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The Elamite Triads: Reflections on the Possible Continuities in Iranian Tradition

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The Elamite Triads: Reflections on the Possible Continuities in Iranian Tradition Iranica Antiqua, vol. LIII, 2018 doi: 10.2143/IA.53.0.3285480 THE ELAMITE TRIADS: REFLECTIONS ON THE POSSIBLE CONTINUITIES IN IRANIAN TRADITION BY Milad JAHANGIRFAR1 (Freie Universität Berlin) When the two spirits first came together, they created life and death, and how, at the end, the worst existence shall be for the deceitful but the best thinking for the truthful person (Yasna 30: 4) Abstract: This paper deals with three major Elamite deities, Napiriša, Kiririša and Inšušinak, who were worshiped in ancient Elam and formed a triad; besides, deities in charge of judging the soul after death will be discussed. The aim is to show that there are considerable similarities between these groups of Elamite gods and Iranian, particularly the Zoroastrian, ones. Since Elam acted like a bridge between the Mesopotamian world and the Iranian plateau, it was influenced by its neighbors; hence it is not surprising if a number of Elamite deities resemble ­foreign gods and goddesses. Elam was influenced by Mesopotamian beliefs and in turn it influenced the Achaemenid culture. A comparison between the Elamite triad and that of the Achaemenids may reveal more information about the charac- teristic and roles of some of the Iranian gods. Keywords: Ancient Elam, Elamite Religion, Elamite Triad, Zoroastrian Triad, Final Judgment. Introduction Elam, an ancient Iranian state in the south and southwest of modern Iran, was a neighbor of Mesopotamia and later of the early Persians in highland Fārs. As a result of trade, political treaties and political marriages, and also expansionist policies, one may a priori expect to find similarities between their cultures in general, and between religious beliefs in particular. 1 I am most indebted to Professor Wouter Henkelman and Professor Farzaneh Goshtasb for their help and support. Needless to say, all errors are my own responsibility. 106 M. JAHANGIRFAR A very interesting feature of the Elamite religion is a very developed conception of the afterlife. As Vallat (1998: 339) states, death seems to have been an important preoccupation of the Elamites and many of the religious buildings are thought to be connected to the cult of the dead. The stages described in seven tablets from Susa2 known as “funerary texts” show Inšušinak as the judge of the soul3, Lagamar and Išme-karab as his two assistants who escort the soul to the judge, and another deity, whose name is unfortunately missing, is said to weigh the soul (Steve & Gasche 1996: 334, 336).4 Not only these tablets point out the belief in afterlife, but also prayers for members of the royal family bear witness to this. A very intriguing and unique prayer occurs in an inscription of Šilhak-Inšušinak: IRS 49§39-43 e DIŠKu-uk-ANKir-ma-áš me-el-ku me-te-ia ANIn-su-uš-na-ak ri-el sat-na x x “O! Kuk-kirmaš! Deceased5 prince! May you reach the path6 of Inšušinak …” 2 These texts were found in the excavation of a vaulted baked-brick tomb near the palace of Darius at Susa, on the Apadana, in 1914. Potts (2012: 48) believes that the ­ideology evoked by these texts was influenced by Babylonian tradition. See also Carter 2011: 46-48; Tavernier 2013: 475-479. 3 Hinz (1971: 666; 1972: 47) opinioned that Inšušinak “can correctly be viewed as originally a god of the underworld”. Tavernier (2013: 471) considers the possibility that Inšušinak “was not the netherworld’s lord in all of Elam”. In other words, each town may have had its own responsible deity for the netherworld. 4 From the corpus of Elamite, Sumerian and Akkadian texts we know some 200 Elamite gods (Vallat 1998: 335). Some of them were indigenous to Elam, whereas some others had their roots in Mesopotamia and other neighboring regions. Although some of them were prominent gods and were worshiped in most of the Elamite cities, others were worshiped only locally. Many names in the list are gods whose names are known to us only as components in theophoric names. Moreover, it seems that although certain gods and goddesses were honored throughout the history of Elam, many were worshiped only in certain periods. 5 EW (918) translates me-te-ia as “victorious” while EKI (90) and IRS (112) propose “deceased” for this word. 6 This interpretation of ri-el is not entirely certain; see, e.g., Grillot-Susini 2014: 105, fn. 4. THE ELAMITE TRIAD 107 This short prayer clearly shows that Šilhak-Inšušinak believed in a kind of life in which the soul of the old king, Kuk-kirmaš7, was still present. Yet further evidence, which is probably concerned with afterlife, is ­provided by the funerary clay heads entombed with some people. These funerary objects might have served as portraits of the dead, or portraits of their family members. This possibility may be maintained even despite “the serene and contented facial characteristics” of these models which may suggest “an idealized type” (Alvarez-Mon 2005: 114). Followers of Zoroaster, too, believe in a life after death. The Zoroastrian picture is much more detailed than the (preserved) Elamite one. Not only in the Avesta, but also in a number of middle Persian works (such as, e.g., Ardā Virāz Nāmag), death, punishments and rewards, paradise and hell and the resurrection are described. It has long been a moot question whether the Achaemenids were ­Zoroastrian or not. Despite some Zoroastrian characteristics found in the Achaemenid texts and art, doubt has been expressed by scholars about the Achaemenid religion. Boyce (1983), based on the Greek writings, believed that the later Achaemenids were definitely Zoroastrian. She also presumed that Cyrus the Great, too, was “the first Zoroastrian Great King” (Boyce 1983: 427). Shapour Shahbazi (2012: 136) considers Darius and his suc- cessors Zoroastrian. The undeniable fact is that Ahura Mazda (in the Old Persian inscriptions ‘Auramazdā’), the supreme Zoroastrian god, is invoked in the Achaemenid inscriptions8 and what “the kings do they do with the favor of Ahura Mazda” (Shapour Shahbazi 2012: 136; for shared basic concepts by both the Avesta and the Old Persian inscriptions see: Skjærvø 2014: 177-179). Besides, Mithra and Anāhitā, two great deities without a position in Zoroaster’s hymns, the Gāthās, but worshipped in some hymns belonging to pre-Zoroastrianism, are invoked in a number of Achaemenid inscriptions along with Auramazdā. It is understood that the Achaemenids were generally tolerant of different religions and therefore their religious system may have been composed of various elements, some 7 This ruler “was the first to call himself sukkalmah, but his predecessor Šilhaha was the first ruler to be called sukkalmah.” (Potts 2015: 149). 8 For instance, in DB I §5: vašnā Auramazdāha adam xšāyaθya ami, Auramazdā xšaçam manā frābara: “by the favor of Auramazdā I am King; upon me Auramazdā bestowed the kingship” (Schmitt 1991: 27, 49; Cf. Skjærvø 2014: 178, who proposes “greatness” for vašnā). 108 M. JAHANGIRFAR of which borrowed from other cultures (for a summary of opinions on the Achaemenid religion, see: Skjærvø 2014). In both Elamite and Achaemenid beliefs, there are comparable triads. On Elamite side Napiriša, Kiririša and Inšušinak9 and on the Achaemenid side Auramazdā, Anāhitā and Mithra form the first triad. Elamite Deities Achaemenid/Zoroastrian Deities Napiriša: ‘great god’ Auramazdā: ‘wise lord’ (male) (male) Kiririša: ‘great lady’ Anāhitā: ‘damp, strong, untainted’ (female) (female) Inšušinak: ‘lord of Susa’ Mithra/Mihr: ‘contract/friendship’ (male) (male) Table 1. Deities of the First Triad, the meanings of their names and their gender. In addition to this triad, in both cultures there is another comparable group the size of which varies. The Elamite team consisted of Inšušinak, Išme-karab, Lagamal and another divinity who weighs the soul10, while Mihr, Srōš, Rašn11, Good Wāy, Warhrām, Aštād and Zāmyād constitute the Zoroastrian one. In comparison with the first triads in both cultures, these second triads have more affinities between them. 9 This triad sometimes appears as Napiriša, Inšušinak, Kiririša. Napir-Asu, Untaš-­ Napiriša’s consort, invokes the titular triad of the empire as well as Beltiya, or “My lady”, a title that in Susiana seems to have been reserved for Ištar, the goddess of love and war (RCS 132). 10 In the Vision of the Netherworld, three Elamite deities Iapru, Napiriša and Humban are named as the divine protectors of the soul (Tavernier 2013: 482). It is difficult to judge, however, how much of this conception is genuinely Elamite, and how much derives from Mesopotamian ideas (and syncretism with Mesopotamian gods). 11 Tavernier (2013: 485) observes that “the development towards a triad of Mithra, Rašnu and Sraoša may possibly be noticed in the confusion seen between this triad and a triad Sraoša-Aši-Nairiiō.saŋha”. Indeed, the three latter deities are mentioned together in the Yasna 57/3 (see: Kreyenbroek 1985: 37). In this passage, Sraoša is worshipped for his splendor, fortune, strength and victoriousness along with good Aši and Nairiiō.saŋha ‘fair of form’ (for this triad, see also: Gershevitch 1959: 194). THE ELAMITE TRIAD 109 Elamite Deities Zoroastrian Deities Inšušinak: ‘lord of Susa’ Mihr: ‘contract/friendship’ (male) (male) Išme-karab: ‘He heard prayer’ Srōš: ‘hearing/obedience’ (?) (male) Lagamal: ‘no mercy’ Rašn: ‘just, righteousness’ (?)12 (male) A scale holder Good Wāy: ‘good air’ (male) Anunnaki13 Warhrām: ‘victory’ (male) Zamyād/Zāmyād: ‘Munificent Earth’ (female) Aštād: ‘rectitude, righteousness’ (female) Table 2. Deities of the Second Group, the meanings of their names and their genders. The First Triad The earliest attestation of the Achaemenid triad is found in the inscrip- tions A2Ha, A2Sa and A2Sd of Artaxerxes II. In these texts, Auramazdā, Anāhitā and Mithra are invoked in a way that suggests the concept of a triad: A2Sa§2-3: vašnā Auramazdā, Anāhitā utā Miθra adam niyastāyam apadānam imam akunai.
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