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Home , Pierre Clastres

THEME SECTION

Inspiring alterpolitics

Edited by Stefano Boni and Riccardo Ciavolella Aspiring to alterpolitics , radical theory, and social movements

Riccardo Ciavolella and Stefano Boni

Th is theme section inquires into the contribu- as that of the nation-. Among critical the- tion of political anthropology to radical theories, orists, too, the debate focuses on the search for social imagination, and practices underlying new forms of representation, decision-making political “alternatives”, which we propose to call processes, and political subject formation. “alterpolitics”. Th e issue of an alternative to con- In contrast to modern perspectives on power temporary powers in globalization is a central considered as “hierarchical” and transcendent, topic in social movements and radical debates. the emphasis is on the historical possibility for Th is sense of possibility for political alternatives more horizontal political formations, allowing a is associated with the desertion of the belief in truly popular and direct participation in poli- “the end of history”: the current economic cri- tics for the wide variety of contemporary sub- sis and the decline of Western hegemony pre- jectivities. In this context, while anthropology sumably announce a radical transformation of is wondering about its relevance in the public the neoliberal world, opening space to alterna- debate (e.g., Borofsky 2000; Eriksen 2006; Pelk- tives. Actually, the reconfi guration of twentieth- mans 2013), some anthropologists, and many of century capitalism is associated with a growing the students approaching the discipline, are af- mistrust of political institutions, the crisis be- fi rming its usefulness in envisioning alternative ing “organic”, in the Gramscian sense (Gramsci politics. By illustrating the wide range of human 1975). Recent social movements and insur- political experiences through the ethnographic rections around the world—from the “colored literature, anthropology has oft en acted as a tool revolutions” in Central Asia to the Spanish in- for denying both the universality and the stabil- dignados, the US Occupy movement, the Arab ity of political and social organizations. Th is is Spring, uprisings in Bosnia—have raised the particularly true for those anthropologists who issue of alternatives as a reaction to the inca- are engaged in social movements and think that pacity of capitalist political institutions—from their expertise can serve grassroots mobiliza- electoral democracy to dictatorships—to deal tions, as in the case of Marc Edelman’s (1999) with people’s problems and meet their aspira- and Sian Lazar’s (2008) ethnographies of Latin tions for emancipation and a better future. Con- American social movements, June Nash’s (2004) temporary political subjects, characterized as a support of the Zapatistas, and many anthropol- “network” (Castells 2012) or “multitude” (Hardt ogists now blending political involvement and and Negri 2004), no longer fi nd their place in academic research, like (2002, traditional categories such as class, party affi li- 2009), Marianne Maeckelbergh (2009), John ation, or in territory-centered paradigms such Postill (2014), and Maple Razsa (2013), direc-

Focaal—Journal of Global and Historical Anthropology 72 (2015): 3–8 © Stichting Focaal and Berghahn Books doi:10.3167/fcl.2015.720101 4 | Riccardo Ciavolella and Stefano Boni tor of the ethnographic fi lm Bastards of Utopia or “savage” others were oft en seen as character- (2010), all off ering the general public empathic ized by mutual help, equality, communal cohe- portrayals of emerging social movements. A crit- sion, and solidarity; later, Pierre Clastres (1974, ical anthropological perspective may also have a [1977] 2010) and, more recently, James C. Scott less explicit practical commitment but neverthe- (2009) have focused on alterpolitics to illustrate less aim at engaging its ethnographic research some of the forms taken by the refusal of dom- and theoretical considerations in a broader dis- ination. On the other side, Marxists have rather cussion with critical political thinking. insisted on hierarchy and exploitation in other Th is theme section aims to explore those the- contexts to affi rm them as a general constant in ories, ethnographies, engagements, and political human history. As shown by the famous Pari- struggles where we can recognize a circularity sian controversy between Clastres and the phi- of inspirations between anthropology, radical losophers of on the one political theory, and social movements in en- hand and Althusserian Marxist anthropologists visioning and constructing alterpolitics. All ar- on the other, anarchists usually accuse Marx- ticles presented here focus on this interaction, ists of being unable to see people’s aspiration although they diff er in regard to the preference for freedom and their autonomous capacity given to one inspirational relation or another, in for emancipation; while the Marxists usually order to grasp the overlaps between the three strike back by accusing libertarian anthropol- from diff erent angles. Th at is why articles in this ogists of a primitivist and exoticizing vision of theme section consider “alterpolitics” in a range political otherness (Amselle 1979; Augé 1977; of possible diff erent meanings. Th e more obvi- Bloch 1983). Since then, libertarian and Marx- ous use of “alterpolitics” refers to how the other’s ist tendencies have transformed their respective political systems can inform and inspire radical stances, responding to reciprocal critiques, both theories and practices; but there is also a more engaging in a humanist approach to history, general refl ection on how anthropology can in- which recognizes in social groups and collective spire “alterpolitics”, that is, its contribution to the actions the capacity to transform reality. production of a diff erent way of thinking and Ciavolella’s paper shows how libertarian exot- living politically. Paraphrasing the brilliant title icism is still present in contemporary anthropol- of an article on this matter, can the anthropology ogies and critical theories. To do that, it traces of noncapitalism turn into an anthropology for the anthropological inspiration of nomadology, noncapitalism (Shear and Burke 2013)? from Deleuze and Guattari’s use of Clastres to Certainly, it is around the contemporary al- the alterpolitical of scholars like terpolitical use of their research that critical po- James C. Scott and David Graeber and critical litical anthropologists oft en diverge according theorists of contemporary social movements to ideological orientations. Most notably, diver- like Hardt and Negri. Ciavolella’s conclusions gences are to be found between Marxist and an- are that “nomads” have historically inspired lib- archist perspectives, especially concerning the ertarian theorists as a metaphor for a spatial exit issue of primitivism and exoticism, despite their option—an “alterotopy” outside the state and glo- convergence in trying to imagine societies more balization—while ethnographic evidence of con- desirable in terms of equality, autonomy, labor temporary pastoralist societies rather shows that, relations, and political participation. In particu- since their defi nitive incorporation into “moder- lar, libertarian or anarchist anthropologists have nity”, nomads call for a diff erent type of alterpoli- systematically sought backing to the Rousseauist tics; that is, new forms of political representation critique of political modernity in “acephalous”, inside power to overcome their marginalization. “nomadic”, or “antistate” societies: in this tradi- A similar point is raised by Sabrina Mele- tion, since its infancy (Kropotkin [1902] 1972; notte’s article. Th e author proposes a critique Reclus 1883–1893), the “primitive”, “barbarian”, of the alterpolitical use of “alter-natives” in the Aspiring to alterpolitics | 5 political struggle of Chiapas, even if here the also in political decision-making processes: the predominant libertarian posture interestingly aim is an overall cultural change, necessitating converges with heterodox Marxist traditions like the patient construction of a multiplicity of lo- autonomism. Melenotte’s article analyzes the rea- cal struggles. Th e belief that once institutional sons for the crucial infl uence the Chiapas insur- power is conquered—through elections or rev- gence has had on theories and practices of con- olutions—society will be transformed at will temporary social movements. Th e Zapatistas’ by implementing alternative policies is largely discourses insist on the promotion of “political replaced by the idea, resonating with anthro- alterity”, both as a project of self-government and pological holism, that only if there is a radical a mobilization against neoliberalism on a global cultural shift in everyday practices can political scale, by presenting indigenous populations as transformation be achieved. “alter-natives” and by involving in their struggle In this perspective, Boni’s article compares the critical political theorists, especially anthropolo- emerging egalitarian trends in the management gists and philosophers. Th ese considerations on of assemblies in Europe and North America with the alterpolitical potentialities gravitating around gathering procedures described in classic eth- Chiapas are nevertheless recast in an anthropo- nographic settings. Egalitarian assemblies face logical perspective. Actually, Melenotte encour- common challenges in the running of meetings ages going back to ethnography in order to test with regard to processes of consensus building, these discourses in radical theory inspired by the coordination of assemblies, and the men- the Zapatista experience. Her ethnography of ace of leadership, as well as the management of the indigenous municipality of Chenalhó does place, time, and speech. Th e article argues that show the daily life of the Zapatista self-govern- the use of alterpolitics by contemporary social ment as a concrete utopia, but also as a new movement with regards the organization of as- political space producing hierarchies and new semblies has been largely practical rather than power relations, while presenting itself as auton- ideological and that it has generally refrained omous and alternative to Mexican state power. from an uncritical exoticism and essentialism, In current debates about social movements preferring a contextual use of various alterchro- and popular insurgencies, latent divergences nological and altergeographical insights. between anarchists and Marxists are surfacing Ufer’s ethnography on the mobilizations of again in relation to political strategies. As a the Right to the City network in Hamburg ex- consequence of the apparent failure of revolu- emplifi es wider trends in the current strategic tionary politics, libertarians (Day 2005; Graeber use of alterpolitics in contemporary European 2002) generally refuse a unitary program and social movements, envisioning emancipation as prefer smaller-scale political initiatives, while autonomy from state and capital domination. In Marxists (Dean 2012) oft en consider such frag- Hamburg, the alterpolitical imagination elabo- mented projects rather naïve and ineff ective, rated in the milieu of social movements tends and prefer to call for a new Gramscian politi- to be highly hybrid, blending diff erent trends cal subject (Ciavolella 2015). Th e debate is open of critical political theories, from to now that libertarians, aft er a century of margin- autonomous , and drawing on a wide alization, are having more resonance in public range of inspirational sources, both exotic and debates, as their proposals of horizontal and local (most notably Henri Lefebvre). What has localized forms of power organization seem to been labeled the abandonment of ideology by be a better match in these “postpolitical” times. the last wave of social movements is here inter- In contemporary social movements, there is a preted as a rejection of the dogmatism and iden- clear intention to root alternative organizational titarian exclusiveness characteristic of political principles and moral values in society at large, theories during the second half of the twentieth in economic activities, in social relations, and century. 6 | Riccardo Ciavolella and Stefano Boni

Interestingly, Hirslund’s article gives a diff er- commonalities in strategies and struggles. Some ent perspective on political strategies, describing features suggest that we are currently witnessing the success of an ideologically coherent revolu- a convergence in struggles, with interconnected tionary experience. Referring to the contempo- social movements spreading globally, with no rary Maoist political revolution in Nepal against recognized center, reciprocally informing one a semifeudal social organization founded on a another. Alterpolitical experiences, rather than Hindu monarchical upper , he shows the an exotic fantasy, are increasingly perceived as eff ectiveness of Marxist guerrilla tactics in pro- reciprocally signifi cant in an integrated planet: ducing a popular response against neoliberal de- social movements and local communities face structive development. Hirslund’s article shows similar worries, suff erings, and impotencies gen- that alterpolitical paradigms migrate cross-cul- erated by a worldwide alignment of fi nancial turally back and forth between continents in a capital and government interests. In fact, what ceaseless process of contextual reformulation. is being increasingly recognized are the simi- Actually, Marxism in Asia is capable of attract- larities of struggles, and thus possible common ing consensus and providing possible sources of responses, worldwide. worldwide inspirations, while European parties Current convergences in social movements that blend Marxism, nationalism, and a hierar- mostly refer to the tactical dimension of strug- chical party structure are increasingly dismissed. gles and to the practical procedures of self- Despite their diff erences, all contributors en- organization: it still remains to be seen if these gage in a common refl ection about alterpolitics multitudes are actually struggling against the today, so this theme section can be considered same enemy—from the Egyptian dictator to the an eff ort of “translation” in the Gramscian sense. Wall Street fi nancial elite—and for the same For Gramsci, as in linguistics, the “translation” idea of alterpolitics. Moreover, this convergence of political is only possible by in- refers to actual and already formed movements terpreting them in relation to the historical con- and struggles, which have become extremely text of their emergence and by recasting them in visible, while the fragmented majority of the the receiving historical context without “betray- world population is expressing its desire for alter- ing” them (Frosini 2003). In our case, anthro- politics silently and in disguised forms, and es- pologists’ typical eff orts at cultural “translation” pecially inside a more local and immediate hori- turns into an attempt to provide a historical zon of interests and objectives. Nevertheless, “meaning” to specifi c forms of political subjec- both in the cases of convergence in struggles tivation, a sort of “common sense” built out of and of fragmentation in political subjectivities, the diff erent alterpolitical experiences. Th is an- the issue of “translatability” of these particular thropological sensibility necessarily plays a cru- experiences remains crucial. Th is is also true in cial role in translating these practices, ideas, and relation to another type of “translation”, namely, struggles, as it has developed the capacity to ren- the eff ort of engaged anthropologists toward der thoroughly understandable “alter” words by “rendering” their ethnographies on alterpolitics representing the meaning of cultural expressions socially and politically meaningful, both to peo- within the context in which they were shaped. ple directly involved in struggles or concerned by Th is eff ort toward translating alterpolitics is their ethnographies and to the wider audience, more demanding today because of the global thus producing new “common sense”. Th is is a panorama of struggles, political subjectivities, crucial issue both for anthropologists directly and social mobilizations. Actually, today’s crit- engaged in the social movements they study and ical theory debate is strongly focused on the for those working on diff erent forms of struggle issue of the multiplicity of subjectivities in the or political subjectivities. What has long been multitudes, but also on the necessity of found- considered “the exotic”, to be documented for a ing new bases for alliances, coordination, and Western audience, is now crucially involved in Aspiring to alterpolitics | 7 processes of cultural translation in which agents References generate their own representations, acting as both protagonists and audiences. Amselle, Jean-Loup, ed. 1979. Le sauvage à la mode. Paris: Le Sycomore. Augé, Marc. 1977. Pouvoirs de vie, pouvoirs de mort. Acknowledgments Paris: Flammarion. Bloch, Maurice. 1983. Marxism and anthropology: Th is theme section represents the development Th e history of a relationship. Oxford: Oxford University Press. of a common refl ection the authors have had Borofsky, Robert. 2000. Public anthropology: Where since 2011 about the notion of “alterpolitics”, to? What next? Anthropology News 41(5): 9–10. fi rst discussed in the 2012 EASA conference’s Castells, Manuel. 2012. Networks of outrage and panel “Inspiring Alter-politics: Anthropology hope: Social movements in the internet age. Cam- and Critical Th inking.” Conveners of the panel bridge: Polity Press. were Riccardo Ciavolella and Stefano Boni; the Ciavolella, Riccardo. 2015. Un nouveau prince au- chair was Keith Hart. delà des antinomies: Lectures de Gramsci dans les mouvements sociaux contemporains. Actuel Marx 57: 112–124. Riccardo Ciavolella is an anthropologist at Clastres, Pierre. 1974. La société contre l’Etat: Re- the CNRS and a member of the IIAC-LAIOS cherches d’anthropologie politique. Paris: Editions de Minuit. department of the EHESS in Paris, where he Clastres, Pierre. (1977) 2010. Archeology of violence. teaches political anthropology. His research Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. focuses on a Gramscian interpretation of Day, Richard J. F. 2005. Gramsci is dead: Anarchist politics among subaltern groups, especially currents in the newest social movements. London: in West Africa. He is the author of Les Peuls Pluto Press. et l’Etat en mauritanie: Une anthropologie des Dean, Jodi. 2012. Occupy Wall Street: Aft er the marges (Karthala, 2010) and Antropologia po- anarchist moment. Socialist Register 49: 52–62. litica e contemporaneità: Un’indagine critica Edelman, Marc. 1999. Peasants against globalization: sul potere (Mimesis, 2013). Rural social movements in Costa Rica. Stanford, Email: [email protected] CA: Stanford University Press. Eriksen, Th omas. 2006. Engaging anthropology: Th e case for a public presence. London: Bloomsbury Stefano Boni has conducted research in Ghana, Academic. Italy, and Venezuela. His monographic publica- Frosini, Fabio. 2003. Sulla “traducibilità” nei tions include Le strutture della disuguaglianza Quaderni di Gramsci. Critica marxista: Analisi e (Franco Angeli, Rome), Clearing the Ghanaian contributi per ripensare la sinistra 6: 29–38. Forest (Institute of African Studies, Legon), Vi- Graeber, David. 2002. Th e new anarchists. New Left vere senza Padroni (Elèuthera, Milan), Culture Review 13: 61–73. e Poteri (Elèuthera, Milan), and Homo Comfort Graeber, David. 2009. Direct action: An ethnography. (Elèuthera, Milan); he has published articles in, Edinburgh: AK Press. among other journals, , Africa, Th e Gramsci, Antonio. 1975. Quaderni dal carcere. International Journal of African Historical Stud- Turin: Einaudi. ies, Ghana Studies, History in Africa, Anthropos, Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. 2004. Multi- History and Anthropology, Cahiers d’Etudes Af- tude: War and democracy in the age of empire. London: Penguin Press. ricanes, Vertigo, Ethnography, Journal of Mod- Kropotkin, Peter. (1902) 1972. Mutual aid: A factor of ern Italian Studies, and Anthropology Today. He evolution. New York: New York University Press. teaches and political an- Lazar, Sian. 2008. El Alto, rebel city: Self and citizen- thropology at the University of Modena, Italy. ship in Andean Bolivia. London: Duke University Email: [email protected] Press. 8 | Riccardo Ciavolella and Stefano Boni

Maeckelbergh, Marianne. 2009. Th e will of the many: Razsa, Maple. 2013. Th e subjective turn: Th e radi- How the alterglobalisation movement is changing calization of personal experience within Occupy the face of democracy. London: Pluto Press. Slovenia. http://www.culanth.org/fi eldsights/ Nash, June. 2004. Th e fi esta of the world: Th e Zapa- 74-the-subjective-turn-the-radicalization-of- tista uprising and radical democracy in Mexico. personal-experience-within-occupy-slovenia American Anthropologist 99: 261–274. (accessed 14 March 2013). Pelkmans, Mathijs. 2013. A wider audience for an- Reclus, Élisée. 1883–1893. Th e earth and its inhabi- thropology? Political dimensions of an import- tants. London: Virtue & Co. ant debate. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Scott, James C. 2009. Th e art of not being governed: Institute 19: 398–404. An anarchist history of upland southeast Asia. Postill, John. 2014. Democracy in an age of viral New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. reality: A media epidemiography of Spain’s Shear, Boone, and Brian Burke. 2013. Beyond cri- indignados movement. Ethnography 15(1): tique: Anthropology of and for non-capitalism. 50–68. Anthropology News 54 (1–2): 17.