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Aflatoxin B1 Production by Aspergillus Parasiticus and Strains Of Food Control 43 (2014) 121e128 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Food Control journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont Aflatoxin B1 production by Aspergillus parasiticus and strains of Aspergillus section Nigri in currants of Greek origin Paraskevi Kostarelou a, Alexandros Kanapitsas a, Ioanna Pyrri b, Evangelia Kapsanaki-Gotsi b, Panagiota Markaki a,* a Department of Food Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, GR-15784 Athens, Greece b Department of Ecology and Systematics, Faculty of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece article info abstract Article history: Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) mostly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, is an extremely toxic Received 4 November 2013 and carcinogenic metabolite. Currants are used in the Mediterranean diet as a food with antioxidant Received in revised form properties. Four strains of Aspergillus section Nigri have been isolated from currants originated from Crete 28 January 2014 and Corinth. In this study AFB production by A. parasiticus and the four strains of Aspergillus section Nigri Accepted 8 February 2014 1 in Cretan and Corinthian currants (Vitis vinifera L.) is investigated. AFB determination was performed by Available online 17 March 2014 1 HPLCeFID. Results revealed that the four strains Aspergillus section Nigri, as well as the aflatoxigenic À1 strain A. parasiticus produced AFB1 (0.0052e1.31 mg AFB1 15 g , corresponding to 0.0003e0.087 mg Keywords: À1 AFB1 g ) in both type of currants (Cretan and Corinthian) on the 12th day of observation. Moreover, Aflatoxin B1 Aspergillus parasiticus AFB1 production, by A. parasiticus in the synthetic Yeast Extract Sucrose (YES) medium was also studied. Aspergillus section Nigri The ability of AFB1 production has been affected by the special characteristics of each isolate and the Currants currants substrate. Yeast extract sucrose Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd. HPLC 1. Introduction Aflatoxins (AFs) are highly toxic secondary metabolites pro- duced by the species of Aspergillus (A.), especially Aspergillus flavus Raisins constitute an important component of the Mediterra- and Aspergillus parasiticus (Wejdan et al., 2010). AFs are of great nean diet. They are considered to be a rich source of ascorbic acid, concern because of their harmful effects on the health of humans citric acid, malic and tartaric acids with plenty minerals, such as and animals, including carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and potassium, calcium and magnesium (Nour, Trandafir, & Ionica, immunosuppressive effects (Zinedine & Mañes, 2009). Aflatoxin B1 2011). Moreover, currants contain polyphenolic compounds such (AFB1) is the most potent hepatocarcinogen in mammals and it is as anthocyanins (Nour et al., 2011), vanillic acid, caffeic, gallic and classified by the International Agency of Research on Cancer as p-coumaric acids and quercetin. The consumption of currants Group 1 carcinogen (IARC, 1993a). contributes to the intake of antioxidants (Chiou et al., 2007) and These mycotoxin-producing mold species can grow on a wide moreover they have potent anticarcinogenic properties against range of agricultural commodities in the field, but also during post- several cancers like hepatocellular carcinogenesis in rats (Bishayee harvest operations and storage conditions (Zinedine & Mañes, et al., 2011). 2009). Major food commodities affected are nuts, figs and other dried fruits, spices, crude vegetable oils, cocoa beans and maize ac- cording to many authors (Iamanaka, Castle de Menezes, Vicente, Leite, & Taniwaki, 2007; Imperato, Campone, Piccinelli, Veneziano, & Rastrelli, 2011; Luttfullah & Hussain, 2011). The European Commis- Abbreviations: AFB1,Aflatoxin B1; AFB2a,Aflatoxin B1 hemiacetal derivative; A., Aspergillus; AFPA, Aspergillus flavus parasiticus agar; CFU, Colony forming units; CZA, sion has established the maximum level for AFB1 in dried fruits for À1 Czapek Dox agar; HPLC, High performance liquid chromatography; ATHUM, ATHens direct human consumption to 2 ng g (European Commission, 2006). University Mycology; NOAEL, No Observed e Adverse Effect Level; PMTDI, Provi- The Aspergillus section Nigri (also known as black-spored As- sional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake; RSD, Relative Standard Deviation; TDI, pergilli) are an important group of fungi because of their impact on Tolerable Daily Intake; YES, Yeast Extract Sucrose. * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ30 210 7274489; fax: þ30 210 7274476. food safety, medical mycology and industrial biotechnology E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Markaki). (Palencia, Klich, Glenn, & Bacon, 2009). The black Aspergilli are http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.02.011 0956-7135/Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 122 P. Kostarelou et al. / Food Control 43 (2014) 121e128 among the most common fungi causing food spoilage and biode- HewlettePackard 1050 (Waldborn, Germany) Liquid Chromato- terioration of other materials (Schuster, Dunn-Coleman, Frisvad, & graph (pump and injection system) equipped with a JASCO FP-920 van Dijck, 2002). They have been isolated mainly from soil, but they (Co, LTD, Japan) fluorescence detector and an HP integrator 3395. also have been found in several other substrates (Magnoli et al., The HPLC column used was a C18 Nova-Pak (60 E, 4 mm 2007). Reports by several authors (Magnoli et al., 2004; Magnoli, 4.6 Â 250 mm) (Waters, Millipore; Milford, MA). The mobile phase Violante, Combina, Palacio, & Dalcero, 2003; Romero et al., 2005; for AFB1 [water:acetonitrile:methanol (20:4:3, v:v:v)] determina- Spadaro, Patharajan, Lorè, Garibaldi, & Gullino, 2012) showed that tion was filtered through Millipore HA-VLP (0.45 mm) filters before black Aspergilli, especially Aspergillus carbonarius, infect vines and use. Detection of the AFB1 hemiacetal derivative (AFB2a) was car- grapes and produce mycotoxins, mainly ochratoxins. ried out at lex 365 nm and lem 425 nm. The flow rate was À1 In the literature, the occurrence of AFB1 in dried vine fruits is not 1 mL min and the retention time was 14.68 (Æ0.28) min for AFB2a. extensively investigated. However, AFB1 was found in dried vine fruits from India (Saxena and Mehrotra 1990) and Egypt (Abdel 2.3. Reagents Sater & Saber, 1999; Youssef, Abo-Dahab, & Abou-Seidah, 2000). The main purpose of our study was to investigate the potential AFB1 standard was purchased from SigmaeAldrich (St. Louis, of four strains of Aspergillus section Nigri, which have been isolated Missouri, USA). The Millipore filters and the C18 Nova-Pak HPLC from black currants originated from Corinth and Crete, to support column were from Waters (Millipore; Milford, MA, USA). The Aflatest AFB1 production, in these substrates. The AFB1 production by the immunoaffinity columns were obtained from Vicam (Watertown, four Aspergillus section Nigri strains was compared to the produc- MA, USA). All reagents used were of analytical grade (Sigma Aldrich) tion by the aflatoxigenic strain A. parasiticus (control). while HPLC solvents were of HPLC grade and were purchased from Fisher Chemical (Leicestershire, UK). Hexane and methanol (pro 2. Materials and methods analysis) were from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) and trifluoroacetic acid was from Fluka (Steinheim, The Netherlands). 2.1. Strains and culture conditions 2.4. Media Strains of Aspergillus section Nigri were isolated from currants which originated from Peloponnese e Corinth (1 strain) and Crete Aspergillus Flavus Parasiticus Agar (AFPA) was prepared by dis- (3 strains). The strains were incubated for 7 days at 30 C on slopes solving 4 g of yeast extract (Oxoid, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK), 2 g of Czapek Dox agar (CZA) and were maintained at 5 C on the same of bacteriological peptone (Oxoid), 0.1 g of ferric ammonium citrate medium. The aflatoxigenic strain A. parasiticus Speare (IMI 283883) (Merck, Germany), 0.2 mL of Dichloran 0.2% in ethanol (Fluka used throughout this study as strain control, was obtained from the Steinheim, The Netherlands), 0.02 g of chloramphenicol (Oxoid), and International Mycological Institute (Egham, Surrey, UK). The 3 g of agar (Oxoid) in 200 mL of distilled water, final pH 6.0e6.5. Aspergillus isolates were identified as Aspergillus section Nigri ac- Czapek Dox agar (CZA) was prepared by dissolving 0.4 g of sodium cording to their morphological characteristics and have been nitrate (Merck), 0.1 g of potassium chloride (Merck), 0.1 g of mag- deposited at the ATHUM Culture Collection of Fungi, in the Myce- nesium sulfate (Merck), 0.002 g of ferric sulfate (Merck), 0.2 g of totheca of the University of Athens. The four strains isolated from dipotassium phosphate (Merck), 6 g of sucrose (Merck), 3 g of agar the currants were the following: Aspergillus sp. isolated from cur- (Merck), 0.002 g of zinc sulfate (Merck), and 0.001 g of copper sulfate rants originated from Corinth ATHUM 6997, Aspergillus sp. isolated (Merck) in 200 mL of distilled water, final pH 6.0e6.5 (Vergopoulou, from currants originated from Crete ATHUM 6998, Aspergillus sp. Galanopoulou, & Markaki, 2001). Yeast Extract Sucrose (YES) broth isolated from currants originated from Crete ATHUM 6999, Asper- was prepared by dissolving 2 g of yeast extract and 15 g of sucrose in gillus sp. isolated from currants originated from Crete ATHUM 7000. 100 mL distilled water, final pH 6.0e6.5 (Pitt, 1986). For the phenotypic examination of the Aspergillus strains, cul- The media for the identification of Aspergillus isolates have been tures were inoculated using
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