Cooperative Partnerships between Early Radio Broadcasting Educators and Commercial Radio Stations: The Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air

Presented to the Faculty

Regent University

School of Communication and the Arts

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the

Doctor of Philosophy

In Communication

by

Mary E. Myers

Approved By:

Stephen Perry, Ph.D., Committee Chair School of Communication and the Arts

William Brown, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts

John Keeler, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts

April 2018

School of Communication of the Arts

Regent University

This is to certify that the dissertation prepared by:

Mary E. Myers

Titled

COOPERATIVE PARTNERSHIPS BETWEEN EARLY RADIO BROADCASTING EDUCATORS AND COMMERCIAL RADIO STATIONS: THE HOOSIER SCHOOLMASTER OF THE AIR

Has been approved by her committee as satisfactory completion of

the dissertation requirement of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Approved By:

Stephen Perry, Ph.D., Committee Chair School of Communication and the Arts

William Brown, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts

John Keeler, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts

April 2018

ii

Copyright Ó 2018 by Mary E. Myers

All Rights Reserved.

iii

Abstract

Early radio broadcasting history has thoroughly covered many aspects of the struggle for control of American radio. Many viewed this time as two-sided; however, some educators and commercial broadcasters worked in broadcasting cooperatives. These cooperatives ranged in type from internal or external Radio Committees to large Radio Councils, in which whole regions of the country worked toward a common goal. This case study provides what seems to be an extraordinary example of cooperative partnership by Indiana State Teachers College

(ISTC), now Indiana State University (ISU), and local commercial radio station WBOW-AM.

After a rough beginning, ISTC appointed Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, as Director of Radio

Activities, and he helped lead the radio broadcasting cooperative to local and national acclaim.

Keywords: Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air, Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, Indiana State

University, Entertainment-education, WBOW 1230 AM, WISU

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Acknowledgments

I write this with an attitude of gratitude, for I have much to be thankful for and many people to thank. First of all, this dissertation is dedicated to Lois Jane Myers, my Mother, who with my Father, encouraged me to pursue this degree with excellence when no one else would.

She is my real-life example of a ‘Knight of Faith’ and a true believer that with God, anything is possible. May we all start the day off the same way she once did, by stating, “This is the day that the Lord hast made. Let us rejoice and be glad in it.”

Additional gratitude is extended to my ‘Florida parents,’ Tony and Rose Marino, who took me out for a free meal every week, listened to my challenges and stressors, and encouraged and celebrated my successes along the way. I am also grateful to Kendra Muselle who took care of my fur family when I could not, and the many friends, like Christine Gerard, Mary Alice

Molgard, Rick Brunson, and others, who supported this journey in various ways.

Thank you in not enough, for I would have been unable to do this research without the assistance of the Morgan Family, specifically Doc’s son and his wife, Karen, my dissertation

Chair, Dr. Stephen D. Perry, the Rollins College Olin Library and staff, Bob and Susan Davis,

Doc’s former students, Bernie Carney and Julie Reder Fairley, Indiana State University Archive staff, especially Dennis Vetrovech, Dr. Joshua Sheppard, Dr. Christopher Sterling, and the early radio scholars who have gone before. They paved the way for this work and amazing narrative to become known.

My personal thanks are due to a long list of people, some of whom may have been forgotten on this page; however, I am grateful for all of you and for what you have helped me to achieve. For even though God is the author, I was still the typist!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One: Introduction ...... 2

History of Educators Relationship with Radio ...... 4

Educating the Everyman ...... 6

Education and Radio ...... 8

Educators in Radio ...... 8

Educational Radio ...... 9

Commercial Broadcasting...... 11

Radio Broadcasting Legislation ...... 11

Wireless Ship Act of 1910 ...... 12

1912 Radio Act ...... 13

Radio Act of 1927 ...... 15

Communications Act of 1934 ...... 17

Primary Concepts ...... 18

Frequency Interference ...... 18

Spectrum Scarcity ...... 19

Public Interest, Convenience or Necessity ...... 20

Sustaining/Noncommercial Programming ...... 21

Cooperative Partnerships ...... 23

Support for Cooperative Partnerships……………………………………………24

Purpose and Methodology of Study ...... 24

Chapter Two: Co-operation ...... 26

Co-operation, the Co-operative Movement, and Co-operatives ...... 26

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History of the Co-operative Movement ...... 28

The Cooperative Movement: Europe ...... 28

The Friendly Societies…………………………………………………………...28

Utopian Socialists…………………………………………………………...... 29

Charles Fourier……………………………………………………...... 29

Robert Owen……………………………………………………...... 30

The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society ...... 30

The Co-operative Movement: United States ...... 32

New Harmony, Indiana……………………………………………………...... 33

Agricultural Cooperatives…………………………………………………...... 34

Capper-Volstead Act………………………………………………………...... 35

Electrical Power Cooperatives…………………………………………………...35

Cooperative Education……………………………………………………...... 36

Indiana State Teachers College…………………………………………..36

Cooperative Public Works…………………………………………………….....37

Radio Broadcasting Cooperatives…………………………………………...... 38

Academic Documentation………………………………………………..39

Small Radio Stations………………………………………………...... 42

Large Radio Stations……………………………………………………..44

Radio Councils……………………………………………………...... 45

Radio Advisory Committees……………………………………………..46

Radio Advisory Boards…………………………………………………..46

Types of Cooperative Ownership Structures…………………………….47

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Cooperative Partnerships Between Commercial Broadcasters and Educators ...... 48

Mixed Feelings ...... 49

Educational Radio Program(s) ...... 52

Dr. Clarence M. Morgan ...... 55

ISTC's Educational Radio Program(s) …………………………………………………..56

Radio Instruction……………………………………………………...... 56

Entertainment-education (E-E) ……………………………………………………...... 57

In Summary ...... 58

Chapter Three: Historical Methodology ...... 60

Case Study ...... 60

Lenses ...... 61

Data Collection ...... 62

Primary and Secondary Sources ...... 63

Source Diversity ...... 65

Research Trips ...... 66

Research Trip 1: August 4-12, 2017 ...... ….66

Research Trip 2: September 24-27, 2017 ...... 68

Research Trip 3: February 5-10, 2018 ...... 68

New ISU President ...... 68

Research Trip 4: February 16-24, 2018 ...... 69

Interviewing ...... 70

Discovering Family History ...... 71

Data Analysis ...... 73

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Document analysis ...... 73

In Summary ...... 74

Chapter Four ...... 76

Early Signs of Cooperation (1929-1934) ...... 76

Background Information ...... 76

Data Collection and Analysis ...... 77

A Plethora of Names ...... 77

The First Question ...... 78

The Story Begins ...... 79

ISNS Faculty Interest ...... 80

Joseph Bernard Hershman ...... 81

WBOW ...... 83

Early Radio Programs ...... 84

Internal Cooperative ...... 85

Committee Members ...... 86

Broadcasting Continues ...... 90

First Scheduled Year ...... 91

Program Format ...... 91

Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education ...... 93

1933-1934 Year of Broadcasting ...... 94

In Summary ...... 95

Chapter Five: Cooperative Legacy (1934-1969 ...... 97

Postscript to the Past ...... 98

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Morgan the Student ...... 98

The Radio Division ...... 99

Becoming the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air ...... 100

Radio Studios ...... 101

Second Floor ...... 102

Women’s Residence Hall ...... 102

Old Main First Floor ...... 103

Moving Forward ...... 105

Annual Reports ...... 105

A Second Pioneer ...... 105

Circle of Life ...... 106

Accomplishments ...... 107

The Story Princess of the Music Box ...... 108

The 1940s ...... 109

The Speech Department ...... 110

Growth ...... 111

Before, During, and After World War II ...... 111

Prewar Years ...... 111

World War II ...... 112

Inter-American ...... 112

Broadcasting During Wartime ...... 112

FM Radio ...... 114

Post War Years ...... 114

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WBOW AM and FM ...... 115

The 1950s ...... 118

Dedication Broadcast ...... 118

Publications ...... 120

Hints of Television ...... 122

Still Going Strong ...... 125

The 1960s ...... 126

Airborne ...... 126

Radio Tape Network ...... 126

WVIS/WISU-FM ...... 127

Thirty Years of Broadcasting ...... 128

The End…or is it? ...... 129

In Summary ...... 131

Chapter Six ...... 133

Having a Cooperative Discussion ...... 133

Cooperative Importance ...... 133

Primary Historical Lapses ...... 134

Restoring a Legacy ...... 135

Discussing the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air ...... 137

Cooperative Influence ...... 139

Doc’s Students ...... 141

WISU-FM ...... 142

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Limitations and Future Research ...... 144

In Summary ...... 147

References ...... 150

Appendix A ...... 188

Appendix B ...... 189

Appendix C ...... 191

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List of Figures, Graphics, and Tables

Figure 1: Storefront in original Toad Street location, courtesy of Cooperative Heritage Trust

Rochdale Museum

Figure 2: Toad Street building, courtesy of Cooperative Heritage Trust Rochdale Museum

Figure 3: Dr. Clarence M. Morgan at production console in radio studio, courtesy of Dr.

Thomas O. Morgan and Indiana State University

Figure 4: Mr. Richard Green, FM Radio Station Manager

Figure 5: WISU-FM studios, personal photograph taken February 2018

Figure 6: J. B. Hershman, courtesy of Leland L. Hite, Valparaiso Technical Institute alumni

Figure 7: Signature Board Number 1, personal photograph taken February 2018

Figure 8: Signature Board Number 2, personal photograph taken February 2018

Figure 9: Gold WBOW lapel pin, personal photograph taken

Figure 10: Gillum Hall (Administration Building), personal photograph taken February 2018

Figure 11: Dreiser Hall (Language and Mathematics Building, personal photograph

Graphic A: Cooperative Ownership Structure Types, courtesy of University of Wisconsin

Cooperative Extension

Graphic B: Studio Diagram, courtesy of July-August 1951 Broadcasting magazine

Graphic C: Television Center, courtesy of Indiana State University.

Table 1: Rochdale Principles

Table 2: Cooperative Survey Results

Table 3: Radio Program Rotation, created from artifacts.

Table 4: First Year Program Schedule

Table 5: Known Broadcasts Prior to Morgan (Located in Additional Document)

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Table 6: ISTC Radio Division Broadcasting (Located in Additional Document)

Table 7: Current Broadcasting Accolades (Located in Additional Document)

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“This is the age of communication. And because education is communication the development of

any form of communication is vital to education.”

-- John Studebaker, 1941

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Chapter One

Introduction

“Cooperative partnerships” (Leach, 1983, p. 3) between early radio broadcasting educators and commercial radio stations are part of what McChesney (1993) calls “a ‘hidden history’ of American radio” (p. 254). Many of the influential scholars of early radio broadcasting have never mentioned them, even in the literature of the time. These partnerships have been briefly mentioned down through the years in numerous articles and texts discussing the origins and evolution of American radio broadcasting; however, cooperative partnerships, the names of partnership participants, and their contributions to the field of radio broadcasting have not been addressed in detail and may be lost in the annals of history. Unfortunately, this does not seem to be unusual for many reasons, such as many of the educators who engaged in these partnerships being known only in the local areas and colleges and universities where they worked.

Educators interested in radio broadcasting found it to be a rather chaotic discipline, due to the complexity of internal issues, within the field of education, and external issues, within the field of radio broadcasting, in addition to government lethargy regarding frequency interference, frequency allocation, and spectrum scarcity. The Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio

Commission (FRC) to bring order to the field and introduced the concepts of “public interest, convenience or necessity” and “sustaining” programming into the radio broadcasting nomenclature (P.L. 632, 69th Cong. 1927). The tension between educators and commercial radio stations came to a head when successful litigation rendered the legal authority of the FRC virtually meaningless. As a result, the Communications Act of 1934, and the newly minted

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which replaced the FRC, advocated cooperation

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between all parties as a means of creating sustaining programs in the public interest (S. 1064,

73rd Cong. 1934).

This dissertation first examines the history, internal and external issues, legislation, and primary concepts leading up to support for cooperative partnerships in an effort to (a) understand the idea of cooperative partnerships, then delve into cooperative partnerships, as discussed in related literature, before employing a case study methodology to (b) provide an example of a successful cooperative partnership through investigation into the life of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, whose “permanent status as Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air,” left a significant and lasting imprint on Indiana State University (ISU) formerly, the Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC), in Terre Haute, Indiana (Myers, 2016, p. 213).

Dr. Morgan was a history teacher at Linton-Stockton High School when, according to

Sterling, O’Dell, and Keith (2010), “the first Ph.D. dissertation on radio broadcasting was published as a book long before college or university organized studies of radio existed” (p.

250). The year was 1925 and the Economics of the Radio Industry, written by Hiram Jome, was by no means the last academic writing on the topic (Sterling, O’Dell, & Keith, 2010, p. 250).

The field of radio broadcasting has been the subject of scholarly study for over 90 years, yet what has been studied is based on information primarily attainable from the archives of major corporate entities of the time (Perry, 2001). The variety of study ranges from the creation of broadcasting textbooks that include chapters on famous wireless researchers and inventors, such as Nathan B. Stubblefield, Guglielmo Marconi, Lee De Forest, and Charles Herrold, to academic journal articles covering everything from radio’s somewhat turbulent history to its role in politics, beginning with Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “Fireside Chats” (“Educator resources:

FDR’s…,” 2016).

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Although radio now seems to be a ‘grandfather’ compared to newer methods of communication and entertainment, like the Internet, social media, and smartphones, in the United

States (U.S.), the number of low-power FM radio stations has “nearly doubled” since 2014

(Vogt, 2016, para. 1). Vogt (2016) writes that these newly licensed low-power (LPFM) stations

“serve both rural and urban communities…and cater to intensely local and niche audiences”

(para. 3). The increased number of low-power FM radio stations seems to indicate, “radio is indirectly exerting a profound and productive educational influence on American life,” similar to bygone years (Frank, 1935, p. 120). This is true since LPFM radio stations are only licensed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to “not-for-profit educational organizations and institutions, government or non-government entities that provide public safety radio services, or tribes and tribal organizations recognized by the federal government” (Vogt, 2016, para. 4).

Because of this influence, it appears as if the history regarding education and radio has come

“full circle.”

History of Educators Relationship with Radio

The ‘circle’ unofficially began in the early 1900’s with experimentation, primarily educators ‘tinkering’ with crude homemade transmitters and crystal radio receivers in their classrooms. The first officially recognized educational radio course was offered in 1929 at the

University of Southern California (Sterling, O’Dell, & Keith, 2010, p. 250). In 1930, the first academic or scholarly article was published in the Quarterly Journal of Speech and in 1932, the

“first college textbook on radio, Radio Speech,” appeared (p. 250). By 1933, 16 academic institutions were offering radio courses, and it did not take long for other academic institutions to follow suit (Sterling, O’Dell, & Keith, 2010). In the fall of 1935, a National Broadcasting

Company (NBC) survey of radio courses offered by academic institutions revealed that 90

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colleges, schools, and universities offered broadcasting courses in some form. Each of the academic institutions is listed as well as the state they are in and the courses they offered. For example, in the Hoosier state of Indiana, five academic institutions, Tri-State College (Angola),

Indiana Technical College (Fort Wayne), Butler University (Indianapolis), Purdue University

(Lafayette), and Dodge’s Telegraph and Radio Institute (Valparaiso) are listed as offering primarily technically based courses, such as “Electricity and Magnesium,” “Radio Engineering,” and “Radio Codes (International Morse Code),” yet not all of them had on-campus radio stations that actively broadcast to the local public (“Survey Of Courses,” 1935, pp. 13-14). Dodge’s

Telegraph [Railway Accounting] and Radio Institute, “one of the largest and best known of the telegraph schools,” had modern radio equipment for student practice, yet did not transmit programming to the general public (Coe, 1993, p. 108; Announcement of Dodge’s, 1926, p. 35).

Along with listing each college, the same survey broke the courses and number of courses into the following general categories: “Broadcasting in General” (9), “Education by

Radio” (7), “Microphone Technique; Speech; Announcing” (46), “Program Production” (29),

“Radio Advertising” (23), “Radio Drama” (19), “Radio Law” (4), “Radio Music” (8), “Radio

Writing; Creativity” (41), and, surprisingly, “Television” (34) courses (Survey Of Courses, 1935, p. INDEX). Some of the academic institutions listed in the 1935 survey, and in successive surveys and years, also participated in the Educational Radio Script Exchange, which was established by the Federal Radio Education Committee (FREC) in October 1936 (Studebaker,

1941, p. 328). The Educational Radio Script Exchange published a catalog listing over 1,000 scripts available “on free loan” for schools, colleges, and universities to borrow and use as plays or broadcast as local radio programs (U.S. Office of Education, 1936). In 1937, the number of schools, colleges, and universities offering some form of broadcasting courses for academic

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credit again increased, and the first of many editions of Waldo Abbot’s Handbook of

Broadcasting, the “first comprehensive textbook on radio,” was published (Sterling, O’Dell, &

Keith, 2010, pp. 250-251).

Educating the Everyman

Outside of the classroom, radio was used to educate the Everyman listener on various subjects. President Roosevelt became the first sitting president to use radio to inform constituents of societal and war-related topics, beginning in 1933 and continuing until 1944.

These became known as the “fireside chats,” in part, because along with education, they brought

“comfort and renewed confidence” to listeners during recovery from the Great Depression and the war that followed it (History.com Staff, 2010, para. 1). Soap operas, musical concerts, and

Educational Radio Project Programs, such as “America’s Town Meeting of the Air” and

“Answer Me This” became quite popular (“Smithsonian Institution Archives,” n.d.). By 1930, over 40% of American homes owned a radio, and by 1940, more than 80% of American homes had at least one radio (Smith, 2014). Radio was impacting home life in multiple ways, and Frank

(1935) writes that it was “a profound and productive educational influence” (p. 120). In a 1938 presentation to the Wisteria Club, in Muncie, Indiana, Mrs. A. O. LaBerteaux discussed the impacts of radio on the home by stating,

Radio is an extension of the home. The ears of both parents and children are

given an opportunity to hear many things, both good and bad. International

affairs are known today as the national affairs were known in 1900. Radio affects

the home with a peculiar power because of what it brings into the home at all

hours. The radio programs are advertising, entertainment, and form instruction,

all of which are education. They affect our attitudes, influence our speech, and

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help to determine our purposes and ideals…News of the world is brought to us by

radio shortly after it occurs (Weesner, 1938, p. 18).

Just over a year after Mrs. LaBerteaux’s Wisteria Club address, news of the world included the beginning of World War II, when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939.

News of the German “blitzkrieg” prompted radio station WJSV, owned by the Columbia

Broadcasting Service (CBS) and a “clear channel” station, to “preempt two of its programs for a special address by President Roosevelt” on September 21, 1939, to discuss “America’s neutrality” in response to the war in Europe (History.com Staff, 2009, para. 1; Mishkind, Haas,

& Wilson, 2010, para 1; O’Dell, 2003, para. 16). The term ‘clear channel’ refers to “a class of high-powered AM radio stations” that were clear of other stations creating interference by broadcasting on their operating channel during evening hours (Sterling, 2004, p. 342). History was made twice September 21, 1939, as WJSV was the only station to record their broadcast day, which is the “only extant fully recorded broadcast day for any radio station during this era of terrestrial broadcasting” (O’Dell, 2003, para. 8).

Radio’s role as an educator and in educational broadcasting endured well beyond these events and World War II itself. In other words, the events described in this article are not inclusive of the full scope of education and radio, nor of the dissent existing between educators and commercial broadcasters. They are merely a backdrop of relevant events, occurring before, during, and after the Golden Age of radio, which attests to radio’s rise in education, social influence, and rapid diffusion. Woven throughout is radio broadcasting legislation and the concepts of frequency interference, spectrum scarcity, public interest, sustaining programs, and most importantly, “cooperative partnerships” (S. 1064, 73rd Cong. 1934; J. Shepperd, personal communication, January 9, 2017; Leach, 1983, p. 3).

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Education and Radio

In order to discuss education and radio, a few delineations must be presented. ‘Education and radio’ is a broad umbrella, and for the purposes of this work, is divided into the categories of

(a) educators in radio, such as those who instructed others in the technology of building, using, or creating scripts and programming for broadcast on the air. This primarily includes those educators (i.e., technical college instructors, university professors, etc.) who may or may not have had a working radio broadcasting station on their respective campus, yet were able to provide students with the skills necessary to enjoy radio as a hobby or pursue radio broadcasting as a career, (b) educational radio, such as radio broadcasting stations owned by an educational institution, noncommercial radio stations, designated as a “class of stations,” assigned by the

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1945, to broadcast “between 88 and 92 megacycles in the FM Band,” or the local, state, and network “schools of the air,” which were able to “synchronize radio instruction with school curricula,” (c) educational radio programs or programs created by either educators in radio or educational radio in order to instruct or educate listeners about a particular topic, and, (d) educational radio broadcasting, which is the actual transmission of said educational radio programs by educators in radio using commercial stations and educational radio (Atkinson, 1942; Bianchi, 2008, p. 31; Godfrey & Leigh, 1998, p. 135;

Jones, 1936; Lamb, 2012).

Educators in Radio

Both educational radio and commercial stations benefitted from educators in radio.

Education by, or through, radio served “two quite distinct functions,” both of which required educators in radio to train students in the “various arts related to the use of radio” (Angell, 1941, p. 338). Supplementation of local school curricula and creating programs providing listeners

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with localized, yet general public information required basic training in a new style of writing and the use of new technology (Angell, 1941; Shepperd, 2014). Many of the earliest educators worked in Physics or English departments where the hobby of ham radio operation soon involved students and turned into radio clubs, and in some cases, college or university course offerings. The initial courses were primarily technical, such as how to build a crystal set or transmit a broadcast. Later courses included everything from basic speaking classes to creating sound effects to scriptwriting to actually producing a program. Educators attempted to duplicate

“every essential production experience of a commercial station” in the classroom (Power, 1940, p. 7). Roundtables and radio workshops were held, four of which are discussed in a U.S. Office of Education publication written by Leonard Power. Power (1940) writes, the college radio workshop served multiple purposes, such as “giving its students experience in broadcasting” and showing how the talents of the students might be utilized in civic groups and local commercial stations (p. 7).

Educational Radio

The much-researched ‘battle’ between educational radio and commercial stations seems to have been more of an onslaught than a prolonged battle, with commercial radio stations and their advertisers winning the war (Rinks, 2002). Scholars of this time in history have almost taken too simplistic a view of these events by not encapsulating the complete cultural context of the time. Educators in radio and educational radio played an important role in the evolution of radio itself (Rinks, 2002). Universities, like Harvard and Ohio State, even trained radio operators during World War I and some land-grant universities were allowed experimental licenses; however, for many educational institutions after the Great War, divergent attitudes and a reluctance to adopt “new and untried” technology created internal issues, such as “faculty

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indifference, lack of administrative support and insufficient funding” (Rinks, 2002, p. 303;

Angell, 1941, p. 334).

Shepperd (2014) writes that the “main difficulty in handling the educational situation was that educators were not agreed upon what they wanted from radio” (p. 235). This was not simply a lack of agreement. There were many contributing factors, such as untrained faculty, unskilled volunteer broadcasters, poor quality programming, and in many rural cases, a listening audience with limited education, if any (Siepmann, 1941, p. 349). Secondary factors also included external issues, such as advertised programs getting prime broadcasting hours, educational broadcast hours changing without warning, censorship, constant frequency interference, and

“favoritism shown commercial broadcasters” (Hutchins, 1934; Rinks, 2002, p. 304). It is no wonder that commercial radio stations were commanding the airwaves. In addition, educational radio originated all or most of their programming, with a focus on serving their local communities and audience. To assist them, in 1936, the United States Office of Education implemented the Educational Radio Script Exchange and published catalogs listing hundreds of scripts, “secured from thirty-one educational organizations,” available for loan to other educational organizations (Studebaker, 1941, p. 328). Regardless, the number of educational licenses and stations kept dropping until “radio broadcasting had become…a commercial venture” (Rinks, 2002, p. 303; p. 305). It all happened rather quickly. Rinks (2002) writes that favoritism began with the creation of the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) in 1927 and by the time the FRC was replaced in 1934 with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC),

“commercial broadcasting was the dominant paradigm” (p. 304).

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Commercial Broadcasting

Although commercial broadcasting was predominant, “no commercial station in the

United States…creates[ed] all of its own programs” (Studebaker, 1941, p. 327). United States

Commissioner of Education, John W. Studebaker (1941) goes on to say, “many stations create very few original programs” and depend on “network and transcribed programs” and

“phonograph records” (p. 327). This may have been the case with some of the network-affiliated stations or those located in metropolitan areas, yet the majority of stations needed to find ways to fill programming hours, efficiently and cost-effectively. Perry (2001) states, “Electrical transcriptions accounted for 20.8%,” phonograph “records accounted for only 11.8%,” and local programs using live talent accounted for “30.8% of all air time” (p. 353). He goes on to state that the cost of broadcasting local live programming could be quite high, especially for smaller, independent radio stations (p. 353). Just from a financial standpoint alone, coming out of the

Great Depression and into the Golden Age of Radio, it would seem that cooperation between educators and commercial broadcasters would be a logical conclusion and not a legislative suggestion.

Radio Broadcasting Legislation

The need to legislate wireless telegraphy was realized quite early. In 1903, the “First

International Radio Telegraphic Conference” was held in Berlin, Germany (Smith, 2017, para.

1). The United States (U.S.) delegation unanimously agreed to support the conference Articles, propose the need for legislation, and promote the need for another international conference to build on the first (Smith, 2017). In 1904, the existence of military radio transmitters motivated

President Theodore Roosevelt to appoint a board whose purpose was to “prepare recommendations for coordinating government development of radio services” (Smith, 2017,

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para. 2). This was primarily aimed at coastal telegraphy stations and seafaring vessels with a telegraphy station on board. The board submitted their findings in a document named “Wireless

Telegraphy: Report of the Inter-Departmental Board Appointed by the President to Consider the

Entire Question of Wireless Telegraphy in the Service of the National Government,” which has become known as the "1904 Roosevelt Board Report" (para. 2). A second International Radio

Telegraphic Convention was held in 1906 to continue the work begun three years earlier (Smith,

2017). Again, the U.S. delegation concurred with and signed the convention agreement, yet the

President of the United States (U.S.) did not confirm “U.S. adherence to the Convention” until

May 1912 (Smith, 2017, para. 3).

Wireless Ship Act of 1910

When Charles D. Herrold started “the first radio broadcasting station” for students in his radio laboratory at the Herrold College of Wireless and Engineering in 1909, there was little in the way of radio broadcasting legislation (Sterling, 2004; Greb & Adams, 2003, p. 1). The field was still developing. Passage of the Wireless Ship Act of 1910, the first Federal statute relating to telegraphy, was primarily to regulate wireless radio equipment on ships 200 miles off the U.S. coastline (P.L 262, 61st Congress; Pruitt, 2016). This seemed to be in response to the many lives saved by the historic first CQD (Come Quick, Danger) signal sent January 23, 1909, by a telegraph operator on the sinking RMS Republic (Pruitt, 2016). The sinking of the RMS Titanic, in April 1912, in which a Marconi wireless telegraph station was used to rescue over 700 survivors by sending a CQD and the first ever SOS (Save Our Souls), appeared to galvanize further action (Garber, 2012).

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1912 Radio Act

The Wireless Ship Act of 1910 was amended to the 1912 Radio Act, which was a “very simple and rigid affair drafted almost exclusively with reference to wireless telegraphy”

(Caldwell, 1930, p. 39). This was more of a practical measure as the primary use of radiotelegraphy was still to communicate between ships. Additionally, a third international conference took place, and “a new International Radiotelegraphic Convention had been signed in

London on July 5, 1912, to become effective July 1, 1913” (Smith, 2017, para. 5). Radio was changing rapidly, and radio operators and radio transmitters were now required to have licenses.

The 1912 Radio Act required the Secretary of Commerce (at that time Commerce and Labor) to grant licenses and it also “reserved a segment of the spectrum for government use” (Blakely,

1979, p. 31). Slotten (2006) states that the government and commercial users received the “most desirable frequencies,” while amateurs received the undesirable leftovers (p. 492). Special experimental licenses were also issued to “at least 20 major public universities in 16 states and to at least 15 private colleges and universities,” many of them were land-grant universities, whose physics departments were able to “experiment with transmissions over a wide range of wavelengths and power levels” (Slotten, 2006, p. 488; Shepperd, 2014, p. 231). While the

Secretary was able to grant licenses, he was unable to deny them, and by the end of 1912, there were over 1,200 amateur licenses, in comparison to 528 ship-station and land-station licensees combined (Blakely, 1979, p. 35).

According to the July 27, 1914, publication entitled Radio Communication Laws of the

United States and the International Radiotelegraphic Convention: Regulations Governing Radio

Operators and the Use of Radio Apparatus on Ships and on Land, the

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President of the United States in time of war or public peril or disaster may cause

the closing of any station for radio communication and the removal therefrom of

all radio apparatus, or may authorize the use or control of any such station or

apparatus by any department of the Government, upon just compensation to the

owners (U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Navigation, 1914, p. 8).

By the start of World War I, in 1914, over 8,500 amateur licenses had been granted (Blakely,

1979). Monthly publication of the Radio Service Bulletins, which began in 1915 and continued until 1952, kept amateurs, aviators, and mariners aware of changes to governance and regulation, along with providing a list of licensees and any license changes (Radio service bulletins, 1915-

1932).

In April 1917, invoking the 1912 Radio Act, President Woodrow Wilson suspended and seized all amateur radio operations and equipment for use by the military (Blakely, 1979). The military, primarily the Army and Navy, used radio technology effectively, with assistance from technological advancement in tubes and transmitters (Blakely, 1979). When radio returned to its prewar status, in 1919, almost all of the prewar licenses had expired. Greb and Adams (2003) write that in less than a year, 6,000 amateurs and radio communication veterans “had applied for and received amateur licenses” (p. 144). This resulted in quite a bit of experimentation and claims of airing the first ever radio broadcast by both non-commercial and commercial stations; however, on November 2, 1920, Westinghouse’s KDKA transmitted the Harding-Cox presidential election results and is considered by many to have been the “first professional radio broadcast” (Blakely, 1979; Eisendrath & Smith, 1986, para. 6). Radio was no longer just a means of point-to-point communication (Severin, 1978). It now had the potential for mass

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communication, yet radio receivers were not readily available until late 1921, leading to the creation of homemade crystal radio receivers, known as crystal sets (Severin, 1978).

In the spring of 1921, the newly elected President Warren G. Harding appointed Herbert

Hoover, a well-known philanthropist and humanitarian, to the position of Secretary of

Commerce. Hoover is the longest serving Secretary, and his term in office ran from March 5,

1921, to August 21, 1928 (“Commerce History,” 2015). The field of radio was exploding. By

1922, 382 stations and an estimated 60,000 receivers were in operation, with the number of receiving sets growing to 1,500,000 by 1923 (Hettinger, 1935, p. 1). The need for Secretary

Hoover to examine frequency allocation resulted in the first of four national conferences on the radio in March 1923 (Gary, 1935; Smith, 2017). Gary (1935) states that public interest “greatly accelerated,” as seen in the sales of radio receivers, which jumped from 750,000 in 1923 to

2,000,000 in 1925, and the number of stations increased to over five hundred broadcasting stations (p. 16). Ongoing dissatisfaction over regulation of radio communication by the

Department of Commerce prompted the “Zenith-WJAZ case and the ‘chaos’ that followed the overturning of the regulatory agency's authority by the court” (Bensman, 1970, p. 423).

Caldwell (1930) describes this time period as “the famous ‘breakdown of the law’” (p. 40). With the Secretary of Commerce no longer in control of frequency allocation, chaos was “in the form of interference from stations frantically searching for a clear frequency” and disgruntled listeners and radio enthusiasts participating in a letter writing campaign, which resulted in extensive congressional hearings on the topic (Gary, 1935; Caldwell, 1930; Bensman, 1970, p. 423).

Radio Act of 1927

Gary (1935) states that multiple drafts of the Radio Act of 1927 were “prepared and considered” (p. 16). Both non-commercial and commercial broadcasters contacted their

15

Congressional representatives to push for passage, until finally, in February 1927, the Radio Act of 1927 was passed as a comprehensive law covering radio communication in all current and potential future configurations (Caldwell, 1930; Gary, 1935; McChesney, 1993). It brought with it a whole new lexicon, with terms such as ‘clear channel,’ ‘frequency,’ and ‘public interest.’

The Act established a five-member Federal Radio Commission (FRC), appointed by President

Coolidge, to act as a temporary “licensing authority” over all forms of radio communication, including allocation of frequencies (Blakely, 1979; Caldwell, 1930, p. 39; Gary, 1935; Severiin,

1978). The FRC’s tenure was extended by the Davis Amendment and made permanent in

December 1928 (Blakely, 1979; Caldwell, 1930; Gary, 1935). By May 1927, “94 educational institutions were licensed to broadcast” (Severin, 1978, p. 496). Additionally, in the Annual

Report of the Federal Radio Commission to the Congress, dated July 1, 1927, FRC Chairman W.

H. G. Bullard wrote,

The act embraces the whole field of radio communication, but public interest was

concentrated almost wholly on the single section of it devoted to radio

broadcasting. The problems of point-to-point radio communication of

radiotelegraphy, of marine wireless, of power transmission, etc., though of vast

importance, did not present such an urgent need for immediate action as the utter

confusion within the broadcasting band. Public opinion assumed that the prime

purpose of the law in creating the Federal Radio Commission was the immediate

establishment of a sound basis, in the interest of the radio broadcast listener, for

the orderly development of American broadcasting (Severin, 1978; p. 1).

Not everyone was happy that the Act was now law.

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As reported in the Akron Beacon Journal on December 13, 1927 by “Beacon Journal

Radio Editor, Clyde Schetter,” dissatisfaction with wavelength, power or time assignments resulted in almost immediate lawsuits by radio stations and broadcasting companies (RCA,

General Electric, Marconi, Westinghouse, etc.), including two cases by WM86 and WGL challenging the constitutionality of the FRC and its regulation of radio (“Listening In,” 1927).

According to Schetter, both cases “collapsed,” with WGL’s attorney claiming the Radio Act of

1927 as “utterly impregnable” (“Listening In,” 1927). Challenges and lawsuits to both the Act and the FRC continued into the 1930s. These are just a few of the arguments and cases filed against the Act and the FRC’s role as authorized by the Act.

A July 1932 interview with Senator Wallace White of Maine (R) revealed pending legislation existed in Congress with the expectation of transferring all radio functions to the FRC

(“Present Set-up May,” 1932). In February 1933, Duke M. Patrick, general counsel of the

Federal Radio Commission (FRC) resigned, and by April, newspapers were reporting that

President Roosevelt might have plans to abolish the FRC (“Roosevelt May Abolish,” 1933). In

October, The Pittsburgh Press reported President Roosevelt was “giving serious thought to creation of a new Federal Communications Commission (FCC)” (“Commission May Rule,”

1933). New legislation and creation of a new governing body were needed. Issues, related to spectrum scarcity, frequency interference, and quality of radio programming, were ongoing between commercial stations looking to make a profit and non-commercial stations looking to serve the ‘public interest.’

Communications Act of 1934

Radio, now in its Golden Age, was growing rapidly (“Rapid Growth Of,” 1934). Passage of the Communications Act of 1934 (Act), built on the Radio Acts of 1912 and 1927, and

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replaced the Federal Radio Commission with creation of the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC), as an independent governmental agency to regulate all communications, not just radio. The Act, and the newly minted FCC, advocated cooperation between radio’s stakeholders (i.e., commercial and noncommercial radio stations, advertisers, etc.) and the creation and implementation of “sustaining” or noncommercial programming in the “public interest” (S. 1064, 73rd Cong. 1934). Interestingly, the year 1934 was also the third year in a row that a radio license was not issued to a college or university for educational radio (Rinks, 2002).

Primary Concepts

In order to contribute additional context to the events leading up to the Federal

Communications Commission’s (FCC) support for cooperative partnerships, several primary factors or concepts are more clearly articulated, beginning with frequency interference.

Frequency Interference

In the early years of radio broadcasting, its “unregulated growth” resulted in “intolerable” frequency interference (Kennedy & Purcell, 1998, p. 608). Frequency interference resulted from multiple radio stations using the same frequency or channel and was also a bone of contention between educational radio and commercial stations. To understand it better, a frequency is an electromagnetic “carrier wave,” and

…vibrations are impressed on the carrier wave and likewise cause vibrations on

it. These impressed radio waves are picked up by the radio receiving set in the

home…While a station may have been assigned a frequency of 660 kc, it may

actually be using 5 kc. on each side of the assigned frequency, due to the

impressed wave, making a band of 10 kc., known as the width of the channel

(Ashby, 1930, pp. 335-336).

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Stations using more than the allotted 10 kc. of bandwidth or broadcasting during hours they were not licensed to broadcast, created conflict due to frequency interference with other radio stations.

This happened often and limited the listener’s programming options and choices.

Spectrum Scarcity

Limited options also relate to spectrum scarcity, which is the lens through which this topic should be viewed. Spectrum scarcity is a modern term to describe how the “medium available for carrying on radio communication, variously referred to as ‘channels,’ ‘frequencies,’ or ‘wave lengths,’ is severely limited by physical and scientific factors” (Gary, 1935, p. 15).

Jolliffe (1936) describes the “fundamental limitation” in radio broadcasting as the “frequency space available for that service” (p. 65). The spectrum of radio frequencies “generally is considered to be part of the public domain…which is parceled out by the federal government through the instrumentality of the Federal Communications Commission” (Evans, 1939, p. 536).

When a station was assigned a frequency, they were awarded one of three types of channels (Ashby, 1930). A “cleared” or ‘clear’ channel meant that only one station at a time is allowed to broadcast in the evening (p. 338). A “regional channel” allowed “two or more stations with power of one kilowatt or less…to operate simultaneously” and “local channels” operate with “one hundred watts or one-tenth of a kilowatt of power, or less” in simultaneous operation (pp. 338-339). General Order No. 40 designated forty clear channels, “forty-four regional channels and six local channels” (p. 339). Stewart (1937-1938) writes, “clear channel stations are located in metropolitan areas having a population of 100,000 or over,” leaving the rural areas under served (p. 140). This was a major factor in creating a very competitive trade

(Hettinger, 1935).

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In other words, there were limited channels available to begin with, which educational and commercial stations were competing for, and there were not “enough frequencies to meet all demands for them” (Stewart, 1937-1938, p. 135).

Public Interest, Convenience or Necessity

When the terminology “public interest, convenience or necessity” was coined in the

Radio Act of 1927, it seemed to be an “indefinite standard” related to both use of frequency and diversity of station programming (Caldwell, 1930, p. 296). It would seem to mean that every station needed to transmit programming “interesting and valuable” for all socioeconomic classes represented in society (Lafount, 1932, p. 165). The terms “public interest” and “public interest and convenience” were originally used, prior to the Radio Act of 1927, in the legal nomenclature of other businesses, such as industry and public utilities (Benjamin, 2001; McChesney, 1993;

Slotten, 2009). Against this backdrop, it initially seemed to be a “clear endorsement of private commercial development,” yet the new legislation appeared to view the business of radio frequencies differently, more as a “public resource,” whose use was a “privilege” (McChesney,

1993, p. 25; Slotten, 2009, p. 109). “Congress did not define the public interest standard to allow for flexibility to meet changing conditions” (Slotten, 2009, p. 109). As a result, broadcasters found themselves having to provide the burden of proof that they were serving the public interest, which Benjamin (2001) writes, was an “inescapable obligation” on the part of the licensee (p. 231).

General Order 32 was intended to add clarification to the public interest standard by prompting the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) to provide guidelines for broadcasters to follow; however, in reality, the FRC suggested “a few general principles,” not an “absolute standard” (Slotten, 2009, p. 127). The public interest standard was dependent upon

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interpretation and context, as perceived by both the broadcaster and the listener which did not change with the Communications Act of 1934 (Act). The Act stressed public interest, through the “trusteeship model,” by inferring that radio frequency was a “scarce public resource,” that broadcasters are trustees of this public resource, and the “general expectation” of balanced programming that provided something for everyone simultaneously (Terry, 2004, p. 1128).

According to Terry (2004), public interest in radio was “whatever a majority of FCC commissioners believe it to be at any given time” (p. 1127).

The radio broadcasters may have been considered the trustees; however, the listener had the largest stake in what was happening (Stewart, 1937-1938). Lafount (1933) states it this way,

“If radio is to be used more fully in the public interest, the public must interest itself in its use, because…radio is a joint venture in which the public and the broadcaster must share responsibility” (p. 109). In other words, radio broadcasting was not about the “right of an individual to be heard, but the right of the public to hear” (Miller, 1941, p. 94). Unfortunately, a majority of the relevant literature (i.e., books, academic articles, surveys, etc.), published during the Golden Age of Radio, do not seem to place a priority on American listeners as primary stakeholders and by 1946, the percentage of sustaining programs was less than 47% of all radio air time (Stewart, 1946, p. 431). Stewart (1946) writes, the “obvious conclusion is a sad one, that each year radio devotes less and less time to sustaining broadcast in the public interest” (p.

430). Educational radio and educational radio stations may have been its poster child.

Sustaining/Noncommercial Programming

Prior to the passage of any crucial radio legislation, radio programs were classified as either “sponsored” or “sustaining” (Lescarboura, 1927, p. 7; “18 cities for…,” 1925; Dietz, 1925, p. 7). Sponsored programs were financially subsidized by an organization, such as a local

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business or corporate entity. Sustaining programs were unsupported by commercials or sponsorships, such as programs “offered by the broadcaster for the purpose of holding the audience together” or “of sufficient interest to justify their being broadcast” (Lescarboura, 1927;

Dietz, 1925, p. 7). Educational programming is merely a type of sustaining program. In other words, sustaining programs were not necessarily educational and more like something “beyond vaudevillian entertainment that creates a continuity of social experience” (J. Shepperd, personal communication, January 9, 2017). For the purposes of this dissertation, the concept of

“sustaining program(ming),” includes “non-profit,” “experimental,” “educational,”

“noncommercial,” “self-improvement,” “unsponsored,” “information with entertainment,”

“public service,” and “public interest” programs or programming (Leach, 1983, p. 20;

Lescarboura, 1927, p. 7; Wolter, 1938, p. 105; White, 1947, p. 38).

Regardless of what they are called in historical literature (i.e., newspapers, journals, etc.), sustaining programs were not free and the cost was dependent on the individual station and whether or not it was affiliated with a big network like the Blue, Red (NBC) or CBS network

(White, 1947, p. 36). In 1933, there were “approximately 25,000 hours per week of unsold time…being used for sustaining programs” and contractual prices ranged from an hourly rate of

$45 to a flat rate of $1,500 monthly for sustaining programs (Lafount, 1933, p. 108; White, 1947, p. 36). Commercial partnerships soon existed among advertisers and networks of radio stations.

This had the potential to influence programming decisions as illustrated by White (1947), who writes,

The merest suggestion from a courageous network executive that he might set

aside a choice hour in the evening for a brave new venture in public service could

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bring a reminder from half-a-dozen agencies of the fact that they could easily take

their business next door—and his listeners with it (p. 38).

White (1947) includes a table in his text to illustrate this concept, which shows estimates of how both the NBC and CBS networks reduced their sustaining programming from 76.4% to 50.6% and 77.1% to 52.2% respectively from 1933 to 1944 (p. 66). It is interesting to note that NBC’s

1933 figures include both Blue and Red networks, while the 1944 figure is NBC, formerly the

Red network alone (White, 1947, p. 66).

Cooperative Partnerships

The creation of sustaining programming is directly related to the last primary concept left to define and discuss. Cooperative partnerships were more than just the general assumption of two parties working together. In other words, a cooperative partnership is “participation in a common enterprise for the common good” (Parker, 1956, p. xiii). Otherwise known as

‘cooperatives,’ cooperation was based on principles of the Cooperative Movement, birthed in the

1700s and systematized by 28 weavers in Rochdale, England during the mid-1800’s (Williams,

2007, p. 10). In the U.S., Benjamin Franklin founded one of the “first known cooperatives,” called the Philadelphia Contributorship, in 1752 (Williams, 2007, p. 10). In the 1800s, there were hundreds of cooperatives in the U.S.; however, many ignored the Rochdale principles of cooperation, declined, and were disbanded (Williams, 2007). Williams (2007) asserts,

“cooperatives were supported strongly by the Coolidge, Hoover, and F.D. Roosevelt administrations, and became an ‘American idea’” (p. 21). The Rochdale principles of the cooperative movement were re-energized during the Great Depression and remained strong until

World War II when the cooperative movement “nearly disappeared from mainstream America”

(p. 21; Parker, 1956).

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Support for cooperative partnerships. The cooperative movement affected all industries during the early years of radio experimentation and broadcasting. In reality, it seemed as if the educators and the commercial radio stations needed each other. Regardless of internal and external tension and strife, the educators needed air time for their programs and commercial radio stations needed programs to fill their air time, which means that both had a common goal.

Multiple scholars of early broadcasting have written comprehensively about the complexity of issues related to education and radio, radio broadcasting legislation and the primary concepts discussed previously; however, few have examined the Communications Act of 1934’s suggestion and support for “cooperation” between all parties as a means of creating sustaining programs in the public interest (S. 1064, 73rd Cong. 1934).

Purpose and Methodology of Study

The next step toward understanding cooperative partnerships, is to view them through relevant literature, which is provided in Chapter Two, followed by application of a biographical lens to the life of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, who the author asserts may prove to be one of the only examples of a successful cooperative partnership, and certainly the most notable. Chapter

Three contains information related to the process of historiography, specific to this topic. The primary purpose of this work is the restoration of a significant piece of early radio broadcasting history, which has been overlooked, yet may now be illustrated through the cooperative partnership between Indiana State Teachers College Radio Division, under the leadership of Dr.

Morgan and WBOW AM.

In Chapter Four, examination of this exemplary relationship, in addition to the integration of the prior discussion of history, internal and external issues, legislation, and primary concepts in the literature review, should provide answers to the following research questions.

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RQ1: What is the nature of cooperatives in early radio broadcasting and how did each

cooperative member benefit from the relationship?

RQ2: What factors in the relationship between Indiana State Teachers College’s Radio

Division, under the leadership of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, and WBOW 1230 AM

illustrate a long-lasting, productive, and influential early radio broadcasting

cooperative?

In the first research question, the term ‘nature’ refers to the ‘characteristics or qualities’ of each early radio broadcasting cooperative. Additionally, the term ‘use’ refers to the purpose of cooperatives in early radio broadcasting. Analysis of primary and secondary artifacts collected from Dr. Morgan’s family, Indiana State University and Indiana Broadcast Hall of Fame archives, former colleagues, students, and radio broadcasting repositories relative to Dr.

Morgan’s lengthy cooperative partnership with local commercial radio station and NBC affiliate,

WBOW-1230 AM will be analyzed through biographical and the cultural school of interpretation and chronology lenses (Startt & Sloan, 1989, p. 35). Data analysis and study results are discussed in Chapters Four and Five, followed by a conclusive discussion about the importance of this study and potential limitations in the last chapter, Chapter Six.

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Chapter Two

Co-operation

To understand co-operation, and how cooperative partnerships were born, is to understand the history of the cooperative movement. The first step is realizing that from the dawn of history to current days, the need for co-operation has existed; however, it has metamorphosed into a movement, shifting from an ideal into a set of principles, a doctrine, and a theory, to name a few of the movement contexts. This chapter describes co-operation, the co- operative movement, and co-operatives, before discussing the history of the co-operative movement in both Europe and the United States (U.S.), which set the stage for co-operative partnerships between educators and commercial broadcasters in the U.S. Specific discussion related to the relatively unknown topic of radio broadcasting cooperatives, the cooperative movement specific to Indiana and the Indiana State Teachers’ College, now Indiana State

University, and the cooperative partnership engaged in by Dr. Clarence M. Morgan will also be covered.

To be succinct, discussion of the co-operative movement, in the cultural context of the

U.S. as a whole, the state of Indiana, and Indiana State Teachers College, provide insight into the radio broadcasting co-operative partnership, which existed between early educational radio pioneer Dr. Clarence M. Morgan and local commercial radio station WBOW 1230 AM in Terre

Haute, Indiana. This discussion will also help in understanding similar cooperative relationships or arrangements at other academic institutions during this time, and even today.

Co-operation, the Co-operative Movement, and Co-operatives

To begin, for over one hundred years, the Oxford dictionary has defined the term co- operation as “working together to same end” (Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English,

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1911; Oxford Living Dictionaries, 2017: Parker, 1956). While the meaning has not changed over the course of time, the use of hyphenation has. Today, the hyphenated version is considered old-fashioned, yet due to the use of dated research, both hyphenated and unhyphenated forms are used interchangeably throughout this discussion. The concept of ‘working together to same end,’ is also a concise descriptor of the Co-operative Movement, which Warbasse (1942) defines as the adaptation of “the old principle of service” to the “present economic system” (p. 7). He goes on to state the cooperative movement is “the evolution of a society in which service is the dominant motive of industry” (p. 7). It is a “synthesis of economic systems,” where voluntary members “participate in a common enterprise for the common good” (Bakken & Schaars, 1937, p. 2; Parker, 1956, p. xiii).

This participation results in cooperative partnership(s), as part of a cooperative association or cooperative, co-op for short. Cooperative associations(s) and cooperative(s) are voluntary “user-owned, user-controlled” businesses that operate primarily to benefit their membership (Warbasse, 1942; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, p.1). These businesses offer equal opportunity, meaning no gender bias, and operate using a set of principles, primarily established in Rochdale, England in 1844. For the purposes of our discussion, cooperative partnerships are the relationships created between members of a cooperative association or cooperative, regardless of organizational size or type, and may also be a form of cooperative themselves. The creation of cooperative partnerships in a common cooperative enterprise is a ‘movement’ with a strong historical foundation. As Fairbairn (2003) writes, “The key to a co-operative is the relationships that it cultivates and embodies” and “it is defined by, and draws strength from, its relationships” (p. 5). In other words, these relationships are extremely important to the existence and survival of a cooperative.

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History of the Co-operative Movement

Scholars have written that the history of the cooperative movement “is as ancient as mankind itself,” they “exist in almost every human activity,” and fulfill “every human need”

(Bakken & Schaars, 1937, p. 26; Curl, 2012, p. 3). These claims are based on evidence of early

Egyptian irrigation cooperatives, medieval guilds, Native American “survival cooperatives,” and sixteenth century “mutual fire insurance companies” (Bakken and Schaars, 1937; Curl, 2012;

Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, p. 6). Although this discussion does not examine each of these successive types or events or others like them in great detail, the purpose here is to establish the cyclical nature of the cooperative movement and convey a general historical timeline.

The Cooperative Movement: Europe

Beginning in the eighteenth century, the historical embers of the cooperative movement stirred into flame yet again when the Industrial Revolution resulted in the mass transition of

“self-employed ‘free’ people to a nation of employees” in Great Britain (Curl, 2012, p. 2). Mass unemployment, extreme pauperism, and fiscal crisis occurred. Mass production created a paradox of abundance and poverty. Those fortunate enough to be employed in mills and factories received minimal wages and worked long hours in horrific and unsanitary conditions

(Cowling, 1938). Community parishes and charities were unable to meet the needs of homeless and destitute families, who “wandered in fruitless pursuit” of employment and better living conditions (Wallace, 2000, p. 53). In many cases, the “vast numbers of mobile poor” were brutally treated as vagrants (p. 53).

The friendly societies. Significant social change began when the first of several Friendly

Societies Acts were passed in 1793. Known as “Rose’s Act,” after the member of Parliament

(MP), George Rose, who was responsible for the act, “An Act for the Encouragement and Relief

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of Friendly Societies” was passed by British Parliament, as part of “poor law reform” (Bakken &

Schaars, 1937; Gorsky, 1998, p. 491; Wallace, 2000, p. 53). The Friendly Societies Act gave the mobile poor somewhat of a legal status and allowed people to form “voluntary associations” to assist each other in times of need (Bakken and Schaars, 1937, pp. 31-32). It is estimated that over 7,000 friendly societies, with over 600,000 members, were formed by 1800 (p. 32; Gorsky,

1998). Friendly societies were not the only factor in rekindling the fire of cooperation. Radical social movements, like the Chartists, and Utopian Socialists, also contributed to the rise in cooperation.

Utopian socialists. Concurrent to Chartism, Utopian Socialism, a movement looking to achieve social change through “peaceful means,” resulted in an amazing new social order of the future that spread throughout Europe (Sypnowich, 2012, p. 21). Three prominent Utopian

Socialists, Saint Simon and Charles Fourier, from France, and Robert Owen, from England, put their utopian ideals in print. According to Engels (2010), in Saint Simon “we find a comprehensive breadth of view, by virtue of which almost all the ideas of later Socialism…are found in him in embryo” (p. 16).

Charles Fourier. Charles Fourier’s writings criticized “the existing conditions of society,” and he was the first to state, “the degree of woman’s emancipation is the natural measure of the general emancipation” (Engels, 2010, pp. 17-18). Both Fourier and Owen also wrote about their vision of idyllic, self-reliant villages, in which inhabitants would work small industries and farms while living together cooperatively (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004). They specifically described the details of their ‘utopian’ communities down to the number of inhabitants and the size tract of land needed to sustain them (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004). Fourier’s vision was more realistic and based on his division of societal history into the “four stages of

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evolution—savagery, barbarism, the patriarchate, [and] civilization” (Engels, 2010, p. 18). He was unable to find funding during his lifetime to build what he called “phalanxes,” his ideal villages; however, after his death, others used the ‘phalanx model’ to attempt over thirty of them in France and the U.S. (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, pp. 6-7).

Robert Owen. Owen’s vision was based on his experiences directing a cotton mill at New

Lanark in Scotland, where he doubled the mill’s business by improving workplace conditions

(Bakken & Schaars, 1937). Engels (2010) seemed to believe Robert Owens was a practitioner of chaos theory and saw the Industrial Revolution as an “opportunity” to practice it (p. 21). Owens reduced working hours for women and children, founded “infant schools” for the workers’ children, and built a high-profile reputation (Bakken & Schaars, 1937, p. 133; Engels, 2010, p.

21). Unlike Fourier, Owen was able to find wealthy supporters to finance four of his utopian communities, located in “New Harmony, Indiana (United States), Orbiston, Scotland, Ralahine,

Ireland, and Queenswood, England” (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, p. 7). The success he found in his cotton mill ‘model,’ was not to be found in these communities and they failed to thrive for many reasons, including Owen’s ignoring an offer of organizational help from the Rochdale Equitable

Pioneers Society in 1839 (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004). His ideology seemed to get in the way of

Owen becoming a “realistic cooperative developer,” yet he is generally considered to be the

“father of the cooperative movement,” in part, because of his advocacy of the cooperative movement and these utopian attempts (Engels, 2010; Vernon, 2013; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, p. 7).

The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society

While Owen was ‘dabbling’ in cooperative principles, the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers

Society, known simply as the “Rochdale Pioneers,” were creating them (Warbasse, 1942; Zeuli

& Cropp, 2004, p. 8). In 1844, after several failed attempts in the 1830s, Charles Howarth, a

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warper (loom threader), and 27 other businessmen, from Rochdale, England, pooled their resources and £28 to open a “provision store” on the ground floor of 31 Toad Lane (Bakken &

Schaars, 1937, p. 34; T. Cartner, personal communication, August 22, 2017; Zeuli & Cropp,

2004). Known as the “Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society,” they persevered through a few rough years and in 1849, the “Co-op rented the whole building and developed a library, meeting room, and boot and shoe department” (T. Cartner, personal communication, August 22, 2017).

The original storefront (Figure 1) and 31 Toad Street building (Figure 2), shown here, is now a co-operative museum.1 Cartner (2017) also stated, “In the 1860s other buildings were

Figure 2. 31 Toad Street Figure 1. Storefront rented and in 1867 the society moved out to new purpose-built premises” (T. Cartner, personal communication, August 22, 2017). Their success was such that Warbasse (1942) writes, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society founding, “membership was

12,000, the funds £400,000, the amount of yearly business was more than £300,000, and the yearly ‘profits’ £60,000” (p. 28).

The success of the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society was mostly based on adherence

1 Photographs courtesy of the Co-operative Heritage Trust Rochdale Pioneers Museum

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to a strict set of cooperative principles, now known as the Rochdale Principles, devised by the original members, and still adhered to by modern cooperatives and cooperative organizations.

The original Rochdale Principles are listed in Table 1, which also lists the current version of the

Rochdale Principles, in use by the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) since 1995.

Table 1

Rochdale Principles

1844 1995

1. Open membership 1. Voluntary and open membership

2. Democracy 2. Democratic member control

3. Dividend on surplus in proportion to trade & 3. Member economic participation capital

4. Limited interest on capital 4. Autonomy and independence

5. Political & religious neutrality 5. Education, training, and information

6. Cash trading 6. Co-operation among co-operatives

7. Promotion of education 7. Concern for community

Courtesy of Co-operative Heritage Trust Rochdale Pioneers Museum and the International Co-operative Alliance

The Rochdale Pioneers legacy of cooperative democracy spread internationally and continues to influence cooperatives in the 21st century.

The Cooperative Movement: United States

In the United States (U.S.), the cooperative movement has been historically important and pervasive throughout American history. Native Americans were the first ‘Americans’ to practice “collectivity, cooperation, and communalism” by engaging in survival cooperatives to hunt and fish, followed by the Puritans, who engaged in economic cooperatives to trade, and

African-Americans, who fled slavery using a “cooperative network among slaves” (Cowling,

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1938; Curl, 2012, p. 15; p. 24). Benjamin Franklin founded the first successful recorded cooperatives, which are the Library Company of Philadelphia (1731), the Union Fire Company

(1736), and "The Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire" in 1752 (Curl, 2012, p. 24; Parker, 1956; Thompson, 2002, p. 1; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004). Two hundred and sixty-five years later, the Library Company of Philadelphia still exists, and the

Philadelphia Contributionship still insures homes against fire damage and may be found at www.1752.com. The initial agriculture cooperatives sprang up to combat the hardships created by the Revolutionary War and “The Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture,” was organized in 1785 (“Overview,” 2017). Still in existence, their website states, “The Society was founded by twenty-three of the leading merchants, businessmen and land-owners in the

Philadelphia area, four of whom were signers of the Declaration of Independence” (“Overview,”

2017). Although the idea for this new cooperative came from Benjamin Franklin, it was John

Beale Bordley who organized the Society and understood the scientific side of farming, such as crop rotation (Gambrill, 1942; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004). Through these and other cooperative organizations he founded, Benjamin Franklin’s dedication to the cooperative movement has had a lasting influence on American life (Thompson, 2002). Other early American cooperatives included a shoemakers’ cooperative in 1794, a dairy cooperative in 1810, a hog cooperative, formed in 1820, and warehouse cooperatives by 1830 (Curl, 2012; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004).

New Harmony, Indiana. One of the first American cooperative villages was attempted in 1814, in the state of Indiana, by the “Harmonie Society, a group of Separatists from the

German Lutheran Church” (“New Harmony,” 2017). The Harmonie Society, with its strict rules and ethics, “achieved unheard of economic success,” and Harmonie, Indiana became known as

“the wonder of the west” (“New Harmony,” 2017). When they returned to Pennsylvania to

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create a third community, which they named “Oekonomie,” they sold their land to Robert Owen in 1824 (“New Harmony,” 2017; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004; “Old Economy,” 2017). Changing the name from Harmonie to New Harmony, Owen “encouraged world-renowned scientists and educators to settle” there and help introduce educational and social reform to America (“New

Harmony,” 2017). Although Owen achieved “celebrity status” and “nationwide publicity,” his

“noble social experiment lasted only three years” (Bakken & Schaar, 1937, p. 134; Curl, 2012, p.

286). Cowling (1938) states while Owen “tried to change the world by example,” he ended up dying a pauper in 1858 (p. 33). Owen’s utopian society in New Harmony, Indiana was considered a failure; however, it did provide the groundwork for more successful cooperatives in the state of Indiana and across America.

Agricultural cooperatives. Waves of immigration from countries with “well-established cooperative movements” built on Owenite groundwork and soon co-ops sprang up in many different areas, such as banking, irrigation, purchasing, and once again, agriculture (Cowling,

1938; Warbasse, 1942, p. 58; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004). In 1862, the Morrill Act, established colleges, called “land-grant colleges,” to engage and experiment in the “scientific study of agriculture” (Davis, 1941, p. 11). Post-Civil War depression fanned the flames of the cooperative movement as soldiers returned to a glut in the Northern job market and a ravaged

South (Cowling, 1938). Farmlands were devastated, and many headed west in search of a fresh start and fertile soil (Cowling, 1938). Eastern farmers soon found it difficult to compete with western farmers and the “first local…Grange was established in 1868” to organize American agriculture, and by 1875, there were over 20,000 Grange cooperatives (Cowling, 1938, pp. 84-

85). In 1902, the “largest farm organization” in the U.S., the American Farm Bureau (formerly

Farmers Educational and Cooperative Union of America) was established (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004,

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p. 16). In 1914, the Smith-Lever Act provided the first financial support of the co-operative movement by the federal government and after World War I, in 1919, the “Farm Bureau became a national organization” (Cowling, 1938, p. 122; Davis, 1941, p. 15).

Capper-Volstead Act. Primarily aimed at agricultural and farming cooperatives, the

1922 Capper-Volstead Act is sometimes called a “bill of rights” because it provided “mandatory cooperative structure” (Barnes & Ondeck, 1997; Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, p. 17). It also addressed the problem of farmers “being prosecuted for acting together to market their products” (Volkin,

1995, p. 1). The Act empowered farmers to “market, price, and sell their products” through cooperative means (Barnes & Ondeck, 1997, para. 3). Many scholars and historians, such as

Zeuli and Cropp (2004) consider it to be the agricultural “Magna Carta” because of the legal protection, specifically from antitrust lawsuits, that it provides (Barnes & Ondeck, 1997, para. 1;

Williams, 2007, p. 32). To clarify, within its two sections, the structure and conduct of cooperatives are delineated, and the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture is given regulatory authority over agricultural cooperatives (Barnes & Ondeck, 1997).

Electrical power cooperatives. Similar to agricultural cooperatives, 45 electrical power cooperatives were founded, in rural areas, between 1914 and 1930 (Curl, 2012; Parker, 1956).

Many “farmers wanted power,” yet were unable to figure out how to get it due to lack of organization (Parker, 1956, p. 134). Change came through President Roosevelt’s Executive order creating a rural electrification public works cooperative, “the Rural Electrification

Administration (REA), in 1935” (Parker, 1956; Williams, 2007, p. 21). The REA offered rural electrification cooperatives loans in order to distribute and maintain electricity (Curl, 2012). By

1939, 40 percent of rural American homes had electricity (Curl, 2012).

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Cooperative education. Changes also took place in the field of education. Educators built on cooperative-type programs from the late 1800s, and in 1906, the cooperative system of education was founded by Dean Schneider at the University of Cincinnati (UC) (“History of cooperative education,” 2017). Known as the “Cincinnati Plan,” it became the model for cooperative principles in education. It still exists today and is currently described in the

University of Cincinnati’s Cooperative Education Student Handbook as an “academic program which alternates terms of full-time academic course work with terms of full-time work experience which is paid, properly supervised and evaluated, and discipline related” (2017, p. 4).

This ties directly into UC’s mission statement, as well as the mission of early Teacher Colleges, by allowing students to “further develop professional and interpersonal skills” (p. 5).

Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC). This definitely seemed to be the case with the

Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC), in Terre Haute, Indiana, which was situated in the middle of an agricultural and cooperative landscape. Farming cooperatives needed to transport their products, and while ISTC is surrounded by fields of corn, soybeans, and wheat, it is also near the banks of the Wabash River, a vital means of transportation in the 1800s, the “Crossroads of America,” the intersection of two major routes, U.S. Highway 40 (old National Road) and

U.S. Highway 41, “part of the original federal highway system in 1926,” and multiple railway lines (“Crossroads of America,” 2017).

U.S. 41, or rather Seventh Street, is where ISTC, now Indiana State University (ISU), is located. ISTC began life as Indiana State Normal School in 1865, before its 1929 name change to ISTC. When times were lean, ISTC engaged in cooperatives to counteract economic downturns and world wars, by successfully cultivating cooperative partnerships within the local community, the Federal government, and with the local commercial AM radio station, WBOW.

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For example, during World War II, ISTC worked in a centralized regional-style cooperative (see

Graphic A) with other academic institutions and the Federal government to train Navy pilots, while at the same time, continuing to offer regular and distance-learning classes to their regular student body. In his Report to the Teachers College Board of Indiana 1934-1953, ISTC is described by College President Tirey (1954) as having the “finest spirit of cooperation” and a

“common purpose” with other Indiana colleges (p. 5). He continues, “We should be ready at all times to enter heartily into any cooperative efforts or studies looking toward improvement of education in our state” (p. 6). While assuring ISTC faculty and staff of his support, President

Tirey (1954) also writes, this “should challenge the finest cooperative effort on the part of the entire faculty” (p. 7). The report and these statements are founded on ISTC’s lengthy history of successful cooperation (Tirey, 1954).

Cooperative public works. Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC), and the state of

Indiana, were not the only ones who experienced successful cooperation. “Later in the 1920s and early 1930s, cooperatives, especially farm and utility cooperatives, were supported strongly by the Coolidge, Hoover, and F.D. Roosevelt administrations, and became an ‘American’ idea”

(Williams, 2007, p. 21). They provided hope for a generation of Americans who were plunged into the ‘Great Depression’ when the New York Stock Market collapsed on October 24, 1929

(Williams, 2007). One of the first, and probably most famous, public works program, was building the Boulder Dam (Hoover Dam), which is now a “National Historic Landmark” and “an

American icon” (Discover our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Series, 2017; History.com Staff,

2010). In 1928, President Coolidge authorized the “Boulder Canyon Project,” and in 1930,

President Hoover authorized the “first appropriation bill” during “dedication ceremonies on

September 17, 1930” (Discover our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Series, 2017).

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‘New Deal’ politics and the executive orders of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, created multiple cooperative public works programs in an attempt to “relieve the poverty and unemployment” (Editorial Staff, 2011; Williams, 2007). Some Americans, born during this time, remember public works cooperatives in the form of “the CCC” (L. Myers, personal communication, March 22, 2017). The acronym “CCC” stands for the Civilian Conservation

Corps, formed in 1933, and “intended to promote environmental conservation and to build good citizens through vigorous, disciplined outdoor labor” (History.com Staff, 2010). “A cooperative arrangement,” complete with advisory council, was formed (Shofner, 1987, p. 433). The advisory council was “composed of one member from each of the cooperating departments—

Labor, Army, Agriculture, and Interior’ (Shofner, 1987, p. 433). Originally called “Emergency

Conservation Work,” camps were constructed all over the country to house CCC workers, who preserved the “nation’s valuable resources” by engaging in “wholesome work,” planting

“millions of trees,” building shelters for wildlife, stocking “rivers and lakes with nearly a billion fish,” restoring “historic battlefields,” and improving American infrastructure (History.com

Staff, 2010; Shofner, 1987, p. 433). The CCC ended in 1942, and the camps were disbanded, yet the men who worked in these camps left an indelible imprint on our national parks and forests.

Radio broadcasting cooperatives. Another indelible imprint was made by radio broadcasting cooperatives. If scholars and historians classify the cooperative movement as

‘hidden history,’ then radio broadcasting cooperatives are its ‘poster child.’ During the first two decades of radio broadcasting in the United States, commercial broadcasters ‘persuaded’ federal regulators, much of the public, and many educators/educational institutions, that there was little need for independent, noncommercial stations. To put these terms in a cultural context, the words educational and noncommercial were, in many cases, used interchangeably.

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Commercial broadcasters “massively outspent the educators, outmaneuvered them in

Washington, and outproduced them on the air” (Leach, 1983, Chapter 1). Leach (1983) goes on to say, “having fallen fatally behind the rest of the industry, educators never made up the ground they lost during the 1920s and 1930s” (January 14). In 1935, the cooperative movement permeated early radio broadcasting more fully, when the newly created Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) “ruled against reserving channels for nonprofit stations” (Leach, 1983,

Chapter 1). Noncommercial broadcasting was delayed for years. The FCC seemed to believe educational programming and “the best public-interest” or sustaining programming would result through ‘cooperation’ between commercial hosts and educational guests (Leach, 1983, Chapter

1).

Academic documentation. Although the ‘battle’ between commercial and educational radio broadcasters is well documented in the trade magazines, newspapers, journals, and books of the day, very little documentation on the cooperative movement in early radio broadcasting, outside of private family records and archival resources, exists. The topic seems to have fallen through the cracks of time, yet during the years spanning the Golden Age of radio, and well into the 1940s, the cooperative movement in radio broadcasting was academically well documented.

For example, in 1942, Isabella M. Cooper released her exhaustive work, “Bibliography on

Educational Broadcasting,” which is an annotated-style bibliography of 1,801 academic publications related to educational broadcasting published prior to 1942. This rather lengthy,

576-page, typewritten tome breaks educational broadcasting research into manageable pieces by providing a comprehensive table of contents. The section entitled “EDUCATIONAL

BROADCASTING—CO-OPERATION” contains works dated from 1930-1940 (Cooper, 1942,

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Index). From the early 1940s until 1983, the topic does not seem to ever have been examined in any great detail.

Leach’s (1983) multi-part, serial publication, entitled, “Snookered 50 Years Ago,” submitted a thesis or new viewpoint, by stating, “the phantom of Cooperation was a potent cause of radio educators’ defeat during the ‘20s and ‘30s” (1983, p. 2). There does not seem to be detailed discussion on any aspect of the cooperative movement in early radio broadcasting since then. To illustrate this, currently, the term ‘cooperative’ is used in conjunction with the terms

‘radio’ and ‘network’ in a technological context. A “cooperative cognitive radio network” is based on the concept of “cognitive radio,” which is an “intelligent wireless communication system that is aware of its environment” (Haykin, 2005, p. 201; Letaief & Zhang, 2009, p. 878).

According to Letaief and Zhang (2009), the term “cooperative cognitive radio network” does not describe cooperative thought or traditional broadcasting entities, such as NBC or CBS, but rather, it “is an emerging technology intended to enhance the utilization of the radio frequency spectrum” by combining “cognitive radio with cooperative communication” to improve “future wireless network performance” (p. 878).

As discussed, the cooperative movement, in the context of early radio broadcasting, has not been examined in great detail by scholars and historians, revealing a definitive and overarching gap in the academic literature, not to mention every textbook, museum exhibit or trade magazine dedicated to radio broadcasting. Leach (1983) addressed this when he said, “no one has paid serious attention to the movement for cooperation” (Chapter 1). Because co- operatives are “formed by people when they see a need to employ a different economic tool to accomplish what they want,” this gap may even extend to other early mediums, such as film

(Fairbairn, 2003, p. 5). These concepts definitely need to be examined more closely, in multiple

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contexts, for one primary reason. The work conducted by radio broadcasting cooperatives had a distinct effect on the early broadcasting landscape and were pivotal in providing radio broadcasting service and programs to a multitude of rural communities. The types of radio broadcasting cooperatives that were prevalent during the early to mid-20th century seemed to be primarily radio councils, advisory boards, and local cooperatives; however, one of the first radio cooperatives, founded in 1929, was the Cooperative Analysis of Broadcasting or CAB (Sterling

& Kitross, 2002). The CAB was a national cooperative financed by “networks and stations” and operated by “advertisers and advertising agencies” (Sterling & Kitross, 2002, p. 140; p. 205). It provided the first national system of generating radio program ratings before dissolving in 1943

(Sterling & Kitross, 2002, p. 247).

In 1940, the results of a survey conducted by Leonard Power, of the Federal Radio

Education Committee, with cooperation of the U.S. Office of Education, were published in several complimentary and supplementary pamphlets. The purpose for the “Survey of

Successful Cooperative Efforts,” was to “determine in what ways cooperation has been undertaken between the broadcasters and educators and can best be effected between local broadcasting stations and the educational, religious, civic, and other non-profit groups within their communities” (Power, 1940, p. 7). As shown in Table 2 Survey of Successful Cooperative

Effort Responses, the results seem to indicate almost 65%, or 2/3rds, of the radio stations that responded, had some type of cooperative arrangement with the communities located within their broadcast range.

This is rather logical since there were advantages to all cooperative partners.

Commercial radio stations enhanced “their reputation for public service” and filled program hours, while civic groups, clubs, and schools were spared the expense of building, operating, and

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maintaining their own broadcasting station (Leach, 1938, Chapter 1). The enormity of these cooperative efforts could also be due, in part, because “cooperatives find innovative ways to present and overcome the negative effects of economic downturns” (Curl, 2012, p. vi).

Table 2

Survey of Successful Cooperative Effort Responses

# of Stations % of Stations Checklist to identify types of cooperation for further study Checked Checked

We cooperate with a community-wide radio council, the members of which represent most of the non-profit groups 25 4.6% which broadcast

We cooperate with a radio advisory committee which represents 24 4.5% several organizations as a clearing house for broadcasting. We have set up our own advisory committee. It is composed of members of our staff and civic leaders. The civic leaders do not 58 10.8% act on our committee in a representative capacity for any of the groups to which they may individually belong. We work with organizations through individuals or committees 349 64.7% appointed for them. We try to coordinate their requests.

We work without any kind of special cooperative machinery 307 57.0% giving fair treatment to all groups and individuals.

None of the above statements adequately describe our practices 54 10.0% and we are enclosing a supplementary statement.

We have developed certain rules and regulations or a code to 30 5.6% express our policies of cooperation and enclose a copy.

Results calculated from station response as listed in "Local Cooperative Broadcasting: A Summary and

Appraisal" (Power, 1940), n-539

Small radio stations. Smaller, rural communities were the hardest hit by the economic downturns created by the Great Depression. Those listeners in rural agricultural communities were important members of “the emerging national audience” (Craig, 2001, p. 3). Small radio

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stations, “set at 1000 watts” or less, in communities with populations of 25,000 or less, were reliant on community resources, which factored into the founding of local radio broadcasting cooperatives (Power, 1940, p. 8). The sharing of “personal interests” is especially conducive to cooperative services (p. 9). These cooperatives provided the small station with material to broadcast, such as local news, religious services, and social events, while keeping the residents advised of the same. Small stations were extremely important to rural communities, whose inhabitants faced difficult travel, poverty, and few educational opportunities for both children and adults. Survey responses revealed “cooperative educational programs” to be popular in these communities (Power, 1940, p. 17). According to the survey responses, listeners in these broadcast ranges preferred simple programming, such as music, specifically “all-time favorites, ballads, rustic rhythms,” and hymns (Power, 1940, p. 11).

As for small stations “with network affiliation,” they had to balance rural community life with “semi-metropolitan” listeners and engage in cooperatives to build balanced, “purposeful” programming with a focus on “entertainment-education” and agriculture (Brown & Singhal,

1999, p. 264; Power, 1940, p. 9). In many cases, small stations, in both rural and semi- metropolitan communities, created cooperative partnerships with civic groups, clubs, and schools. These groups provided little information about the programs they would be presenting, other than a “bare outline” (Power, 1940, p. 11). As a result, station personnel assisted with tips on how to produce a radio program, such as where to place participants (i.e., musicians, speakers, etc.), directed rehearsals, provided promotional materials, provided station announcers for announcements, and if needed, use of a “mobile relay transmitter” (Power, 1940, p. 10).

As an example, in his survey response, Station Manager, Howard V. Walters, included

KDON’s (Monterey, CA) list of “Rules and Regulations Governing Cooperation with Local

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Groups,” as supplementary documentation (p. 15). The list states that KDON will provide time for these groups, assist in preparing programs, carry “spot announcements without charge,” provide time, at a charge, for all religious groups, and “carry as much educational material as possible from network sources” (Power, 1940, p. 13). KDON management also taught radio classes in multiple locations to assist their cooperative partners.

Large radio stations. For large radio stations, cooperatives and cooperative partnerships were a bit different. “Radio stations in metropolitan centers” needed to “make a constant bid for listeners by ‘merchandising’ programs of an educational or cultural nature” (Power, 1940, p. 13).

This included local promotions, such as public appearances, providing speakers for local civic groups and organizations, and advocating station visits by listeners (Power, 1940). Larger radio stations, better economically situated, were able to hire and delegate a Director of Public

Relations and public relations staff to engage in cooperatives with large civic groups, clubs, and schools on a state or national level. A great example of this are the 1,749 radio programs created by KNX’s Department of Public Relations and their cooperative partnership with local civic groups (Power, 1940). Larger stations were also able to hire a Director of Education, who Power

(1940) states, was “one of the most encouraging movements in the field of cooperation” (p. 14).

Educational directors visited schools in the broadcast range, spoke at student assemblies, worked with individual teachers and school leadership, inspired schools to teach courses in broadcasting

(i.e., appreciation, technique, etc.), and in general, worked as a liaison between commercial broadcasters and their cooperative partners (Power, 1940).

Radio councils. The 1937 proceedings of the second National Conference on Educational

Broadcasting, held in Chicago, Illinois, reveal the conference topic to be co-operative radio councils (Marsh, 1937). Cooperative radio councils were founded on the principles of

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recognition as a “natural broadcasting unit” in a specific region, recognizing a “natural community of interests,” determined by commonality of various factors, such as history, industry, and social background, “group effort,” where each individual contributes what he does best, the “old American principle of co-operation” because America “excels in cooperative enterprises,” and “reduction of wasteful competition and duplication” (Marsh, 1937, pp. 306-

307). The term ‘radio council’ may also apply to organizations coordinating the “educational broadcasting activities of a school system or of a group of colleges” (Power, 1940, p. 36). The notion of reducing ‘wasteful competition and duplication’ was described as “a ‘public program,’ meaning…a noncommercial, sustaining program, composed of broadcasts originated by the co- operating agencies and institutions” (Marsh, 1937, p. 307).

One of the most successful examples of a radio council was the University Broadcasting

Council in Chicago, Illinois, which developed an “exemplary schedule of local cooperative broadcasting” and represents a successful cooperative between commercial broadcasters and educators (Leach, 1983, Chapter 4; Marsh, 1937; Power, 1940). Another prolific example was

The Rocky Mountain Radio Council, with 27 cooperative partnerships, which effectively coordinated the “broadcasting efforts of several educational institutions and nonprofit groups in an area covering more than one State—Colorado and Wyoming” (Power, 1940, p. 7).

Organization of the Rocky Mountain Radio Council was,

to organize, develop and produce an educational radio program through a unified

effort by its member and cooperating institutions and agencies in the Rocky

Mountain region, to advance and improve the character and technique of radio

broadcasts, to promote the social values inherent in radio broadcasting, to record

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and preserve worthwhile programs, and in general to promote and advertise its

productions in the interest of civic welfare and education (Power, 1940, p. 42).

Radio councils have a few commonalities. The formation of many councils occurred when various groups constructively criticized what was being done in their area or region and suggested ways to correct the issues (p. 8). The quality of programming by educational institutions and lack of good children’s programs were common complaints. Additionally, council members believed local cooperation would be able to “stimulate listening” to what they considered to be “worthwhile” programming (p. 20). They used “Listener-Build-Up-

Committees” to issue program bulletins for each age group, formed “listening groups” in

Y.M.C.A.’s, homes and schools, and focused the attention of all cooperative partners on major issues (Power, 1940, pp. 17-18). Power (1940) asserts this was “done better by a council than by individual stations” (p. 17).

Radio advisory committees. Radio advisory committees were another form of radio broadcasting cooperative. These are harder to define because of wide-ranging diversity in a number of factors, such as mission statement or purpose, membership, and success in cooperative efforts (Power, 1940, p. 19). It’s not surprising that committees set up by civic groups were more successful than those set up by the stations themselves (p. 19). Few documents related to the activities of radio advisory committees still exist, and many failed due to inactivity (p. 19).

Radio advisory boards. In 1940, Power detected a trend in cooperatives, that of a “trend toward the appointment of advisory boards” (p. 19). Advisory boards provided both criticism, in the form of attacking general industry problems, and constructive advice, in suggesting added listener services and approaches to education. Power (1940) writes, “unlike most committees,

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advisory boards represent a cross section of the population without including official representatives of organizations” (p. 20).

Graphic A. Cooperative Ownership Structure Types

Types of cooperative ownership structures. Many of the early radio cooperatives fall within current cooperative ownership structure types. These are shown, courtesy of the

University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension, in Graphic A. Centralized cooperatives are primarily local and “owned directly by their members” (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, p. 35). The centralized regional cooperatives have a CEO and multiple offices, while federated cooperatives are cooperatives that are “controlled by other cooperatives” (p. 35). Not shown in this chart are

“hybrid cooperatives,” which have features of both centralized and federated ownership structure

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types, and “new generation cooperatives (NGC),” which are cooperatives with closed membership and delivery rights (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, pp. 35-36). Although the ownership type categories are fairly new, they are built upon the cooperative movement’s evolution and may be applied to the discussion of the cooperatives of old as well. For example, in the 1930s, during radio broadcasting’s infancy, centralized or local radio broadcasting cooperatives operated within many rural communities, where local commercial radio stations, educators, and nonprofit groups worked cooperatively to provide their community with entertainment education-style programming. Other radio broadcasting cooperatives, such as the CAB, Radio Councils, and

Advisory Boards, included both centralized and federated ownership structure features.

Cooperative Partnerships Between Commercial Broadcasters and Educators

“By working. together in a spirit of cooperation, both higher education and broadcasters can

benefit” (Wible, 1975, p. 5).

Within all cooperative ownership structure types, relationships exist, which scholars have called everything but a ‘partnership.’ The impetus for this dissertation is Dr. Eugene Leach’s use of the term “cooperative partnership” in 1983; however, he does not define it and uses it interchangeably with the term “cooperators” (Leach, 1983, Chapter 1). For the purposes of this writing, “cooperative partnership(s)” are defined as the relationship(s), inclusive of all aspects

(i.e., business, social, etc.), that exist between and among all cooperative members(ship). This creates continuity in using Leach’s initial terminology, rightfully recognizing the undertaking of the relationships between cooperative pioneers and cooperators while providing a definition as to how they fit within the cooperative structure(s) in which they operated.

In early radio broadcasting, “cooperative partnerships” were in existence before the

Communications Act of 1934 (Leach, 1983, Chapter 1; Lafount, 1933). In order to promote

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“mutual cooperation” and safeguard the “technical and educational features of broadcasting,” colleges and universities, who had broadcasting stations, joined together and formed a cooperative-type association under the leadership of Dr. Arthur M. Harding of the University of

Arkansas (Tigert, 1929, p. 77). By 1929, there were already a “number of prominent” colleges and universities who “borrowed” commercial stations to broadcast programming (Tigert, 1929, p. 74). The number of college or university held licenses and broadcasting stations was rapidly dwindling.

Mixed Feelings

Without including an exhaustive study on the politics of the time, which others have already done, it is evident there were mixed feelings on both sides of the cooperative movement in broadcasting. For example, Elwood (1930) points out problems that might befall educators who engage in radio broadcasting on their own, such as ineffective presentation and lack of

“radio technique” (p. 25). He actually writes, “We in radio are eager to do our part in educational work,” which may be the case with a few commercial broadcasters; however, it is doubtful that many were “eager” to engage in a not-for-profit cooperative venture (Elwood,

1930, p. 25). His suggestion that educators “should familiarize themselves with the practices and principles of operation of broadcasting stations” seems to rule out that educators were initially the ones engaged in experimental broadcasting, including the building of crystal sets and ham radio operation (p. 25). Elwood (1930) almost berates educators for criticizing the financial need of commercial broadcasters to make a profit and the potential for educational programs to affect whether or not the Federal Radio Commission would deny the station’s license renewal (p. 29).

This seemed to be a common position taken by commercial broadcasters and the National

Advisory Council on Radio in Education (NACRE), which published booklets as part of an

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information series to push a cooperative agenda. One of these, labeled Information Series –

Number 11, entitled “Widening Horizons,” introduces the topic in its Foreword, written by

Levering Tyson, who believed, “intelligent co-operation” between commercial broadcasters and educators “might easily result in one of the most amazing of American achievements” (Willis,

1934, p. iii).

Another example comes from a round-table discussion, on the topic of “Co-operation of

Commercial Stations and Educational Organizations,” which was held in 1934 to discuss the pros and cons of cooperation. In closing remarks, the leader, pioneer news commentator Mr.

Kaltenborn (1934) states, “There is an excellent prospect of co-operation between educational stations and commercial stations and between educational institutions and commercial stations” and goes on to say cooperatives between the two parties “will continue to develop” (p. 57).

Although he worked for Columbia Broadcasting Systems, Kaltenborn (1934) suggested that commercial stations pay educators for programming or even “subsidize a radio department” (p.

45). This shows dissension even within the ranks on each side of the debate.

After the Communication Act of 1934 and establishment of the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC), the first National Conference on Educational Broadcasting was held in

1936. During the conference, criticisms were raised about cooperative partnerships. President

Lewis (1936), from Lafayette College, gave an address on the claims of education in broadcasting and charged educators with taking a “comprehensive view of the problem” by extending their vision into the real world outside school walls (p. 138). He encouraged educators to teach engineering, “broadcasting technique and composition,” and avail themselves of the

“opportunities offered” by commercial broadcasters in order to “advance the cause of progressive education” (p. 141; p. 143). By 1938, roughly 180 colleges and universities offered

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some type of radio work for degree credit (Riley, 1938). As of 1940, there were 100,000 people employed in some aspect of radio, and there were 21,455,799 American homes “equipped with receiving sets” (Townsend, 1940, p. 579).

Some commercial stations and educators began to see how cooperation would benefit them both (Riley, 1938). They were not the only ones. Civic groups, clubs, and religious organizations, like Hi-Y and the Rotary Club, became secondary cooperative partners. Atkinson

(1942) writes, “a certain amount of respect for each other’s rights has developed” (p. 293). Quite a few colleges and universities engaged in cooperatives or cooperative partnerships, such as

Indiana University, Duke University, Syracuse University, the University of Kentucky,

Cleveland College, the University of Michigan, Western State Teachers College, and Oklahoma

Baptist University (Alicoate, 1942; Alicoate, 1945). Indiana University’s local cooperative lasted until the late 1940s, Duke University, until 1950, Syracuse University, until 1947, the

University of Kentucky until 1940, and so on.

In many cases, cooperative partnerships dissolved due to dissatisfaction of either or both the commercial radio stations and the educators involved. Some commercial radio stations thought educators didn’t really know how to use the medium and some educators thought commercial radio stations didn’t understand their needs. Dissatisfaction took on the form of commercial radio stations losing programming and educators losing broadcast hours they were promised. Other cooperatives were discontinued, in the years to come, when the college or university applied for a license and built an FM station on campus.

While in existence, cooperatives were seemingly responsible for many changes in education and radio. Although cooperatives are not previously discussed in this specific context, these changes have been discussed, over the years, in other publications, written by established

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radio scholars, such as Godfrey, McChesney, and Sterling, to name but a few (Bianchi, 2008;

Godfrey & Leigh, 1998; McChesney, 1993; Slotten, 2009; Sterling & Kitross, 2001).

Educational Radio Program(s)

Earlier radio scholars, Friedrich and Smith (1942), described the founding of the

University Broadcasting Council cooperative and its role in positioning the University of

Chicago, as a “program-producing agency,” establishment of the Rocky Mountain Radio Council cooperative, and implementation of successful local radio workshops, producing programs for local civic organizations and clubs (p. 26). The robustness of related literature, and broad scope of concepts related to education and radio, require definitions and descriptions, specific to this paper. For example, an assumption might be that ‘educational radio’ encompasses all aspects of education and radio, yet some scholars view educational radio as a specific class or type of radio station, while others describe it as a radio program or “educational tool,” (Atkinson, 1942, p.

291; Godfrey & Leigh, 1998, p. 135; Jones, 1936; Lamb, 2012; Pelton, 1931). To provide clarity, pertinent terms were previously addressed in Chapter One.

Similar to other terminology, the term ‘educational radio program(s)’ is difficult to define. Other than the obvious notion that the radio listener will learn something new by listening to a radio program specifically designed to educate its listeners, it does not seem to have been concisely defined. In contrast, the various types of programs that were created to educate listeners have been well documented. These include programs of classroom lectures or university lectures, such as those used in extension programs, or broadcast as “School of the Air” style programs, “instructional radio programs“ like the nationally broadcast Music Appreciation

Hour created by Walter Demrosch, and programs specifically created to teach the Everyman, such as the “German and Italian broadcasts” by John Brown University (Bianchi, 2008; Friedrich

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& Smith, 1942, p. 40; Gregory, 2016, p. 288). These are but a few types of the ‘educational programs’ delineated.

Educational radio programs were, and are, not limited to one age group. Concerned

“parents, educators, and psychologists applied pressure” on early radio broadcasters to specifically create educational radio programs for children, and by the 1940s, there were two categories of children’s radio programs—adventure serials and educational programs (West,

1987, p. 105). Early educational children’s radio programs “attempted to improve children’s intellectual and cultural lives” (p. 106). This was done in a multitude of ways, such as using fairytales or classic childhood stories to instruct listeners in traditional morals and values.

Formal organization of the Federal Radio Education Committee (FREC), in the mid-

1930’s, under the leadership of U.S. Commissioner of Education, John Studebaker, resulted in dedicated research of educational radio programs and the role of cooperatives in creating them

(Spring, 1992). According to FREC researcher, Leonard Power (1940), in a synopsis of the 1939 survey results, there were “three outstanding developments in the field of educational broadcasting” (p. 21). They included increased support from State Departments of Education, development of radio workshops and local versions of Schools of the Air, and the “introduction” of radio curriculum in high schools as well as colleges and universities (p. 21). Commercial stations reported working with over 4,000 local cooperatives to produce programming (p. 21). It usually seemed to be the individual instructors, not the administration, who instigated cooperatives and were able to devote some of their time to making them succeed (p. 21).

Budgetary constraints were almost always an issue, yet it was the colleges and universities who

“led in the development” of local schools of the air (p. 22). While college and university

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educational radio were the first to do so; college and university educators in radio, engaging in local cooperatives, were not far behind.

These cooperative partnerships used experimental learning to create educational radio programs. In other words, students were used to create local educational radio programs, specific to community needs, in order to instruct listeners while entertaining the public and creating good will. In many cases, students worked on all aspects of radio script writing, sound production, rehearsal, and production of a live, often fifteen-minute-long program. Building on that foundation, academic administrators often appointed a radio committee with the head of radio education as the “enthusiastic chairman” (Power, 1940, p. 23). The chairman worked with one or more local stations to broadcast programs on a regular basis, and with the help of their students and community volunteers, local schools of the air are born (Power, 1940). The duties of the radio committee’s leader (i.e., chairman or Director of Radio) are quite involved. In many cases, these duties include, working with the cooperative partners (i.e., station administration, academic administration, etc.), promoting the work of the radio education department, producing programs, teaching various broadcasting and speech curriculum, and the list goes on (Power,

1940). This role was usually held by an instructor with some broadcasting experience, who was given a title, such as Radio Division Director or Director of Radio Education. During the Golden

Age of Radio, an instructor’s broadcasting experience usually came from experimentation, as a hobby, or working in a physics or engineering department.

The narratives of the Golden Age of Radio, and the rise of the cooperative movement during this time frame, run parallel to the biographical narrative of an early educational radio pioneer. This was the world into which he was born and the context into which he illustrated the possibilities of both.

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Dr. Clarence M. Morgan

Born in Linton, Indiana, on July 4, 1903, Clarence Marion Morgan began experimentation in radio at an early age. By the age of 14, he had already built his first crystal set, petitioned the Bureau of Navigation, Department of Commerce, and been assigned the call letters 9DHV (Myers, 2016; Wible, 2003, J1). Morgan discontinued ham radio operation in

1917 when the U.S. entered World War I (Morgan, 1960). After the war, as a second year

Rector Scholar at DePauw University, in Greencastle, Indiana, Morgan received his license to broadcast from Herbert Hoover, then Secretary of Commerce (Morrill, J., personal communication, June 12, 2017; Myers, 2016). Once again, he experimented with radio when he and two friends began station 9YJ and broadcast different types of programs (Morgan, 1960).

Graduating cum laude in 1924, Morgan taught high school before pursuing his Master’s Degree from Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC), now Indiana State University, in their newly created graduate training program (Morgan, ca. 1969; “Indiana State Teachers,” 1933, p. 17).

As a young, student teacher, with a love for radio broadcasting, Morgan’s role in the creation of ISTC’s radio department, and a local radio broadcasting cooperative with the area commercial station, seems almost inevitable. After graduation in 1931, Morgan worked as an assistant professor in ISTC’s English department, and in 1934, Morgan’s radio experimentation became invaluable when “ISTC’s Dean of Instruction, Dr. J. W. Jones” asked him to serve in the role of “Director of Radio Activities” (Morgan, 1951; Myers, 2016). At this time, few institutions created and broadcast their own educational radio programs, and there were less than twenty institutions offering ‘radio instruction’ (Riley, 1938). ISTC’s new Director engaged in a cooperative partnership with WBOW 1230 AM and the new Radio Division began broadcasting its first two educational radio programs by the end of 1934 (Morgan, 1951).

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ISTC’s educational radio programs. The Faculty Series, “featuring interviews” between faculty and students, and the Wabash Valley High School Series programs were broadcast weekly, making them “available to public schools via the interview or question-and- answer technique” (Atkinson, 1942, p. 96; Morgan, 1951, p. 5). At some point, during this time,

Morgan began to use the moniker “Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air,” after Edward Eggleston’s

1871 novel, The Hoosier Schoolmaster: A Story of Backwoods Life in Indiana, and each program was broadcast under his “personal supervision” (Atkinson, 1942, p. 97; Myers, 2016).

Radio instruction. Development of radio instruction, in the form of broadcasting courses and curriculum, were also under his ‘personal supervision.’ In 1936, Morgan graduated from

Indiana University with his Ed.D., making him one of the few professors with doctoral degrees working at ISTC (Morgan, ca. 1969; Lynch, 1946, p. 417). Known to his students as “Doc,”

Morgan unveiled “ISTC’s first course in radio”— “English 315 – Radio Broadcasting” (Morgan,

1951, p. 15; Myers, 2016). 2

Figure 3. Doc in ISTC Studio

In 1937, the U.S. Office of Education “asked permission” to use scripts written by Doc’s

2 Photograph courtesy of Dr. Thomas O. Morgan and Indiana State University Archive

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students, including from “a series on ‘Answer Me This,’ which…broadcast daily” over WBOW

(“Indiana State Recognized,” 1937). Many colleges and universities were using the Cincinnati

Plan or a Cincinnati Plan-like methodology for student instruction and coursework. ISTC was no exception. Morgan (1951) writes about Doc’s use of experiential learning by stating, “many of the broadcasts [came}into existence because of their need to supply the students in radio with opportunities for practical application of the broadcast procedures and problems taught in the classroom” (p. 2). In January 1939, “twelve courses in educational radio broadcasting” were added to an already full broadcasting schedule (“Indiana State has,” 1939). Atkinson (1942) stated that ISTC has “probably the most frequent use of broadcasting facilities of a single commercial station, WBOW, by any educational institution in the United States” (p. 97).

Entertainment-education. Students split their time between classes and the gaining of practical experience. Practical experience included writing, rehearsing, and producing live programs for “use in high school and elementary classrooms” (Atkinson, 1942, p. 97; Myers,

2016). One of the more popular programs, produced by ISTC students, was Story Princess of the

Music Box, in which classic childhood stories were told by the ‘Story Princess’ (Morgan, 1951).

Another children’s radio program, Peter Rabbit News Service, used “Forrestville” animals to teach important life lessons (Myers, 2016; Plascak, 2003, J3). It appears that Morgan was ahead of his time in ‘purposeful’ development of ISTC’s programming. Martin Plascak (2003), one of

Doc’s former students writes, Morgan pioneered a new “concept in educational broadcasting” by combining entertainment and education in children’s radio programs (J3).

The entertainment-education (E-E) strategy has been used successfully in multiple contexts, not just in the ISTC Radio Division. Singhal and Rogers (1999) define E-E as “the process of purposefully designing and implementing a media message both to entertain and

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educate, in order to increase audience member knowledge about an educational issue, create favorable attitudes, and change overt behavior” by capitalizing “on the appeal of popular media”

(p. 9; Singhal, Cody, Rogers, & Sabido, 2004). It certainly seems this is what Doc was doing, yet these are only a few of the programs broadcast through Morgan’s cooperative partnership with commercial radio station WBOW 1230 AM. His success using this strategy remains to be seen.

In Summary

Although the part Dr. Clarence M. Morgan played in the cooperative movement, through his cooperative partnership with WBOW 1230 AM, may not have been all that unusual in the context of the Golden Age of Radio, especially due to the political, economic, and legislative factors related to the struggle for control of American radio broadcasting, history of the

Cooperative Movement, a supporting review of literature, and Doc’s personal story helps the reader to understand the idea of cooperative partnerships between educators in radio and commercial radio stations.

Through ISTC’s lengthy cooperative partnership, it seems that Morgan helped establish radio as a viable medium and form of education for the community he served while leaving a legacy that is not just found in the length and success of cooperative partnership. It is also found in his former students, colleagues, their children, grandchildren, friends, neighbors, and residents of Terre Haute, Indiana. As part of two distinct ‘hidden histories,’ that of radio broadcasting and of the cooperative movement, this discussion does not completely delve into either, yet their intersection does provide support for the idea that cooperative partnerships existed then, and most likely, exist now in other mass mediums (Curl, 2009; McChesney, 1993). Insight into the cultural context of the cooperative movement in the United States (U.S.), Indiana, and more specifically, Indiana State Teachers College, provides the backdrop for their potential success.

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Additional radio broadcasting cooperatives have been briefly mentioned in the academic literature of their time, yet the importance of these partnerships, who these partners were, and their contributions to broadcasting as a field of academic study and a field of technical application, have not been uncovered in detail. Much of their work may be lost in the annals of history. Other factors include systematic destruction of primary artifacts by colleges or university libraries and archives or cooperative members being known only in the locality and/or academic location where they worked.

In order to use Morgan as a case study example of successful cooperative partnership, it will be necessary to uncover his narrative further. Chapter Three discusses how the use of a historical research methodology, will be implemented for data collection and analysis, to reveal the biographical details of Morgan’s tenure in ISTC’s Radio Division. In doing so, the evolution of all radio endeavors (i.e., courses, programs, etc.), implemented by the Director will be discussed, as it is near impossible to separate such interrelated activities. The results, and determination of whether or not the cooperative partnership was successful, will be discussed in

Chapter Four; however, Atkinson (1942) states, through ISTC’s partnership with WBOW, the radio work developed was “the most extensive of any American Teachers college” (p. 99). In other words, it seems likely.

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Chapter Three

Historical Methodology

In Chapter Two, an effort was made to provide understanding of the topic through a brief and general overview of co-operative movement history and radio broadcasting co-operatives, including the cooperative partnership between Indiana State Teachers College’s (ISTC) Radio

Division, headed by Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, and WBOW 1230 AM, a commercial radio station located in Terre Haute, Indiana. In order to determine the length and success of the cooperative partnership between ISTC’s Radio Division, under the leadership of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, and commercial radio station WBOW 1230 AM, a specific historical research methodology is being implemented. This chapter examines the historical research process and tools used, including data collection and data analysis of the collected artifacts.

Case Study

A specific historical research methodology has been implemented---the case study. As a primary tool, because I am not looking to generalize, but rather to understand the complexity of the topic at hand, namely, support for and evidence of, cooperatives in early radio broadcasting, the case study seems to be a good fit (Godfrey, 2006). While there are drawbacks to using case studies, such as single cases being difficult to generalize from, the advantages offset them greatly. Implementing a case study method allows for the “exploration and understanding of complex issues” in order to reveal new aspects of the topic at hand (Zainal, 2017, p. 1). In the case of a cooperative partnership between ISTC’s Radio Division, with Morgan as Director of

Radio Activities and WBOW 1230 AM, it is important to understand the complex historical issues and cultural contexts relating to early radio broadcasting, the cooperative movement, and chronology of events in Morgan’s life. These real-life complexities will be examined within the

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context of their use (p. 4). In addition, the case study is considered a “robust” tool when this type of ‘in-depth investigation is required” because it allows for examination of artifacts within a defined context (Zainal, 2017, p. 1). Zainal (2017) writes, “Case studies, in their true essence, explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions, and their relationships” (pp. 1-2). Although the context of ‘real-life phenomenon’ is historical, not contemporary, detailed analysis of Morgan’s time at ISTC, should provide the “true essence” of his relationship with WBOW 1230 AM, and an understanding of the larger concept of cooperatives in early radio broadcasting (p. 1).

Lenses

The lenses of chronology and the cultural school of interpretation are used to assist in discovering the length and success of ISTC’s early radio broadcasting cooperative with WBOW

1230 AM. These lenses were chosen as central to the study topic (i.e. early radio broadcasting history, cooperative movement, etc.). For example, Startt and Sloan (1989) describe the

“fundamental premise” of the cultural school of interpretation as media operating “in a close interrelationship with their environment” (p. 35). Broadly, this was certainly the case with many educators, the communities or cities where they were employed, and early radio broadcasting, and narrowly, the case with Morgan and the local commercial radio station. Broadcasting was definitely a part of his society and “influenced by various factors outside the media” itself (Startt

& Sloan, 1989, p. 35).

In other words, early radio broadcasting has had a long-lasting impact on society and society has had a long-lasting impact on early radio broadcasting, which can be seen through the history of early radio broadcasting cooperatives, and more specifically, through the story of Dr.

Clarence M. Morgan (p. 36).

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Data Collection

Startt and Sloan (1989) write that the criteria for a good historical study includes topic definition, bibliographic soundness, research (i.e., complete record, evaluating sources, explicit and implicit meaning, and explicating source essence), accuracy, explanation, historical understanding, and narration (pp. 43-45). The first two chapters of this study covered definitions and ‘bibliographic soundness,’ leaving research to this chapter and the remaining steps to the remaining chapters. Because history contributes to the “authentic record of human experience,” it is necessary to locate “the various sources that are applicable to the inquiry” (Godfrey, 2006, p.

7; Startt & Sloan, 1989, p. 13). Godfrey (2002) explains, “When the purpose of the research is history, the researcher is challenged to attain a body of evidence sufficient to support the facts,” which is exactly what will be attempted (p. 493).

A plethora of applicable historical and contemporary sources may be found in both traditional and nontraditional formats, such as newspapers, family sources, crowdsourcing, and digitized and/or non-digitized repositories (i.e., Internet Archive, databases, etc.). The crowdsourcing services of amateur radio operators and radio history fans (i.e., amateur radio clubs, online fandoms, etc.) could also be enlisted through their social media pages, such as

Facebook, to find resources. This is done because, as historical researchers and scholars, “we cannot depend on any single source—primary or secondary—for reliable knowledge; we have to consult multiple sources in our quest to develop historical understanding” (Barton, 2005, p. 746).

Date culled will exceed data collection needs for this study, yet only the data needed to address the research questions will be used. Due to the richness of this topic, the remaining data will be used in future studies and publications, including academic works relating to individual radio programs produced by ISTC’s Radio Division, broadcasting cooperatives, and Morgan himself.

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Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary sources or the “raw material of history” are considered by many historical researchers as “more reliable than secondary sources,” which Barton (2005) believed is a “myth”

(p. 746; Startt & Sloan, 1989, p. 114). His reasoning was that “multiple sources” provide the most “reliable knowledge” in developing “historical understanding,” not primary sources alone

(p. 746). The use of only primary resources produced a narrow scope, providing a “partisan” or biased perspective (p. 746). An element of this bias occurred naturally in this dissertation, as

“historical remains are biased toward those who produced records that have survived to the present day” (p. 748). This is because “primary sources are the building blocks of historical research” and provide information closest to the topic being examined; therefore, I first used

Morgan’s existing annual reports on the radio activities of the Radio Division (Godfrey, 2006, p.

25). While one does not want to introduce bias into any research, the discovery of organizational or institutional documents created by Morgan himself demonstrated the value of such a narrow scope. The Indiana Statesman, Indiana State University’s (ISU) long-running college newspaper was also used. Other primary sources included the discovery of audio recordings, broadcasting artifacts (i.e., crystal set, headphones, telegraph key, etc.), newspaper articles of the time, photographs, academic research conducted by Morgan or other members of the Radio Division, and original personal documents.

Attempts were made to contact radio/television alumni from the 1960s and word-of- mouth cultivated interest. Interviews of these alumni were conducted once waivers had been signed. A recent example was an August 2017 interview with Bernie Carney, who was in the same graduating class as Martin Plascek and Darrell Wible. Mr. Carney began a successful career in radio before leaving the industry to help his father in the family business. He retired

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from Carney Tires at the age of 80 in 2010 (Foulkes, 2010). Three months after the interview, he included his personal recollections as a student of Doc’s in his November 2017 acceptance speech as ISU’s Distinguished Alumni Award, making his speech a primary source of oral history (B. Carney, personal communication, October 9, 2017). Mr. Carney then passed on the names of several other alumni who might be interested in being interviewed. This process was and is ongoing.

Ideas, new questions, and details were obtained from secondary sources, which supported the information found in primary sources (Barton, 2005; Godfrey, 2006). This appeared to be the case with Morgan, whose work had been discussed in government documents, trade magazines, and textbooks. Tertiary sources related to ISTC’s radio broadcasting endeavors, such as indexes, chronologies or other information sources provided information on primary and secondary sources. Applicable sources were located in multiple states and places as well as various places within the online community. For example, Morgan’s leadership in creating and building the Radio Division of ISTC, now Indiana State University (ISU), was documented by both primary and secondary source material at ISU’s main campus in Terre Haute, Indiana, and in Oveido, Florida, where his son, Dr. Thomas O. Morgan lives and retains various family documents and artifacts.

Additionally, early radio broadcasting sources were spread across the country in local, state, and national repositories. These range from small-town museums, such as the New Haven

Museum to the Library of Congress, where Recorded Sound Collection has been stored, and where the Radio Preservation Task Force currently conducts digital archival work to close gaps within radio broadcasting history by “finding, digitizing, and making available otherwise untold histories” (Shepperd, Keeler, & Sterling, 2016, p. 230).

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Source Diversity

The diversity of sources collected helped to increase reliability by reducing dependence on a single source (Barton, 2005). Because the data collected exceeded the scope of this study, it was necessary to isolate the relevant data and remove it from the data sample used. The remaining data has been and will be used in other projects, including potential books and academic articles (i.e., Morgan’s bibliography, Peter Rabbit News Service, broadcasting cooperatives, etc.). Data collected, include Morgan’s own academic articles, which were collected from the Teachers’ College Journal located in Washington, D.C. at the Library of

Congress, books by early radio broadcasting in education scholar, Dr. Carroll Atkinson, digitized copies of the six known existent program recordings, alumni interviews and recollections (i.e.,

Bernie Carnie, Myra Janco Daniels, Thomas Morgan, STATE Magazine responses, etc.), meeting with current ISU administration, faculty and staff, trade magazines of the day (i.e., Radio Guide,

Broadcasting, etc.), newspaper articles of the time (i.e., Terre Haute Tribune, Terre Haute Star, etc.), Morgan family artifacts, photographs, video, and various tertiary sources supporting data context have been combined to discover Morgan’s untold narrative.

In order to fully grasp Morgan’s life and cooperative partnership success, travel to

Indiana State University’s (ISU’s) Terre Haute, Indiana campus was required. Because there were multiple facets to discover at ISU, it was necessary to make more than one trip. First, there is the archive, located inside the Cunningham Memorial Library, where data collection involved scanning organizational and institutional documents, such as Speech Department paperwork, faculty files, and State Teacher College Board and Faculty Meeting minutes and reports, searching through ISU presidential files (i.e., Parsons, Hines, Tirey, and Homsteadt, etc.), and basically creating a paper trail to find any surviving work artifacts located on the campus.

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Second, WISU FM, the radio station Morgan and his son built, currently still exists. The author met with current program manager, Rich Green, toured the original studio location, and took photographs of the rooms in Morgan’s custom broadcasting suite and campus buildings where he worked. These assisted in documenting and illustrating the narrative of events. Third, the discovery of remaining faculty, staff, or students of Morgan’s occurred through unstructured interviews with current faculty, staff, or students, which provided testimony through eyewitness accounts and recorded oral history. Semi-structured email and telephone interviews were implemented for those who, either through age, illness, or location, were unable to meet in person.

Research Trips

So far, a total of four research trips, to Terre Haute, Indiana, have been undertaken. They were as follows:

Research trip 1: August 4-12, 2017. The initial data collection trip was also my first time in Indiana and on the Indiana State University (ISU) campus. 3

Figure 4. Rich Green Figures 5. WISU Studios

3 Personal photographs taken by the author.

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It began with a lengthy meeting over lunch with Rich Green, FM Radio Station Manager, who gave me a tour of WISU studios afterwards. He was rather surprised to learn some of the history behind their creation. Sadly, there was no evidence of Dr. Morgan’s presence or legacy other than his innovative studio design. The integrity of this design exists today. These pictures were taken of Rich seated in his office, formerly Dr. Clarence M. Morgan’s office (Figure 4), and the

WISU studio (Figure 4).

Over the weekend, familiarization with Terre Haute and the ISU campus allowed for the discovery of any traces of the world Dr. Morgan lived and worked in. Much has changed, yet there were discernable landmarks, such as Normal Hall, still present. Much of what he knew in his hometown and birthplace, Linton, Indiana, has not survived the years. Photographs were taken to document these changes which provided another source of data. Meetings were conducted with outgoing ISU President Dan Bradley and the staff of the Cunningham Memorial

Library and Archive. I was furnished with a scanning wand and the real work, retrieving data, began. Examination of the requested surviving Radio Division files consisted of a small box containing 10-12 file folders, in which were an assortment of documents ranging from payroll lists to teaching schedules. These seemed to be the only remaining documentation of its existence.

Due to an apparent lack of Radio Division artifacts, such as 5” reels or electronic transcription records of radio programs (i.e.. student programs, History in the Making, etc.), key departmental files, radio scripts or other documentation, the ISU student newspaper, The Indiana

Statesman, was requested for the years 1934-1969. The Indiana Statesman was in print prior to

Morgan’s hiring in 1930, and many of the pages were brittle and crumbled as they were turned.

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Morgan’s annual reports were also examined, which provided specific data on the Radio

Division’s radio programming and student radio personnel from 1934-1965.

Contact was established with former ISU Professors and students, Dr. Joseph Terentelli,

Dr. Joseph T. Duncan, Martin Plascek, and Bernie Carney. Additional meetings with Rich

Green and John Newton, Emeritus Vice President of the Alumni Association, also took place.

ISU’s former archivist, Susan Davis was contacted and provided a good deal of background information and suggested other individuals to contact.

Research trip 2: September 24-27, 2017. The second trip to Terre Haute, Indiana and

ISU took place at the end of September. A visit to New Harmony, Indiana, established by

Robert Owen, using the basic cooperative concepts took place. The remainder of this trip was spent in the Archives searching through the ISU newspaper, The Indiana Statesman. A follow- up interview was conducted with Bernie Carnie, and a brief trip was taken to find the current location of the newly revived WBOW call sign. Now owned by Midwest Communications, Inc., the receptionist paged a member of administrative staff, who informed me that the early WBOW

1230 AM or FM files no longer exist. Midwest Communications, Inc. did not receive anything in the sale, other than the call sign.

Research trip 3: February 5-10, 2018. The third trip entailed pursuit of answers to the questions regarding the actual date of ISTC’s first radio broadcast, which had arisen during the review of previously collected data. To determine the true origins of the Radio Division, documents examined included the Indiana Statesman newspaper for the years 1928-1934, the papers of President Hines, and the ISTC Board and Faculty Meeting Minutes, from 1929-1940.

New ISU president. This trip was timed to coincide with a public Meet and Greet of the new ISU President, Dr. Deborah Curtis. Rex Kendall, from Alumni Relations, met me at the

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door. President Curtis’ speech was done well, the food was delicious, and meeting her seemed to be agreeable for both of us. I was not allowed a face-to-face meeting with Dr. Curtis outside of

ISU social settings, which may be due in part, to her newness in this position. There were no interviews during this trip; however, meetings were set up with John Beacon, the Interim Senior

Vice President of Enrollment Management, Marketing and Communication, John Newton, and an impromptu meeting with Rich Green. Beacon specifically asked me what I wanted from ISU, and my response was two-fold: to find any surviving body of Morgan’s work and for ISU to recognize his legacy in a tangible way (i.e., plaque, statuary, etc.). At Vice President Beacon’s suggestion, to start this recognition, a feature article, written by Dr. Thomas O. Morgan and I, in collaboration with Libby Roerig, will be published in the upcoming fall edition of the STATE

Magazine. Newton was able to track down contact information for Dr. James Robert Boyle,

Morgan’s colleague and friend, who still resides in Indiana. A telephone call was placed, Dr.

Boyle answered, and after hearing about my project, he agreed to a responsive interview, to be set up during my next research trip.

Research trip 4: February 16-24, 2018. The Indiana Statesman newspaper for the years

1940-1969 was examined during the fourth and last research trip. Attendance at a Saturday afternoon ISU basketball game resulted in meeting Dr. William Brett, Professor Emeritus, who is

94 years old and former ISU faculty. When asked about Dr. Morgan, his instant response was,

‘he was well loved” (W. Brett, personal communication, February 17, 2018). The ISTC Board and Faculty Meeting Minutes, from 1940-1969 were also examined. These, combined with a review of The Indiana Statesman, revealed a significant number of celebrity visitors to the ISU campus, prior to 1969. I requested to know what the current archival staff knew about their visits, including if the celebrity signature boards, which each of them signed in the Chapel Hall

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green room, were still in existence. The first of two were promptly carried into the Archive reading room for me to see. I was allowed to take pictures and video footage. The ISU

Archivist and her staff did not know the true story behind the boards, which will be revealed in the chronological narrative of Indiana State Teachers College’s (ISTC) Radio Division. Scanned data from these research trips were stored on a portable USB flash drive and artifact copies printed at a later time.

Interviewing

The “immense value of documents” in case study research is undeniable, yet in some cases, there are limitations, such as not enough detail or selectivity (Godfrey, 2006, p. 29; pp. 31-

32). It’s wise to remember that “historical remains are biased toward those who produced records that have survived to the present” (Barton, 2005, p. 748). Historiography is both selective and objective, so by triangulating data (multiple sources of evidence) and study methodologies (case study, crowdsourcing, interviewing) credibility of the study should increase

(Berger, 2011; pp. 28-29). The strength of interviewing lies in conversing with those who know or have experienced the topic (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Interviewing “helps reconstruct events” that the researcher has “never experienced” (Rubin & Rubin, 2012, p. 3). Using a “multi- method” approach, “responsive interviewing” will be implemented because it “emphasizes the importance of building a relationship of trust between the interviewer and interviewee”

(Wahyuni, 2012, p. 73; p. 36). Responsive interviewing is a form of “in-depth qualitative interviewing,” which “keeps the research design and questioning flexible and adaptive in order to facilitate new information to emerge or to adapt to an unexpected direction” (Wahyuni, 2012, p.

73; p. 74).

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Prior to the research trips, active solicitation of interviews provided mixed results. Libby

Roerig, Director of Communication & Media Relations and editor of STATE Magazine, allowed

Morgan’s son, Dr. Thomas O. Morgan, and I to write a brief article, which was then published in the Fall 2017 issue of STATE magazine, ISU’s alumni magazine (Appendix A). The article resulted in three email responses from former acquaintances of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, with no actual responsive interviewing taking place. Interviews were attempted with multiple surviving

ISTC faculty members, including Dr. James Robert Boyle. Dr. Boyle was amenable to participating in a responsive interview, yet health issues created a problem with timing, and the interview has not yet taken place. He has been contacted multiple times.

This responsive style of interviewing leads to friendly conversation and the potential for further interaction if needed. This was the case with former students, Tom Morgan (Doc’s son),

Julie Reder Fairley, and Bernie Carney, who consented and participated in multiple interviews and continue to do so upon request. It is also illustrated in my interview with former ISU archivist Susan Davis, which not only led to friendly conversation but also friendship and place to stay during future research trips. These experiences illustrate how responsive interviewing emphasizes “context and richness,” a meaningful exchange, the personalities of both researcher and interviewee, and flexibility, all of which are applicable to this topic (p. 38).

Discovering Family History

As previously stated, the process of discovering Morgan’s ‘untold history’ involves collecting data from multiple sources. Sources include local newspapers of the time, The

Indiana Statesman (ISU’s college newspaper), early radio broadcasting trade magazines, (i.e.,

Radio Daily, Broadcasting, etc.), Google keyword searches, WorldCat and HathiTrust database searches for electronic copies of applicable books and pamphlets, and searching digital archives

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for yearbooks, photographs, and any of Morgan’s surviving work (i.e., audio files, curricula, scripts, etc.). Digitization has provided “both greater access to the past and a reshaping of historical consciousness” (Manoff, 2010, p. 386). This ‘reshaping of consciousness’ partially occurred when Dr. Thomas O. Morgan found 5” reels, which had been stored for years. The reels were taken to a specialist for transfer to digital format. The resulting six radio programs are the only ‘known’ surviving recordings produced by Morgan’s students. Along with the six digitized recordings and the original 5” reels, Dr. Clarence M. Morgan’s son, has other artifacts of his Dad’s, including his Dad’s original 1924 crystal set, a copy of his Dad’s original broadcasting license, his Dad’s headphones, the last issue of the Radio Division’s newsletter

(Radio Ramblings), a personal video recording of his Dad, and various photographs. His son also has incredibly strong recollections of the time he studied under, and worked with, his Dad while getting his Master’s Degree at ISU.

In addition, advances in technology allow for “ease of access” to digital archive sites, such as the Internet Archive, the National Archive, American Radio History, American Radio

Archives, and the American Archive of Public Broadcasting (p. 387). As Manoff (2010) writes, the digital universe is expanding and continually offers “new kinds of materials that will enable…new kinds of research” (p. 387). This made accessing the files for Ball State University, formerly Ball State Teachers College, and DePauw University fairly easy. These are all pursuable sources without much expense or travel. The final step, in data collection, is authentication, or using tests of authenticity, and ranking the collected evidence in order to prepare it for analysis (Godfrey, 2006).

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Data Analysis

While the cultural context of the cooperative movement has been discussed throughout this dissertation, and is pertinent to the topic, collected data will be analyzed chronologically through the development of ISTC Radio Division’s educational radio programs and radio instruction under Morgan’s leadership. It is beyond the scope of this dissertation to separate the radio activities of ISTC’s Radio Division. It is also totally unnecessary, since all radio activities, taking place during Morgan’s tenure, are tightly interconnected (Startt & Sloan, 1989, p. 35).

Document Analysis

Document analysis, “a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents,” will be applied to both printed and online material (Bowen, 2009, p. 27). According to Bowen

(2009), any documents collected “contain text and images that have been recorded without a researcher’s intervention” (p. 27). These original texts and images will be examined for meaning and interpreted to increase understanding, by organizing them into “major themes, categories, and case examples” (p. 28). Document analysis uncovers cultural and historical context, can suggest other questions to ask, provides “supplementary research data,” tracks cultural and historical change, and may be used to “verify findings or corroborate evidence” (pp. 29-30). The process of document analysis includes skimming the document, then going back and reading it thoroughly, and finally, interpretation (Bowen, 2009, p. 32). Although interpretation is somewhat selective, both objectivity and sensitivity will be used to select and analyze data from the collected documents (p. 32). Bowen (2009) states the importance of determining document completeness, including if it is a primary or secondary source, edited, etc. and “evaluating documents in such a way that empirical knowledge is produced and understanding is developed”

(pp. 33-34).

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Other data collection sources will be used, such as sound recordings of programs created during the cooperative partnership. Although there are still challenges related to historical value of recorded broadcasts, for the purposes of this study, recordings found will be used to support

ISTC’s cooperative partnership success, by evaluating use of experiential learning, program(s) length, content, and type, once “authenticity of the source” is determined (Godfrey, 2002, p.

497). The tests for the authenticity of broadcast recordings includes “comparative witnesses, truthfulness, time and place of the observations, the point of view of the presenter, and the relevant influences of the production process” (p. 498). Contextual information is extremely important, for “historical electronic media scholarship must meet the standards of traditional history” (p. 501).

In Summary

This chapter has discussed data sources, data collection, discovery, and data analysis of the evidence, yet not the topic of explanation. The task of explanation involves fully understanding the subject, by the researcher, before it is presented to anyone else (Startt & Sloan,

1989). The historical narrative “must be a polished version” that incorporates “all pertinent evidence and…elements of historical thinking” (Startt & Sloan, 1989, p. 157). “History communicates through narrative” and includes a mix of evidence, intuition, and reasoning (p.

158). It is important to write about the logical ways these fit together, understanding the audience, and to use language understandable to a general audience.

In Chapter Four, the creation story of radio broadcasting, at Indiana State Teachers

College (ISTC), illuminates the existence and potential success of a cooperative partnership with

WBOW 1230 AM. Its early evolution speaks to a common occurrence in the burgeoning field of radio broadcasting during the late 1920’s and early 1930’s. A second results section, Chapter

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Five, expands ISTC’s narrative, picking up in 1934 and continuing through a chronological discussion of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, Director of Radio Education’s leadership.

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Chapter Four

Early Signs of Cooperation (1929-1934)

The first two chapters addressed the cultural context with regard to the origin and evolution of radio broadcasting, the Cooperative Movement, application of a biographical lens to

Dr. Morgan’s life and role as Director of Radio Activities for Indiana State Teachers College’s

(ISTC) Radio Division. Awareness of the rich history associated with the Cooperative

Movement, discussed in Chapter Two, provides an understanding as to what an early radio broadcasting cooperative was, how an early radio broadcasting cooperative may have come into being, and how an early radio broadcasting cooperative may have been undertaken by ISTC.

Chapter Three provided discussion regarding historical research specific to this topic. The primary purpose of Chapter Four is to pull the previous chapters together in a cohesive way, in order to address the first of two research questions. This is done by looking for signs of cooperation in early radio broadcasting through evidence of a viable cooperative partnership between ISTC’s Radio Division and WBOW 1230 AM.

This chapter reveals how the radio broadcasting cooperative partnership between Indiana

State Teachers College (ISTC) and WBOW began, prior to Dr. Clarence M. Morgan’s employment. Because the story of their cooperative partnership encompasses so many years,

Chapter Four covers the years from 1929-1934, while the chronological narrative from 1934-

1969 is continued in Chapter Five.

Background Information

Before the story is told, Chapter Four begins with background information relating to the primary case study and elaborates aspects of the research question before jumping into the chronological narrative.

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Data collection and analysis. To begin, interpretation is used to integrate history, various publications, and real-life primary artifacts to reconstruct the chronological narrative.

The author traveled to Terre Haute, Indiana multiple times, specifically, the dates of August 4-12 and September 24-27, 2017, February 5-10, and February 16-24, 2018. Data were collected from various sources, as described in Chapter Three, in order to address the study’s overarching research questions. The collected data has been processed chronologically, through the developmental narrative of ISTC Radio Division’s radio broadcasting activities, both prior to and during Morgan’s leadership. While all the nuances of cultural context, lives of participants, and actual events are unable to be perfectly recreated, the artifacts examined do provide a plausible illustration of each along with a logical structure for answering each of the research questions.

A plethora of names. Additionally, the narrative spans multiple time periods in the developmental history of Indiana State University (ISU), as a whole. At its 1865 founding, until

1929, ISU was known as Indiana State Normal School (ISNS), and its student newspaper was

The Normal Advance. ISNS was one of a number of state “normal” schools founded, throughout the United States, for the purpose of training elementary and high school teachers and principals

(Ogren, 2003). Like many other normal schools looking to “gain prestige,” in March 1929,

ISNS became a Teachers’ College, known as Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC), and was still primarily in the business of educating future teachers and educators (Ogren, 2003, p. 641:

Indiana State Normal School Board, 1929). The student newspaper also changed its name to The

Indiana Statesman, which it is still known as. From 1961 until 1965, the name Indiana State

College (ISC) was used, and the final name change, to Indiana State University (ISU), occurred in 1965 and remains to this day (Holmstedt, R. W., 1953-1965, Holmstedt.to I. C. Collins, July

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17, 1961; Holmstedt, R. W., 1953-1965, Indiana State University Name Change, February 8,

1965).

For the purposes of this discussion, the names listed above should be equated with a specific time period in ISU’s chronological narrative, for even though they all refer to the same academic campus located on 7th Street in Terre Haute, Indiana, the name and acronym also refer to a specific time period within the narrative discussed. For example, the Indiana State Normal

School, or ISNS, would be representative of the time period 1865-1929, and the beginning of the cooperative partnership story.

The first question. The first research question asks, “What is the nature and use of cooperatives in early radio broadcasting and how did each cooperative member benefit from the relationship?” These were dependent on multiple factors, including, but were not exclusive to, the type of cooperative ownership structure (Graphic A), how closely the Rochdale Principles were adhered to, geographic factors, and cooperative purpose. As discussed in Chapter Two, each cooperative had differing characteristics. Although there were secondary factors in the creation of each individual co-op, the primary purpose, as described in Chapter Two, was the need of commercial broadcasters to fill air time with programming and for educators to have air time to fill with their programs (Elwood, 1938; Willis, 1934). While this answer is fairly simplistic, it is also the foundation for a whole host of issues that sabotaged the success of early radio broadcasting cooperatives. A more specific, in-depth analysis of each early radio broadcasting cooperative needs to take place in order to fully understand the secondary complexities behind the nature and use of each, other than basic reasons given here.

Lastly, the benefits of early radio broadcasting cooperatives are intrinsically tied to their use and purpose. Economically, early radio broadcasting cooperatives were “formed by people

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when they [saw] a need to employ a different economic tool to accomplish” their common goals

(Fairbairn, 2003, p. 5). The Great Depression and two World Wars had a devastating impact on the American economy. Many educators and academic institutions were unable to afford a radio station of their own, and many commercial stations needed inexpensive broadcast content. This also gave rise to secondary cooperative partnerships with local clubs and civic groups who were unable to afford to use radio as a medium yet helped the commercial station to fill air time by providing local talent for broadcasts. Almost 2/3 of the commercial radio stations, in existence during this time period, were a cooperative member of some kind (Power, 1940). Fiscal prudence was not the only benefit derived by cooperative membership.

Education was another benefit. Educators learned what made a good broadcast…and what did not. In 1929, colleges and universities tentatively began teaching technically-based radio broadcasting courses in science and physics classrooms. With assistance from commercial station management, script writing and broadcast production courses soon followed. Both sides learned from the other. A third benefit was employment. Jobs were hard to find during the New

Deal era. Very few businesses could afford to hire extra help. Students were inexpensive labor, especially if they were part of a college or university experiential learning program, and they filled in wherever the paid announcers were unable to. Students were given actual broadcasting experience, allowing them to find employment in radio as the job market improved. For some educators and commercial broadcasters, this became successful in that each cooperative member benefited from the other.

The Story Begins

In understanding the nature, use, and benefits of early radio broadcasting cooperatives, it should then be no surprise that a cooperative partnership existed between ISTC and WBOW

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1230 AM. Its purpose was consistent with other radio broadcasting cooperatives and was so beneficial that the co-op lasted for over 35 years. Based on the cooperative movement’s history, early radio broadcasting cooperatives in Indiana seemed to have an instinctive or inherent way of doing things. “Radio development in Indiana has taken the form of small broadcasting plants specializing in programs of local interest” (“Writers’ Program,” 1973, p. 115). Many Hoosier radio stations, not just WBOW 1230 AM, worked with multiple co-ops, both national (i.e., networks, business organizations, etc.) and local (i.e., civic groups, churches, local schools, etc.), to provide relevant community programs, or programs in the ‘public interest,’ as mandated by communication legislation (p. 115). With this being the case, radio broadcasting cooperatives, germinating in Indiana’s academic halls, became quite important to many of the state’s rural inhabitants.

ISNS Faculty Interest

This germination began as early as 1926 when Indiana State Normal School (ISNS) faculty were interested in radio and received recognition because of their interest. A January

1929 account describes how Charles Callis, a member of ISNS faculty for at least two summers, was honored with recognitions from Dr. D. W. Dys, an “eminent scientist of the National

Physical laboratory of England” for his 1926 thesis, “Measurement of the Resistance of the

Condenser at Radio Frequencies” (“Faculty is Honored,” 1929). The year 1928 seems to be a foundational year for ISNS’s foray into radio broadcasting. On July 16, 1928, confirmation was received by ISNS President Linnaeus (L. N.) Hines on his success in temporarily hiring Indiana

University Physics professor, Joseph Bernard Hershman, who was teaching while finishing up his doctoral degree in Bloomington, Indiana (Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, J. B. Hershman to Hines, n.d.; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to J. B. Hershman, July 17, 1928). Similar to many other

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early radio stories, it was Hershman, working in the Physics Department, who would build the foundation on which was established a lengthy cooperative partnership and a prestigious academic program of broadcasting, both in radio and television, at ISTC.

Joseph Bernard Hershman. “J. B. Hershman headed the Physics Department at

Valparaiso University until 1927,” and when contacted by President Hines, was a graduate student at Indiana University working on his doctorate (Hite, 2015; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, L.

J. Rettger to Hines, July 12, 1928). Hershman was originally hired for $700 to fill in for several term sessions, but he was soon filling full-time shoes as “acting department head of physics” at

ISTC (Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to J. B. Hershman, August 2, 1928; Hite, 2015). As of

May 20, 1929, as Acting Instructor in Physics and Chemistry, in the Science Department,

Hershman, made $2500 for the 1929-30 school year. With a salary assured, Hershman continued to pursue his interest in radio transmission. At ISNS, his intent was to erect a “small broadcasting station in the Science Hall” (“Radio Course Planned,” 1928). The station was to be a “10-watt station” and broadcasting would “cover Terre Haute and vicinity” just for experimentation, not for commercial broadcasting (“Radio Course Planned,” 1928). Apparently, he had exhibited a “similar station in Indiana University’s exhibit at the state fair” (“Radio

Course Planned,” 1928).

Hershman ambitiously offered a course in radio, the first to do so at ISTC, and most likely the first at any Teacher’s College, in order to benefit high school teachers of physics in the

Wabash Valley and serve the general overall interest in the topic of radio (“Radio Course

Planned,” 1928). The Indiana State Teachers College Bulletin for June 1929 provides the first mention of the Radio course offering, and it is listed as “Science 384 Radio” (ISTC Bulletin,

1929, p. 214). Students were only able to take the radio course if they met the prerequisites of

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one year of Physics (111) and Mathematics (112), per the course description (p. 214; State

Teachers College Board, 1929; State Teachers College Board, 1930). Hershman’s name does not appear in any archival documents after September 1933, which may be for many reasons, such as retrenchment or a more permanent job offer.

The reason or reasons remain unknown; however, in 1934, Hershman and former

Dodge’s Institute of Telegraphy (DIT) instructor, Wilbur H. Cummings, convinced G. M. Dodge to reopen DIT, which it seems retrenchment resulting from economic hardship caused by the

Great Depression, had closed in 1934 (Hite, 2015, p. 10). Hershman persuaded Dodge to,

expand the curriculum to include modern radio. Hershman then became director

of radio, and he added courses in radio engineering and radio servicing. In the

late 1930s, aviation radio and police radio courses were added with further

expansion to include marine radio courses (p. 10).

In 1939, Hershman purchased the Institute from Dodge, while retaining Dodge as president until his retirement in 1941, when Hershman took over the presidency (pp. 11-12).4 As one of the top telegraphy schools of its day, acquiring Dodge’s allowed Hershman to build on a very

4 J. B. Hershman, shown here, is courtesy of Leland L. Hite, a VTI graduate.

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respectable reputation and legacy. Under Hershman’s tenure, the name was changed to

Valparaiso Technical Institute (VTI) and became “one of the leading electronic schools in the country,” with students involved in everything from missile early warning systems to staffing the

“first NASA team” (p. 17; Wolf, 2015). In 1956, President Hershman passed away from injuries he received in a car accident (p. 17).

WBOW. During his days at ISTC, Dr. J. B. Hershman was “closely in touch with the local broadcasting station,” WBOW 1230 AM, and it was “through his efforts” that an hour of broadcasting was given to ISTC free of charge (“Radio Program,” 1929). According to an

Indiana Statesman article, the first experimental program broadcast by ISTC, through its newly created cooperative partnership with WBOW, took place on August 9, 1929, “with excellent results” (“Radio Program,” 1929; “Great Success,” 1929). Entertainers included “Mrs. Frances

Bell Fuerstenberger, soloist; Mrs. Dorothy Armstrong Moon, pianist; Mrs. Claudine Armstrong

Kitch, violinist; Harold Kester, Margaret Duncan, Arline Prather, Dorothy Koerner, Ferol Reeds,

Prof. V. Dewey Annakin, and Virgil B. Mullins” (“Great Success,” 1929). Due to the successful broadcast and Hershman, “who has been rather closely connected with the development of the local broadcasting station, arrangements were completed for one-hour programs to ”be broadcast each Friday night from 8 o’clock to 9 o’clock” (“Great Success,” 1929).

Although plans were incomplete, it seemed likely that these broadcasts might “develop into some actual class instruction being given as this is becoming a rather important feature in some colleges of the country. However, the first few programs will likely be in the nature of entertainment” (“Great Success,” 1929). So many of the first programs were.

Early radio programs. Radio program entertainment came in multiple forms. After a few weeks of successful broadcasting, two additional features were added, the Sycamore

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Ensemble (musicians) and the Sycamore Players (Dramatic Club) (“Radio Program Shows,”

19/29; Henley, 1949, p. 17). The first documented theatrical broadcast was by the Sycamore

Ensemble, on October 30th, although the article does infer they began in a previous term (“State

Players,” 1930). This along with the other known broadcasts, prior to the beginning of Morgan’s tenure, in 1934, are listed in Appendix C. ISTC Faculty and students were encouraged to participate in broadcasts, creating a diversity of talent and styles. For the December 17th broadcast, girls from the Women’s Dormitory presented both musical and vocal renditions of popular songs and Christmas carols and they even received a radio set for the dormitory in order for the other girls in the Women’s Dormitory to hear the program being broadcast (“Dorm

Girls,” 1929; “Students Broadcast Two,” 1930). Christmas carols, sung by students who lived in

Terre Haute, were next on the ISTC-WBOW agenda. The December 24th program was followed by a similar one on New Year’s Eve (“Students Broadcast Two,” 1930). The ‘Dorm Girls’ seemed to be popular and presented another program of popular music on January 8, 1930. A special benefit program took place on January 27th, and on January 28th, the regular popular music program was broadcast (“State Presents Varied,” 1930).

The dormitory girls were quite popular and “highly complimented by WBOW studio managers and many who tuned in” (“W.B.O.W. Program,” 1930). For a May 13th broadcast, twenty-five of the dormitory girls formed the “Hollyhock Classical club and entertained radio fans…with a minstrel show” (“W.B.O.W. Program,” 1930). On the May 20th broadcast, the

Marshal High School Glee Club and the Marshal High School Band sang and played (“Students

On The,” 1930). The “Forum quartet” was next up, on May 27th, and was quite popular, especially with the young ladies, and on the June 10th broadcast, three professors participated in a

“quite unusual and amusing” program, presenting their interpretation of the play, “The Shooting

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of Dangerous Dan MeGrew,” which was praised by radio fans (“I. State Broadcasts,” 1930). In

August, Hershman’s salary was increased to $2800, in part, because of “his directing the courses of lectures and entertainments through the year” (State Teachers College Board, 1930). The

Board also approved the Music Department to spend $1,000 to purchase a “good Grand Piano” and $200 for the purchase of a “good small piano” (State Teachers College Board, 1930). While later records indicate a listenership of more than 500,000, it is unknown how many people listened to these early broadcasts.

Internal Cooperative

In the fall of 1930, an internal cooperative, in the form of a radio committee, is first mentioned and seems to complement the external cooperative partnership with WBOW. In reality, all ISTC faculty members were expected to participate in various faculty committees.

These committees were cooperative efforts whose objectives were to “conserve our money and faculty energy for the principal task of this college – GOOD TEACHING” (State Teachers

College Board, 1933). In other words, internal cooperatives were destined to benefit the college and all of its stakeholders. Faculty were encouraged to further their interests and careers, while

ISNS needed assistance in establishing programs, policies, and traditions. There were faculty committees for alumni, athletics, curriculum, extension, finances, graduation, the “inter- relationship” of [ISTC’s] training school and college, objectives, publicity, social affairs, and in

1930, the first radio broadcasting cooperative at ISTC, a radio committee (ISTC Faculty

Meeting, 1933). Although Dr. J. B. Hershman was responsible for the cooperative partnership with WBOW and participated in many early ISTC broadcasts, he is not listed as a radio committee member.

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Committee members. Under Hershman’s overall direction, at least until fall 1933, the first radio committee members seem to be Dr. Lowell Mason Tilson, from the Music

Department, Miss Kate Browning, from the Commerce Department, Mr. E. M. Bruce, from the

Chemistry Department, and Mr. Harold Bright, from the Education Department (State Teachers

College Board, 1933). Dr. L. M. Tilson was Head and Professor of the Department of Music, beginning his career with ISTC when it was the Indiana State Normal School (ISNS) in 1915

(Lynch, 1946, p. 247). His starting salary was $2772, and he shared radio broadcasting duties with Mr. W. H, Bryant, Mr. Harold Bright, and other Music Department faculty (p. 247;

“College Programs Merit,” 1932). ISTC Board Meeting Minutes, in the years to follow, show that Tilson retired with the rank of Professor Emeritus in 1940 and passed away in 1962 (State

Teachers College Board, 1940; Martha Tilson Amos Collection, 2015).

Miss Kate Browning was not among the Music Department faculty. She was an

Instructor in Penmanship and Spelling in the Department of Commerce who had graduated from the Gregg School in Chicago before beginning her career at Indiana State Normal School (ISNS) in 1923 (ISTC Bulletin, 1932, p. 10; State Teachers College Board, 1935). Although no documentation was found of her being on the air or producing a program, she may have helped with scriptwriting or grammar. In fall 1940, President Tirey reported her illness, and in February

1941, she had passed away (State Teachers College Board, 1940; State Teachers College Board,

1941). Little is known about Radio Committee Member, Edwin Morris Bruce, other than he was born in 1866, was well educated (i.e., DePauw University and ISNS (teacher certification),

Indiana University (Bachelor of Arts), and University of Chicago (Master of Arts) and was hired by ISNS President W. W. Parsons to chair a growing Chemistry Department (Bruce, 1866-1943;

ISTC Bulletin, 1929). Similar to Miss Browning, there is no documentation to suggest he was

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ever on the air or produced a program, yet it is probable that he assisted in the technical end of the broadcasts. He retired emeritus from ISTC in 1934, passing away nine years later at his home near the ISTC campus, on 10th Street (Bruce, 1866-1943).

The last of the original committee members, Mr. Harold “Will” Bright, graduated from

ISTC a year before Mr. Clarence M. Morgan, in the spring term of 1930, with a Master of Art in

Education and an immediate appointment to replace Frank L. Wells, as the Assistant Director of

Practice, in the Training School (ISTC Bulletin, 1932; State Teachers College Board, 1930). In

1931, Bright is shown, with Professor Mullins, to be part of an “entertainment committee” (ISTC

Faculty Meeting, 1931). He “played an important part in the growth and development of bands” at ISTC (Watkins, 2018). Somewhere during this time, he directed the College band at sporting events and convocations, which it still plays at today (“Band to Play,” 1931; “Band Plays,” 1933;

“Memorial Day Chapel,” 1934). In 1932, Bright was appointed Dean of Men for the first summer term and not long afterwards is listed, in the first Radio Committee, as the “Director of

Radio Programs” (State Teachers College Board, 1932; State Teachers College Board, 1933).

During the Faculty Meeting of September 27, 1932, the following announcement was made.

Professor Harold Bright will have charge again this year of broadcasting at

Station WBOW for Indiana State. Musical programs and talks will be given. The

assistance of faculty members will be greatly appreciated. This service costs our

institution nothing as both M. Bright and the manager of the station make no

charge for what they do. We appreciate this cooperation very much (Faculty

Bulletin No. 1, 1932, September 27).

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This indicates that he played a substantial role in earlier broadcasts. Salary records show Bright leaving the Music Department to become Assistant Director of Teaching, in the 1938-1939 school year (State Teachers College Board, 1938). In 1944, his rank changed to Associate

Professor of Education, bumping his salary for the school year to $3500 (Teachers College

Board, 1944). It is unknown whether he retired or passed away, while employed; however, the

Terre Haute Tribune refers to him as the “late Harold Bright” on May 17, 1948 (p. 16).

Regardless, his work is not remembered because of his role in ISTC’s broadcasting narrative.

Bright is remembered for his contributions to the Music Department through the “Harold Bright

Distinguished Service Medal, awarded annually since 1935” (Watkins, 2018). It is a “service gold medal” given to a “most outstanding musician for his [her] efficient service rendered” during the academic career (“Local Musician,” 1943).

While not documented as Radio Committee members, other ISTC faculty members were involved in ISTC’s radio broadcasting activities in the following years. This is similar to other early radio internal co-ops, which also included members of faculty from multiple departments, such as the English, Music, and Science Departments. One of the most active in Music

Department broadcasts was Mr. William “Will” H. Bryant. Bryant was hired by ISNS in 1921, as Instructor in Music (ISTC Bulletin, 1932, p. 10). He first shows up in archival documents as having a letter-driven conversation with President Hines about the need for licensing and regulating music teachers (Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, W. H. Bryant to Hines, March 3, 1928;

Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to W. H. Bryant, March 5, 1928; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to W. H. Bryant, March 7, 1928; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, W. H. Bryant to Hines, November 21,

1928; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to W. H. Bryant, December 19, 1928). After taking a leave of absence to obtain his terminal degree in 1929, he returned to teaching, and directing

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various Music Department activities, including musical broadcasts, in the spring of 1930

(“Bryant at Syracuse,” 1929; “Bryant at Syracuse,” 1929; “Karres Replaces Bryant,” 1929;

“Prof. Bryant Delights,” 1930; “Indiana State Conducts,” 1930; ISTC Faculty Meeting, 1931).

He assisted with the WBOW musical broadcasts until he was a victim of retrenchment early in

1933, which raised a substantial public outcry. as evidenced by archival letters from Illinois and

Indiana (Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to M. Hackett, July 5, 1933; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, L,

M, Briggs to Hines, June 6, 1933; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to L. M. Briggs, June 7, 1933;

Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, D. Koile to Hines, June 8, 1933; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to D.

Koile, June 9, 1933; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, H. l. Brown to Hines, June 16, 1933; Hines, L. N.,

1921-1934, Hines to H. L. Brown, June 20, 1933; Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, S. M. Keltner to

Hines, June 21, 1933;;Hines, L. N., 1921-1934, Hines to S. M. Keltner, June 22, 1933). As a result, College President Ralph Noble Tirey seems to have brought Bryant back part-time before appointing him Assistant Professor of Music, on a full-time basis in 1935 (State Teachers

College Board, 1935). Once Morgan took over leadership of radio activities, Bryant is rarely seen in archival documentation. Bryant retired as Professor Emeritus in fall 1945 and passed away February 1950 (State Teachers College Board, 1950).

Other faculty members, such as Dr. Lawrence Eberly, Dr. Dewey Anakin, Head of the

Social Studies Department, and Robert William Masters, Instructor in Dramatics, Speech, and

Journalism, worked cooperatively by participating in live radio broadcasts. There were other participating faculty, staff, and students, yet there is not enough room in this dissertation to convey and elaborate each name or story.

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Broadcasting Continues

On October 8, 1930, the “first Chapel exercises” were held (ISTC Faculty Meeting,

1930). This was the start of the weekly school convocation broadcast. As stated,

There is a weekly convocation of the entire school which all students are urged to

attend. This convocation takes the time of one of the regular school periods. It is

intended to afford ampler opportunity for members of the faculty and invited

speakers to present substantial themes of educational content. It is the purpose of

the school to bring before the student body from time to time distinguished

speakers from the outside to address the school, and thus give serious minded

students an opportunity to keep in touch with the larger fields of activity and

thought. The College orchestra will furnish music for these occasions (p. 33).

The seeming randomness of ISTC’s early radio broadcasts disappeared once ISTC began broadcasting “over station WBOW every Monday night from 8:30-9:30” p.m. (“Indiana State

Conducts,” 1930; ISTC Faculty Meeting, 1930). In part, because of the popularity of ISTC’s broadcasts and the public’s interest in the chapel programs, WBOW installed wiring in College

Hall, on the second floor of the Administrative Building (“State Chapel Programs,” 1932). This also allowed the Administrative Building’s (Old Main) chimes to be used in ISTC radio programs (“State Chapel Programs,” 1932; ISTC Bulletin, 1932). The chimes were generally used to strike the hour, quarter hour, and at noon, yet “on special occasions chimes concerts” were played and every night at 6:00 p.m., the chimes played “On the Banks of the Wabash”

(ISTC Bulletin, 1932). They were an identifying feature of ISTC. Local schools that had radios could take advantage of the convocations occurring on campus without having to bring students to observe it in person (“State Chapel Programs,” 1932). Chapel programs went “on the air each

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Wednesday morning,” which added another regular program to ISTC’s roster, in addition to

Monday nights and the Sycamore Players broadcasts (“State Chapel Programs,” 1932).

First scheduled year. The first known scheduled year of consistent radio broadcasting, as seen in Appendix B, ran from November 1930 to the end of August 1931, and was quite successful. ISTC was now in the educational radio business, although they were still entertaining audiences more than educating them. In April 1930, the Training School “installed radio equipment which is controlled from each room,” allowing all students to listen to specific radio programs (“New Radio Equipment,” 1930). Hershman was named the “general manager of the college program which runs on a four-week repeat schedule” (Appendix A) (“Repeat

Schedule Used,” 1931). As seen in Appendix B, the four-week repeat schedule or rotation of

ISTC faculty members leading the broadcasting of programs ensured the job was balanced among cooperative membership. Senior faculty from four primary ISTC departments, the

Science Department, under Dr. L. J. Rettger, the History Department, under Dean F. S. Bogardis, the English Department, under Dr. L. H. Meeks, and the Education Department, under Professor

E. E. Ramsey, worked with General Manager of College Programs, Professor J. B. Hershman, to deal with any resulting issues (ISTC Faculty Meeting, 1930).

Program format. The original program schedule (Appendix B) involved consistency of format as well. The radio program format was a 50-minute program of “music and other features,” a “five to seven” minute talk by an ISTC faculty member, and 3 minutes for any announcements that needed to be made (“Indiana State Broadcasts,” 1930; ISTC Faculty

Meeting, 1930). First up were the Dormitory Girls, which describes exactly who they were…the talented inhabitants of the Women’s Dormitory. Then, a musical program was the next week, called “Twilight Memories,” with Professor Bright. The third week was another musical

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program with Professor Bryant. This was followed by Professor Hershman and the ISTC Radio

Hour (“Indiana State Broadcasts,” 1930). A program listing of the four-week rotation was provided for Wabash Valley listeners, who looked forward to the programs with “eagerness and considerable ‘local’ pride” (“College Programs Merit,” 1932).

The 1931-32 program of broadcasting did not seem to change much from the assortment of programs broadcast in the 1930-1931 school year. Dr. Hershman was again “general manager of the college program which [ran] on a four-week repeat schedule” (“Repeat Schedule Used,”

1931). Prior to the set rotation of programs decided upon in the 1932-1933 school year, quite a few early broadcasts were variety programs featuring an ISTC student, and a “well known blond tenor” by the name of Burl Ives (“Memory Hour Plays,” 1931). Documents show Ives’ participated in certain broadcasts from March to July 1931 (“Radio Program Features,” 1931;

“Melodies Hour Features,” 1931; “The Month of,” 1931; “State Music Hour,” 1931; “Memories

Hour Plays,” 1931; “Radio Hour Features,” 1931; “Old Memories Hour,” 1931; “College

Orchestra,” 1931). These programs appeared to be successful and seemed to garner the

“approval of radio listeners of the Wabash Valley,” based on the “telephone calls and postal cards received by the school and Station WBOW” (“Radio Broadcasts,” 1932).

The 1932-1933 school year brought change to the broadcasting schedule. Professor

Bright, now “general director of Radio Programs,” decided to keep the program format similar to the previous year, yet some participants changed, as seen in Table 3 1932-1933 Program

Rotation. Hershman was no longer listed as part of ISTC’s roster of radio program nor as a faculty member (“Radio Theories May,” 1932).

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Table 3

1932-1933 Program Rotation

Date Entertainer Leader

First Monday Dormitory Girls Miss Margaret Wilson

Second Monday Training School Hour Dr. Lawrence Eberly

Third Monday Orchestral Hour Professor W. H. Bryant

Fourth Monday Music Department Hour Professor L. M. Tilson

Fifth Monday Old Memories Hour Professor Harold Bright

Information taken from Indiana Statesmen article, dated October 12, 1932

Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education

The year 1932 was when the field of education began to feel the effects of the Great

Depression. “Retrenchment became the buzzword for budget cutbacks” (Staff Writer, 2002). As a result, many teachers lost their jobs or were forced to work at much lower wages. In April

1933, 5,000 Chicago educators demanded their back pay by marching to city hall (Staff Writer,

2002). It was not just Dodge’s Institute of Telegraphy (DIT) that was affected. By April 1934, roughly 20,000 American schools, mostly rural ones, had closed (Staff Writer, 2002). According to an Office of Education bulletin, education was affected by the Depression more in the United

States than in “approximately 40 foreign countries” including Canada, England, Japan, and

Australia ("School Crisis More Severe in United States than in Foreign Nations," 1933, pp. 181).

The president of the Department of Superintendence and the president of the National Education

Association (NEA), worked to appoint an “emergency commission to consider and suggest remedies concerning the most trying difficulties—financial and otherwise” confronting

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American schools (Norton, 1933, p. 189). The Joint Commission on the Emergency in

Education was born.

The Commission’s role was to be a “board of strategy for the profession” during the crisis (p. 189). This included defining the issues, conducting retrenchment surveys, coordinating programs, and organizing a “united drive by all lay and educational forces interested in the welfare of children” (p. 190). The Commission used a hybrid cooperative style (features of both centralized and federated ownership structure types) and multiple methods, including radio, to engage its cooperative membership. The Commission believed that it could not “obtain results without the cooperation of all who are engaged in education” (p. 190). ISTC was one of the co- op members and distributed “copies of the radio programs” to all of the faculty (ISTC Faculty

Meeting, 1933).

1933-1934 Year of Broadcasting

A lot of changes occurred, which seemed to affect the number of programs broadcast during the 1933-1934 year of broadcasting at ISTC. Along with financial issues, resulting from the Great Depression, ISTC was undergoing a transition in leadership. ISTC President “Hines suffered a stroke and was forced to live the last four years of his life in a wheelchair,” resigning as College President in June 1933 (“Linnaeus Neal Hines,” 2018). In April 1934, Dr. Ralph

Noble Tirey became ISTC’s next president. Change occurred in the Radio Committee membership as well. In 1933, along with directing the radio broadcasting, Bright was tasked with overseeing the “burgeoning band program,” and by August, Bryant was temporarily let go

(“Our history,” 2017). Hershman was gone, and Browning no longer seems to be involved, which left Tilson. Documentation seems to show ISTC’s radio broadcasting slowing down, just as the Golden Age of Radio was revving up (Appendix C).

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During the transition of presidential power, Ball State Teachers College (BSTC)

President, Lemuel A. Pittenger, briefly stepped into the gap (“Lemuel A. Pittenger,” 2018;

“Annakin Speaks,” 1933). Pittenger directed Bright to continue working and broadcasting over

WBOW throughout the summer. Little exists to suggest that the same rotational style and program format consistently continued beyond August 1933, for archival documentation shows only one program between the end of August and July 1934 (Appendix C). The program documentation that does exist reveals this program to be recitation in nature.

In Summary

In summary, in answering research question one, it may be stated that the nature of cooperatives in early radio broadcasting varied according to cooperative type and purpose. The use of early radio broadcasting cooperatives was based on the mutual benefits each cooperative partner received in pursuing a common goal. While cooperatives in other fields existed prior to

1929, the Great Depression and the Communication Act of 1934 were pivotal in motivating the creation of these cooperatives. The benefits to both sides of the cooperative relationship were tangible. Commercial broadcasters needed to fill air time with local talent and programs that their audiences would relate to, while educators needed free air time to fill. The secondary benefits for the commercial broadcasters included a cheap supply of labor, the building of community capital, and a potential increase in revenue, while the secondary benefits for educators included a way to implement experiential learning, use broadcasting facilities that they did not have to pay for or maintain, and increase communal goodwill as well.

The chronological narrative of the birth of the radio broadcasting cooperative partnership between Indiana State Teachers College’s Radio Division and WBOW 1230 AM unveils the nature, purpose, and benefits to both the College and the commercial broadcaster WBOW.

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Because WBOW’s records have been lost, there is no way to examine their full broadcasting roster. Although embryonic, the partnership had been successful so far, yet the lack of a dedicated department or division, with assigned faculty and staff, seemed to hinder its ability to move forward and actually use radio broadcasting activities for educational purposes.

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Chapter Five

Cooperative Legacy (1934-1969)

The previous chapters have addressed the cultural context with regard to the origin and evolution of radio broadcasting, specifically in Chapter One. The Cooperative Movement and application of a biographical lens to Dr. Clarence M. Morgan’s life, and role as Director of Radio

Activities for Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC) Radio Division, was covered in Chapter

Two, and thick discussion regarding historical research, specific to this topic, in Chapter Three.

The primary purpose of Chapter Four and now Chapter Five is to pull the previous chapters together by addressing the stated purpose of the study and related RQs through the chronological narrative of the cooperative partnership between ISTC’s Radio Division, under Morgan’s leadership, and WBOW 1230 AM.

In Chapter Four, the beginnings of a co-op between ISTC and WBOW 1230 AM, between the years 1929 and 1934, was discussed in detail; however, when the chapter ends, there is little to suggest continued success of the cooperative partnership. Instead, it seems as if the factors that hindered so many other co-ops, such as transitional leadership, inconsistent broadcasting, etc., were also a hindrance in this case. The story continues in Chapter Five where results suggest ISTC’s radio broadcasting cooperative with WBOW 1230 AM overcame those hindrances. Dr. Clarence M. Morgan’s personal narrative starts the chapter off and parallels the chronological narrative of the cooperative partnership between Indiana State Teachers College’s

Radio Division, under his leadership, and WBOW. Interestingly, the initial radio broadcasting cooperative leads to additional co-ops involving local, state, and national cooperative members.

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Postscript to the Past

Some aspects of Morgan’s personal narrative are discussed in Chapter Two, yet his story needs to be readdressed almost as a postscript to the past chapters, before moving forward.

Morgan the student. To begin, upon graduation from DePauw University in 1924,

Morgan was employed, from 1924-1930, as a teacher in his alma mater, Linton-Stockton High

School, in Linton, Indiana (Morgan, [ca. 1969]). Encouraged, by his family, to continue to pursue the education necessary to become a High School Principal, Morgan applied to ISTC, which had just started a new Graduate Training Program for those interested in obtaining administrative, superintendent’s or principal’s licenses (Myers, 2016). Morgan met the prerequisite requirement of “three years of successful experience as a principal or teacher,” with his experience in Linton (ISTC Bulletin, 1932). Another requirement for obtaining a license was practice teaching, which took place right on the ISTC campus. The Training School at ISTC, inhabited a couple of classrooms when beginning in 1872, “all seniors were required to do practice teaching under the supervision of the training school teachers” (Lynch, 1946, p. 64). By the time Morgan was a senior, the Training School had outgrown those small rooms and training was conducted in multiple locations, such as local public schools. In 1930, as a senior, Morgan was hired for $2,100 to teach English in the Training High School and upon graduation, in 1931, was employed to be a “critic teacher” over the summer term (State Teachers College Board,

1931). Critic teachers, as described by Dennis Vetrovec, Library Associate III, observed and evaluated beginning teachers in the classroom (D. Vetrovec, personal communication, February

9, 2018; State Teachers College Board, 1931).

Morgan’s rank changed in fall 1931, where he is shown on the payroll as an Assistant

Professor of English (Teachers College Board, 1931). At the end of 1931, Morgan took a leave

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of absence, until 1933, to pursue his Ed.D. at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana

(Teachers College Board, 1932; Teachers College Board, 1932). While pursuing his doctorate,

Morgan met Ruth Laura Holaday, an “assistant in the history department at Indiana University where she was working on her thesis for her master’s degree” (“State Professor Weds,” 1933).

After his coursework at Indiana University was completed, Morgan returned to ISTC and taught high school English at “Wiley High School Building,” for over a month, “beginning, June 19,

1933” while he worked on his dissertation. In December, proof of Morgan’s interest in Ruth appeared in The Indiana Statesman, where a description of their marriage in Indianapolis,

Indiana, on Thanksgiving Day 1933, was published (“State Professor Weds,” 1933). As a result,

Ruth Holaday Morgan did not finish her Master’s Degree at Indiana University. It wouldn’t be until 1951, in ISTC’s graduate program, that she finally completed it under the direction of her new husband.

The Radio Division

The topic of Ruth Holaday Morgan’s Master’s Thesis is the History of the Radio Division of Indiana State Teachers College (1951). In her Thesis, she relates the following story about the birth of ISTC’s Radio Division. She writes,

It was in the fall of 1934 that Dr. J. W. Jones, then Dean of Instruction, requested

Clarence R. Morgan, at that time Assistant Professor of English Education on the

Training School Faculty of the Department of Education, to serve as Director of

radio activities for Indiana State Teachers College. It was Professor Morgan’s

task to formulate a workable program of radio broadcasting in cooperation with

Terre Haute’s local radio station WBOW, an affiliate of the National

Broadcasting Company (pp. 5-6; Morgan, 1949, p. 54).

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It was decided that two different types of educational radio programs would be broadcast

(Morgan, 1949; Morgan, 1951). The first type, known as the “Faculty Series.” would

“supplement instruction” in Wabash Valley classrooms, and the second type, known as the

“Wabash Valley High School Series,” would “motivate pupils in elementary and secondary schools by presenting the pupils as guests on actual broadcasts” (Morgan, 1949, p. 54; Morgan,

1951, pp. 6-7). Morgan’s first broadcast was October 2, 1934, and during the 1934-1935 school year, roughly 190 programs were broadcast (Morgan, 1951, p. 9; p. 111). As Morgan writes, it should be credited to the “foresight of the administration” that ISTC was “among the first to experiment with the as yet untried opportunities for radio education” (p. 5). Morgan also gave credit to the cooperative partnership with WBOW, who in 1934-1935, generously provided ISTC with roughly 3,200 free air time minutes (Morgan, 1951, p. 9).

Becoming the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air

The first few years of Morgan’s tenure involved simply getting a handle on ISTC’s current broadcasting roster, working on taking it further, and creating an experiential learning curriculum through a continued cooperative partnership with WBOW. There were no broadcasting facilities at ISTC, meaning a “working partnership with WBOW was not only desirable, but also obviously the only solution” (Morgan, 1951, p. 6). Archival documentation shows that Morgan either was the program announcer or just gave closing announcements on some of these early broadcasts (“Radio Broadcast Features,” 1935; “Broadcast Given To,”

1935). In 1935, a multitude of different guests and speakers also took part, including ISTC

President Tirey (“Pres. Tirey Speaks,” 1935). A new broadcast time, from 1:30-1:45 p.m. on

Tuesdays and Thursdays, with Morgan announcing, was established, as was a new radio committee system (“College Broadcast Committees,” 1935). The internal co-op was changed,

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and there was no longer just a single, faculty-only radio committee. There were new weekly radio committees, including two faculty and three students (“College Broadcast Committees,”

1935; Morgan, 1938, p. 2). For the school year 1935-1936, there were at least twenty-eight radio committees (“College Broadcast Committees,” 1935). According to Morgan (1938), “each committee was responsible for a daily fifteen-minute broadcast, Monday through Friday” (p. 2).

These were part of multiple broadcasts conducted by ISTC students every week. The amount of broadcast time used by ISTC changed based on the broadcast schedule for each school year.

Radio Studios

In November, Morgan started a new tradition. Celebrities who came to speak on the

ISTC campus, whether in a broadcast or not, were encouraged to sign a wall in the green room of

College Hall in “Old Main,” the Administrative Building (T. Morgan, personal communication,

March 5, 2018). The first to do so was Amelia Earhart, who kicked off ISTC’s Blue and White

Homecoming festivities with stories of her many adventures (“Amelia Earhart Tells,” 1935).

When the Administrative Building was torn down years later, workers were unable to save the wall, took photographs, and created a replica of the original wall (Figure 7). A second signature wall, shown in Figure 8, which could be removed, was then started.5 Along with the signature

Figure 7. Signature Board 1 Figure 8. Signature Board 2

5 Both signature boards sit in the office of Katie Sutrina-Harvey, ISU Archivist. Personal photographs.

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wall, Morgan also began having ISTC visitors sign guest books, for there were many prominent people who were interested in what was going on.

Second floor. College Hall, located on the second floor of the Administration Building, was the site of broadcasting for the new radio programs (Morgan, 1949, p. 54; Morgan, 1960).

This allowed for larger groups of students to participate in the Wabash Valley High School

Series, such as Reelsville High School, Brazil High School, and Clinton High School (“Brazil and Fontanet,” 1936; “Clinton High School,” 1936; “Large Group,” 1936; “Valley Schools

Broadcast,” 1936). Because ISTC did not own any radio equipment, WBOW sent a “station engineer and a microphone and a line pre-amplifier” by taxi, fifteen minutes before broadcast time (Morgan, 1951, p. 9). The line was then connected to the “permanently installed radio circuit” (p. 9). This arrangement continued for two years (Morgan, 1951, p. 10).

Morgan learned a lot during this time, especially from audience listening reports, which revealed that most listeners would not “listen to a talk by a ‘not famous’ individual” and certain techniques were needed to use the microphone properly (Morgan, 1938, p. 2; Morgan, 1951, p.

8). Upon graduation with his Ed.D. from IU, Morgan’s students began calling him ‘Doc’

(Myers, 2016). Another name also emerged when Morgan withdrew from announcing broadcasts. Taking a nod from Eggleston’s famous 1871 novel, The Hoosier Schoolmaster, every ISTC broadcast began to end with the program announcer stating, “this program came to you under the personal supervision of the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air,” (T. Morgan, personal communication, November 17, 2015; Myers, 2016).

Women’s residence hall. In fall 1936, the “radio studio was moved from College Hall to the east lounge of Women’s Residence Hall” in order to take advantage of a piano and improve broadcasting acoustics (Morgan, 1951, p. 11). It soon became apparent, from the competition

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between high school students and their teachers, wishing to be the best, that radio training was needed. The first, of what turned out to be yearly, Radio Clinics was held on February 12, 1937

(Morgan, 1951, p. 13; State Teachers College Board, 1938). There were about two hundred educators, from all over Indiana, in attendance (State Teachers College Board, 1938). Multiple speakers, including Dean J. W. Jones, W. W. Behrmann, WBOW’s manager, and Miss Blanche

Young, radio education supervisor for Indianapolis’ public schools, covered a variety of topics

(Morgan, 1951, pp. 13-14). The Radio Clinic ended with a discussion of microphone technique,

“demonstrations of various types of radio programs,” and a “forty-five minute broadcast over

WBOW,” in which the demonstrations were implemented (p. 14).

The success of the Radio Clinic led to ISTC going ‘all in’ when it came to radio broadcasting. Within a week, ISTC announced “English 315 Radio Broadcasting” would be offered and it is listed in the May edition of the Indiana State Teachers College Bulletin

(“Indiana Radio Course,” 1937; ISTC Bulletin, 1937, p. 15; “Radio Course Added,” 1937).

ISTC was nationally recognized for the quality of its Radio Clinic and new curriculum offering in July, when the United States Office of Education asked to use student-created radio scripts, specifically for the “Answer Me This” series, in its Educational Radio Script and Transcription

Exchange (“Indiana State Recognized,” 1937; Morgan, 1951; Morgan, 1951, p. 16).

Old Main first floor. Work on the construction of a new broadcasting studio, on the first floor of Old Main, the Administration Building, was announced to the public in the college newspaper in fall 1937 (p. 18). In November, the new studios were completed and equipped with “two velocity-type and one crystal microphone, one line pre-amplifier (the gift of WBOW), and a public-address system used to operate the speakers in the Audition Room, along with a grand piano, “a sound effects laboratory, and a Western Union Radio Clock” (p. 18; Morgan,

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1938, p. 12). The sound effects laboratory, created by Morgan and other members of faculty, was the “latest in radio sound effects” (“Radio Studio,” 1938; “New Wind,” 1938). The first broadcast, in the new location, was held Tuesday, November 23, 1937, and boasted what Morgan

(1938) called, “the most complete sound effects laboratories found in the Middle West” (p. 8).

November was also when an article, written by Morgan, was published in the trade magazine

Radio Daily (Morgan, 1937). Morgan (1937) wrote,

…in cooperation with WBOW, Indiana State Teachers College has conducted a

series of radio broadcasts presented for the purpose of supplementing the work of

teachers in the secondary schools of Indiana. W. W. Behrman, director of

WBOW, realizing the opportunity for education presented by the station, has

placed the time and facilities of WBOW at the disposal of Indiana State Teachers

College absolutely free of any financial responsibility on the part of the /college.

This cooperation on the part of the radio station makes it possible…to offer a

course in Radio Broadcasting…, construct a modern studio and auditorium

room…, organize a Studio Orchestra to stand by at all broadcasts, and carry on a

widespread publicity program with reference to the College educational

broadcasts (p. 7).

Special feature broadcasts, such as sportscasting, began in January 1938, followed by the second Radio Clinic in February (p. 8). ISTC was now engaging in three types of broadcasts: (1) educational, (2) Wabash Valley High School Series, and (3) new special feature broadcasts

(Morgan, 1938). Additionally, an Open Forum, broadcast at the end of NBC’s Town Meeting of the Air, was conducted in March, and in April, ISTC received an “invitation from George

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Peabody College for Teachers” to be one of the guests on one of their “Series of Teachers

College on the Air” broadcasts (Morgan, 1938, p. 9; Morgan, 1951, p. 26).

Moving Forward

During this time, WBOW celebrated its eleventh anniversary of broadcasting, and ISTC registrar Harry E. Elder insightfully remarked, “WBOW will be rated as one of the pioneers in the field of radio broadcasting” (“Greetings Given WBOW,” 1938). This pioneering spirit may be seen in the annual reports Morgan issued each June on the broadcasting activities of ISTC’s

Radio Division.

Annual reports. June 1938 marks the first release of Morgan’s annual reports. In his introduction to the 1937-1938 report, Morgan states,

From June 1937, to June 1938, Indiana State Teachers College presented, over

radio station WBOW, a total of 204 broadcasts. Figured in radio time, this

reaches the amazing total of 3,770 minutes which, if a charge had been made by

WBOW according to its regular minimum rates, would have cost the College

$3,514.00. The entire time was, however, granted to the College absolutely free

of all charges by WBOW (Morgan, 1938).

From the 1937-1938 report and subsequent annual reports, a table listing the minutes and donated air time for each year of Morgan’s tenure has been created to give the reader an overall picture of the Radio Division’s achievements and WBOW’s generosity, in meeting the cooperative partnerships primary goal (Appendix D).

A second pioneer. In August 1938, The Indiana Statesman began a series of articles on

Morgan’s personal narrative. The author, Bill Hickman, wrote about Morgan’s enthusiasm for radio broadcasting, starting with a quotation from Doc, who stated, “It has always been my

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greatest joy” (“Story of College,” 1938). Hickman calls Doc “one of the pioneers in the field of educational broadcasting” and adds, to look into the history of the Radio Division is “to look into the life of Dr. Morgan, because he is essentially the department of radio broadcasting” (“Story of

College,” 1938). In September, installation of a Universal “voice recorder” allowed the ISTC studios to became “one of the few that can record and broadcast at the same time” (“Voice

Recorder,” 1938). Along with many other uses, the voice recorder allowed students to record and hear their own voices in order to correct any noticeable issues.

September was also the month when students from the radio broadcasting class assisted in the operation of WBOW because Doc wanted them to “learn by experience the amount and diversity of work in operating a radio station” (“Radio Class Operates,” 1938). In addition,

WBOW worked with Morgan to execute daily student broadcasts from a soundproof booth, at the Indiana State Fair, which they did for many years. The story was picked up by the

Broadcasting trade magazine (“Radio Goes,” 1938; “State Teachers,” 1938). In October, ISTC’s working cooperative partnership with WBOW again caught national attention. United States

Commissioner of Education, Dr. John W. Studebaker, mentioned ISTC, as one of two

“praiseworthy” academic institutions, in his keynote address at an October, WHAS-sponsored, radio education conference in Louisville, Kentucky (Morgan, 1951, p. 32; “State Radio Course,”

1938).

Circle of life. It was a busy spring for the ISTC Radio Division. In January 1939, the

‘pioneer’ found his rank changed from “Assistant Professor of English Education, to Director of

Radio Education and Assistant Professor of English” and in February, Morgan welcomed the birth of his and Ruth’s first child, a girl, named Marian Ruth Morgan, after her parents (“Dr.

Morgan,” 1939; State Teachers College Board, 1939; T. Morgan, personal communication,

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March 6, 2018). In March, a book called “Opportunities in Education,” taken from a “series of radio broadcasts by Registrar Harry E. Elder and Dr. Clarence M, Morgan” was released to assist school administrators, the Radio Division received a third mention in the weekly trade magazine,

Radio Guide, in an article entitled, “Radio at ISTC,” and Doc announced the Radio Division would start a “student radio open forum” because he believed “the youth of today and particularly the college generation” needed “an opportunity to present their thoughts and ideas on controversies of current interest” (“Open Forums,” 1939; “Radio Guide,” 1939; “Registrar’s

Radio Talks,” 1939).

Accomplishments. Along with these accomplishments, Morgan engaged in a secondary cooperative partnership with Radio Guide magazine in April, when he decided to use it as an educational tool in the radio production class. This decision, according to Doc, showed “fine cooperation between a national publication and educational institutions” (“Radio Guide,” 1939).

It may also have prompted Radio Guide’s education director to visit ISTC’s Radio Division.

During James O. Hanner’s visit, the “radio production class” was told “their work was outstanding, even compared to all other college broadcasts” (“Radio Guide Man,” 1939). These are only some of the highlights of cooperative achievement listed in Morgan’s second annual report. Other highlights include, a grant of almost $8,000.00 by the United States Department of the interior, Office of Education, to conduct a series of adult education broadcasts, the creation of a library of recorded historical events called “History in the Making,” and the introduction of graduate radio research courses into the curriculum (Morgan, 1939, p. 1). As a result, the ISTC

Radio Division now offered the following undergraduate courses,

English 315 Use of Radio in the Classroom (Extension Course)

English 316 Radio Work Shop

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English 317 Introduction to Radio Broadcasting

English 318 Radio Speech

English 319 Radio Writing

English 320 Radio Program Production (p. 14) and the following graduate courses,

English 615 Research in Use of Radio in the Classroom

English 616 Research in Radio Work Shop

English 617 Research in Modern Trends in Radio Education

English 618 Research in Radio Speech

English 619 Research in Radio Writing

English 620 Research in Radio Program Production (p. 14; “Indiana State,” 1939).

It was a rarity for any college or university to offer multiple broadcasting courses in 1939, and

ISTC offered twelve.

The Story Princess of the Music Box. The broadcasting schedule also grew, due in part to the nationally recognized need for good children’s educational radio programs (Myers, 2018).

Doc pioneered an ‘entertainment-education’ style of broadcasting to teach and entertain children at the same (Myers, 2016; Plascak, 2003b, J3). One of the programs added to the broadcast schedule, Fairy Princess of the Music Box, was inspired by a music box sitting in the studios, which was then used as the program’s original opening music (T. Morgan, personal communication, March 13, 2018). The first ‘fairy princess,’ Miss Ruth Butts, gave “dramatic readings with music and sound effects” (Morgan, 1940, p. 7). Within a short time, Morgan changed the program’s name to the Story Princess of the Music Box and the program became incredibly popular (Myers, 2018). Doc’s strategy worked, for the Story Princess of the Music

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Box was broadcast over WBOW for at least 31 years and a spinoff, Storyland Express, was created in the 1960’s (Myers, 2018). This program seems to be the “longest running educational children’s program in early broadcasting history,” and earns ISTC, “one of the longest records of educational service over a commercial radio station of any college or university in the United

States” (Morgan, 1965, p. 1; Myers, 2018, p. 16).

Additionally, during this broadcast year, “over ten thousand dollars” of free air time was given to ISTC, 1,631 people visited the studios from ten different states, and over 2,000 recordings were made on the Universal recorder (Morgan, 1939, pp, 1-3). To help handle the workload, new equipment was added or installed in the studios, including a “Gatos Dynamote

Line Pre-Amplifier, one RCA Junior Velocity microphone, and two Universal dynamic microphones,” a “mixing panel,” and a sound wagon (p. 13; “Studio Pictures Will,” 1939).

The 1940s

The 1940s found the ISTC Radio Division still in the national spotlight. Leonard Power,

“consultant and administrative assistant of the Federal Radio Education Committee” (FREC), visited ISTC to observe student broadcasts, being particularly interested in the “open forum as a means of education by radio” (“Radioman Visits College,” 1939). As a result, ISTC was featured in two publications Forums on the Air, written by Paul H. Sheats, in 1939, and College

Radio Workshops, written by Power in 1940. Power (1940) observed, ISTC “does not hide its radio activities under a bushel” and visitors to ISTC’s Radio Division will find “radio sharing the place usually monopolized by college athletics” (p. 20). In his opinion, WBOW seemed to view the college studios “as an integral part of its own broadcasting facilities” and relied “on the college for most of the quality programs of local origin” (p. 20; p. 26).

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The success of the unique cooperative partnership, between the Radio Division and

WBOW, and Doc’s ‘entertainment-education’ based strategy, was also recognized closer to home. At the “Third School Broadcasting program held in Chicago,” December 6th-8th, the

Director of the Chicago Radio Council, Harold Kent, remarked, “WBOW has attracted nation- wide attention over its educational broadcasting” (State Teachers College Board, 1939; “ISTC

Radio Work,” 1940).

The Speech Department

Now an Associate Professor, along with his Director of Radio Education title, Doc had built the radio broadcasting activities of Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC) into a sizeable and respected program. Other activities in the English Department had also grown, like the

Speech and Reading Clinic and Dramatics (Theater). Although it had been discussed many years previously, the timing was now ripe for change. In February 1940, the Department of Speech and Reading Clinic was ‘officially’ created through ISTC Board approval and included four faculty members “Mr. Masters, Dr. Morgan, Mr. Reed, and Dr. Davis” (Henley, 1949; State

Teachers College Board, 1940). The Board’s rationale was that speech had become “essential” to all students, which meant a “speech department to care for the needs of our students is necessary” (State Teachers College Board, 1940). The “Radio Division of the Speech

Department” was formed and the associated courses now used the “Speech acronym” (Morgan,

1949, p. 66; Myers, 2016). Dr. W. Morris was appointed first Chairman of the Speech

Department, a title Doc would eventually hold, along with Morris’ other titles of Associate

Professor of Speech and Director of Speech and Reading Clinic (State Teachers College Board,

1940).

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Growth. March found Morgan working with WBOW Engineer Harold Trosper to make the ISTC studios “twice as efficient” by “mounting all equipment in a streamlined rack and installing a complete switchboard and running radio loops to all auditoriums on the campus”

(“Radio Grows Rapidly,” 1940; “WBOW Engineer Rebuilds,” 1940). Mr. Trosper did the work

“in his spare time at no cost to the college as a gesture of the cooperation which has always existed between WBOW and Indiana State” (“WBOW Engineer Rebuilds,” 1940). An article, including a studio diagram, discussing the growth of the Radio Division ran on the front page of

The Indiana Statesman, not long afterward (“Radio Grows Rapidly,” 1940). Again, people took notice, and in April, another prestigious visitor, Miss Judith C. Waller, NBC’s Educational

Director, showed up for a visit to see the new studios for herself (“National Authority,” 1940).

Before, During, and After World War II

Doc’s annual report for 1939-1940 reflected the prewar context he lived in. He had been contacted by the Army and given the choice between entering the Army or staying at ISTC, in order to teach enlistees Morse, semaphore, and blinker code (T. Morgan, personal communication, November 21, 2015; Myers, 2016). As a result, Speech 213 and Speech 214,

‘beginning and advanced radio code communications courses,’ were added to curriculum offerings (Morgan, 1951, pp. 53-54). Heading into 1941, Mr. Martin Leich, WBOW’s new station manager, visited the studies and “was very favorably impressed with the working setup which now exists between Indiana State and WBOW” and this was also when the Morgan family welcomed their second child, a son named Thomas, into the world (“Leigh, Jackson Visit,” 1941;

Myers, 2016).

Prewar years. The prewar years found Morgan working long hours, with classes beginning at 7:00 a.m. and student broadcasts to oversee (Myers, 2016). There was not much

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time left for his young family (Myers, 2016). The work was constant, yet Morgan never forgot to give WBOW his “most sincere thanks for the perfect cooperation which has made the broadcast service possible” (Morgan, 1941, p. 1). In fall 1941, Doc declared the radio department “was planning one of the biggest years in the history of the school” (“Radio

Department Plans,” 1941). ISTC’s radio broadcasting activities were “rapidly swinging into activities concerned with defense,” and even the Radio Production class participated in the

“National Defense Program,” by helping to revise and produce scribes for publication (“Radio

Department Does,” 1941; “Radio Department Plans,” 1941).

World War II. Things changed for all Americans, not just ISTC and the Radio Division, when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, on December 7, 1941. Countless numbers of graduating high school students went straight into the conflict, without ever having the chance of attending college and Harold Bright compiled a list of the “names of one hundred and twelve boys” who left ISTC for military service (Lynch, 1946; Teachers College Board, 1942).

Inter-American. In March 1942, ISTC’s Laboratory School was designated as an “Inter-

American Education Demonstration Center” (State Teachers College Board, 1943). As a result,

ISTC’s Radio Division began presenting a variety of programs in “cooperation with a committee of teachers from city and township schools, as well as from neighboring colleges” (Morgan,

1951, p. 55). The broadcasts were “planned for the purpose of furthering our understanding of

Inter-American life” (Morgan, 1951, p. 55). Latin American students were used, in addition to,

“music of the Americas” and these broadcasts took place daily on WBOW, in an effort to better

“relations between the two Americas” (Inter-American Broadcast,” 1943; Mackintosh, 1942).

Broadcasting during wartime. Now a full Professor of Speech and Director of Radio

Education, Morgan found broadcasting during wartime to be different, even though the usual

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broadcasts (i.e., State Fair, Story Princess of Music Box, Science Series, etc.) continued (State

Teachers College Board, 1942). He writes, “programs were re-designed to further civilian morale and understanding of war work” (Morgan, 1942, p. 1). As a result, in May, the Radio

Division received a “citation from the War Department’’ for the “Victory Series” broadcasts, which were listed in an educational bulletin as “civilian morale building programs” (Morgan,

1951, p. 50; Morgan, 1942, p.1). All throughout this year, the Radio Division broadcast “war propaganda broadcasts furnished by the War Writer’s Board, the Office of War Information, the

Federal Security Agency, and the United States Office of Education,” while wartime travel restrictions forced Doc to reduce the number of live student broadcasts and stop broadcasting the

Wabash High School Series, which had been in place since Morgan took over ISTC’s radio broadcasting activities (Morgan, 1951, pp. 56-57).

Summer of 1942 brought “the first contingent of naval aviation cadets,” along with the

“first placements in the Army Air Corps. glider training program,” for 240 hours of ground school training, which Morgan helped to teach (“Joins Navy to,” 1942). In March 1943, Doc was given yet another moniker. This time it was for all the work he was doing for the war effort.

According to the unknown ISTC student author, “Morgan is now known as ‘Solid Sender

Morgan,’ and with his assistant, Earphone Eddie, they really go to town” (“Dit-dit-da-dah,”

1943). It is not known if Morgan was amused; however, his son thinks that he probably was (T.

Morgan, personal communication, March 14, 2018).

ISTC’s Radio Division had become a solid part of ISTC’s curriculum and a valuable tool in the war effort. Some of the faculty members were now “veteran performers,” including

Professor Bryant, Dr. Allyn, and Dr. Annakin (Morgan, 1951, p. 57). Now, the special series and broadcasts, like “Navy News” and “The Sailor Sings,” “featured students enrolled in the V-

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12 and V-5 units” (p. 58). The main characters in these programs dealt with the war time issues of “food rationing, conservation of clothing, gasoline rationing, [and] war time health” (p. 59).

This resulted in invitations from the local community to have the military students come speak at local events.

FM radio. In Morgan’s 1943-1944 annual report, he includes his yearly gratitude for

WBOW as a cooperative partner; however, he thanks “Lt. Martin Leich,” revealing the war’s impact on WBOW as well (Morgan, 1944, p. 1). This was the pattern of life, when on May 11,

1944, Morgan attended a meeting at the State House in Indianapolis, Indiana, to discuss the

“possibilities of using FM as a new form of broadcasting” (“Radio Department Head,” 1944;

“Workshop Presents,” 1944). Morgan was “appointed to assist the State Superintendent of

Public Instruction in Indiana” in planning for some type of FM educational program in Indiana

(“Radio Department Head,” 1944). The Radio Division became actively involved in pursuing

“frequency modulation as a method of communication” (Morgan, 1944, p. 5).

Post war years. Morgan started the 1944-1945 school year off as a member of the Radio

Advisory Council, which was still looking into the “possibilities of establishing a non- commercial, educational F-M radio service for the schools of Indiana” (“Advisory Council,”

1944). The Inter-American series was discontinued, and the war effort seemed to be winding down (Morgan, 1951, 62).

With the end of World War II in September 1945, where enlistees were featured on programs, veterans now were (“Vets Featured,” 1946). Doc was recognized by the U. S. Office of Education as “one of the pioneers in educational radio,” while the War Department recognized

ISTC’s program schedule as “well balanced and diverse” (“State Radio Group,” 1945). The

Radio Division began new programs to replace the programs broadcast during the World War.

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One of these, called “Meet the New Teachers” became “an established feature” and yearly introduced the listening audience to new ISTC faculty (Morgan 1951, p. 63).

Morgan’s 1945-1946 annual report reveals that Leich had returned from the war to pick up the reins of WBOW management and the Radio Division engaged in “continued intensive use of the facilities of WBOW,” while plans were underway for construction of new broadcasting studios (Morgan, 1946, p.1; Morgan, 1951, p. 65). The Radio Department was growing quickly and needed a bigger operational space. In addition, two courses were added to the curriculum.

Speech 321 was designed to train radio students in the “operation and maintenance of necessary control room equipment,” and Speech 421, which took things further by training students in the

“problems of educational radio” and “control room problems of commercial stations of various sizes,” which most likely used WBOW as reference (Morgan, 1951, p. 71).

WBOW AM and FM

In November 1946, Dr. Masters, Director of the Theater program and Professor of

Dramatics, was named Chairman of the Speech Department, as successor to Dr. Morris (“Dr.

Masters Appointed,” 1946). This appointment was one for Morgan as well because the

Chairmanship position was announced as rotating between Masters and Morgan for two-year terms (“Dr. Masters Appointed,” 1946). In December, survey results from a “publication by

WBOW” were released, which revealed the ratings of ISTC’s afternoon programs (2:30-2:45 p.m.) to be 9.8 or a 54.8% audience share and the ISTC’s morning programs (11:30-11:45 a.m.) to have a 7.4 rating (Morgan, 1947, p. 2). The cooperative was definitely benefitting both partners, and in June 1947, ISTC helped WBOW to celebrate its 20th anniversary, in front of

1,800 attendees in the Student Union Auditorium, which may be why Martin Leich gave Doc a

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“gold lapel pin” of the WBOW call letters (Figure 9). The festivities even made it into the trade magazine, Radio Daily (“Coast-to-Coast,” 1947; “Stand By!,” 1947).

Figure 9. WBOW pin

This pin now resides on the lapel of his son, Dr. Thomas O. Morgan’s suit, which is shown in

Figure 9 WBOW Lapel Pin. 6

In December,

WBOW added to its service programs transmitted by means of Frequency

Modulations over radio station WBOW-FM, operating on 101.0 megacycles. The

College was invited to accept the use of its new service, so…the afternoon

programs of the College were heard over WBOW-FM, as well as AM (Morgan,

1951, p. 75).

The morning shows in ISTC’s roster were still broadcast over WBOW-AM because of the limited hours WBOW-FM was able to broadcast. Broadcasting did not begin until noon and ended at 9:00 p.m. (p. 75). The number of weekly broadcast hours varied each school year; however, the overall number of broadcast time during Morgan’s tenure is listed in Appendix D.

6 Personal photograph.

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This arrangement continued until the “WBOW-FM transmitter was taken off the air” on June 30,

1956 (Morgan, 1956).

In January 1948, Speech 423 Fundamentals of Radio Directing and Speech 424

Advanced Radio Directing, courses teaching techniques related to “radio cueing, script mark-up, microphones, casting, and timing,” were added to the curriculum (Morgan, 1951, p. 77; “Radio

Department Adds,” 1948). Radio broadcasting had become a full-fledged Major of study in

ISTC’s academic offerings (Morgan, 1948, p. 17). Students needed to accumulate 100-hours of radio broadcasting, interpretation, writing, and background courses to obtain their degree

(Morgan, 1948, p. 17). While the primary goal of the College was still to train educators, the skills learned under Morgan’s tutelage allowed alumni to obtain jobs in radio broadcasting.

Those who graduated and were actively working were now listed in Morgan’s annual reports.

For example, of the twenty-eight alumni listed in the 1947-1948 report, all but four were actively broadcasting on the air. The other four alumni were Directors or Instructors of Radio at academic institutions.

In 1948, a new children’s educational program, the “Peter Rabbit News Service,” was added (p. 74). The Peter Rabbit News Service (PRNS), based in Forrestville, was a way to present news to children and introduced the character of Peter Rabbit who “called reporters from the animal world who told of events occurring nationally and internationally, in the local schools, and special features” (Morgan, 1948, p. 7; Myers, 2016). The post-war years brought a constant stream of studio visitors, not just the educators participating in the annual radio workshop.

Morgan encouraged everyone, both local and distant, as part of a program of visitation, to come watch a broadcast (Morgan, 1948). In October, “National Letter Writing Week,” found local

Terre Haute school children watching a special episode of Peter Rabbit News Service being

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broadcast (“Children of,” 1948). Several of the students, who had been “writing to foreign pen pals,” had their names mentioned on the air (“Children of,” 1948).

Doc’s entertainment-education based strategy was working. School teachers used the various broadcasts to supplement teaching “composition, letter writing, and art” and then mailed the children’s work to the Radio Division in the form of “thousands of letters, postcards, and other testimonials” showing how the broadcast service was used (p. 17). Morgan writes,

“children and adults throughout the Wabash Valley have been most appreciative of the radio service” ISTC provides (Morgan, 1949, p. 17). This appreciation was passed on to ISTC broadcasting students in the form of an award. The Radio Guild, an invitation-only club started by Morgan, bestowed an award at the “Honor Day Convocation” to a “senior man and senior woman,” who had “done most to further the educational program of Indiana State Teachers

College over radio station WBOW” (Morgan, 1949, p. 15). A list of award winners (Appendix

E), shows the first award winner was James Boyle, future Radio Division faculty member

(Morgan, 1949, p. 15).

The 1950s

In the fall of 1949, construction was begun on a new classroom building and new studios, which Morgan helped design, and in January 1950, the Radio Division moved from ‘Old Main’ into a “suite of eleven rooms located on the second floor of the Language and Mathematics

Building,” known today as the Dreiser building (Morgan, 1951, p. 84; “Radio Division,” 1949).

Dedication Broadcast

The new studio ‘suite’ included,

Two ultra-modern radio studios: a control room equipped with the latest RCA

broadcast equipment, consisting of an RCA consolette, type 74D, RCA and

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Universal transcription recorders, wire and tape recorders, and AM and FM

monitoring receivers, mounted in a relay rack; an audience room with a seating

capacity of fifty; sound effects and research room; rooms for maintenance, scripts,

and transcriptions, and an office suite consisting of reception room and

connecting offices (p. 84; Morgan, 1950, p.1).

A diagram of the new studios is shown as Graphic B. Studio Diagram, which was originally published, and taken from, the July-August 1951 issue of Broadcast News, as part of a feature article, written by Morgan, discussing “Radio at Indiana State Teachers” College (pp. 34-35).

The integrity of this design outline may still be found in the Dreiser building studios operating today (R. Green, personal communication, August 4, 2017).

Graphic B Studio Diagram

In February, broadcasting began in the new studios, and dedication ceremonies were planned for the spring (“Broadcasts Start,” 1950). Plans for celebrating the opening of the new

ISTC Administration building, currently known as Gillum Hall (Figure 10), and the Language and Mathematics building, currently known as Dreiser Hall (Figure 11), where the new radio suite was located, were announced at the beginning of April, revealing the official dedication to

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take place on April 14, 1950 (“Dedication Plans Listed,” 1950). Presented from a stage in the

Student Union Building, Indiana Governor Henry Schricker turned the new buildings over “to the school authorities on behalf of the state of Indiana,” during the “official Dedication

Broadcast” (“Dedication Plans Listed,” 1950; Morgan, 1951, p. 85).

Figure 10 Gillum Hall Figure 11 Dreiser Hall7

“Through the cooperation of Miss Judith Waller, Public Affairs Director, Central Division, NBC, and Mr. Ferrell Rippetoe, manager of WBOW,” the program was broadcast coast-to-coast (p. 85;

“Buildings Dedicated Today,” 1950). Doc “supervised the writing and production of the entire program” and the entire dedication program script may be found on pages 86-96 of Ruth

Holaday Morgan’s 1951 Master’s Thesis, which is available online (Morgan, 1951, p. 85).

Unfortunately, the Dedication Broadcast is one of the few NBC programs that no longer seems to exist, at least not at the Library of Congress, which houses most of the NBC collection.

Publications. As part of the Dedication celebration, “guests from throughout the state and nation” were able to tour the new studios and office suite during an open house (p. 97). In

7 Photographs taken are property of the author.

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October, the new studios were “hailed as the best in the country” for students, and in November, a description of the new radio suite was published in one of the Federal Radio Education

Committee’s Service Bulletins, in which Morgan “pays high tribute to the management of

WBOW, AM and FM, for its fine cooperation in making time available” (“National Magazine

Gives,” 1950; “Radio Division Begins,” 1950; p. 2; “Radio Division,” 1950). In April 1951, The

Central States Speech Journal published an article written by Morgan entitled “Radio and the

Speech Family,” in which he, “encouraged colleges and universities to make use of commercial radio stations in order to enlarge their services to schools and communities” (“Morgan Story

Printed,” 1951). In the article, Morgan addresses programming and timing changes, which had been a factor in the disintegration of some of the other radio broadcasting cooperatives, and stressed that the “attitude of the college in fulfilling its commitments to the station” has a lot to do with a successful partnership, as seen through the example of ISTC (Morgan, 1951, p. 5).

Doc definitely seemed to be in the advice-giving mood, for in the July/August 1951

Broadcasting article, mentioned previously, Morgan writes, the “basic fundamentals” for inclusion in constructing a radio division are,

availability to the control room during broadcast periods; (2) ease of entrance

into each studio when on or off the air; (3) ready movement of guests in and

out of the radio center; (4) an auditorium type audience room to accommodate

visiting listeners and students; (5) an elevated control room to facilitate

cueing; (6) an announcer’s room from which perfect control over radio level is

possible; (7) an air conditioning system; (8) storage rooms for electrical

transcriptions and recordings; (9) a script room; (10) a sound effects display

room; (11) a maintenance shop; (12) an adequate office suite; and (13) high

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fidelity equipment with both rehearsal and broadcast units (Morgan, 1951, p.

34).

The rooms in the new suite all had “acoustically treated walls,” which is important, because, at this time, 16 weekly radio programs were originating from the Radio Department (p. 35;

Morgan, 1951).

Hints of Television

The Radio Department had come a long way since ISTC’s first broadcast in 1929. It was now settled into its new location, which was nationally recognized as “one of the most elaborate college radio setups in the country,” and it had expanded its use of WBOW AM and FM

(Morgan, 1952, p. 1; “Programs on Air,” 1951). Its graduates were hired by WBOW, as well as the most prestigious broadcasting outlets and academic institutions in the U. S., including NBC-

TV in New York City and Abilene Christian College in Texas (“Indiana State Graduates,” 1951;

“Former Students Direct,” 1951).

In the spring of 1952, Morgan was named to 1951-1952 Who’s Who in American

Education, for his “outstanding work in the field of teaching, writing, and research” (“Faculty

Members,” 1952). He was in the midst of “preparing a brochure describing a proposed new television station” for presentation to ISTC’s president and Board (“Radio Group Plans,” 1952).

In June, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allocated 242 television channels for non-commercial, educational use only, yet many educators were financially incapable of constructing television studios (Bodin, 1953). ISTC was one, among many, academic institutions trying to find funding for the new medium. Morgan was “planning to include in the future, an introduction course in television when the equipment is approved” (Bielski, 1953).

This was reflected in late 1952 when Morgan’s title changed yet again, and he went from

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“Professor of Speech and Director of Radio, to Professor of Speech and Director of Radio and television” (State Teachers College Board, 1952).

Spring 1953 did not bring May flowers. It brought a demonstration of “closed circuit television,” where a television camera was placed in a classroom and attendees could view what was happening in the gallery (“Progress Exhibition Opening,” 1953). It also brought Doc’s wife,

Ruth Morgan, to Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC) as a “part time Instructor” (State

Teachers College Board, 1953). ISTC was short-handed and needed the help (T. Morgan, personal communication, November 17, 2015).

In April 1954, The Indiana Statesman issued a photograph of the “new $4 million

Television Center” (Graphic C), shown here (“Television Center,” 1954).

Graphic C. Television Center

Morgan’s dream of broadcasting television was still not a reality. The description below the picture seems to confirm that it was. In reality, the picture and description were part of a special

April Fool’s Day edition of the student newspaper. In August, the FCC announced that “after two years there have been no applications filed for 81.8 per cent of the television channels set

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aside for educational use” (“Few Educational Television,” 1954). Similar to the days of early radio broadcasting, commercial networks started to complain.

One year after the April Fool’s Day spoof, in April 1955, ISTC President Raleigh W.

Holmstedt, announced “approval of the budget for television and authorized television instruction” at ISTC, and on May 11th, bids were accepted and some even approved (“Television

Plans Get,” 1955; State Teachers College Board, 1955). Television instruction was scheduled to begin in the Winter quarter (“Morgan and Boyle,” 1955). The State Teachers College Board had also approved a short, unpaid leave of absence to allow Jim Boyle to study “educational television at the University of Michigan” (“Morgan and Boyle,” 1955).

In October, the television studio was almost complete and the “latest equipment on the market” installed in former radio Studio B (“TV Studio,” 1955). Television equipment included,

“two camera chains, camera control monitoring system, inter-communication system, lighting systems, and boom microphone” (“TV Studio,” 1955). Although the students were not televising programs at the start, Morgan stated, when they do, “we will be one of the very few colleges or universities in the United States where students do everything” (‘TV Studio,” 1955). The growth of ISTC’s Radio-Television program required a change in faculty. In April 1956, Ruth Morgan was temporarily added to the Radio Division faculty as an “Acting Instructor in Radio

Communications,” James Boyle was promoted to Assistant Professor of Speech, and more graduate students were utilized (State Teachers College Board, 1956).

While television was up-and-coming, radio activity was still bringing in the accolades. In

May 1957, former Story Princess of the Air, Wanda Ramey, was named as “Radio-TV Woman of the Year” by San Francisco Examiner Columnist Dwight Newton and Doc was reported saying, “We’re very proud of Wanda” (“Radio Alumna,” 1957; Yates, 1957). As always, in

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June, Morgan’s annual report began by thanking the management of WBOW for their “perfect cooperation,” only this time, Morgan was thanking a former student (Morgan, 1958). Martin

Plascek was now WBOW’s program director (Morgan, 1958). Similar to 1944, when FM was the new kid on the block. Morgan was appointed, in June 1958, to a study committee looking into the possible “uses of television as a medium for classroom instruction” (“Dr. Morgan named, 1958). Classroom instruction of television began on a local level.

During the Winter of 1958 and Spring of 1959, Morgan entered into a cooperative partnership with Mr. Joseph H. Higgins, Manager of local television station WTHI and began live television broadcasts (Morgan, 1959). Students rehearsed in the ISTC campus studios and

“were televised live from the studios of WTHI-TV” (Morgan, 1959). In March, Indiana State

Teachers College (ISTC) was “accredited in the area of Radio and Television” and Doc’s annual report included the “First Annual Report of Television,” which revealed 41 live television broadcasts, totaling 615 minutes of free air time given to ISTC by WTHI-TV (Morgan, 1959).

Programs included music, “Science Education,” and the College itself (“New TV Series,” 1959;

“Radio-Television Center,” 1959).

Still Going Strong

After twenty-five years of continuous radio broadcasting, through its cooperative partnership with WBOW, ISTC was still going strong. Television broadcasting was in its infancy and many of the standard educational radio programs, including Story Princess of the

Music Box and Peter Rabbit News Service, were still reaching over 100 Wabash Valley classrooms (“Radio, TV Students,” 1959; Tirey, 1954). The Story Princess of the Music Box was “one of the oldest regular programs in the broadcast studios,” while the Peter Rabbit News

Service program “received recognition from CBS for being the only children’s news show on the

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air” (“Department broadcasts radio,” 1959). By now, Mr. Joe T. Duncan had been added to the staff, and the yearly lists of student personnel in Morgan’s annual reports kept getting longer and longer.

The 1960s

Doc’s 1959-1960 report reveals the Radio-TV Department produced 80 televised broadcasts, totaling 1,200 minutes of free air time, in cooperative partnership with WTHI, in addition to 238 radio broadcasts, in cooperative partnership with WBOW, which totaled 2,720 minutes of free air time (Morgan, 1960, p. 17; p. 12).

Airborne

In the summer of 1960, ISTC and the Midwest Program on Airborne Television sponsored a week-long “educational television workshop” (“Educational television workshop,”

1960). All aspects of educational television and airborne programs, transmitted by airplane, were covered in over 20 meetings during the five days. October found the installation of closed circuit television taking place (“Airborne Television,” 1961). This seemed to be a popular response to teacher shortages because one teacher would be able to teach a greater number of students (“Airborne Television,” 1961). ISTC was part of the airborne television experiment in

Indiana and demonstration telecasts were set to begin on January 30, 1961; however, the “test pattern” broadcast did not take place until February (“Airborne Television,” 1960; “Test pattern broadcast,” 1961).

Radio Tape Network

Experimentation was taking place in the radio program as well. Reaching more students, across the state of Indiana, had been under discussion for years. Radio station owners, throughout the state, suggested ISTC radio programs “be made available for use” by their station,

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through the “means of radio tapes” (Morgan, 1962, p. 9). Under the administration of Joe T.

Duncan, now an Assistant Professor of Speech, tape-duplicating facilities were purchased and placed into operation in the Radio Control Room at the beginning of the school year. A centralized broadcasting cooperative (Graphic A), with more than one location, was put into place. Sportscasting had been a part of ISTC’s schedule of radio broadcasting for many years, and now, weekly, five-minute sports programs would be distributed throughout Indiana via the radio tape network (“Radio network,” 1961). The radio broadcasts used in this program “were broadcast free of all costs” by all participating stations, of which there were fourteen, including

WBOW (Morgan, 1962, pp. iv-v). The first radio program was duplicated and distributed on

September 26, 1961 (p. 9). From September 1961 until June 1962, 443 radio broadcasts were presented through the radio tape network (p. iv). In February 1962 alone, “sixty-nine taped programs were sent from Indiana State to cities throughout the state” (“Duncan sends radio,”

1962).

WVIS/WISU-FM

1963 was another eventful year for the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air. In October

1962, a construction permit was granted for Indiana State College (ISU) to build its own campus

FM radio station (“Radio station,” 1963). The studios would be in the Language-Mathematics building “with the transmitter in the second unit of men’s residence halls” (“Radio station,”

1963). In December, the new station was “granted the call letters WVIS—Voice of Indiana

State” (“Radio station,” 1963). In February 1963, “closed circuit television operation started,” and if there wasn’t enough going on, in April, ISTC applied for an “Educational UHF band

Television Station” (Morgan, 1963, p. I; “College applies,” 1963). A lot was happening in the

Radio-TV Center. Portions of the basement, in two buildings, the Administration building and

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the Language-Mathematics building, were being remodeled to house a new computer center and new “instructional and operational” television facilities, while the new FM station, WVIS would take over the second-floor studios, with the hope of going on the air in October (“WVIS to be,”

1963).

In August, Doc’s work schedule, showing very little spare time, was published in the student newspaper (“Professor airs busy,” 1963). With Morgan’s work ethic, it is little wonder that the radio-television department kept growing. This growth was covered in a May 1964 feature article, and at the same time, WVIS-FM “received a telegram from the Federal

Communications Commission okaying transmission” (“Campus Radio-TV,” 1964; “WVIS

Receives OK,” 1964).

Thirty Years of Broadcasting

Morgan’s annual report for 1963-1964 was now over 40 pages long and divided into sections covering the “30th consecutive year of broadcasting…over Radio Station WBOW,” the

“3rd year of broadcasting…over the Radio Tape Network Service,” the “6th consecutive year of telecasting…over Television Station WTHI-TV,” the “2nd year of television Instruction…over

Closed Circuit Television,” and the “1st year of the College-owned Radio Station, WVIS-FM” (p. iii). At this point, the staff of the Radio-Television Center consisted of Morgan, Boyle, Duncan, and Mr. Carlton H. Benz, an Assistant Professor of Speech, along with five graduate assistants, one of which was Morgan’s own son, Thomas O. Morgan. Only Doc knows what it must have been like to work with his son, as a Graduate Assistant, at his side (Morgan, 1964, p. 2). For

Thomas, now Dr. Thomas O. Morgan, he describes this time as the “best year or two of my life”

(T. Morgan, personal communication, March 13, 2018).

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Sadly, Dr. Robert Masters passed away just as ISTC’s 31st year of broadcasting was just beginning (“Robert Masters,” 1964; “Indiana State College,” 1964). Indiana State College (ISC) was still broadcasting the old favorite programs over WBOW AM when the call letters WVIS were changed to WISU-FM 89.7, and “the radio voice” of ISC began its broadcast of “education- informative and entertaining programming” in Doc’s trademark style (“WISU News,” 1964).

The first ISC broadcast took place “Friday, November 13, 1964, at 5:00 p.m.” and the operational staff of WISU included “a basic staff of 70” people, with “other students, administration, and faculty” participating in various programs (Morgan, 1965; p. 39).

The last annual report, for the 1964-1965 broadcast year, was a group effort, because the scope of activities of the Radio-Television Center prevented Morgan from having the time to compile all the detailed information himself (T. Morgan, personal communication, March 13,

2018). Morgan does address this in the “Foreward” page of the report, which states,

The activities of the Radio-Television Center of Indiana State University have so

developed by the 31st year of activities that a report prepared by one individual is

no longer feasible; therefore, a new format is being followed in this report

(Morgan, 1965, p. i).

Each faculty member was assigned a section. Dr. Boyle reported on the television activities (i.e., closed circuit, telecasts over WTHI, etc.), Dr. Duncan reported on the radio activities (i.e.,

WBOW broadcasts, WISU-FM, Radio Tape Network, etc.), and Doc assembled and edited each report “in order to give continuity and conformity” to the document (p. i).

The End…or is it?

There are no further annual reports to discuss. Whether Morgan or Duncan stopped producing them or they’ve been forever lost to the annals of history may never be known. There

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does not seem to be any other documentation regarding a continuance of the broadcasting cooperatives that had proven to be so successful during Morgan’s career. The Radio-Television

Center and Speech Department changed greatly after Morgan, and his beloved Ruth, retired to

Florida in the summer of 1969. They never returned to ISU or even Indiana because of Doc’s belief that former professors, haunting the academic halls where they had once taught classes, were rather pathetic (T. Morgan, personal communication, November 17, 2015; Myers, 2016),

During his lifetime, being a humble man, Doc never sought accolades, although he was immensely proud when his students achieved them. He always thanked those who helped him and was willing to help anyone who asked. After Doc passed away, July 19, 1995, former ISU students and faculty nominated and successfully gained Morgan’s induction into the Indiana

Broadcast Pioneers Hall of Fame (Myers, 2016). His son accepted the award in his stead in

2003. Words written in correspondence between Morgan’s son Thomas, and former student,

Darrell Wible, illustrate his father’s humility and work ethic perfectly. “If it were not for efforts of those who loved him, Doc would have ‘lived, worked, and died and have been remembered only in the minds of those whose lives he personally touched throughout his working life’”

(Morgan, 2003, O1; Myers, 2016). Morgan’s reputation as an ethical, hardworking, and compassionate educational broadcaster have been documented orally, through interviews with former students and colleagues, and in writing, through government documents, newspapers, trade magazines, and letters of personal recommendation from former students and coworkers.

Former student Julie Reder Fairley states, “One thing I admired most about Doc was his curiosity” (J. Fairley, personal communication, April 18, 2018). This author has observed that these are family traits, for his son also embodies the same qualities.

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In Summary

The chapters leading up to this narrative established the cultural context and cooperative worldview inherent in the state of Indiana, Indiana State Teachers College (ISTC), and more specifically, the successful and lengthy cooperative partnership between ISTC, under the leadership of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, and WBOW AM. Chapters Four and Five established the chronological narrative of this cooperative, and doing so, these chapters illustrate the seemingly enormous success of this unique early radio broadcasting cooperative. There do not seem to be other equally successful examples as many other early radio broadcasting cooperatives failed, yet some of the success in this particular case study was its ability to spawn other broadcasting cooperatives between ISTC’s Radio Division and civic organizations, local community leadership, state and national governmental agencies and organizations. This particular broadcasting cooperative seemed primarily focused on education and their local community. Morgan’s innovate educational strategy combined with WBOW’s willingness to provide resources resulted in this cooperative partnership being held up by the leaders of the day

(i.e., government, broadcasting, education, etc.) as an extraordinary example of what it takes to make cooperation work.

The primary role of cooperatives in early radio broadcasting is basically the same as the primary role of broadcasting co-ops today. It is economics that drives any cooperative, whether it be agriculture, electricity, credit unions or means of broadcasting. The Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air’s personal narrative perfectly provides answers to the second research question, which asked what factors in the relationship between Indiana State Teachers College’s Radio Division, under the leadership of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, and WBOW 1230 AM illustrated a long- lasting, productive, and influential early radio broadcasting cooperative. If one were to quantify

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success, they need only to look at Appendix C to see the length and production resulting from this early radio broadcasting cooperative. During the 35 years documented, WBOW, AM and

FM, donated over 125,000 minutes of air time, and in return, ISTC produced over 9,800 live radio broadcasts. Through all of its cooperative partnerships, up through Morgan’s retirement,

ISU received more than 190,000 minutes of free radio and television air time and produced over

17,500 live and taped broadcasts (Appendix D). As previously stated, the lack of viable WBOW documentation prevents commentary on the motive of the commercial station, so it is unknown if it was primarily economic, the requirement for sustaining programs in the public interest, good public relations, or a combination of all three of these.

The influence of Morgan’s work traversed boundaries of space and time. During his lifetime, he was a visionary who worked hard to further the field of broadcasting, whether it was radio, facsimile, or television, through instruction, experimentation, and research. It is doubtful that this cooperative would have continued to exist or be the success that it was if Morgan had not taken over ISTC’s radio broadcasting activities. His drive to create educational programming, which integrated entertainment and education, pioneered a new style of radio broadcasts for children. In doing so, he created an amazing legacy for all educational broadcasters to build upon, not just Indiana State University or the state of Indiana. His influence is still being felt today in the stories of listeners whose lives the broadcasting co-ops work touched in some way. Examples include: 2017 Distinguished Alumni recipient Bernie

Carney, a former student of Doc’s, who thanked Morgan in his acceptance speech; and a woman in Epcot at Walt Disney World, engaging me in conversation this past December about how she listened to the Story Princess of the Music Box program. Further examples of this legacy are discussed in Chapter Six.

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Chapter Six

Having a Cooperative Discussion

The chronology of early radio broadcasting, described in Chapter One, is still under discussion over one hundred years after the first radio pioneer experimented with the new medium. The Cooperative Movement, detailed in Chapter Two, is no different. While the previous chapters also described the chronological and biographical narratives of Indiana State

University (ISU) and Dr. Clarence M. Morgan, Chapter Six intertwines the importance of this study with a concluding discussion, including the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air’s lasting legacy, future research needs, and any possible limitations of this research.

Cooperative Importance

The primary purpose of this study is restoration of a missing piece of early broadcasting history that occurred during the struggle for control of American air waves in the early 20th century. In all actuality, this work is restoring missing pieces in multiple areas, which are connected by early radio broadcasting history, such as the history of the Cooperative Movement, the history of Indiana and the Indiana State University (ISU), educational broadcasting, and restoration of the history and legacy of Dr. Clarence M. Morgan to all of the above. In order to restore these missing pieces, this work briefly examined the various factors contributing to their absence. To begin with, the struggle is complex. Multiple contributing facets, other than the much-discussed factors of legislation, spectrum scarcity, and frequency allocation, which have been commonly analyzed in academic literature (i.e., Blakely, 1979; McChesney, 1993; Slotten,

2006, etc.) were uncovered during a review of the literature of the time. This revealed additional factors, which seem to have complicated the struggle for control of radio during its early stages.

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Primary Historical Lapses

My dissertation does not involve a specific research problem to address or solve, other than the problem of filling a seemingly important void in the history of broadcasting and the relationships between commercial entities and educational institutions that were an important part of that history. This lapse is not just in the absence of current, written publication (i.e., academic articles, books, etc.) that deals with early radio broadcasting history and history of the

Cooperative Movement. It is also the lack of recognizing the pervasive impact of the

Cooperative Movement, during the first part of the 20th century, and then connecting it with the ways it impacted radio broadcasting. This is an important contribution, made by this study, through discussion of early radio broadcasting cooperative types (i.e., radio councils, advisory boards, etc.).

It is general knowledge that cooperatives profoundly benefitted the lives of most

Americans, in many ways, especially prior to World War II. Common examples are agriculture, electrification, the CCC, and education. The creation of broadcasting cooperatives is not general knowledge. Publications prior to World War II showed cooperative purpose by revealing that educators and commercial broadcasters needed each other. The creation of many “local” and

“super local” cooperatives, which are cooperatives categorized by “market area” in rural geographic locations, was also prompted by geography (Zeuli & Cropp, 2004, p. 33). Educators, without a college or university radio station, wanted to use radio as an educational tool and needed air time and a means of instructing students in the new technology, while commercial broadcasters needed a way to fill air time with sustaining programs in the public interest, at little or no cost, and needed cheap labor (i.e., college students) to do so. They really did need each other.

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Apart from current cooperative organizations, such as the Co-operative Heritage Trust

Rochdale Pioneers Museum, the National Cooperative Business Association, and the

International Co-operative Alliance, broadcasting cooperatives are unknown and undiscovered territory in their scope of knowledge. In other words, it is forgotten history or even may be considered an addendum to the ‘hidden history’ discussed in Chapter Two.

By examining co-ops in broadcasting, this dissertation restores pieces of history and/or adds a new research area of study dealing with cooperation. This discourse also introduces academic definitions for “cooperative partnership(s),” “radio broadcasting cooperative(s),” and

“broadcasting cooperative(s),” which describe the various ways cooperation occurs within various broadcasting mediums even though this particular dissertation is specific to early radio.

Restoring a Legacy

With the exception of a few mentions in literature, prior to World War II, and Eugene

Leach’s 1983 article, cooperatives in any form of broadcasting have never really been touched upon, let alone fully covered. The impact of the Cooperative Movement, on Indiana and at

Indiana State University, is shown in the town of New Harmony, archival records, and local newspapers to be inherent and intrinsic to their identity (“Co-op Institute,” 1939). This was certainly the case with the cooperative partnership between Indiana State Teachers College

(ISTC) and WBOW in Terre Haute, Indiana, which seems to be an almost natural collaboration due to ISTC’s cooperative identity.

In the process of examining the cooperative partnership between Indiana State University

(ISTC) and WBOW 1230 AM, this study restores ISTC’s legacy of radio broadcasting, under

Morgan’s leadership. As in many colleges and universities, who have similar stories about the development of an academic broadcasting program that involves cooperation with commercial

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broadcasters, key pioneers were critical to success. In this study, it was first an ISTC Physics professor, J. B. Hershman, whose interest and early experimentation in the medium began what is now ISU’s almost 90-year legacy of educational radio broadcasting. A legacy which ISU should proudly embrace. It was Hershman who provided leadership, albeit temporarily, that led to program consistency, a specific style of program format, and a complementary radio course, which shows ISTC’s serious intent to build a curriculum of broadcasting. That intent on ISTC’s part, however, was still to train future educators how to use this new medium as an educational tool, not to train broadcasters. When Hershman moved on to Dodge’s Institute of Telegraphy, it all seemed to fall apart for lack of strong leadership. Harold Bright was either unable or did not want to fill Hershman’s shoes. For him, radio was a part-time gig, and he was more interested in the music and education side of the teaching curriculum. It was ISTC’s new President Tirey who saved the program from fading into obscurity by assigning the responsibility for it to Clarence

Morgan.

If that had not taken place, this would be a much different document, and there is no doubt the cooperative partnership would have failed instead of experiencing immense success.

This success pushed the ISTC broadcasting program into the national spotlight for becoming one of the best broadcast training programs in the country. In addition, while previously published documentation assigned credit for the cooperative partnership to Dr. Clarence M. Morgan

(Myers, 2016), surprisingly, the archival paper trails reveals it was Hershman who brokered the initial co-op deal through his personal involvement with WBOW. Because of Hershman’s initial success, Morgan was left with a foundation for partnership on which to build.

As a case study, this initial cooperative partnership is a good example of an early radio broadcasting cooperative. The literature of the time (i.e., trade magazines, books, articles, etc.)

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reveal that many, if not most, early radio broadcasting co-ops failed, due to some level of cooperative member dissatisfaction or were replaced by internal cooperatives when the college or university became financially sound enough to establish a campus radio station. Many other early cooperatives were successful until the advent of FM changed the radio landscape. This was not the case at ISU, whose cooperative partnership flourished and became an even better case study example under Morgan’s tenure.

Discussing the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air

Prior to this study, no one, other than close family and friends or former colleagues and students of Morgan’s, even knew such important events in early radio broadcasting had come out of a small Teachers College in Terre Haute, Indiana. In talking to several current and prestigious radio broadcasting scholars (i.e., Dr. Christopher Sterling, Dr. Joshua Shepperd, Dr. Alan

Stavitsky, etc.), at the beginning of this project, they knew the Midwest was prolific in early radio broadcasting due in part to experimentation by land-grant colleges and universities. They told of the work done at Purdue University, in Lafayette, and Indiana University, in

Bloomington; however, Indiana State University was not even mentioned.

Dr. Clarence M. Morgan’s personal narrative may be considered by many to be similar to every other educator who dabbled in broadcasting and is considered a ‘broadcasting pioneer’ by their community or academic institution; however, it is this author’s contention that his story, especially his involvement in ISTC’s cooperative partnership, is unique and worthy of public and historical acknowledgement. As the Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air, Morgan’s record of strong educational broadcasting is stellar and unique. The extensive body of work, produced through cooperative partnership and experiential learning, makes it a perfect case study for the demonstration of a successful broadcasting co-op (Appendix D).

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Success of this co-op can be seen through the length of time it encompassed, which was at least 35 years, and the body of radio programs resulting from it. This success seems to be reliant on a majority of Rochdale Principles. For example, membership in this cooperative was open and voluntary. Due to lack of records, it is unknown how democratic the co-op between

ISTC and WBOW actually was; however, the radio committees, or internal cooperative, was made up of volunteer faculty and students, emulating a democratic process. The co-operating partners were independent, and both promoted education through participation in the experiential learning process. There was cooperation among the cooperative partners, and Morgan never failed to thank WBOW, and any other cooperative partner, in his annual reports, for their joint broadcasting success. ISTC used WBOW’s facilities to train students and WBOW used ISTC’s facilities, for special events and broadcasts, to the point they were viewed as separate, yet showing strong cooperation. Both Morgan and WBOW showed concern for the Terre Haute community by engaging in community events and assisting local civic organizations with their broadcasting needs. It is unknown if Morgan, or WBOW, was aware of the Rochdale Principles, yet it does seem as if their cooperative partnership was based on them, providing us with a sound example of application to broadcasting.

As an example of a dedicated educational broadcasting pioneer, Morgan’s accomplishments and strong support of educational broadcasting have much to contribute to the way educational broadcasters operate today. His entertainment-education based strategy may be seen in current educational radio and television programming. The educational children’s programs created through this co-op were leaders in the field and innovative for their time. The

Peter Rabbit News Service was recognized as one of the only children’s radio programs

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providing real-life news coverage. Uncovering the details of these programs might even lead to further related publications.

Restoring Morgan’s legacy, as an early educational broadcasting pioneer, and unveiling the developmental narrative of this cooperative partnership is valuable in their example as a successful broadcasting cooperative, especially when so many others failed. Both ISTC and

WBOW operated within a society influenced by the cooperative movement, so it does not seem surprising that they started a broadcast cooperative within this environment. The confidence, of both co-op partners in their ability to broadcast quality radio programs, developed as listener response, in the form of station calls and letters, increased. When Morgan took ISTC’s radio broadcasting over, the majority of radio programs had been music based, similar to Walter

Damrosch’s successful music broadcasts. Snippets of faculty discussion were added, yet there was minimal education-based radio broadcasting, and nothing was being done to educate local listeners. With President Tirey’s support and WBOW’s continued involvement as a cooperative partner, the development of two types of educational programs allowed Morgan to establish an entertainment-education style program strategy. It also allowed him to implement experiential learning.

Cooperative Influence

The development of the educational radio techniques by this cooperative influenced more than its local community of Terre Haute. The educational radio programs they created supplemented the curriculum of over 125 public schools, reaching 600,000 listeners in the

Wabash Valley, and elicited more than 1,000 visitors each year who wanted to see ISTC’s success first hand (Tirey, 1954, p. 40). Morgan’s son even recalls an assignment where graduate students were sent into these schools to observe children listening to the radio programs (T.

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Morgan, personal communication, November 17, 2015). President Tirey reports ISTC’s success in radio by writing, “gradual expansion of radio education” brought with it “a position of great prestige in U. S. higher education” (Tirey, 1954, p. 34). Some of the visitors to ISTC were broadcasting faculty from other colleges or universities, in other states and countries, who were looking to replicate Doc’s success. These academic visitors were not limited to educational institutions in the United States. The University of British Columbia, in Canada, was one of the international visitors and even requested that Morgan teach several courses for them.

Morgan’s implementation of experiential learning combined with an entertainment- education based strategy was replicated by many of the leading educational institutions. The annual summer Radio Workshops taught hundreds of educators how to implement Morgan’s educational broadcast strategies and techniques to create educational content on their own campus. A great example of this is Illinois State, whose early broadcasting faculty attended

Morgan’s radio workshop. Interestingly enough, it is an Illinois State alumnus running the current ISU broadcast and student media programs—an indirect result of this pioneer’s work.

Some visitors, were radio scholars, like Waldo Abbot, who wrote the first radio textbook, and

Carroll Atkinson, who was a prolific writer in the new medium. In 1976, the name “Hoosier

Schoolmasters on the Air” was given to a successful program of Indiana State University (ISU) radio and TV courses for “lifelong learners” (“ISU Will Present,” 1976). The success of

Morgan’s work inspired those who came after him and should inspire today’s educators and broadcasters to employ these same strategies. Experiential education and the modern term of

“service learning” have great merit in preparing students for real-world employment and assisting both public and private organizations in meeting the need for a trained and capable labor force.

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Nationally, cooperative impact was seen in the constant stories which appeared in broadcasting trade magazines, government publications, and the demand for ISTC radio scripts from the U. S. Education Department, the War Department (during World War II), NBC, and the

American Automobile Association. The quality of their work also earned both Morgan and

WBOW the unofficial title of broadcast pioneers, from multiple sources, which they most definitely were. This level of success resulted in the development of Morgan’s other broadcasting cooperatives with WTHI-FM, the Radio Tape Network, and Closed-Circuit television. There is no reason why this success could not be replicated today using the same methodology Morgan implemented.

Doc’s students. Quantification of the programs created by ISTC and the minutes of air time donated by WBOW, and the other cooperative partners (Appendix D), reveal just how prolific and successful this cooperative was; however, there is even more evidence to convey its widespread impact. As a group, Doc’s students include a public relations mogul, the first black announcer in Indiana, David Letterman’s favorite professor, the first female reporter in San

Quentin State Prison, “the Cal Ripkin of sports broadcasting,” according to Phil Donahue, a writer for “cartoon episodes for an animation studio,” and one of ISU’s 2017 Distinguished

Alumni (Williams, 2000, p. 13; Fairley, 2010). Myra Janco Daniels, Robert Gill, Dr. Darrell E.

Wible, Wanda Ramey, Omar Williams, Julie Reder Fairley, and Bernie Carney are just a few of the long list of Radio/TV alumni who have gone on to do great things with the radio broadcasting lessons learned from Doc Morgan. There are many more alumni, who worked as college professors, private consultants, voiceover actors, and in most of the major radio and television broadcasting networks in the United States. Research into these alumni stories would

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provide more evidence supporting the co-op's success, but as it is, the list is too numerous to catalog at this point. It would make for interesting research at another time.

WISU-FM. The strength of the cooperative partnership may also be seen in the building of ISU’s radio station, WISU-FM. When it was finished in 1964, it did not replace student broadcasts over WBOW-AM. It complemented them, working together to cover the broadcast needs of the Terre Haute community. Although it is not covered in this dissertation, Morgan fought for educational broadcasting and reserved FM channels. After Morgan retired, the Radio

Department and WISU-FM went through a period of regression with a major loss of quality educational programming. In 2014, nineteen years after Doc passed away, ISU once again engaged in a broadcasting partnership (“Indiana State Acquires,” 2014). ISU acquired WMHD,

90.7 FM from the Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, also located in Terre Haute (“Indiana

State Acquires,” 2014). WISU began rebroadcasting National Public Radio programs, while the call letters WHMD were changed to WZIS and is being used for experiential learning (“Indiana

State Acquires,” 2014). In the announcement, ISU President Bradley congratulatory remarks indicated that he seemed unaware of ISU’s and Morgan’s amazing history of experiential learning, for he stated that these changes would continue “Indiana State’s 50-year tradition of providing experiential learning for student broadcasters” (“Indiana State Acquires,” 2014). If he was just referring to WISU, then these remarks would make more sense. As of the writing of this study, three years after the announcement, ISU has been providing this learning style and program for almost 90 years.

Under the leadership of Mr. Richard Green, the current FM Radio Station Manager for

WISU and WZIS, ISU’s radio broadcasting programs, and students are once again winning awards and receiving national recognition for their work. This may be seen in Table 7 Current

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Broadcasting Accolades (located in additional documents), which lists the ones received under his tenure, and in local news media. In the 2015 Indiana Association of School Broadcasters competition, Senior Kurt Darling “placed first in radio sportscast…and second in radio newscast

(“Three Sycamores place,” 2015). Senior Sadie All and sophomore “Hyeln Ko of Seoul, South

Korea…competed together and won third place in the division of television spot production”

(“Three Sycamores place,” 2015). In 2016, ISU students were “finalists [in] the 2016 College

Media Association Pinnacle Awards for radio production work” (“Indiana State Students,”

2016). According to Green, “the students continue to put out quality work and it is great that they are being recognized nationally” (“Indiana State Students,” 2016).

ISU and Green are building on the strong foundation created by Morgan, through ISTC’s cooperative partnership with WBOW. In restoring Morgan’s rightful place as an esteemed and nationally recognized educational broadcaster, this work recognizes his insightful and progressive pioneering leadership, which resulted in this strong foundation. It also resulted in what appears to be the longest-running educational children’s radio program in early broadcast history, Story Princess of the Music Box, and a legacy of student success in virtually every major broadcast outlet, which continues today.

Unfortunately, while records from 2008 show the existence of some of Morgan’s award- winning work surviving the passage of time, according to ISU’s current archivist, ISU “can do nothing if something is not in our holdings-such as the case with Dr. Morgan’s collection” (K.

Sutrina-Haney, personal communication, September 19, 2017). It is my belief this collection, whatever it contains, still exists in some forgotten dusty corner.

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Limitations and Future Research

The work contained in this dissertation opens the door for future research in a multitude of ways. First, as suggested, research to examine all factors involved in the struggle for control of radio broadcasting would provide a more complete and comprehensive picture of actual historical events. It would help further understand why broadcasting cooperatives were or were not successful in this cultural context. There were several components contributing to the success of the co-op between ISTC and WBOW. Morgan had extensive experience broadcasting in his teens and college years. By 1934, he had been tinkering with radio for over 15 years. The co-op partnership had been in operation for several years before Morgan took over, revealing what worked and what did not, based on audience response, and ISTC’s internal cooperative.

Morgen implemented Rochdale-style leadership principles in dealing with cooperative partners and outside entities. ISTC also had presidential leadership who supported Morgan’s endeavors and was willing to make an investment in the future. It would be interesting to see if these factors existed in the broadcasting cooperatives who were replaced by campus FM stations. In addition, it would also be interesting to see what other components may be found and applicable to ISTC’s co-op. As for the broadcasting co-ops that failed, examination of the factors causing them to fail, such as not implementing the Rochdale Principles, would serve as a lesson for today’s broadcasting cooperatives.

Second, broadcasting cooperatives need to be examined in multiple broadcast fields and in a plethora of cultural contexts. The reason for this is while they’ve been introduced, in this paper, against the backdrop of New Deal politics and the Golden Age of Radio, broadcasting cooperatives seem to have existed both prior to, and after, this time period. By establishing an academic definition for “cooperative partnership(s),” and providing the academic terms, “radio

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broadcasting cooperative(s)” and “broadcasting cooperative(s),” this dissertation exposes a rich and robust vein of newly discovered research material. In other words, there is a need for a lot of future study. The success of the cooperative partnership between ISTC and WBOW was based on several primary factors, most notably alignment with the Rochdale Principles. Morgan’s experience as a broadcaster, focus on education, and innovative strategies combined with

WBOW’s willingness to prioritize education for long-term success, including educating its own future work force, also contributed to the success of this co-op. Future research could look for these same characteristics in other broadcast cooperatives.

Future research needs to look at other cooperatives in radio broadcasting in order to compare results and determine a level of overall success. Academic institutions, like Indiana

University, engaged in a co-op with their local commercial radio station until they received licensing for an FM station. It would be interesting to examine all aspects of other radio broadcasting cooperatives, within the Midwest and across the United States, with a primary focus on external co-ops. The interest in the impact of the cooperative movement on broadcasting has crossed the boundaries of both topic and geography, similar to the cooperative movement itself. That being said, future research also needs to be conducted on broadcast cooperatives in other mediums, such as film, television, journalism, and even the internet, as they still exist today. For example, in online reviews of data provided by Google Scholar and similar search engines, I discovered that current broadcast cooperatives, related to internet use, exist, yet the academic literature for them does not. An example of this is the rural telecommunications cooperatives like the NTCA The Rural Broadband Association, which serves “850 independent community-based telecommunications companies” in rural settings (“Who We Are,” 2018).

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As with any work of this nature, there are limitations. The scope of this dissertation was limited and did not cover all of the events, which took place in ISTC’s Radio Division, under

Morgan’s tenure. Thankfully, Morgan’s annual reports are intact, however, it is the contention of the ISU archive staff that nothing else exists of his time at ISU. Morgan recorded over 9,000 radio broadcasts, kept every script, and meticulously documented the work of the Radio

Division, according to his son, Thomas, who was an eyewitness to this documentation, so this is a tragic loss for the state of Indiana, ISU, the Morgan family, and the broadcasting community, specifically educational broadcasting. As with so many other academic institutions, regardless of the prestige, innovative broadcasting, and increased enrollment Morgan brought to ISU, artifacts were destroyed or lost, presumably for lack of storage space. For ISU, this seems to be an unsupported excuse since boxes of athletic artifacts and memorabilia have been saved. The lack of recorded evidence and primary documentation is inexcusable, given that other academic institutions in Indiana, like Indiana University, were able to save their “Department of Radio and

Television Chair’s records,” from 1939-1963 (“Indiana University Department,” 2018).

This research was also limited by the lack of records pertaining to WBOW AM and FM.

There is little in the way of documentation to provide the stakeholder view of WBOW and its management. In the late eighties, WBOW “moved to 640 with 250 watts day and night,” while the 1230 changed its call sign ”to WZDQ to match its sister FM outlet on 107.5” (Fybush, 2006).

The then station owner, Mike Rice, “was convicted on 12 felony charges of child sexual assault,” resulting in loss of licensing on October 4, 2001 (Fybush, 2006). The records connected to

WBOW seems to have been lost during these changes. WBOW is up-and-running once again in

Terre Haute, under new corporate management; however, there are no corporate records to be

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found. This loss is great for those in or studying broadcasting and limited the research conducted for this study.

There are other limitations in researching history, such as the inability to interview primary eyewitnesses, due to poor health or death, as is the case with Dr. James Boyle or Dr.

Darrell Wible. Eyewitness recall is also an issue, which introduces a degree of bias into every study. By using multiple published sources, the recollections and events discussed in this study have been substantiated, and bias minimized.

In Summary

In summary, leaving broadcast cooperatives out of any discussion of radio broadcasting history is a glaring oversight that this dissertation seeks to rectify. The same may be said of leaving ISU’s successful cooperative partnership and Morgan’s acknowledged educational pioneering out as well. These are all components which prompted Dr. John W. Studebaker, the

United States Commissioner of Education, to cite “ISTC radio as one of two divisions in the

United States worthy of national recognition” (Bielski, 1953). Research trips to collect data for this case study revealed the shocking omission of Morgan’s presence on the ISU campus, which needs correction. It would behoove ISU to make up for lost time by recognizing the enormous contribution Doc made in the areas discussed in this study. It is the author’s hope that ISU recognize the enormity of what took place on their campus by laying claim to the titles created by Morgan’s broadcast legacy, including what seems to be production of the longest-running children’s education radio program in early radio broadcasting history, what seems to be the longest, most successful broadcasting cooperative in broadcast history, along with the extraordinary body of work conducted in both curriculum and educational broadcasting.

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Because WBOW did not go out of business prior to Doc’s retirement in 1969, logic would dictate that the co-op continued at least until then, which extends the length of time ISU participated in the co-op to be roughly forty years and maybe even longer. This arguably makes the ISTC-WBOW cooperative partnership the longest and most successful broadcasting cooperative in radio history. It also provides researchers and scholars with a new, untapped, and rather meaty vein of research. Due to evidence of the existence of some surviving Morgan artifacts, it is conceivable that ISU might eventually discover them. This would only add to

Morgan’s legacy and add a notch in ISU’s extraordinary broadcasting belt, which includes a broadcasting record of almost 90 continuous years.

By introducing the cooperative partnership legacy of ISU and WBOW to broadcasting scholars, this work adds to formative broadcasting history and falls within the scope and mission of the Library of Congress’ Radio Preservation Task Force, which seeks,

1. To support collaboration between faculty researchers and archivists toward the

preservation of radio history

2. To develop an online inventory of extant American radio archival collections,

focusing on recorded sound holdings, including research aids

3. To identify and save endangered collections

4. To develop pedagogical guides for utilizing radio and sound archives

5. To act as a clearing house to encourage and expand academic study on the

cultural history of radio through the location of grants, the creation of research

caucuses, and development of metadata on extant materials (“National Recording

Preservation,” 2018).

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In agreement with the Radio Preservation Task Force, collaboration is key in the important work of discovering and preserving radio history. One does not dust off and present a history like Morgan’s without working together with archivists, radio scholars, and administrative personnel. The discovery and exploration of ISU’s educational broadcasting program contributes to the overall knowledge of radio history while leading the way for other radio scholars to research broadcast cooperatives in similar academic settings.

Dr. Clarence M. Morgan passed away in 1995, after a lifetime of interest in broadcasting technology and 2019 marks the 50th anniversary of his retirement from ISU. Many events have occurred since Morgan’s retirement, including a resurgence in the work he created, and it would be nice if ISU recognized his contribution to them, the Terre Haute community, and the field of educational broadcasting, in a unique and innovative way. Just like Doc Morgan himself. This dissertation attempts to do so in writing, while at the same time, works to correct any historical bias related to educational institutions who had their own radio broadcasting stations versus the educational institutions, like ISTC, who did not. In other words, the cooperative partnership between Indiana State University, under Dr. Clarence M. Morgan’s leadership, and WBOW

1230 AM is a history to preserve and learn valuable lessons from.

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Appendix A

Fall 2017 STATE Magazine Article

The Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air

Written by Mary E. Myers and Dr. Thomas O. Morgan (ISU alumnus)

When Dr. Clarence M. Morgan arrived at Indiana State Teacher’s College as a new member of the English faculty, he’d been building radio equipment and experimenting with broadcasting for 12 years. It didn’t take long for Dr. Hines, the school’s president, to recognize both his young faculty member’s skills and the potential importance of radio broadcasting. He quickly tasked Morgan with establishing campus radio studios and a curriculum of study, which would become State’s Communication Department.

Soon ISTC was getting nation-wide recognition for its ground-breaking work in radio, earning Morgan the title “The Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Air.” His cooperative relationship with local station WBOW-AM 1230 lasted over 30 years, and the station logged over 9000 programs, which originated from Morgan’s campus studios, all done by his students, many of whom went on to lifelong careers in broadcasting. His own voice never was heard on the air.

Before he retired in 1969 after 40 years at ISU, the school had its own broadcasting station –

WISU-FM -- and television studios so ISU students could enter not just radio, but the fast- growing business of television. For his pioneering work, he was inducted into the Indiana

Broadcast Pioneer’s Hall of Fame in 2003.

Research is currently being conducted into his many pioneering accomplishments. If you were a student of his we’d really appreciate hearing from you. Your memories will be a great part of “Doc” Morgan’s and ISU’s pioneering radio legacy. Please contact Mary E. Myers at [email protected].

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Appendix B

Table 4. First Year Program Schedule

Air Date Leader Program Description

November 10, 1930 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

November 17, 1930 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

November 24, 1930 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

December 1, 1930 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

December 8, 1930 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

December 15, 1930 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

December 22, 1930 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

December 29, 1930 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

January 5, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

January 12, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

January 19, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

January 26, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

February 2, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

February 9, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

February 16, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

February 23, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

March 2, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

March 9, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

March 16, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

March 23, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

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March 30, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

April 6, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

April 13, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

April 20, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

April 27, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

May 4, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

May 11, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

May 18, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

May 25, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

June 1, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

June 8, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

June 15, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

June 22, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

June 29, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

July 6, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

July 13, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

July 20, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

July 27, 1931 Prof. W. H. Bryant Music Hour Talk from English Dept.

August 3, 1931 Prof. J. B. Hershman Feature Hour Talk from Education Dept.

August 10, 1931 Miss Kathryn Owen Dormitory Girls Talk from Science Dept.

August 17, 1931 Prof. Harold Bright Old Memories Hour Talk from History Dept.

Data taken from ISTC Faculty Meeting Minute insert. All programs broadcast at 8:30 p.m. Monday night

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Appendix C

Radio Guild Radio-Television Award Winners (1945-1965)

1945 – Marjorie Wheat 1957 – Thomas Coldwell

James Boyle James K. Taylor

1948 – Patricia Phillips 1958 – Mary Ann Miller

Gordon Wiseman James K. Buckalew

1949 – William Marietta 1959 – John William Walker

1950 – Robert Edelman Jerry D. Weaver

Douglas Spurrier 1960 – Arnold Yarno

1951 – Dean Cannon 1961 – Jerry Baker

1952 – Louis Iaconnetti 1962 – Herbert Ray Bedwell

1953 – Edward Burtlett 1963 – Julia Reder Fairley

1954 – Charles Willis 1964 – Garry Hawkins

Kenneth Stoltz 1965 – Mr. Frederick (“Rick”) William Van

1956 – Special Radio Guild Award Sant

Yusuf Qutub

It is unknown if the Radio Guild or Award continued after the 1965 presentation.

List taken from the Thirty-First Annual Report, Radio Television Center, Indiana State

University, Terre Haute, Indiana, p. 7.

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