altimus, Marlin et al. • The Next 50 Years of Neuroscience will play a pivotal role in revealing the immense diversity of cell system as well as how the brain develops over decades. While types within brains across a wide range of species (Saunders et al., many avenues of research will be impactful, we see single-cell 2018; Wang et al., 2018). In combination with the development characterization, study of neurogenesis, and the use of organoids of automated high-throughput and innovative optical electro- as key areas of focus in the next half century. physiological approaches (Priest et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2016), In particular, transcriptional characterization of neurons will neuroscientists will begin to understand how discrete cell popu- be instrumental in providing a foundation by which researchers lations are physiologically and phylogenetically distinct. In doing can study how cell fate, migratory paths, and connectivity are so, we will determine not only the roles of specific cell types in the determined in unique cell types. Additionally, the use of whole healthy and diseased brain, but also the cellular mechanisms that genome sequencing to map cell lineage via the identification of separate humans from other mammalian species. The data ob- somatic mutations (Evrony et al., 2015; Lodato et al., 2015) will tained will be used in conjunction with recently developed provide crucial insight into the similarities and differences in cell approaches, such as optogenetics (Boyden, 2011) and chemoge- dispersal in humans relative to other species. Together with netics (Sternson and Roth, 2014), as well as new methods for broad implementation of new techniques that build upon the visualizing genetically encoded calcium indicators (Resendez and development of the Brainbow mouse by selectively labeling neu- Stuber, 2015), to revolutionize the ways in which we probe, per- rons undergoing differentiation or division (Gomez-Nicola et al., turb, and define distinct cell populations. 2014; Loulier et al., 2014), these approaches will prove essential to A cell’s molecular makeup is vast and diverse, but neuroscien- allow neuroscientists to monitor the fate of individual neural tists’ ability to resolve disease-induced alterations in molecular progenitors and their trajectories as they form the complex cir- composition is currently laborious and imprecise. In the next 50 cuits that define the nervous system. years, advances in microscopy (Gao et al., 2019) will become The past 50 years of neuroscience research has played host to a broadly accessible and afford researchers the ability to visualize decades-long debate over the existence of adult neurogenesis. subcellular machinery with unprecedented resolution, catapult- This controversial concept was first introduced before SfN’s for- ing our understanding of the interplay between changes at the mation in 1969 (Altman, 1962) but failed to gain significant trac- transcriptional, molecular, and structural levels. The develop- tion until the 1980s and 1990s when an increasing number of ment of new tools facilitating in vivo measurement and manipu- reports demonstrated the presence of newly born cells originat- lation of epigenetic and molecular endpoints will revolutionize ing in the subventricular and subgranular zones of a number of our ability to reconcile the influence of changes to the epigenome, species, including humans (Eriksson et al., 1998; Knoth et al., genome,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • M.S. and Ph.D. Sequences in Neuroscience and Physiology
    Neuroscience and Physiology are distinct but overlapping disciplines. • M.S. and Ph.D. students take three core Whereas Neuroscience investigates courses in neuroscience, physiology and neural substrates of behavior, Physiology biostatistics, and elective courses in more studies multiple functions. However, specific areas of these fields, as well as in M.S. and Ph.D. both seek to understand at an integrated related fields, such as cellular and level across molecules, cells, tissues, molecular biology, behavior, chemistry Sequences in whole organism, and environment. and psychology The workings of our brain and body • The curriculum provides a canonical Neuroscience and define us. When problems occur, results conceptual foundation for students can be devastating. According to the pursuing master’s and doctoral research in Physiology National Institutes of Health, neurological neuroscience and physiology and heart disease are two of the largest world health concerns and more than 50 • Our sequences provide a “cohort” million people in this country endure experience for new students, by offering a School of Biological some problem with the nervous system. cohesive curriculum for those students interested in pursuing graduate study in Sciences Our graduate sequences in Neuroscience neuroscience and physiology. and Physiology provide an exciting and Illinois State University challenging academic environment by combining research excellence with a strong commitment to education. We offer a comprehensive curriculum to graduate students interested in Neuroscience and Physiology. Both M.S. For more information, contact Dr. Paul A. and Ph.D. programs are also tightly Garris ([email protected]) or visit integrated into laboratory research. bio.illinoisstate.edu/graduate and goo.gl/9YTs4X Byron Heidenreich, Ph.D.
    [Show full text]
  • The Creation of Neuroscience
    The Creation of Neuroscience The Society for Neuroscience and the Quest for Disciplinary Unity 1969-1995 Introduction rom the molecular biology of a single neuron to the breathtakingly complex circuitry of the entire human nervous system, our understanding of the brain and how it works has undergone radical F changes over the past century. These advances have brought us tantalizingly closer to genu- inely mechanistic and scientifically rigorous explanations of how the brain’s roughly 100 billion neurons, interacting through trillions of synaptic connections, function both as single units and as larger ensem- bles. The professional field of neuroscience, in keeping pace with these important scientific develop- ments, has dramatically reshaped the organization of biological sciences across the globe over the last 50 years. Much like physics during its dominant era in the 1950s and 1960s, neuroscience has become the leading scientific discipline with regard to funding, numbers of scientists, and numbers of trainees. Furthermore, neuroscience as fact, explanation, and myth has just as dramatically redrawn our cultural landscape and redefined how Western popular culture understands who we are as individuals. In the 1950s, especially in the United States, Freud and his successors stood at the center of all cultural expla- nations for psychological suffering. In the new millennium, we perceive such suffering as erupting no longer from a repressed unconscious but, instead, from a pathophysiology rooted in and caused by brain abnormalities and dysfunctions. Indeed, the normal as well as the pathological have become thoroughly neurobiological in the last several decades. In the process, entirely new vistas have opened up in fields ranging from neuroeconomics and neurophilosophy to consumer products, as exemplified by an entire line of soft drinks advertised as offering “neuro” benefits.
    [Show full text]
  • Distance Learning Program Anatomy of the Human Brain/Sheep Brain Dissection
    Distance Learning Program Anatomy of the Human Brain/Sheep Brain Dissection This guide is for middle and high school students participating in AIMS Anatomy of the Human Brain and Sheep Brain Dissections. Programs will be presented by an AIMS Anatomy Specialist. In this activity students will become more familiar with the anatomical structures of the human brain by observing, studying, and examining human specimens. The primary focus is on the anatomy, function, and pathology. Those students participating in Sheep Brain Dissections will have the opportunity to dissect and compare anatomical structures. At the end of this document, you will find anatomical diagrams, vocabulary review, and pre/post tests for your students. The following topics will be covered: 1. The neurons and supporting cells of the nervous system 2. Organization of the nervous system (the central and peripheral nervous systems) 4. Protective coverings of the brain 5. Brain Anatomy, including cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum and brain stem 6. Spinal Cord Anatomy 7. Cranial and spinal nerves Objectives: The student will be able to: 1. Define the selected terms associated with the human brain and spinal cord; 2. Identify the protective structures of the brain; 3. Identify the four lobes of the brain; 4. Explain the correlation between brain surface area, structure and brain function. 5. Discuss common neurological disorders and treatments. 6. Describe the effects of drug and alcohol on the brain. 7. Correctly label a diagram of the human brain National Science Education
    [Show full text]
  • GLOSSARY Glossary Adapted with Permission from R
    GLOSSARY Glossary adapted with permission from R. Kalb (ed.) Multiple Sclerosis: The Questions You Have: The Answers You Need (5th ed.) New York: Demos Medical Publishing, 2012. This glossary is available in its entirety (as well as additional MS terms) online at nationalMSsociety.org/glossary. 106 | KNOWLEDGE IS POWER 106 | KNOWLEDGE IS POWER Americans with Disabilities Act Blood-brain barrier (ADA) A semi-permeable cell layer around The first comprehensive legislation blood vessels in the brain and spinal to prohibit discrimination on the cord that prevents large molecules, basis of disability. The ADA (passed immune cells, and potentially in 1990) guarantees full participation damaging substances and disease- in society to people with disabilities. causing organisms (e.g., viruses) from The four areas of social activity passing out of the blood stream into the covered by the ADA are employment; central nervous system (brain, spinal public services and accommodations; cord and optic nerves). A break in the transportation; and communications blood-brain barrier may underlie the Autoimmune(e.g., telephone disease services). Centraldisease process nervous in system MS. A process in which the body’s immune The part of the nervous system that system causes illness by mistakenly includes the brain, optic nerves, and attacking healthy cells, organs or tissues Cerebrospinalspinal cord. fluid (CSF) in the body that are essential for good health. In multiple sclerosis, the specific antigen — or target — that the immune A watery, colorless, clear fluid that cells are sensitized to attack remains bathes and protects the brain and unknown, which is why MS is considered spinal cord.
    [Show full text]
  • Cognitive Neuroscience 1
    Cognitive Neuroscience 1 Capstone Cognitive Neuroscience Concentrators will additionally take either a seminar course or an independent research course to serve as their capstone experience. Cognitive neuroscience is the study of higher cognitive functions in humans and their underlying neural bases. It is an integrative area of Additional requirements for Sc.B. study drawing primarily from cognitive science, psychology, neuroscience, In line with university expectations, the Sc.B. requirements include a and linguistics. There are two broad directions that can be taken in greater number of courses and especially science courses. The definition this concentration - one is behavioral/experimental and the other is of “science” is flexible. A good number of these courses will be outside of computational/modeling. In both, the goal is to understand the nature of CLPS, but several CLPS courses might fit into a coherent package as well. cognition from a neural perspective. The standard concentration for the In addition, the Sc.B. degree also requires a lab course to provide these Sc.B. degree requires courses on the foundations, systems level, and students with in-depth exposure to research methods in a particular area integrative aspects of cognitive neuroscience as well as laboratory and of the science of the mind. elective courses that fit within a particular theme or category such as general cognition, perception, language development or computational/ Honors Requirement modeling. Concentrators must also complete a senior seminar course or An acceptable upper level Research Methods, for example CLPS 1900 or an independent research course. Students may also participate in the an acceptable Laboratory course (see below) will serve as a requirement work of the Brown Institute for Brain Science, an interdisciplinary program for admission to the Honors program in Cognitive Neuroscience.
    [Show full text]
  • Progress and Challenges in Probing the Human Brain
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Neuroethics Publications Center for Neuroscience & Society 10-2015 Progress and Challenges in Probing the Human Brain Russell A. Poldrack Martha J. Farah University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs Part of the Bioethics and Medical Ethics Commons, Neuroscience and Neurobiology Commons, and the Neurosciences Commons Recommended Citation Poldrack, R. A., & Farah, M. J. (2015). Progress and Challenges in Probing the Human Brain. Nature, 526 (7573), 371-379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature15692 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs/136 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Progress and Challenges in Probing the Human Brain Abstract Perhaps one of the greatest scientific challenges is to understand the human brain. Here we review current methods in human neuroscience, highlighting the ways that they have been used to study the neural bases of the human mind. We begin with a consideration of different levels of description relevant to human neuroscience, from molecules to large-scale networks, and then review the methods that probe these levels and the ability of these methods to test hypotheses about causal mechanisms. Functional MRI is considered in particular detail, as it has been responsible for much of the recent growth of human neuroscience research. We briefly er view its inferential strengths and weaknesses and present examples of new analytic approaches that allow inferences beyond simple localization of psychological processes. Finally, we review the prospects for real-world applications and new scientific challenges for human neuroscience.
    [Show full text]
  • Basic Brain Anatomy
    Chapter 2 Basic Brain Anatomy Where this icon appears, visit The Brain http://go.jblearning.com/ManascoCWS to view the corresponding video. The average weight of an adult human brain is about 3 pounds. That is about the weight of a single small To understand how a part of the brain is disordered by cantaloupe or six grapefruits. If a human brain was damage or disease, speech-language pathologists must placed on a tray, it would look like a pretty unim- first know a few facts about the anatomy of the brain pressive mass of gray lumpy tissue (Luria, 1973). In in general and how a normal and healthy brain func- fact, for most of history the brain was thought to be tions. Readers can use the anatomy presented here as an utterly useless piece of flesh housed in the skull. a reference, review, and jumping off point to under- The Egyptians believed that the heart was the seat standing the consequences of damage to the structures of human intelligence, and as such, the brain was discussed. This chapter begins with the big picture promptly removed during mummification. In his and works down into the specifics of brain anatomy. essay On Sleep and Sleeplessness, Aristotle argued that the brain is a complex cooling mechanism for our bodies that works primarily to help cool and The Central Nervous condense water vapors rising in our bodies (Aristo- tle, republished 2011). He also established a strong System argument in this same essay for why infants should not drink wine. The basis for this argument was that The nervous system is divided into two major sec- infants already have Central nervous tions: the central nervous system and the peripheral too much moisture system The brain and nervous system.
    [Show full text]
  • The Human Brain Hemisphere Controls the Left Side of the Body and the Left What Makes the Human Brain Unique Is Its Size
    About the brain Cerebrum (also known as the The brain is made up of around 100 billion nerve cells - each one cerebral cortex or forebrain) is connected to another 10,000. This means that, in total, we The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is split in to two have around 1,000 trillion connections in our brains. (This would ‘halves’ of roughly equal size called hemispheres. The two be written as 1,000,000,000,000,000). These are ultimately hemispheres, the left and right, are joined together by a bundle responsible for who we are. Our brains control the decisions we of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum. The right make, the way we learn, move, and how we feel. The human brain hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left What makes the human brain unique is its size. Our brains have a hemisphere controls the right side of the body. The cerebrum is larger cerebral cortex, or cerebrum, relative to the rest of the The human brain is the centre of our nervous further divided in to four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and brain than any other animal. (See the Cerebrum section of this temporal, which have different functions. system. It is the most complex organ in our fact sheet for further information.) This enables us to have abilities The frontal lobe body and is responsible for everything we do - such as complex language, problem-solving and self-control. The frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain.
    [Show full text]
  • Neuroscience
    NEUROSCIENCE SCIENCE OF THE BRAIN AN INTRODUCTION FOR YOUNG STUDENTS British Neuroscience Association European Dana Alliance for the Brain Neuroscience: the Science of the Brain 1 The Nervous System P2 2 Neurons and the Action Potential P4 3 Chemical Messengers P7 4 Drugs and the Brain P9 5 Touch and Pain P11 6 Vision P14 Inside our heads, weighing about 1.5 kg, is an astonishing living organ consisting of 7 Movement P19 billions of tiny cells. It enables us to sense the world around us, to think and to talk. The human brain is the most complex organ of the body, and arguably the most 8 The Developing P22 complex thing on earth. This booklet is an introduction for young students. Nervous System In this booklet, we describe what we know about how the brain works and how much 9 Dyslexia P25 there still is to learn. Its study involves scientists and medical doctors from many disciplines, ranging from molecular biology through to experimental psychology, as well as the disciplines of anatomy, physiology and pharmacology. Their shared 10 Plasticity P27 interest has led to a new discipline called neuroscience - the science of the brain. 11 Learning and Memory P30 The brain described in our booklet can do a lot but not everything. It has nerve cells - its building blocks - and these are connected together in networks. These 12 Stress P35 networks are in a constant state of electrical and chemical activity. The brain we describe can see and feel. It can sense pain and its chemical tricks help control the uncomfortable effects of pain.
    [Show full text]
  • Epigenetic Pathways Through Which Experiences Become Linked with Biology
    Development and Psychopathology 27 (2015), 637–648 # Cambridge University Press 2015 doi:10.1017/S0954579415000206 Epigenetic pathways through which experiences become linked with biology a b PATRICK O. MCGowan AND TANIA L. ROTH aUniversity of Toronto; and bUniversity of Delaware Abstract This article highlights the defining principles, progress, and future directions in epigenetics research in relation to this Special Issue. Exciting studies in the fields of neuroscience, psychology, and psychiatry have provided new insights into the epigenetic factors (e.g., DNA methylation) that are responsive to environmental input and serve as biological pathways in behavioral development. Here we highlight the experimental evidence, mainly from animal models, that factors such as psychosocial stress and environmental adversity can become encoded within epigenetic factors with functional consequences for brain plasticity and behavior. We also highlight evidence that epigenetic marking of genes in one generation can have consequences for future generations (i.e., inherited), and work with humans linking epigenetics, cognitive dysfunction, and psychiatric disorder. Though epigenetics has offered more of a beginning than an answer to the centuries-old nature–nurture debate, continued research is certain to yield substantial information regarding biological determinants of central nervous system changes and behavior with relevance for the study of developmental psychopathology. Experiences, particularly those occurring during sensitive peri- To better understand the consequences of early and later- ods of development, are well recognized for their ability to ca- life stress on epigenetic mechanisms in this capacity, this nalize neurobiological trajectories and yield significant conse- has required the utilization of experimental rodent models quences for lifelong health and mental well-being.
    [Show full text]
  • Neurobiology and Behavior (NEURBIO) 1
    Neurobiology and Behavior (NEURBIO) 1 Neurobiology and Behavior (NEURBIO) Courses NEURBIO 200A. Research in Neurobiology and Behavior. 2-12 Units. Individual research with Neurobiology and Behavior faculty. Repeatability: Unlimited as topics vary. Restriction: Graduate students only. Neurobiology and Behavior Majors only. NEURBIO 200B. Research in Neurobiology and Behavior. 2-12 Units. Individual research with Neurobiology and Behavior faculty. Prerequisite: NEURBIO 200A Repeatability: Unlimited as topics vary. Restriction: Graduate students only. Neurobiology and Behavior Majors only. NEURBIO 200C. Research in Neurobiology and Behavior. 2-12 Units. Individual research with Neurobiology and Behavior faculty. Prerequisite: NEURBIO 200B Repeatability: Unlimited as topics vary. Restriction: Graduate students only. Neurobiology and Behavior Majors only. NEURBIO 201A. Research in Neurobiology and Behavior. 2-12 Units. Individual research with Neurobiology and Behavior faculty. Grading Option: Satisfactory/unsatisfactory only. Repeatability: Unlimited as topics vary. Restriction: Graduate students only. Neurobiology and Behavior Majors only. NEURBIO 201B. Research in Neurobiology and Behavior. 2-12 Units. Individual research with Neurobiology and Behavior faculty. Prerequisite: NEURBIO 201A Grading Option: Satisfactory/unsatisfactory only. Repeatability: Unlimited as topics vary. Restriction: Graduate students only. Neurobiology and Behavior Majors only. NEURBIO 201C. Research in Neurobiology and Behavior. 2-12 Units. Individual research with Neurobiology and Behavior faculty. Prerequisite: NEURBIO 201B Grading Option: Satisfactory/unsatisfactory only. Repeatability: Unlimited as topics vary. Restriction: Graduate students only. Neurobiology and Behavior Majors only. NEURBIO 202A. Foundations of Neuroscience. 2 Units. Intended to expose students to critical reading and analysis of the primary neuroscience literature. Instructors from departments associated with the Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program participate and discuss topics of current interest.
    [Show full text]
  • Neuromechanics: from Neurons to Brain
    CHAPTER TWO Neuromechanics: From Neurons to Brain Alain Goriely*, Silvia Budday†, Ellen Kuhl{,1 *Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom †Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany { Departments of Mechanical Engineering and Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, United States 1Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected] Contents 1. Motivation 80 2. Neuroelasticity 82 2.1 Elasticity of Single Neurons 82 2.2 Elasticity of Gray and White Matter Tissue 90 2.3 Elasticity of the Brain 93 3. Neurodevelopment 96 3.1 Growth of Single Neurons 96 3.2 Growth of Gray and White Matter Tissue 103 3.3 Growth of the Brain 106 4. Neurodamage 116 4.1 Neurodamage of Single Neurons 116 4.2 Neurodamage of Gray and White Matter Tissue 119 4.3 Neurodamage of the Brain 126 5. Open Questions and Challenges 128 Acknowledgments 131 Glossary 132 References 133 Abstract Arguably, the brain is the most complex organ in the human body, and, at the same time, the least well understood. Today, more than ever before, the human brain has become a subject of narcissistic study and fascination. The fields of neuroscience, neu- rology, neurosurgery, and neuroradiology have seen tremendous progress over the past two decades; yet, the field of neuromechanics remains underappreciated and poorly understood. Here, we show that mechanical stretch, strain, stress, and force play a critical role in modulating the structure and function of the brain. We discuss the role of neuromechanics across the scales, from individual neurons via neuronal tissue to the whole brain. We review current research highlights and discuss challenges and potential future directions.
    [Show full text]