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Under the Shadow of the Regime: the Contradictions of Policing in Sudan, C.1924-1989

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Under the Shadow of the Regime: the Contradictions of Policing in Sudan, C.1924-1989 Durham E-Theses Under the Shadow of the Regime: The Contradictions of Policing in Sudan, c.1924-1989 BERRIDGE, WILLIAM,JAMES How to cite: BERRIDGE, WILLIAM,JAMES (2011) Under the Shadow of the Regime: The Contradictions of Policing in Sudan, c.1924-1989, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1412/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Under the Shadow of the Regime: The Contradictions of Policing in Sudan, c.1924-1989 William James Berridge A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Department of History Durham University (May 2011) William Berridge: Thesis Abstract Under the Shadow of the Regime: the Contradictions of Policing in Sudan, c.1924-1989 This thesis analyzes the institutional development of the Sudanese police between 1924 and 1989, focusing in particular on its role in governing Sudanese society and its relationship with the state at large. It seeks to challenge the static picture which represents the police as servile tools of ruling colonial and post-colonial regimes in Africa and a simple extension of the political executive. It contends that the police cannot be understood as the passive tools of the state, since both colonial and post-colonial states have been highly divided. The competing factions included legal and professional groups that wanted to develop a strong, united and institutionalized police force so as to exercise a systematic governance of Sudanese society, and political and administrative factions that sought to make the police serve the narrower political agendas of the regime. Central ruling factions, such as the Sudan Political Service in the colonial era and the military in the post-colonial era, have often seen a strong and institutionalized police force as a potential threat to their status, and have thus sought to weaken the police by conferring police authority to a number of parallel bodies. It will be seen that this conflict at the centre of the state helped to exacerbate the rift between the urban core and rural peripheries, as the various colonial and post-colonial governments sought to prevent the development of a united police force by dividing it along regional lines – and that the police came to serve, in some respects, as the state’s tools for enforcing this divide. Yet at the same time the thesis will seek to rehabilitate the police as actors within their own right, demonstrating the agency they exercised both as an institution and on behalf of various religious, ethnic and political groups to which they were affiliated. CONTENTS Note on Transliteration ............................................................................................................ iv Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ v Glossary ................................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... x Map .......................................................................................................................................... xi Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 State power and state weakness in Africa .............................................................................. 3 The divided colonial state ....................................................................................................... 8 Colonial collaborators or subaltern agents? Sudanese policemen and the mimicry of civil policing ..................................................................................................................... 14 The Sudanese police and divisions within the post-colonial state ....................................... 19 The impact of the divided state upon Sudan’s centre-periphery divide ............................... 24 Sources ................................................................................................................................ 30 Chapter plans ........................................................................................................................ 34 Chapter One: ‘Thank goodness Habeus Corpus did not run in Nahud’: The police system and the centre-periphery divide in the colonial era ...................................................... 38 Colonial Security and the birth of the Sudanese Police ...................................................... 42 A ‘Martial Race’? The role of the Shayqiyya ..................................................................... 46 Colonial fears of ‘the effendi’ and the structuring of the police force in the aftermath of the White Flag Revolt ...................................................................................... 49 Administrative neglect of government law codes in provincial policing ............................. 65 The effects of the bifurcated system on the extension of police methods ............................ 71 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 74 Chapter Two: ‘Guarding the guards’: The limited ambitions of the colonial administration to govern police violence, c. 1922-1956 .......................................................... 76 Government failure to regulate police abuses ...................................................................... 79 i Crowd control and the relationship between violence and vulnerability ............................ 91 The Neguib Riots .................................................................................................................. 95 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 99 Chapter Three: ‘What the men are crying out for is leadership’: The Khartoum Police Strike of 1951 and the battle for administrative control ............................................ 101 The Background to the Strike ............................................................................................ 104 Police grievances ................................................................................................................ 112 Suppressing the Strike ........................................................................................................ 120 The Watson Commission and the politicization of the strike ............................................. 124 The continuation of the administration-police dispute into the late colonial period .......... 136 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 139 Chapter Four: The 1964 October Revolution and the peak of ‘civil’ policing in Sudan ...................................................................................................................................... 141 The University Incident and the role of the police during the October Revolution ........... 143 Relations between the judiciary and the police .................................................................. 153 The continuing struggle for a ‘civil’ police force ............................................................... 156 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 165 Chapter Five: The institutional fragmentation of the Sudanese police in the 1970s and 1980s ............................................................................................................................... 167 Police-Military tensions and the creation of parallel security organizations ..................... 170 The impact of military rule upon the institutional identity of the police ............................ 173 The ‘Islamization’ project and the increasing fragmentation of the police ........................ 181 The April intifada and police-society relations .................................................................. 187 Contrasts between policing in civil and parliamentary regimes ......................................... 192 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 204 Chapter Six: ‘Nests of Criminals’: The spatial and social limits of the civil policing vision, 1964-1989 ................................................................................................................... 207 Government policy and the policing of the periphery .......................................................
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